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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1216-0.txt b/1216-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de4993f --- /dev/null +++ b/1216-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5503 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1216 *** + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, + +AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES. + +By Charles Babbage + + + + +DEDICATION. + +HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO +A NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE +SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE +MIGHT HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, +PERHAPS TOO SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING +THE NAME OF ONE WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND +RESPECT. + +C. BABBAGE. + + +DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little +to say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service +to science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so +thankless a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion +in which I concur with several of my friends, although I should hope +that what I have written will not give just reason for the permanence of +such feelings. On one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected +in any degree with the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; +the causes which have led to it have been long operating, and would have +produced this result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and +whatever might have been the fate of my speculations. + +If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these +pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself, +I think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and +declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is +shared by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I +shall offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered +position, are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, +when combined with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will +be admitted to deserve considerable attention. The following extract +from the article Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from +the pen of a gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and +from his acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled +to respect. Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be +permitted to cite him as high authority for the fact. + +"In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of +Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret, +which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the +space of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do, +the electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers, +we still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree +of neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this +period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; +and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical +discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are +we sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are +amongst our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius, +Guy-Lussac, Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the +doctrine of definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic +Theory. Is it a representation of the laws of nature, or is it +not?"---CHEMISTRY, ENCYC. METROP. p.596. + +When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were +informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the +same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the +language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be +allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the +writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some +of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + +Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may +infer his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his +last work:-- + +"--But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for +philosophers."----"There are very few persons who pursue science with +true dignity; it is followed more as connected with objects of profit +than those of fame."--SIR H. DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL. + +The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the +varied acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into +which he enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and +in our article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this +ONLY opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most +admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific +matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and +quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS +pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has +sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which +abound in it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical +collections; and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long +suppression of those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future +volumes of that of the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts +of them which from time to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the +hands of the authors, or from the reports rendered by the committees +appointed to examine them; which latter, indeed, are universally models +of their kind, and have contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the +high scientific tone of the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but +will write his best, when he knows that his work, if it have merit, will +immediately be reported on by a committee, who will enter into all its +meaning; understand it, however profound: and, not content with MERELY +understanding it, pursue the trains of thought to which it leads; place +its discoveries and principles in new and unexpected lights; and bring +the whole of their knowledge of collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor +ought we to omit our acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of +Poggendorff and Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic +compeer, they present a picture of the actual progress of physical +science throughout Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to +see with what celerity every thing, even moderately valuable in the +scientific publications of this country, finds its way into their pages. +This ought to encourage our men of science. They have a larger audience, +and a wider sympathy than they are perhaps aware of; and however +disheartening the general diffusion of smatterings of a number of +subjects, and the almost equally general indifference to profound +knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may be, they may rest +assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good experiment they +may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and commented upon, in +Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the obligation were +mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are unstudied, +and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to conceal the +melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics we have +long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In +chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the +Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who +among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated +acids,--Oersted's and Berzelius's on the radicals of the +earths,--Balard's and Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,--and a +hundred other splendid trains of research in that fascinating science? +Nor need we stop here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not +furnish matter for similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and +deep-seated; but this is not the place to discuss them."--MR. HERSCHEL'S +TREATISE ON SOUND, printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA. + +With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of +the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some +of its causes, must be left to others to decide. + +Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific +bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished +upon some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and +Pamphlets, have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has +been cast upon some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be +established by testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it +can be proved, by evidence to which the public have access, it is of +no consequence (for the cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of +opinion derives weight from the name which is attached to it; but a +chain of reasoning is equally conclusive, whoever may be its author. + +Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be +avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured, +and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of +frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the +lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue +that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who +fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those +whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest +scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the +philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he +may think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections, +from the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was +the author of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered +amongst the most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be +credited, from the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with +one of those subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. +[I merely observed that the agreement made with the British Museum for +exchanging the Arundel MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been +stated by the President,) was UNWISE;--because it was not to be expected +that many duplicates should be found in a library like that of the +Museum, weak in the physical and mathematical sciences: that it was +IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;--because it neither fixed the TIME +when the difference was to be paid, in case their duplicates should be +insufficient; nor did it appear that there were any FUNDS out of +which the money could be procured: and I added, that it would be more +advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we wanted with the +produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world of science, my +character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being the subject +of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of correcting it, I +will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it more candid to +mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have disapproved, or +whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader inferences +which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I hope, +therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so +unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described +individuals. + +With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set +up to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a +few words will suffice. + +I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the +injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There +is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine. +The public character of every public servant is legitimate subject +of discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly +canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from +such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for +they know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid +from the public purse. + +The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and +to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose +appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the +merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they +are paid to perform. + +This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of +State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal +Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty. + +With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure +different. But the President of a society, although not recompensed by +any pecuniary remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which +he presides possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who +will esteem themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the +office, by the consequence attached to it in public estimation. He, +therefore, is answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + +There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other +officers, have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a +train of clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them. +Science is much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious +labours the routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be +unwise, as well as ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies, +or even of the negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes +should justify such a course. + +Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry +in its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our +scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope, +temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms +of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those +from whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together +all the causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different +departments, endeavour to convince them that some alteration is +essentially necessary for the promotion of that very object which we +both by such different roads pursue. + +I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the +departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been +wholly the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with +justice, in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the +famous maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of +female weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of +those who are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion. +But, whoever would claim the admiration of mankind for their good +actions, must prove his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil +deeds. Adopt the maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from +its universality; and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto +deemed. + +Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the +Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that +attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services, +and partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to +science in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited +to take steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having +published extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the +permission of its Council. To have asked permission of the present +Council would have been useless. I might, however, have given the +substance of what I have extracted without the words, and no one could +then have reproached me with any infringement of our rules: but +there were two objections to that course. In the first place, it is +impossible, even for the most candid, in all cases, to convey precisely +the same sentiment in different language; and I thought it therefore +more fair towards those from whom I differed, as well as to the public, +to give the precise words. Again: had it been possible to make so +accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the risk of incurring +the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to escaping their +censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own head; and I +shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + +If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse +me of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which +governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the +justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted +with the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their +approbation, appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need +scarcely add I have not the slightest anticipation. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PREFACE + Introductory Remarks + CHAP. I. On the Reciprocal Influence of Science and Education. + CHAP. II. Of the Inducements to Individuals to cultivate Science. + --Sect. 1. Professional Impulses. + ------ 2. Of National Encouragement. + ------ 3. Of Encouragement from learned Societies. + CHAP. III. General State of learned Societies in England. + CHAP. IV. State of the Royal Society in particular. + --Sect. 1. Mode of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society. + ------ 2. Of the Presidency and Vice-Presidencies. + ------ 3. Of the Secretariships + ------ 4. Of the Scientific Advisers. + ------ 5. Of the Union of several Offices in one person. + ------ 6. Of the Funds of the Society. + ------ 7. Of the Royal Medals. + ------ 8. Of the Copley Medals. + ------ 9. Of the Fairchild Lecture. + ------ 10. Of the Croonian Lecture. + ------ 11. Of the Causes of the Present State of the Royal Society. + ------ 12. Of the Plan for Reforming the Society. + CHAP. V. Of Observations. + --Sect. 1. Of Minute Precision. + ------ 2. On the Art of Observing. + ------ 3. On the Frauds of Observers. + CHAP. VI. Suggestions for the Advancement of Science in England. + --Sect. 1. Of the Necessity that Members of the Royal Society + --------- should express their Opinions. + ------ 2. Of Biennial Presidents. + ------ 3. Of the Influence of the Colleges of Physicians and + --------- Surgeons in the Royal Society. + ------ 4. Of the Influence of the Royal Institution on the Royal + --------- Society. + ------ 5. Of the Transactions of the Royal Society. + ------ 6. Order of Merit. + ------ 7. Of the Union of Scientific Societies. + CONCLUSION. + APPENDIX NO. 1. + ------- NO. 2. + ------- NO. 3. + + + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, AND ON SOME OF ITS +CAUSES. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + +It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable +them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of +science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect +to the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other +nations, not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior +power. That a country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical +and manufacturing ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of +inquiries which form the highest departments of that knowledge on whose +more elementary truths its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is +well deserving the attention of those who shall inquire into the causes +that influence the progress of nations. + +To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest +departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present, +must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who, +having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see +and regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see +through and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these +remarks, with the hope that they may excite discussion,--with the +conviction that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,--and with the +confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can +remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of +the science of England. + +The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have +resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed, +that it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall, +therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination, +but rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant +circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of +it, shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for +the advancement of British science. + + + +CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + +That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive +influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a +principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally +certain that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them +the traces of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore +not unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science +in England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A +young man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant +almost of the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these +latter establishments, formed originally for instructing those who +are intended for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical +pursuits are nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition. + +Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen +years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there +is no one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to +believe that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted +by the warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of +its institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of +no ordinary kind. + +Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought +to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I +am inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose +would not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they +would contribute materially to that important object. + +It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university, +ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a +certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered +knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet +this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for +instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must +attend, other sources of information from whence the students may +acquire sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on +chemistry, geology, botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of +option with the student, which, and how many of these courses he shall +attend, and such it should still remain. All that it would be necessary +to add would be, that previously to taking his degree, each person +should be examined by those Professors, whose lectures he had attended. +The pupils should then be arranged in two classes, according to their +merits, and the names included in these classes should be printed. I +would then propose that no young man, except his name was found amongst +the "List of Honours," should be allowed to take his degree, unless he +had been placed in the first class of some one at least of the courses +given by the professors. But it should still be imperative upon the +student to possess such mathematical knowledge as we usually require. If +he had attained the first rank in several of these examinations, it +is obvious that we should run no hazard in a little relaxing the +strictness of his mathematical trial. + +If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and +the following subjects be taken together:-- + + Modern History. + Laws of England. + Civil Law. + + Political Economy. + Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + + Chemistry. + Mineralogy. + Geology. + + Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. + Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. + +One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young +person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most +frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics +and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of +his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect +every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should +be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits +in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of +examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It +might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations +to the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of +them in the first or second year, if he should prefer it. + +By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with +our other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to +keep pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power +and our right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the +church, as well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected +with our academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open +a field of honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive +nature of our present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition +to their stock of knowledge. + +Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of +the country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open +it for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so +much for the improvement of our system of instruction, that public +opinion will not reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our +first duty to be well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations +ought only to be the result of a most mature consideration, and of a +free interchange of sentiments on the subject, in order that we may +condense upon the question the accumulated judgment of many minds. + +It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of +education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the +higher classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of +Commons, which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with +science, sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the +extremely limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps, +have doubted. + + + +CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + +Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this +matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in +each of the respective cases to be examined. + + + + +SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + +A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to +advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which +they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there +are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of +society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the +jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous +situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the +other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or +resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps +of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned +professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public +opinion is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress +conduct that is injurious either to the profession or to the public. +Again, the mutual jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body +is so considerable, that although the rank and estimation which an +individual holds in the profession may be most unfairly appreciated, +by taking the opinion of his rival; yet few estimations will be found +generally more correct than the opinion of a whole profession on the +merits of any one of its body. This test is of great value to the +public, and becomes the more so, in proportion to the difficulty of the +study to which the profession is devoted. It is by availing themselves +of it that men of sense and judgment, who have occasion for the services +of professional persons, are, in a great measure, guided in their +choice. + +The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct +profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on +that ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach +to professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this +circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so +difficult, and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who +have not spent years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge +of those who pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and +even that men of sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means +to distinguish between the possessors of knowledge, in the present +day, merely elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest +order. This remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult +applications of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the +energies of those who only look to reputation in England. + +As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to +science, it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the +proper fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is +vacant, it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather +from among persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other +subjects, and to whom science has been only an occasional pursuit. +A certain quantity of scientific knowledge is of course possessed by +individuals in many professions; and when added to the professional +acquirements of the army, the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, +is highly meritorious: but it is obvious that this may become, when +separated from the profession, quite insignificant as the basis of a +scientific reputation. + +To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of +chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of +several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of +the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have +been connected with this profession. + +The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are +not often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of +considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members +hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation, +nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our +church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of +science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments. + +In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out +the strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it +ability, coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot +fail of obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction +to public life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a +qualification for many situations more or less remotely connected +with it, as well as from the circumstance that several of the highest +officers of the state must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + +A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and +of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which +is less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science. +This is one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in +public situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches +of scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of +such persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + +But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional +avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the +overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with +success by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be +well acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task; +but to add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be +the lot of but few English philosophers. + + + + +SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + +The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded +by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of +new and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds: + +1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new +invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can +be. + +2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually +much larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing; +and it is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want +which the public feel for the new article. + +It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct: +there are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very +reasoning from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into +these exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth +is entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the +application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded. +A few instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The +principle of the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth +in the time of Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to +raising heavy weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on +natural philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it +may fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr. +Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted +it into a most valuable and powerful engine.--The principle of the +convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the +pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago, +remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant +proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly +pointed out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the +foundation of a most convenient practical method of determining the +length of the pendulum.--The interval which separated the discovery, by +Dr. Black, of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application +of it to the steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the +efforts of two minds; and both were of the highest order.--The influence +of electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable +value as an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be +said to have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the +same powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by +a singular felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the +copper-sheathing of vessels. That admirably connected chain of +reasoning, the truth of which is confirmed by its very failure as a +remedy, will probably at some future day supply, by its successful +application, a new proof of the position we are endeavouring to +establish. + +[I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the +greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing +the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,--the preventing the corrosion of +the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an +OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the +surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine +animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the +progress of the vessel.] + +Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long +intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles +in science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to +surprise us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new +principles or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those +which are necessary for their practical application. + +At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, +it required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the +mathematical science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries +by new creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a +quick perception of the details, and of the practical applications +of the principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of +mankind that minds of this high order should lavish their powers on +subjects unsuited to their grasp. + +In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths +which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most +remote from all useful application, become in the next age the bases +of profound physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by +proper simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and +daily aid to the artist and the sailor. + +It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles, +the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application +likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle +of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the +expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his +name received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has +deservedly brought it into such general use. + +On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of +invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying +principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will +always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail. + +If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles +should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also +important that encouragement should be held out to the few who +are capable of adding to the number of those truths on which such +applications are founded. Unless there exist peculiar institutions +for the support of such inquirers, or unless the Government directly +interfere, the contriver of a thaumatrope may derive profit from his +ingenuity, whilst he who unravels the laws of light and vision, on which +multitudes of phenomena depend, shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + +Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already +afforded to abstract science in our different universities, by the +professorships established at them. It is not however in the power of +such institutions to create; they may foster and aid the development of +genius; and, when rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair +and honourable rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and +when otherwise, the lectures which are required from the professor are +not perhaps in all cases the best mode of employing the energies of +those who are capable of inventing. + +I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the +authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of +expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece +of scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the +return of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks, +"But, because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great +hinderance and interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely +exempt from the former, and in great measure from the latter."--LIFE +OF GALILEO, p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with +gratitude of Cosmo, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me +to attach myself to him with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with +the title of Philosopher and principal Mathematician to his Highness, +without the duties of any office to perform, but with most complete +leisure; so that I can complete my treatise on Mechanics, &c."--p.31. +[Life of Galileo, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful +Knowledge.] + +Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a +country far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's, +to be employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these +sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable +philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose +modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend +by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in +that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal +Society of England;--had he taken part with those who vote to each other +medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make to +each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant +to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been +represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his +claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes +with the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in +the mantle of his glory.--But the philosopher may find consolation for +the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If +he was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name +connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military +renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental +power, its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his +life in drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns? + +If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the +age are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The +doctrines of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of +electricity,"--principles of a high order, which have immortalized the +names of their discoverers,--were not produced by the meditations of +the cloister: nor is it in the least a reproach to those valuable +institutions to mention truths like these. Fortunate circumstances must +concur, even to the greatest, to render them eminently successful. It is +not permitted to all to be born, like Archimedes, when a science was to +be created; nor, like Newton, to find the system of the world "without +form and void;" and, by disclosing gravitation, to shed throughout that +system the same irresistible radiance as that with which the Almighty +Creator had illumined its material substance. It can happen to but few +philosophers, and but at distant intervals, to snatch a science, like +Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite combination, and binding it in the +chains of number, to exalt it to rank amongst the exact. Triumphs like +these are necessarily "few and far between;" nor can it be expected that +that portion of encouragement, which a country may think fit to bestow +on science, should be adapted to meet such instances. Too extraordinary +to be frequent, they must be left, if they are to be encouraged at all, +to some direct interference of the government. + +The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would +arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:--That class +of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess +sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose +judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to +science, might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the +expression of public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it +might not enjoy, in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high +character for independence. Should these causes concur in any country, +it might become highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science +to any department of the government. This reasoning does not appear to +have escaped the penetration of those who advised the abolition of the +late Board of Longitude. + +The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country +to encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not +perhaps the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto +pursued science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of +complaint; they knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for +it, that it led to little honour, and to less profit. + +That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering +the science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past +administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the +present ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion, +it is not necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain +long insensible to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing +science were thought of some importance by any administration, it would +be difficult in the present state of things to do much in its favour; +because, on the one hand, the higher classes in general have not a +profound knowledge of science, and, on the other, those persons whom +they have usually consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to +deserve the confidence of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the +money allotted by government to purposes of science ought to be expended +with the same regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money +in the affairs of private life. + +[Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the +expense of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical +Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the +Philosophical Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at +the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only +are printed? + +Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be +distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they +will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country +incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see +on what principle a similar destination could be refused for the +observations made at the Cape of Good Hope.] + +To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of +science by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state +a fact, which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves +attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the +terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and +new tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the +time that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of +between two and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of +those annuities being a losing concern was long known to many; and the +government appear to have been the last to be informed on the subject. +Half the interest of half that loss, judiciously applied to the +encouragement of mathematical science, would, in a few years, have +rendered utterly impossible such expensive errors. + +To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have +its weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first +translation of this celebrated work into our own language, has just +arrived in England from--America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES +PROBABILITES, were both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the +reign of that extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent +in Science as they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which +trained and rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they +have conferred upon mankind! + +In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge +of science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man +does not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory, +or has added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of +animated nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have +begun their career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples +are perhaps more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful +to mention a few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who +now hold, high official stations in the governments of their respective +countries. + + + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + (5) of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador. + + (1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. + (2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. + (3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE--RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS + FOSSILES &c. &c. + (4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, + and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. + (5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the + Transactions of the Academy of Forty. + (6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809--TABULAE VENERIS, + NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810--INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A + MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other + works. + + +M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the +Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of +the Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at +the German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau +was invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of +Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the +King of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in +our own country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true, +more than a century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any +person suggest an appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and +he will gather from the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the +highest knowledge conduces nothing to success, and that political power +is almost the only recommendation. + + + + +SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + +There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons +pursuing science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In +former times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art +of making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary. +More recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to +science, it has been found that those who are most capable of extending +human knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of +printing their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some +means should be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the +volumes of the transactions of academies have accomplished the desired +end. + +There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. +When they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their +knowledge, it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their +list. Thus a stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science, +which urges on their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for +distinction. It is clear that this envied position will be valued +in proportion to the difficulty of its attainment, and also to the +celebrity of those who enjoy it; and whenever the standard of scientific +knowledge which qualifies for its ranks is lowered, the value of the +distinction itself will be diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of +persons having no sort of knowledge of science are admitted, it must +cease to be sought after as an object of ambition by men of science, and +the class of persons to whom it will become an object of desire will be +less intellectual. + +Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies +of Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the +Italian Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst +the most distinguished. + + Name Number of Number + Population. Members of + Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + + 1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 + 2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. + 8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16 + 4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8 + +It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member +of the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000 +persons is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000 +inhabitants produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at +these proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin, +must be more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in +England; and a member of the Institute of France will be more than +thirteen times more rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal +Society is in England. + +Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other +countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking +difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the +station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several +of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps, +at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that +which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement +on science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of +this support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose +enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered. + +The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended +by those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the +circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia +having acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may +attribute the great force with which that maxim is appreciated. + +In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as +profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few +who do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks +of royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I +shall mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to +the English reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the +Institute, printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for +1823.] + + + Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class + Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. + to the Legion of Honour. + + GrandCroix......... 3 80 + GrandOfficier..... 3 160 + Commandeur........ 4 400 + Officier.......... 17 2,000 + Chevalier......... 40 Not limited. + + + + Number of Members of the Institute Total Number + decorated with of + the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + + Grand Croix....... 2 + 100 + Chevalier......... 27 + + Amongst the members of the Institute there + are,-- + + Dukes................... 2 + Marquis................. 1 + Counts.................. 4 + Viscounts................ 2 + Barons.................. 14 + --23 + + Of these there are + Peers of France.......... 5 + +We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal +Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute +of France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to +inquire how many titled members there are amongst those who have +contributed to its Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and +nine members who had contributed to the Transactions of the Royal +Society; amongst these were found:-- + + Peer........................ 1 + Baronets.................... 5 + Knights..................... 5 + +It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of +members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy, +could be attributed exclusively to science. + +It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list, +were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to +have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to +mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal. + +The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and +England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the +translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His +Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette +de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, +"CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to +particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term +WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality +most esteemed amongst his countrymen. + +If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France, +we shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much +that I have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which +I made several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will +not be found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing +no inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years +since, to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time +in London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me +that he had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement +of science. + +Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison +between the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet +of paper before him, and requested him to write down the names of six +Englishmen, in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific +reputation. Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of +six Frenchmen, best known in England for their scientific discoveries. +We exchanged these lists, and I then requested him to place against each +name (as far as he knew) the annual income of the different appointments +held by that person. In the mean time, I performed the same operation on +his list, against some names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The +result of the comparison was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for +the six French SAVANS whom I had named. Of the average amount of the +sums received by the English, I only remember that it was very much +smaller. When we consider what a command over the necessaries and +luxuries of life 1200L. will give in France, it is underrating it to say +it is equal to 2000L. in this country. + +Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into +life, who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself +to the abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful +power, feels that the career of science is that in which his mental +faculties are most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants. +What are his prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add +colour to the blank before him? There are no situations in the state; +there is no position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him +in his laborious path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, +there are some few chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some +distant day pretend; but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries +attached are seldom sufficient for the sole support of the individual, +they are very rarely enough for that of a family. What then can he reply +to the entreaties of his friends, to betake himself to some business +in which perhaps they have power to assist him, or to choose some +profession in which his talents may produce for him their fair reward? +If he have no fortune, the choice is taken away: he MUST give up that +line of life in which his habits of thought and his ambition qualify +him to succeed eminently, and he MUST choose the bar, or some other +profession, in which, amongst so many competitors, in spite of his great +talents, he can be but moderately successful. The loss to him is +great, but to the country it is greater. We thus, by a destructive +misapplication of talent which our institutions create, exchange a +profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer. + +If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and, +intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the +state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration +a sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;--if, +so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he +might have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall +have won a station high in the ranks of European science, he may a +little augment his resources by some of those few employments to which +science leads;--if he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of +Longitude, for example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may +be permitted to exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry +remuneration of a clerk, he will find that other qualifications than +knowledge and a love of science are necessary for its attainment. He +will also find that the high and independent spirit, which usually +dwells in the breast of those who are deeply versed in these pursuits, +is ill adapted for such appointments; and that even if successful, he +must hear many things he disapproves, and raise no voice AGAINST them. + +Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue +abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he +can resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus +situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if +they do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for +them to deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the +greatest delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to +the public? + + + +CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + +The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the +division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as +it had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The +want of competition in science produced effects similar to those which +the same cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany +were the first to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal +Society was too comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their +favourite subject, and they established the Linnean Society. After many +years, a new science arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At +an another and more recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the +wants of their science, united to establish the Astronomical Society. +Each of these bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science +by the parent establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each +in succession experienced from the Royal Society the most determined +opposition. + +Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the +promotion of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived +that nothing could be more likely to render these young institutions +permanently successful, than discouragement and opposition at their +commencement. Finding their first attempts so eminently successful, +they redoubled the severity of their persecution, and the result was +commensurate with their exertions, and surpassed even their wildest +anticipations. The Astronomical Society became in six years known and +respected throughout Europe, not from the halo of reputation which +the glory of its vigourous youth had thrown around the weakness of its +declining years; but from the sterling merit of "its unpretending +deeds, from the sympathy it claimed and received from every practical +astronomer, whose labours it relieved, and whose calculations it +lightened." + +But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological +and Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition: +perhaps, indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best +proof of the wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present, +the various societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, +each pursuing its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with +filial regret, the second childhood of their common parent, and the evil +councils by which that sad event has been anticipated. + +It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who +belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by +many considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The +following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives +the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third. + + + SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. + Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. + Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. + Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. + Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. + Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. + Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. + Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. + Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. + Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. + Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. + Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. + Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. + Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. + +[* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu +of annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the +member.] + +Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according +to their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a +tail of upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. +per letter. + +Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a +country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is +indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are +maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless +the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should +rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, +it is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full +PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS +and inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due +degree of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these +principles. Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page; +and I regret to add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend +it; but, like all deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone +can contribute to its cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of +remonstrance or reproof found utterance through other channels, I had +gladly been silent, content to support by my vote the reasonings of the +friend of science and of the Society. But this has not been the case, +and after frustrated efforts to introduce improvements, I shall now +endeavour, by the force of plain, but perhaps painful truths, to direct +public opinion in calling for such a reform, as shall rescue the Royal +Society from contempt in our own country, from ridicule in others. + +On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the +Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the +vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science, +and has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral +discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of +these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part +of the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, +and sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, +though insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other, +and ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these +discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good +sense of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal +criticisms--praise of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and +contest for victory. This latter is, perhaps, the most important of the +three, both for the interests of the Society and of truth. With regard +to the published volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, +that if members were in the habit of communicating their papers to the +Society in a more finished state, it would be attended with several +advantages; amongst others, with that of lightening the heavy duties of +the officers, which are perhaps more laborious in this Society than in +most others. To court publicity in their accounts and proceedings, +and to endeavour to represent all the feelings of the Society in the +Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, is a recommendation not +peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would contribute to the +well-being of all. + +Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits, +could scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the +Geological, I shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has +caused its great success, unless it be attention to the maxims which +have just been stated. + +On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the +public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income +is a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for +jobs, and it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to +render embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely +to occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from +the very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and +Council are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it +is still right to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially +necessary to have men of business on the Council, as well as persons +possessing extensive knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous +in such a Society than in any other, to pay compliments, by placing +gentlemen on the Council who have not the qualifications which are +requisite; a frequent change in the members of the Council is desirable, +in order to find out who are the most regular attendants, and most +qualified to conduct its business. Publicity in its accounts and +proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more essential to the +Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a fearful omen, +that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at the last +anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the friends of +science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts. + +It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more +than one scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive +instruction as to their merits, by observing the success of their +measures in other societies. + +The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable +works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published. + +The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is +now rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat +impaired. There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration, +notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have +ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage +to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO +PERSONS,--to making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,--and to auditing the +accounts WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form +altogether. + +The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the +public; its pretensions were great--its assurance unbounded. It speedily +became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the +number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose +the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that +institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed +to confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific +establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, +if those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this +Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest +claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the +only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country. +As with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to +render EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains +for it to exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is +capable. [* They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is +but slight praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical +botanist of our own country, and who is admired abroad as he is +respected at home. The circumstance which surprised the world was not +his exit from, but his previous entrance into that Society.] + + + +CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + +As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of +European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in +the opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially +involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in +detail. + + + + +SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of +a Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of +arriving at that honour, has been as follows:-- + +A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he +(A. B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and +valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the +meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to +be perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however +small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on +the other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected +with science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the +members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; +and, unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being +black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the +Council, previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am +not aware that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number, +which was, at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + +In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, +have all been known persons; but even in such cases a hope +remains;--perseverance will do much, and a gentleman who values so +highly the distinction of admission to the Royal Society, may try +again; and even after being twice black-balled, if he will a third time +condescend to express his desire to become a member, he may perhaps +succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In such circumstances, the odds +are much in favour of the candidate possessing great scientific claims; +and the only objection that could then reasonably be suggested, would +arise from his estimating rather too highly a distinction which had +become insignificant from its unlimited extension. + +It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that +the sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be +ten pounds on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this +subscription is so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men +of real science from entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on +those who do so; for very few indeed of the cultivators of science +rank amongst the wealthy classes. Several times, whilst I have been +consulting books or papers at Somerset House, persons have called to +ask the Assistant-secretary the mode of becoming a member of the Royal +Society. I should conjecture, from some of these applications, that it +is not very unusual for gentlemen in the country to order their agents +in London to take measures for putting them up at the Royal Society. + + + + +SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + +Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot +precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this +resolution solve the enigma: + +"It was Resolved, + +"That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by +far the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching +anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly." + +To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently +flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon +the rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST +FIT" was only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his +supporters indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I +believe, even at that very Council. + +That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be +instantly admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with +him: that he is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed +by few, except those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted +resolution. + +Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he +might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round +him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits +of science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society. +Instead of himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a +chairman ought to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By +the firmness of his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate +officers of the Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying +compliments to Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he +might have maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of +knowledge. + +But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest +to allure, or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself +respected as the powerful chief of a united republic,--that of +science,--he has grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble +occupant of its desolated kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions +he might have directed, and refused even the patronage of their names by +those whose energies he might have commanded. + +Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and +this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office +which he had long held, and to which he wished to return. + +Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board +of Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal +Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and +Council. Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he +became, EX OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy +occurred, which ought to have been filled up by the President and +Council. But when this subject was brought before them, in defiance of +common sense, and the plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had +enacted that the Board of Longitude should have the assistance of four +persons belonging to the Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow +it to be filled up, on the ground that he should not be President next +year, and had made no vacancy. + +Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but +the Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some +LOCUM TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure. + +These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they +illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming +the dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so +circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting +the existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if +such a system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the +frequency of such arrangements. + + + + +SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + +Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in +reforming the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard +to the senior Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more +unfortunate than the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude +for a moment to his personal character, I should say that the mild +excellencies of his heart have prevented the Royal Society from deriving +the whole of that advantage from his varied knowledge and liberal +sentiments which some might perhaps have anticipated; and many will +agree with me in regretting that his judgment has not directed a larger +portion of the past deeds of the Councils of the Royal Society. Of the +junior Secretary I shall only observe, that whilst I admit his industry, +his perseverance, and his talents, I regret to see such valuable +qualities exerted at a disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them +all the success they merit in situations more adapted for their +developement. + +There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to +investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of +the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already +arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the +conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in +which I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. +[These observations were written previous to the late appointment, to +which I now devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council +of the Royal Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the +same understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not +to the members of its Council. + +Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to +consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have +military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several +peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not +absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of +science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices +in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command, +which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect +freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military +chief commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to +retain the confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as +much as possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course +to win the confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render +his future observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most +full and explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to +the professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when +he enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where +the force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits, +that his admission to the offices of science can be attended with any +advantage to it. + +Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to +the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings +of men of science, when they have published their observations, are too +apt to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and +to consider that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their +observations as it is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious +to science than that such an opinion should be tolerated. The most +unreserved criticism is necessary for truth; and those suspicions +respecting his own accuracy, which every philosophical experimenter will +entertain concerning his own researches, ought never to be considered as +a reproach, when they are kept in view in examining the experiments of +others. The minute circumstances and apparently trivial causes which +lend their influence towards error, even in persons of the most candid +judgment, are amongst the most curious phenomena of the human mind. + +The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits +of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall +conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his +Observations: + +"Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti +sui, de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum, +deque mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut +aliis quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex +nostris observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent +precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice +tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot +vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii. + +There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own +character as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions +apparently neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention, +since it is reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the +province of its Secretaries. + +The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances +attending the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume +of Astronomical Observations which were made at the Observatory of +Paramatta (New South Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the +Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1829." + +Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British +officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers +were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those +instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of +the observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their +employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet +has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions, +omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any +part of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable +observations to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir +Thomas Brisbane; whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him +to found, at his own private expense, an establishment which it has +been creditable to the British Government to continue as a national +institution. Had any kindred feelings existed in the Council, instead +of endeavouring to shift the responsibility, they would have hastened to +rectify an omission, less unjust to the individual than it was injurious +to English science. + +Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity +of the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been +publicly stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes +of the Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry +has been asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true +statement of what actually passed at the Council. + +The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to +verify by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall +state them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon +them. In the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find-- + +"Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon +the Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons, +amongst whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was +absent from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction, +until he saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had +taken place. That his name was the one substituted for that of Captain +Beaufort I know, from other evidence which need not be produced here, as +the omission of the latter name is the charge that has been made.], +and that of Captain Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy +himself that this is not a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in +copying, by consulting the rough minutes of that meeting of the Council, +which it might perhaps be as well to write in a rough minute-book, +instead of upon loose sheets of paper; nor can it be attributed to any +error arising from accidentally mislaying the real minutes, for in that +case the error would have been rectified immediately it was detected; +and this has remained uncorrected, although publicly spoken of for +months. As there is no erasure in the list, one is reluctantly +compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of that meeting have been +destroyed.]] + +Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on +the morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on +the evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on +the house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of +his profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President, +declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + +Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution +of the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but +in order to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other +information is necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the +Society, that the President should not absolutely name his own Council, +but that the subject should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous +to the Anniversary--this has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and +those who support him. Now, it has been stated, that, at the meeting +of the Council on the 26th of November, the President took out of his +pocket a bit of paper, from which he read the names of several persons +as fit to be on the Council for the ensuing year;--that it was not +understood that any motion was made, and it is certain that none was +seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such an important question; and +it was a matter of considerable surprise to some of those present, to +discover afterwards that it was entered on the minutes as a resolution. +This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and I believe it to be +substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was dictated, not +discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar resolution +stands on the council-books for any previous year. + +On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of +the letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it +omitted? If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been +no necessity for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter, +a resolution would naturally have followed, recommending another name +instead of the one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but +this would have exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage +it. If the rough minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over +before it separated, and were copied previously to the next meeting, +such a substitution could hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this +is not the case, and the delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the +minutes of the three Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and +on March 11, were not entered on the minute-books of the Council +on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor was this the fault of the +Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the rough minutes of no one of +those Councils had been transmitted to him. + +Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an +occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be +ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed +the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of +this suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of +estimating the confidence due to the whole. + + + + +SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + +Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, +that its Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the +Admiralty determined to render that body completely subservient to them, +or whether both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has +been for years its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal +Society is in public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for +this last insult. In order to inform the public and the Society, (for I +believe the fact is known to few of the members,) it will be necessary +to trace the history of those circumstances which led to the institution +of the offices of Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of +the late Board of Longitude. + +That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which +established it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no +knowledge of the subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss--of +certain professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal, +who had some knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their +attendance;--of three honorary members of the Royal Society, who +combined the qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly, +of "three other persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were +supposed to be "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, +OR NAVIGATION," and who were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the +Board. + +The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other +persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at +the pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act +of parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the +Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal +Society, the copy of an Order in Council: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, + +November 1, 1828. + +SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send +herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal +Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last +month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident +Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of +the Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them, +notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to +acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy +Board for the payment of the said salaries. + +I am, Sir, + +Your most obedient humble servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + + +AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, + +27th October, 1828. + +PRESENT, + +The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + +Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right +Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this +instant, in the words following, viz.-- + +Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20, +instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude +at sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between +the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole," +three persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, +or Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board +of Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also +appointed, with such salaries for the execution of those services as +his Majesty might, by any Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, +whereas, your Majesty was in consequence, by your Order in Council of +the 27th of May, 1828, most graciously pleased to direct, that the three +said Resident Commissioners should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year +each; and by your further Order in Council, of the 31st October, 1818, +that the Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac should be allowed a +salary of 300L., and the Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; +and, whereas, the act above mentioned has been repealed, and the Board +of Longitude abolished; and doubts have therefore arisen, whether the +said Orders in Council shall still continue in force; and whereas it +is expedient that the said appointments be continued; We beg leave most +humbly to submit to your Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously +pleased, by your Order in Council, to direct that the said offices +of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and of Superintendent of +Chronometers; and also the three persons before-mentioned as a Resident +Committee, to advise with the Commissioners for executing the Office +of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of discoveries, inventions, +calculations, and other scientific subjects, be continued, with the same +duties and salaries, and under the same regulations as heretofore; and +further beg most humbly to propose, that such three persons to form +the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by the Commissioners for +executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from among the Council of the +Royal Society. + +His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was +pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof +and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to +give the necessary directions herein accordingly. + +(Signed) JAMES HILLER. + +Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from +among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a +year each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + +Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape +the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was +made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted. + +MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823. + +RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords +Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal +Society, on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that +inconvenience may arise from the plan therein specified, from the +circumstance of all the members of the Council being annually elected +by the Society at large; and that body being consequently subject to +continual changes from year to year. + +This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the +Admiralty: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + +SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your +Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of +the proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the +communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his +Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their +Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President +and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the +inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their +Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific +Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were +induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to +the Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the +persons chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from +the circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members +being annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually +appointed; and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been +felt during the ten years that the Committee has been in existence, +as four of the distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have +successively appointed to this office, have continued during the whole +period to be members of the Council; and if any such difficulty or +inconvenience should hereafter arise, their Lordships will be ready to +take proper measures for remedying it. + +Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and +Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had +resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board +of Longitude, to be appointed. + +I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + +The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce +much effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff +of which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared +the bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended +this plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO +THE PUBLIC OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he +delicately hints to them their dependent situation, by observing, that +the "RESIDENT COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + +The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom +for years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the +Council, and consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must +first be indebted to the President for being qualified to advise, and +then to the Admiralty for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then +their Lordships, as a "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the +dependence of the Council on the President, by making his nomination +a qualification for place, and establish a new dependence of the same +Council on themselves, by giving a hundred pounds each year to such +three members of that Council as they may select. "THE PLEDGE" they +offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is, +that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought they would do for his +Council. + +What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this +mark of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must +be left to themselves to express. + +In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society +the weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a +consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed +there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted +field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the +soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles +which pervade it are open and liberal as his own. + +The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is, +that the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in +any case, be very small; and may, from several circumstances, be +considerably reduced. In a council fairly selected, to judge of +the merits of the various subjects likely to be brought under the +consideration of the Society, anatomy, chemistry, and the different +branches of natural history, will share with the numerous departments of +physical science, in claiming to be represented by persons competently +skilled in those subjects. These claims being satisfied, but few places +will be left to fill up with mathematicians, astronomers, and persons +conversant with nautical astronomy. + +Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician +amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation +rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the +President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as +a mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser? + +Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant +with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually +be, it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms +his Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such +situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best +qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of +being the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or +Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which +they disapprove. + +Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best +explained by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals +are, notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better +known than he is willing that they should be. + +Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both +to the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference +to the individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I +shall now examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made. + +Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never +considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the +character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have +arrived at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however, +be arguments which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must +ultimately lead to truth: but I confess that it appears to me the +objections which have been stated rest on principles of human nature, +too deeply seated to be easily removed. + +That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears +from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these +appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of +the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe +the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who +knew these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any +gentleman on the Council who had accepted these situations; and, +having myself the same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be +informed of the names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although +they remonstrated against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO +COGNIZANCE" of the fact. + +The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain +Kater, who were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident +Commissioners under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr. +Young became one of the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday +were appointed by the Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, +who died shortly after, I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge +which qualified him for the situation. + +Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong +to that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of +Parliament point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be +entertained. The Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being +the same, and having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act; +and it recites the words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL +VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of +the fitness of the gentlemen who now hold those situations to pronounce +judgment on mathematical questions, the public will be better able to +form an opinion when they shall have communicated to the world any +of their own mathematical inquiries. Although it is the practice to +consider that acceptance of office is alone necessary to qualify a man +for a statesman, a similar doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world +of science. One of these gentlemen, who has established his reputation +as a chemist, stands in the same predicament with respect to the other +two sciences. It remains then to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which +must rest on his skill in "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"--a claim +which can only be allowed when the scientific world are set at rest +respecting the extraordinary nature of those observations contained in +his work on the Pendulum. + +That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude, +excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of +the Government providing instruments and means of transport for the +purpose of these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means +superior to those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the +industry with which he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled +him to bring home multitudes of observations from situations rarely +visited with such instruments, and for such purposes. + +The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist +amongst each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most +conversant with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one +who had devoted but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course +of those voyages, used some of the instruments for the first time in his +life. + +This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the +greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such +lunars; whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit +instrument, avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were +conversant with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more +favourable circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same +opinion prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever +subject Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by +their accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods +of using the instruments scarcely differed in any important point from +those before adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall +presently relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine +possessed some keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would +be hopeless for any to expect to rival. + +The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy +of these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust +Captain Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner +which must have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter +to the Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of +the same persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of +Longitude, after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, +are said to have again recommended him to the Master-General of the +Ordnance. That an officer, commencing his scientific career, should be +misled by such praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the +Council of the Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly, +and maintain it so pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it +was injurious to the interests of science. + +It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley +medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal +of Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from +such a complete investigation of his observations, as should place them +beyond the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may +write, and nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; +and even the Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer +immortality. That learned body is in the habit of making most +interesting and profound reports on any memoirs communicated to it; +nothing escapes the penetration of their committees appointed for such +purposes. Surely, when they enter on the much more important subject +of the award of a medal, unusual pains must be taken with the previous +report, and it might, perhaps, be of some advantage to science, and +might furnish their admirers with arguments in their defence, if they +would publish that on which the decree of their Lalande's medal to +Captain Sabine was founded. + +It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has +been written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall +confine myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I +shall allude to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that +exists respecting them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain +them. The other point, the error in the estimation of the division of +the level, I shall discuss, because it is an admitted fact. + +Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the +difference of times of the passage of any star between the several +wires; supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of +time occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be +precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another +are usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens +that the accordance is perfect. + +The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in +length, and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370 +transits, there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the +intervals between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of +a second. At Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same +accordance; and of the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of +twenty-four are equally exact. With larger instruments, and in great +observatories, this is not always the case. + +Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. +427, a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in +which about one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy; +and it should be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars +selected, have, in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's. + +The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer, +and the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations +of his in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of +accordance. In thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January, +1828, fifteen have this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with +a ten-feet transit. Now in none of these instances do the times agree +within a tenth of a second between all the wires; but I have accounted +those as agreeing in all the wires in which there is not more than +four-tenths of a second between the greatest and least. + +This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some +explanation. One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine +employs a chronometer to observe transits with; and that since it beats +five times in two seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second; +and this being the smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes +more probable than if tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In +general, the larger the lowest unity employed the greater will be the +apparent agreement amongst the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of +stars near the pole, the times of passing the wires were only registered +to the nearest minute, the intervals would almost certainly be equal. +There is another circumstance, about which there is some difficulty. It +is understood that the same instrument,--the thirty-inch transit, was +employed by Lieutenant Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires +were changed, although this has most probably been the case. Now, in the +transits which the later observer has given, he has found it necessary +to correct for a considerable inequality between the first and second +wires (See Phil. Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone +abroad on this subject, it is doing a service to science to insure its +correction, by drawing attention to it. + +Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem +to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact, +and therefore that it ought to be used in observatories. + +Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle +of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the +express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be +diminished in size:--a most important subject, on which the Board seem +to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety. + +The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important: + +"The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of +the Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle +of repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six +inches, carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch +aperture; and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which +might be retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be +increased, by a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been +previously regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit +of diminution to which repeating circles, designed for astronomical +purposes, ought to be carried. + +"The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated, +by comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at +each station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of +observations made with a circle, on the original construction, and of +large dimensions; such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations +of the French are, recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if +due allowance be made for the extensive experience and great skill of +the distinguished persons who conducted the French observations, the +comparison will scarcely appear to the disadvantage of the smaller +circle, even if extended generally through all the stations of the +present volume; but if it be particularly directed to Maranham and +Spitzbergen,--at which stations the partial results were more numerous +than elsewhere, and obtained with especial regard to every circumstance +by which their accuracy might be affected, the performance of the +six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of circles of the larger +dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at which a more than +usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, because it was +essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the French stations +were required, that the observations should always be conducted with the +utmost possible regard to accuracy. + +"It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches, +the disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact +or bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute +subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition." + +Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most +favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places, +and compare the observations made there with the small repeating +instrument of six inches diameter, with those made by the French +astronomers at Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one +centi-metres, or about sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It +is singular that this instrument was directed, by the French Board +of Longitude, to be made expressly for this survey, and the French +astronomers paid particular attention to it, from the circumstance +of some doubts having been entertained respecting the value of the +principle of repetition. + +The following series of observations were made with the two instruments. +[I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because +the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference +between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken +above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a +half.] + +Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches +diameter.--BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + + Number of Latitude Names of Observers. + Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot + 100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot + 120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot + 100 56.5 Arago + 102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + + Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. + + + +Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham. + + Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. + alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine + alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto + alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto + alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto + alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto + alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + + Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. + + +In comparing these results, although the French observations were more +than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the +individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths +is the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations; +whilst the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds +and two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on +account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations, +let any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with +the six English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is +the greatest deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations +less than in those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that +by the latitude deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of +Polaris by the same observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to +be 38deg. 39min 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean +of the 1318 inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot +be accounted for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as +neither the employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of +Groombridge, of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a +difference of two-tenths of a second.] + +These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain +Sabine, and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the +merits of his observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers +equal, it seems a necessary consequence that "the performance of the +six-inch circle is" not merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger +dimensions," but that it is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches +in diameter. + +This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for +astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and +rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered +that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to +be equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven +seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary +a recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a +re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it +necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this +instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed +satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising +from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will +depend on the nature of the deviations from it.] + +This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of +considerable importance to navigation; and if it should have caused +any alteration in his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and +small instruments, it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was +expressly directed by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with +an instrument constructed for that especial purpose. + +Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for +the task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to +familiarity with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this +interesting question. + +The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of +level: + + Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. + + Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + + Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + + Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + + Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + + Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + + Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + + New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + + Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + + Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + + Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + + Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 + + +This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by +the small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and +confining ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE +OBTAINED, WITH ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR +ACCURACY MIGHT BE AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION +WAS BESTOWED," it appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, +namely, "the differences of the partial results from the mean at each +station," the deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were +before; a circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in +the decision of the question. + +There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid +looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of +latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really +resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true +latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is +so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more +especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, +Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes +interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations, +to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so +little to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions +of the unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen. + +In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of +a place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the +following columns-- + + Latitudes as + True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. + Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 + Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8 + Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5 + Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6 + Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0 + Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2 + +what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first +column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the +second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the +level being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as +diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider, +if he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still +he will find the odds against it enormous. + +When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has +thus had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost +unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that +at eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the +differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station +it only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help +feeling that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his +admitted skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both +mistaken in their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so +singular an effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot +bring myself to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without +foundation. + +Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular +oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used +for determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the +very work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose +of comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which +occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265 +to 275 of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET +ARAGO, which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] +are filled with the details relative to the determination of the value +of the divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory, +with such an important object in view, to have read off some of the sets +after each pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of +repetition made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order +to know how many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost +certainly have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of +the level; for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a +few minutes of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to +have arisen from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed, +they must have been referred to some error in the instrument, which +could scarcely, in such circumstances, have escaped detection. + +I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain +Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying +are inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an +instance of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should +venture to pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think +enough has been said to show, that the feeling which so generally +prevails relative to it, is neither captious nor unreasonable. + +Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in +appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under +the peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as +far as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations +which are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for +imitation observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers +to throw aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a +standard which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified +the doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever +even modified it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the +largest. + +To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt. +It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with +official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to +depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose. + +How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT +TO BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived, +appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best +observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered +them peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that +instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered, +"FOR ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the +Astronomical Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the +most carefully detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, +persons who must have examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. +Captain Kater must have felt those difficulties in the perusal of it +which other observers have experienced; and he who was placed in the +Board of Longitude especially for his knowledge of instruments, might, +in a few hours, have arrived at more decisive facts. But perhaps I am +unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge rendered it impossible for him to have +been ignorant of the difficulties, and his candour would have prevented +him from concealing them: he must, therefore, after examining the +subject, have been outvoted by his lay-brethren who had dispensed with +that preliminary. + +It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with +respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of +the errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant +Foster, aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed +this instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal +to one second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject, +and made all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him +acquainted with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated +a paper [The paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical +Transactions, 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal +Society, in which he states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed +all the observations in which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, +from the original observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury +at the time of her loss, the transcripts of his results could not be +recomputed like the rest, and were consequently useless. + + + + +SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + +Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with +science may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat +singularly happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than +one such appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the +late Dr. Young, we have at present:-- + +MR. POND--Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +CAPTAIN SABINE--An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his +regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the +Admiralty. + +MR. BRANDE--Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of Chemistry +at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to the East-India +Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; Superintending +Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; Editor +of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the Royal +Society. + +One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices, +either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be +found to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered; +or else, that it is too well paid, since each requires such little +attention, that almost any number can be executed by one person. + +The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection +of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other +astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the +almost undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would +a superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being +acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his +situation at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign +Secretary of the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. +Brande would scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found +time even for them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that +from the progress the Society is making, those duties must become +shortly, if they are not already, almost extinct. + +Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most +anxiously over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the +Academics of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of +Hanover, and of France, derived honour from the discoveries of their +Secretaries;--that they prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of +Oersted, of Brewster, of Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the +President must have been ambitious that England should contribute to +this galaxy of glory, that the Royal Society should restore the lost +Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of seven stars in the neck of the +constellation Taurus. There are now only six of them visible to the +naked eye.--HUTTON'S DICTIONARY--Art. Pleiades.] to the admiring science +of Europe. But he could discover no kindred name amongst the ranks of +his supporters, and forgot, for a moment, the interest of the Society, +in an amiable consideration for the feelings of his surrounding friends. +For had the President chosen a brighter star, the lustre of his other +officers might have been overpowered by its splendour: but relieved +from the pain of such a contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, +by their united brightness, these suns of his little system shall yet +afford sufficient light to be together visible to distant nations, as a +faint NEBULA in the obscure horizon of English science. + + + + +SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + +Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be +useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money. + +EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.--The great expense +of the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical +Transactions, is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings +are quite essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those +papers are fit for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry +is necessary, when such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour, +therefore, to approximate to the sum these engravings have cost the +Royal Society. + +Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of +Sir E. Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the +workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810, +there have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author. +Many of these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but +I shall take five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and +twelve as that of the latter. This would produce, + + 70 X 5 = 350 + 187 X 12 = 2244 + ...... -----...... L2594 + +As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd +hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE +branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question +the importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be +permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended +in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with +those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous +circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number, +I should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other +countries much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even +the Council of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from +their Transactions one of those productions which they had paid for as a +lecture. + +It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council +so repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually +expending, during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On +the other hand, when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of +those valuable plates to take off impressions for his large work on +Comparative Anatomy, of which they constitute almost the whole, it might +have been as well not to have obliterated from each plate all indication +of the source to which he was indebted for them. + + +THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.--I shall mention this circumstance, because +it fell under my own observation. + +Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the +President's Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature +of this item. Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an +opportunity, at an early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for +an explanation of the following resolution, which stands in the +Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + +"Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be +printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade +price." + +The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO +PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO +PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + +I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as +the following statement will prove. + +The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following +prices are very liberal: + + L s. d. + To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0 + Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0 + Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0 + + Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0 + +Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not +plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying +printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several +of the individual members must have known, from their own private +experience, that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different +from that they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to +print it on his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred +pounds beyond what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds +of the Royal Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his +officers ever condescend to explain this transaction to the Council; +or were they expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing +proposed to them? Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to +order the payment of above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a +bookseller to do what they might have done themselves for less than half +the sum? Or did they wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred +pounds? If so, he must have had powerful friends in the Council, and it +is fit the Society should know who they were; for they were not friends, +either to its interests or to its honour. + +The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to +members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and +out of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the +remainder encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are +still losers of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction. + + +ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO +PASTEBOARD.--Although the printing of these observations is not paid for +out of the funds of the Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body +are the visitors of the Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to +introduce the subject here. + +Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned, +that there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity +of the volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On +making inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be +disposed of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the +purpose of converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get +fourpence a pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board. +The fact was mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society, +and they thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances. + +Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with +every regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick +paper, hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This +magnificence is advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought +to be worthy of a great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that +nation spends on science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not +be applied with the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really +has a right to these volumes, printed by the government at a large +expense, it is, perhaps, the most extravagant mode which was ever +yet invented of paying a public servant. When that right was given to +him,--let us suppose somebody had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he +should sell the costly volumes for waste paper,--who would have listened +for one moment to such a supposition? He would have been told that +it was impossible to suppose a person in that high and responsible +situation, could be so indifferent to his own reputation. + +A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal +Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary +for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally +anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the +request appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and +I was at the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased +at the bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies +of the Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that +practical astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my +pursuits, I feel disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety +of the refusal. This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar +refusals to other gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with +myself, and whose time had been successfully devoted to the cultivation +of that science. [M. Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, +projected a plan for making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too +vast for any individual to attempt, it was proposed that a portion +should be executed by the astronomers of various countries, and +invitations to this effect were widely circulated. One only of the +divisions of this map was applied for by any English astronomer; and, +after completing the portion of the map assigned to him, he undertook +another, which had remained unprovided for. This gentleman, the Rev. +Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants for the Greenwich +Observations.] + +There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a +different result;--but those who occupy official situations, rendered +remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed +in no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly +insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they +must submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure, +therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must +have sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to +propose that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse +so trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once +filled. + +In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a +copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of +copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was +insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned +bodies in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great +their inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants." +Now I have spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the +council-books of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the +real state of the case:-- + +In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of +State, wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785, +from which the following is extracted:-- + +"The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the +Astronomical Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and +paid for by the Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command, +of July 21, 1767,) which may at any time remain in the hands of the +printer, shall, after you have reserved such copies as you may +think proper as presents, be given to the said Nevil Maskelyne, in +consideration of his trouble in the superintending the printing thereof. +I am to signify His Majesty's pleasure, that you do, from time to time, +give the necessary orders for that purpose, until His Majesty's further +commands shall be communicated to you. + +Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:-- + +"Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last +published, be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to +the Astronomer Royal." + +It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many +volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any +revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed +by the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving +precisely the same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe +that in fact they do not know the authority on which the right to those +sixty rests. + +Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the +discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from +time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore, +they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought +to have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they +found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they +ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order +to prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand, +the above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than +sixty copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress +towards pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society, +as visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to +Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if +the Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it +for a liberal compensation. + +Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the +subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and +Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science, +from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer +Royal. + +It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to +science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not +so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can +be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to +judge no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his +reputation will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their +circulation. + +Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might +be said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal +Society that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is +imagined, is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of +the parties concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any +amendments have taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable +importance, I was myself a witness, when I was present officially at a +visitation. At that time, no original observations made at the transit +instrument were ever preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the +process of an observation, I should not have credited the fact. + + + + +SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + +At a period when the attention of Government to science had not +undergone any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place. +His Majesty intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of +State, his intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty +guineas each, to be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal +Society, according to the rules they were desired to frame for that +purpose. + +The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:-- + +WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + +SIR, + +I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to +found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded +as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council +of the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of +competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the +object for which the Royal Society was instituted. + +His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of +the Royal Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the +regulations which it may be convenient to establish with regard to the +appropriation of the medals; and I have, therefore, to request that +you will make the necessary communication to the Council of the Royal +Society, in order that His Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect. + +I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL. + +Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this +gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It +was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement +of a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were +immense. The unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst +the confidence reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured +the wavering faith of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from +knowing the MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted +the policy of establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and +spirit in which they were offered. + +The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting +them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on +the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the +Council-book of the 26th of January. + +At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were +decided upon; they were as follow:-- + +26th January, 1826. + +RESOLVED, + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for +the most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed +and made known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of +their award. + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the +medals should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if +it should be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the +obverse of the medal. + +That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation; +one in gold, one in silver. + +If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet +they are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a +councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education +of a pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as +to have made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely, +that the discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made +known to the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the +award. + +Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this +communication, to have convened a special general meeting of the +Society, to have made known to the whole body the munificent endowment +of their Patron: and when his approbation of the laws which were to +govern the distribution of these medals had been intimated to the +Council, such a course would have been in complete accordance with the +wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN +OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known. + +Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in +the following words:-- + +November 16, 1826. + +ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was +awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary +Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his +other important labours and discoveries in physical science. + +The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, +Esq. for his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the +Philosophical Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable +papers on mathematical subjects. + +The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations +of double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's +observed and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions. + +It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January, +formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet +together in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them +to two philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his +great discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to +stultify themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for +a paper made known to them three years before. + +Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their +decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict +of their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other +instances, with the semblance of a free discussion? + +Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that +although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society +and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit +of their award, to those to whom that trust was confided? + +Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive +deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch +with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it +might perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in +accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or +was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I +have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + +Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility +of dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been +pledged to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent +on exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps, +urged by the near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the +formality of reading the laws on which they were about to act? + +Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the +Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange +neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the +Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication +of these medals. + +The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it +was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules +which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the +medals themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and +they ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no +man could feel the least security that he should get them, even though +his discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were +offered, + +The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced +me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of +the Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on +our character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now +a matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious +disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans +for doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I +should stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. +[It is but justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to +state, that the circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the +same year awarded to him, prevented him from taking any part in the +discussion.] + +The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind +will never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the +distribution of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as +equally binding in honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the +Council, which assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as +void, IPSO FACTO, on the ground that it was directly at variance with +that part which CONFINES the medals to discoveries made known to the +Society within ONE YEAR PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore +moved the following resolutions: + +"1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November, +1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is +invalid. + +"2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton, +Esq. and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that +letters be written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope +of the Council that this, the only method which is open to them of +honourably fulfilling their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen +as a mark of the high sense entertained by the Council of the importance +and value of their discoveries, which require not the aid of medals +to convey their reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which +distinguished the age in which they lived." + +It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning +employed in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal +Society. It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was +SOMEWHAT IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As +the original rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the +Council,--it would only be necessary to alter them, and then the +award would agree perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was +contended, that the original rules were unknown to the public and to the +Society; and that, in fact, they were only known to the members of +the Council and a few of their friends; and therefore the award was no +breach of faith. + +All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could +not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show +that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age; +and furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of +the Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council +as long as the present system of management is pursued. + +The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its +peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little +communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens +that the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the +Society, and, indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who +frequent the weekly meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first +notice to the great majority of the Society of a breach of faith by +their Council, which it is impossible to suppose a body, consisting of +more than six hundred gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + + + + +SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + +An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which +seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society. +They may contain discoveries of new principles,--of laws of nature +hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations +of known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar +situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to +our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very +different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those +trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the +present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely +inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has +presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments +employed, or phenomena examined,--a talent, which can be much improved +by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of +tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to +detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and +a higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very +different order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of +an almanac; the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of +the accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those +computations are performed. + +[*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national +observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not +an opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The +Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge. + +On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826, +with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles, +we find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following +passage is extracted: + +"But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, +hard-working, and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call +them, although they are drudges of a superior order), men who will be +contented to pass half their day in using their hands and eyes in the +mechanical act of observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process +of calculation."] + +Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some +difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be +proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked +this difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given +to observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for +discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by +such an association. + +I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the +public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground +of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The +first objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the +object for which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal +is given to A. B. "for his various papers." + +There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be +admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those +who judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his +various other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece +to these awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be +more admired if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to +escape through this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment +on the main point be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which +made chemistry a science, has attached to it in their award this feeble +appendage. + +It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been +too much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to +their patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished +grounds to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of +the new ones. I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal +Society are persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to +suppose their decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I +may not have had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was +a member of that Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall +avail myself of the judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined +to appeal, who knew it long and intimately, and who expressed his +opinion deliberately and solemnly. + +The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the +distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the +Royal Society, the following clause:--"And I hereby empower the said +President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the +above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid +or reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY +THAT NO PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL +RECEIVE OR PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + +Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally +inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery +is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite +unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently +have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits. +These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as +the last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. +The Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who +declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional +charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put +a stop to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a +Copley medal must by the will be annually given, some other person might +not be found deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do +not intend to give any this year." All further discussion was thus +silenced.] + +Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious, +it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the +award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects, +the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their +attention to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY +OF THE COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO +DECIDE. + +If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the +Council, would communicate their information, something curious might +perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those +of which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state--of +three of them--that whatever may have been the official reasons for +their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being +the true causes:-- + +First.--A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate +time--BECAUSE HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + +Second.--Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE +IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE +PRECEDING YEAR. + +Third.--A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL USED." + +I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which +was peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of +rendering platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious +philosopher who invented the art, and who has left many other claims +to the gratitude of mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to +place that subject in its proper light. + +An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as +possessing the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands +we inherit from our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and +yielded produce before they were cultivated. The products of genius are +the actual creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or +honour to him, they remain the permanent endowments of the human race. +If the institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support +us fully in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by +the laws of nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly +restrict our discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the +products of intellectual exertion? + +Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with +Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they +have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of +some substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or +comforts of their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the +legitimate reward of their exertions. + +It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have +torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to +claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the +inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life. + +The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer, +having published his process, enters into equal competition with other +manufacturers. + +If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his +secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During +his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the +philosopher had not existed. + +Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and +reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary +rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments +of mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these +have been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a +condition with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing +for which a patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + +Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of +rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity +having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary +magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process +selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him; +and from some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no +written record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that +disorder, which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the +knowledge he had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the +subject, would have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded +the directions of the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render +useful even his unfinished speculations, proves that the previous +omission was most probably accidental. + +Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body +to bestow on it their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of +Wollaston by their medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then +as an example, as a stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of +discovery. But did they wish discoveries to be so endangered? + +The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been +considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on +one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few +members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had +long been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of +doing justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was +suggested that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they +immediately altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to +reserve their medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at +which period, for aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the +additional merit of having been made prior to the limit allowed by their +regulations. That medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no +one member present was at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I +shall, however, say no more on this subject. They erred from feeling, +an error so very rare with them, that it might be pardoned even for its +singularity. + +I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly +dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving +pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + +Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science, +or the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of +Wollaston, was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting +career, one out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply, +without which, the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher +be destitute of tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank +he held in science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich +in the honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward +in some measure commensurate with his deserts,--then, indeed, there +might have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that, +in such circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no +"niggard" hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it, +unreservedly, the produce of his powerful mind. + + + + +SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + +Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This +was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South +Sea Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted +annually to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + +Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or +of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years, +from 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for +twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr. +Ellis. + +The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary +exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be +productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the +Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be +delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by +members of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place +of worship appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at +the two preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the +gentleman nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is +to be preached, should be stated. + +With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the +first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon +be esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the +Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants, +persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion +of true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am +tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the +most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what +is already done on that subject. + +The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too +much haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by +others, as inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been +attentively considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest +and freest inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character +of indisputable facts. But, I will not press this subject further on +my reader's attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the +lecture. All that I could have said on this point has been so much more +ably stated by one whose enlightened view of geological science has +taken away some difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed +a stumbling-block from many respectable individuals, that I should only +weaken by adding to the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's +Geology in the British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy +of a philosopher and a Christian.] + + + + +SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + +The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the +preceding, is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual +essay on the subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted, +that it should have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he +foreseen the routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured +to preserve it, by affording it a wider range. + +By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been +created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their +attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture; +but from causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the +custom--one individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems, +like the Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension. +There have, however, been some intervals; and we are still under +obligations to those who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing +Sir Everard Home to read the Croonian Lecture twenty years in +SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we might have heard of vested rights. + + + + +SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they +regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever +exists, begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be +amended. + +The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal +Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has +been submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary +to explain the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in +perpetuating it. + +It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the +power of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council; +and it is also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and +that printed lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members +on their entering the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If +these lists were, as in other scientific societies, openly discussed in +the Council, and then offered by them as recommendations to the Society, +little inconvenience would arise; but the fact is, that they are private +nominations by the President, usually without notice, to the Council, +and all the supporters of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour +to uphold the right of this nomination in the President, and prevent or +discourage any alteration. + +The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or +by whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of +persons, united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who +act together from a community of principles. That each individual has +invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the +case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very +rare, a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode +of meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of +all other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, +as far as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has +usually consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had +the prudence, whenever they could, to associate with themselves other +members of greater ability, provided these latter would not oppose the +system, and would thus lend to it the sanction of their name. The party +have always praised each other most highly--have invariably opposed all +improvements in the Society, all change in the mode of management; +and have maintained, that all those who wished for any alteration were +factious; and, when they discovered any symptoms of independence and +inquiry breaking out in any member of the Council, they have displaced +him as soon as they decently could. + +Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT +by which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples: +refutation is rendered quite unnecessary--juxta-position is +alone requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in +contemplation, or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the +Society continued, raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why +should you interfere? it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it +is no affair of yours.--If, on the other hand, it do relate to himself, +the reply is equally ready. It is immediately urged: The question is +of a personal nature; you are the last person who ought to bring it +forward; you are yourself interested. If any member of the Society, +feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the injuries or insults of +the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is immediately suggested to +him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until his feelings subside, +and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst with becoming +candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. If, after +an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the offence +seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any +circumstances on which memory can dwell,--if it is then brought forward, +the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date--the thing is gone +by--it is too late to call in question a transaction so long past. Thus, +if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to question an abuse; +if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? and if, +notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a meddler. If +he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is cool; +and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his +remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred +to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any +alteration is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never +adhered to. If it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to +an office, he is immediately answered, that that is a personal question, +in which it is impossible to interfere--the officer, it seems, is +considered to have not merely a vested right to the continuance of every +abuse, but an interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + +In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation +defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling +to be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is +immediately contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their +magnitude. Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige +the world with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the +most RECENT and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with +the orthodox creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human +faculties to detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size. + +The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and +their emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them +is, nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the +science of England. + +In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute +nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few +gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high +opinion they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who +could discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list +a few nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes +would put any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed, +from its station in society, to check any that might be proposed by +others. + +With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a +star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable +Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition. + +The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, +although not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in +several societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much +lightened by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are +their salaries:-- + + The Senior Secretary ........... 105L. + The Junior Secretary, 105L........ ) + 5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L. + The Foreign Secretary........... 20L. + +Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices +are amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the +President to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently +been bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even +for the dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late +Sir Joseph Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in +that situation, although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject +connected with the pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice +to his memory, by saying that his respectability was preserved +under such circumstances, by the most candid admission of the fact, +accompanied by a store of other knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to +the pursuits of the Society; and I will add, that I regretted to see him +insulted by one President in a situation improperly given to him by a +former. + +Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the +President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient. + +The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The +President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought, +after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at +large. + +Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, +and recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a +Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the +President. + +Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising +from offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee +of the British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not +a fit person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it +is the EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I +fear that unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific +appointments, and unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public +discussion, a President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the +British Museum, is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his +public duty to the influence of power, or to private friendship. With +respect to the merits of that Institution, I have no inclination at +present to inquire: but when it is considered that there is at this +moment attached to it no one whose observations or whose writings have +placed him even in the second rank amongst the naturalists of Europe, +the President of the Royal Society has given some grounds for the remark +made by several members of the Society, that he is a little too much +surrounded by the officers of a body who may reasonably be supposed to +entertain towards him feelings either of gratitude or expectation. +[It will be remembered that the name of Mr. Robert Brown has been but +recently attached to the British Museum, and that it is to be attributed +to his possessing a life interest in the valuable collection of the late +Sir Joseph Banks.] + +The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which, +although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + +There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these +were honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been +expected that this limited number of appointments would have been given +in all cases to persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient +to pay compliments; and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge +insured him respect as Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a +British nobleman, was placed for years in the situation as one of the +Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, for which every competent judge +knew him to be wholly unfit. What was the return which he made for this +indulgence? Little informed respecting the feelings of the Society, and +probably misinformed by the party whose influence had placed him there, +he saved them in the day of their peril. + +When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of +the more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely +necessary to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to +the Council such improvements as they might consider it expedient to +discuss. [Amongst the names of the persons composing this Committee, +which was proposed by Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and +Mr. Herschel.] The Council received their report at the close of the +session; and in recording it on the journals, they made an appeal to the +Council for the ensuing year to bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST +SERIOUS ATTENTION." + +Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would +have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken +up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful +peer came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting +rid of these improvements completely. + +It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal +Society should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a +peer or two should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse +to this doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this +tribute to any one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank +in advancing the cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our +pursuits, will condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding +a President to stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended +for consideration by some of the most highly gifted members of the +Society,--those who doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably +be pardoned for the disgust they must necessarily entertain for the +practical abuse to which it leads. + +Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year, +although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet +it was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact, +always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir +Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be +appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had +spoken to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the +formation of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take +in establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was +assigned to me by the President. + +It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance +of time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the +Astronomical Society;--that I always talked of it publicly and openly at +the time;--that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding President +of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten the +communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them +well. + +The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L. +more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to +have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is +to be observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible, +notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + +Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been +instituted since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President +is supposed to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the +obedience of his Council. + +Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions +on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper +persons to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I +am far from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons +the second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be +mentioned. + + + + +SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + +The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so +notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members +began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling, +together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to +re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most +active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings; +and a Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly +understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,--First, as +to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and +then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names +of the gentlemen composing this Committee were:-- + + Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, + Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, + Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, + Mr. South, Captain Kater. + +The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in +the eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so +select as to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be +elected into it, was by no means new, as the following extract from the +Minutes of the Council will prove:-- + +"MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present, + + Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, + Sir John Lowther, + Sir John Cutler, + Sir Christopher Wren, + Mr. Oldenburgh, + Sir Paul Neile. + +"It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper, +good experiments must be in the first place provided to make the +weekly meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these +experiments must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the +contributors; which done, the Council might then with confidence proceed +to the EJECTION OF USELESS FELLOWS." + +The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they +recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of +the numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was +suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation +should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not +appear to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected +how long a time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society +could be reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as +long as those who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their +writings and discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely +the same terms, and on the payment of the same sum of money as other +gentlemen who contributed only with their purse, it could never be an +object of ambition to any man of science to be enrolled on its list. + +With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I +suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become +effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal +Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who +had contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the +Transactions, or that such a list should be printed separately at the +end. + +At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers +to the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + + 37 Contributors of.. 1 paper + 21.......... 2 papers + 19.......... 3 ditto + 5 .......... 4 ditto + 3 .......... 5 ditto + 3 .......... 6 ditto + 12.... from 7 to 12 ditto + 14... of more than 12 papers. + +100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by +them. + +Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division +of the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary +for placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist +of seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those +of the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or +more were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In +either of these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition +to belong to the first class; and a more minute investigation into the +value of each paper would naturally take place before it was admitted +into the Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only +should be allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit +to be printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such +an arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the +Society, and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society +when no distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued +without one. + +Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will +only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment +to the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does, +in truth, maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position, +accidentally derive reputation which does not belong to them, are +unwilling, when the circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world +to assign it to those who have fairly won it; or else that they +are incapable of producing any thing worthy of being printed in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly as the conduct of the +Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, I do not think so +ill of the personal character of its members as to believe that if the +question were fairly stated to them, many would object to it. + +Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the +renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring +Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the +ensuing year. + +The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is +impossible to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON. +Our statutes were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness +of the members elected to serve in the Council; and the President is +directed, by those statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to +the anniversary, to give notice of the elections, and "to declare how +much it importeth the good of the Society that such persons may be +chosen into the Council as are most likely to attend the meetings and +business of the Council, and out of whom may be made the best choice of +a President and other officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery +of the wisdom of our ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket +the list of the future Council he has already fixed upon. + +In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the +discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for +the Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of +the old Council, and against each name is placed the number of times +he has attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has +been least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence +from London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, +are known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council +the number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out +by their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number +than can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?--but, +who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed +on the Council? + +If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of +great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented +in the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle +opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some +chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even +before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be +put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated +to the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the +commencement of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be +entertained of those who endeavour to suppress inquiry. + +On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should +never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its +business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the +conduct of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not +led to such discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of +those who disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to +the discretion of the party in not giving them cause. + +The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong +necessity should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it +which may, in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at +the anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any +one great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than +a speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will +probably come under the consideration of a larger number of the members. +Another and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger +of any expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments +employed. + +There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the +Committee:-- + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING +THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH +SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE +OF THE SOCIETY. + +Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council +under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves +that the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher +ratio than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth +of knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been +the great object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the +following Report:-- + +Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility +of the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That +its respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high +philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating +persons of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong +to the Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves +fully borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit +the Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the +talent of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every +vacancy would become an object of competition among persons of +acknowledged merit. + +From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who +have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the +persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science, +your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should +be fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such +royal personages as it may be thought proper to admit. + +As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and +fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as +it would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science, +that no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your +Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place, +four new members should be annually admitted. + +With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion, +that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding +to a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority. +If the above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for +every vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must +be the general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to +accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would +be necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of +earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating, +but probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee, +therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should +take place every year towards the end of the session, and that this +should be conducted on the same principles as the present annual +election of the Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of +all the candidates (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual +time,) in which lists each Fellow would mark the requisite number of +persons. + +As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the +Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been +determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the +successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in +accordance with the enactments of the said charter. + +In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave +to remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of +blackballing would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and +mortification; as the result of such an open competition could only be +construed by the public into a fair preference of the superior claims of +the successful few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of +the others. + +Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual +admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the +Society; but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous +economy its present income might be rendered adequate to all its real +wants, and the aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by +many small but wholesome retrenchments. + +It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was +received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual +contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was a +balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears, +that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly +340L. for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit +to your consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially +controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + +In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now +proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration. +They conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual +exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society, +and those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were +distinguished by being collected into a separate and honourable list. It +would also be found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of +retrospective justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who +have formerly obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals +who have been large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end +of the list. It would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual +list, if all those Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within +the preceding year, were regularly noticed. And your Committee think, +that these lists should always form part of the Transactions, and be +stitched up with the last part of the volume. + +It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the +Society mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council; +and as their selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your +Committee hope that our excellent President will not consider it any +impeachment of his impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they +venture to suggest, that the usual recommendation to the Society of +proper members for the future Council should henceforth be considered as +a fit subject for the diligent and anxious deliberation of the expiring +Council. + +There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society, +and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations +of Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the +nature and value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the +important task of deciding on what papers should be published; and they +are of opinion that it would be a material improvement on the present +mode, if each paper were referred to a separate Committee, who should +have sufficient time given them to examine it carefully, who should be +empowered to communicate on any doubtful parts with the author; and who +should report, not only their opinion, but the grounds on which that +opinion is formed, for the ultimate decision of the Council. + +If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your +Committee have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move, +that another Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to +alter the necessary statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance +with the charters. + +In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the +magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty +to propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest +discussion of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be +unanimously disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend, +that the several statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified, +should be only entered on your minutes, and not finally enacted. +All innovations in the constitution, or even the habits of the Royal +Society, should be scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. +It is enough for the present Council to have traced the plan; let the +Council of the ensuing sessions share the credit of carrying that plan +into effect. + +This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of +1827, and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the +council-book:-- + +"The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting +the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think +conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered +to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance +of the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the +Society, in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering +also the advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious +and early consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + +Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their +hasty adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the +fullest investigation before one of them should be tried. + +Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not +coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to +make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the +Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the +consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it +was thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned +by the names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to +"THE MOST SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing +year," was by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of +discussing its merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained, +not merely unfit to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility +as to be utterly unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his +officers feel, that their power rested on an insecure foundation, and +that they did not possess the confidence of the working members of the +Society? + + + +CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. + +There are several reflections connected with the art of making +observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this +chapter. + + + + +SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. + +No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an +object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances +towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and +expense, than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of +discovery, and the first approximate measures, are those which add most +to the existing knowledge of mankind. + +The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in +some respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion, +that no experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute, +and the accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of +some use to show, that even with large instruments, and most practised +observers, this is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken +from a representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the +Council of the Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the +employment of two mural circles:-- + +"That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same +time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of +that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE +MOST CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of +refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + +In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. +Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains +relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have +been made. + +"Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit +tout publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de +connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES +OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles +toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi +par les circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."--BASE DU SYSTEME +METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158. + +This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of +experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to +have been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its +tract, not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the +acutest senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is +forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that +an observer, possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly +written. He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of +his species, confers an obligation on them, by recording what he sees; +but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment. +He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary +observers, communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery, and +stamps his own observations with a character, alike independent of +testimony or of judgment. + + + + +SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + +The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of +those who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not +familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled +accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that +any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention, +ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and +himself. + +If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to +read the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is +frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some +acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set +the instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, +and then request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any +difference, he should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his +friend to point out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his +decision. This should be repeated frequently; and after some practice, +he should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his +friend's, and also how many divisions they usually differ. + +The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner +can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done +without assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument, +but merely to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any +remarkable point, read off the verniers, and write down the result; then +displace the telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such +observations will show the confidence which is due to the observer's +eye in bisecting an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the +first direction gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great +measure, appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he +finds a deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy +himself if he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, +the student should practise each adjustment separately, and write down +the results wherever he can measure its deviations. + +Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an +observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let +him take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and +having registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat +the process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him +excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill. + +The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits +within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME +CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can +have confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT +CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT +CIRCUMSTANCES. + +These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person +is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him +begin by adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the +upper contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then +let him derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the +reading. When he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make +that adjustment, let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but +let him not, until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, +pronounce upon those of the instrument. In the case of a barometer, +he must also be assured, that the temperature of the mercury does not +change during the interval. + +A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of +mechanism, for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth +parts of a second were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with +a pin for stopping one of the hands. I proposed that we should each +endeavour to stop it twenty times in succession, at the same point. We +were both equally unpractised, and our first endeavours showed that we +could not be confident of the twentieth part of a second. In fact, both +the time occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the +volition, as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before +the fingers acted on the stop, appeared to influence the accuracy of our +observations. From some few experiments I made, I thought I perceived +that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will, +depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body. If any one were +to make experiments on this subject, it might be interesting, to compare +the rapidity of the transmission of volition in different persons, +with the time occupied in obliterating an impression made on one of the +senses of the same persons. For example, by having a mechanism to make +a piece of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity, +some persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others, +whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it. + + + + +SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + +Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of +pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really +value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by +unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of +their arts being known may deter future offenders. + +There are several species of impositions that have been practised in +science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which +it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary +understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, +forging, trimming, and cooking. + +OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In +the year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an +account of a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great +minuteness, one species, the specific name of which has been taken from +its habitat, and the generic he took from his own family, calling it +Gioenia Sicula. It consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by +the body of the animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures +of the animal, and of its parts; described its structure, its mode of +advancing along the sand, the figure of the tract it left, and estimated +the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He +then described the structure of the shell, which he treated with nitric +acid, and found it approach nearer to the nature of bone than any other +shell. + +The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this +description, and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact, +however, is, that no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, +finding on the Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the +species of Bulla, of which some are found on the south-western coast +of England, [Bulla lignaria] described and figured these bones most +accurately, and drew the whole of the rest of the description from the +stores of his own imagination. + +Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been +made for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies +which had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered, +that the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness +is very far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any +creature for which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the +neck of the plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, +unless the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to +outweigh the evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction +which is here alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained +final causes; for instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed +animals, is in no case combined with the claw-shaped form of the +extremities, frequent in many of the carniverous animals, and necessary +to some of them for the purpose of seizing their prey] it can only be +regarded as a deception, without the accompaniment of wit. + +FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is +intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of +those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to +acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has +never made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations +by calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. +The observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by +the Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at +length proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The +pretended observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any +possible orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of +the observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost +precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the +logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all +the rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + +Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + +TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those +observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in +sticking them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable +adjustment," as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in +science. + +This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the +trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of +this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is +the same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a +reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect +for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position +of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect +him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + +OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to +give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of +the highest degree of accuracy. + +One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and +out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree. +If a hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he +cannot pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up. + +Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not +come within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall +possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference +in the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy +effect in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still +greater accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used. + +It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather +hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in +different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, +specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no catalogue +contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; and if +he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be cruel +to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, +however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons +might fall. + +If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes +them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they +been computed from other catalogues the difference would have been +considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for--those +catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or--they may have +been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments; +or--the observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + +It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by +the highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet +they will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which +the skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry +himself triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of +such constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative +merits of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with +admirable candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to +Gauss, and to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used +by three such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord +to a miracle. + +There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those +who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in +my opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept. + +In the first place, it must require much time to try different +formulae. In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human +knowledge, more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may +be determined with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some +physical circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at +the time) the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered +from other contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, +the state of the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of +observations has been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with +the latest determination, there is some little danger that the average +of the whole may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law +of nature, dependent on the interval between the two sets, which +law some future philosopher may discover, and thus the very best +observations may have been thrown aside. + +In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably +happen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled +accuracy at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the +effect of rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for +that part of the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is +generally so unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations +of those in whom they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the +artist. In fact, the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted +is destroyed. + +The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even +after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and +a few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed +by the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been +lost; and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and +boiling water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained +useless from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. +M. Libri, of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing +their registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some +warm springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during +a century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced. + +Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor +of Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of +the legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain +word had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before +the court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed +themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those +who committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the +colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless +matter remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the +solvent having weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the +supposed letters) that the effect of the slow application of heat would +be to render some difference of texture or of applied substance evident, +by some variety in the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances +might be expected to produce. Permission having been given to try the +experiment, on the application of heat the important word reappeared, to +the great satisfaction of the court. + + + +CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + + + + +SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD +EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS. + +One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is +to be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names +added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little +firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times +have those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest, +proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the +names of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be +matured, were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, +as having sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job. + +Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance, +when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more +than two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have +occurred, which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that +members have spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the +contrary. + +This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too +extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal +Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring +disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as +strongly as an officious interference and flippant manner do the +charlatan, or the trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that +improper deference which was long paid to every dictum of the President, +and much of it to that natural indisposition to take trouble on any +point in which a man's own interest is not immediately concerned. It is +to be hoped, for the credit of that learned body, that no anticipation +of the next feast of St. Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their +disposition. [It may be necessary to inform those who are not members +of the Royal Society, that this is the day on which those Fellows who +choose, meet at Somerset House, to register the names of the Council and +Officers the President has been pleased to appoint for the ensuing year; +and who afterwards dine together, for the purpose of praising each other +over wine, which, until within these few years, was PAID for out of +the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse was attacked by an enterprising +reformer, and of course defended by the coterie. It was, however, +given up as too bad. The public may form some idea of the feeling which +prevails in the Council, when they are informed that this practice was +defended by one of the officers of the Society, on the ground that, +if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS PERCENTAGE ON THE +TAVERN BILLS.] + + + + +SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + +The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science +seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who +conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried +until the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform +should be attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether +the practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy +imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two +sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement; +but the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and +Geological Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the +period of his reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society +over which he presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the +officers of those Societies, would become impossible if it were required +to be continued for a much longer period. Another circumstance of +considerable importance is, that the personal character of the President +is less impressed on the Society; and, supposing any injudicious +alterations to be made, it is much less difficult to correct them. + + + + +SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS +IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after +by medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional +efforts, and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the +pages of the Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain +medical papers of very moderate merit; and, in the second, the +preponderance of the medical interest introduces into the Society some +of the jealousies of that profession. On the other hand, medicine is +intimately connected with many sciences, and its professors are usually +too much occupied in their practice to exert themselves, except upon +great occasions. + + + + +SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL +SOCIETY. + +The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more +popular and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen, +partly from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the +decline of the Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would +otherwise have occupied in the science of England. Its general +effects in diffusing knowledge among the more educated classes of the +metropolis, have been, and continue to be, valuable. Its influence, +however, in the government of the Royal Society, is by no means attended +with similar advantages, and has justly been viewed with considerable +jealousy by many of the Fellows of that body. It may be stated, +without disparagement to the Royal Institution, that the scientific +qualifications necessary for its officers, however respectable, are not +quite of that high order which ought to be required for those of the +Royal Society, if the latter body were in a state of vigour. + +The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one +of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they +have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put +to this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the +officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal +Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of +services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a +stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager +or officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold +office in the Royal Society. + +The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their +power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes +of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage +by those who doubt. + + + + +SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign +academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The +volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in +the preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a +meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals, +without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom +that selection and that award have been made. + +Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one +point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the +highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes +of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at +intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate +publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and +publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper +was really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be +added, the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing, +a circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other +societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which +the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, +however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely +allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are +placed in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation, +and for the interests of science. + +It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the +first scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be +thus negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the +more to be regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the +circumstance, that the memoirs admitted into their collection are +usually of the highest merit. I know some of their most active members +have wished it were otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a +practice, which, whilst it has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust +to those who contribute, and is only calculated to produce conflicting +claims, equally injurious to science, and to the reputation of that +body, whose negligence may have given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, +speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, observes--"This memoir was read to +the Institute, 7th of October, 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of +January, 1818; M. Arago's report on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and +while every optical philosopher in Europe has been impatiently expecting +its appearance for seven years, it lies as yet unpublished, and is only +known to us by meagre notices in a periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S +TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.--ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.] + +One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in +the volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our +own members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a +means of giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800 +copies of the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to +our members or to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was +taken in our volume for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, +nor of the conditions under which they were to be distributed. [That +the Council refrained from having their first award of those medals thus +communicated, is rather creditable to them, and proves that they had a +becoming feeling respecting their former errors.] That in 1828, when +a new fund, called the donation fund, was established, and through the +liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by +them with the respective sums of 2,000L. and 1,000L. 3 per cents; +no notice of such fact appears in our Transactions for 1829. Other +gentlemen have contributed; and if it is desirable to possess such a +fund, it is surely of importance to inform the non-attending, which is +by far the largest part of the Society, that it exists; and that we are +grateful to those by whom it has been founded and augmented. Neither +did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent members, that they +could purchase the President's Discourses at the trade-price. + +The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is +printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical +Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with +a single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own +library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the +names of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute +to prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it +would also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on +the distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the +practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be +made up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they +might appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the +plan of prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would +be preferable to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason, +however, appeared at last. It was objected to the plan, that by the +present arrangement, the porter of the Royal Society took round the +list to those members resident in London, and got from some of them a +remuneration, in the shape of a Christmas-box; and this would be lost, +if the time of printing were changed. [During the printing of this +chapter, a friend, on whom I had called, complained that the porter of +the Royal Society had demanded half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such +are the paltry interests to which those of the Royal Society are made to +bow. + +Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume, +is the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals +are made. It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with +the Statutes of the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of +members, and it is for the credit of the medals themselves, that the +laws which regulate their award should be widely known, in order that +persons, not members of the Society, might enter into competition for +them. + +Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society +would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society +had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each +year, would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to +be given with each volume of our Transactions. + +The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society, +and those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many +arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases, +injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible. + +Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the +Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are +interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800 +copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them +altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for +distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense +of printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage +would accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the +Universities, public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases, +be disposed to present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies +of their works, if they knew that they were likely to be placed in +the hands of persons who would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional +copies might, in some cases, not be objected to on the ground of +expense, when seven or eight hundred would be quite out of the question. + +Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical +process to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public +body; it will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on +the Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the +case. If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over +to the Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant +with chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of +the work were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had +contributed most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all +probability be placed in the fittest hands. + +Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become +extremely bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the +knowledge of the many valuable papers they contain would not be much +spread, by publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the +ordinary meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, +would contain all that has been done in this way during the last +century. + +Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the +proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of +all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular +subject. + +Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever +been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better +able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the +Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions. + + + + +SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. + +Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution +of an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that +whilst in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for +the purpose of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the +arts of life, or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the +kind has been established in England. [At the great meeting of the +philosophers at Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the +Appendix; the respect in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt +were held in their respective countries was apparent in the orders +bestowed on them by the Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover, +and of Prussia; and there were present many other philosophers, whose +decorations sufficiently attested the respect in which science was held +in the countries from which they came.] + +Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction. +It has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a +cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has +been objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary +distinctions by making them common. The latter objection is of little +weight, because the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, +will long continue so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting +the number of the order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar +class of another order. Another objection, however, appears to me to +possess far greater weight; and, however strong the disposition of the +Government might be (if such an order existed) to fill it properly, I +do not believe that, in the present state of public opinion respecting +science, it could be done, and, in all probability, it would be filled +up through the channels of patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + +Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which +it may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would +be considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the +greatest scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention +political causes, the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited +from the army, the navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that +man, whose name is imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be +enrolled amongst the nobility of his country? In utility and profit, +not merely to that country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly +claim comparison even with the most splendid of those achieved by +classes so rich in glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases +fatal to such a course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title, +unless a considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance +very rarely occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be +removed, by creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until +there existed some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and +a sound state of public opinion relative to science, the execution of +the plan could only be injurious. + + + + +SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + +This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to +considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies +could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable +economy would result from the union. By properly arranging their +evenings of meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The +libraries might either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and +such a system would greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific +persons. + +Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different +societies to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but +although, on some accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for +the purpose of their having a common residence. + +The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first +to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of +diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and +ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But +even here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a +little particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately +attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with +them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society +are far from imitating. + +The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of +resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and +though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union +which might be generally advantageous to science. + + + +CONCLUSION. + +In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so +recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused +if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of +Davy. Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends +shall be cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls +their cherished forms, invested with all the life and energy of +recent existence, the volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their +contemporaries can expect only to read their eloge. + +In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals, +sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their +minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to +view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated +by the eyes of long and very intimate friendship. + +Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character +of Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of +principles, would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned +his philosophical, to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral +character. It may indeed be questioned whether the latter quality will +not in all persons of great abilities produce the former. + +Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of +Davy, and with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest +conclusions to which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a +more common attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was +in possession of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the +world, doubtful perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident +in his own powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping +some part of that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must +still fall to his own share. + +Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of +the inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated, +when he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he +brought all the information that he could collect from others, or which +arose from his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he +delivered it to the world. + +The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and +distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know; +and this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution. + +It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except +himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and +affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of +manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those +who sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He +usually, by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer +knew upon the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance +commenced, a process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking +up the subject at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly +explain it. + +His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since, +when I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics, +I applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground +of its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought +it would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none +whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the +state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several +times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the +age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this +as in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended +and retained all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary +applications of mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed +greater command over those subjects than many of far more extensive +knowledge. + +In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant +principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it +was the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have +been a poet; Davy might have been a great one. + +A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished +philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by +minds even of the highest order. + +About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression +of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to +bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it, +which I will presently mention. + +Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I +proposed this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are +mixed together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so +condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the +gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think +they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they +would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired +whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did +not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed. + +A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He +at once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring +whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was +a good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it +must succeed. + +These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to +have recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it +adds to the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr. +Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose +from the nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining +unchanged, an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose +discoveries had given birth to it. + +[The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be +of the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which +it was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite +proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of +one atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it +occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of +success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one +substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the +mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess +which resulted from their union, then either that such union would +actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be +most favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or +other causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to +follow, that if combination should take place under such circumstances, +then the most probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should +be that which furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but +until the experiments are made, it is by no means certain that other +combinations might not be produced.] + +The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr. +Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all +those who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the +methods he employed deserve to be much more widely known. + +It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been +adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of +the bodily senses of the individual,--a circumstance which, if it +were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am, +however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it +one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + +During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute +experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any +remarkable difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either +of his hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other +persons who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's +observatory, and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of +his equatorial; but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to +TEACH ME HOW TO SEE THEM.] + +He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his, +and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made +relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone +which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe +this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds +had been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed +their faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + +It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such +inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could +command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A +striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen, +FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ +of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough. +Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar +spectrum by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my +replying in the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them, +he mentioned the extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's +description in his hand and the long time which it had cost him in +detecting them. My friend then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and +put you in such a position that they shall be visible, and yet you shall +look for them and not find them: after which, while you remain in the +same position, I will instruct you how to see them, and you shall see +them, and not merely wonder you did not see them before, but you shall +find it impossible to look at the spectrum without seeing them." + +On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I +did not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen, +when the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled. + +It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied +with such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of +precipitation the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in +a gallon of a solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so +slight, as to require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous +evaporation, quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the +solution more concentrated. + +The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and +the extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands +like those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I +have thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider +its true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that +injustice has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing +to some of his bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to +have depended on the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. +And, in the next place, if I have established the fact, whilst it +affords us better means of judging of such observations as lay claim to +an accuracy "MORE THAN HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer +into truth, a path by which he may acquire powers that he would +otherwise have thought were only the gift of nature to a favoured few. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 1. + +In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science +at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that +its influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting +to be held in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria +having expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords +should be given to promote its objects. + +It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been +considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced +of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the +numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the +paths of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those +of politics. + + +ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF +SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829. + +The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences +meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe, +is a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention, +from the important advantages which may arise from it. + +About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an +annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine +and botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at +Leipsic, in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg, +Frankfort on the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had +printed a certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects +were considered members of this academy. + +The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the +communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced +an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge +were admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure +mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy. + +Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the +academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting, +which took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year. + +The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed +by any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans. + +The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made +knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians +previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have +impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that +its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there +is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for +their possessors the road to wealth and distinction. + +Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the +numbers of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which +is annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The +universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the +wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by +friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age; +whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of +acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes +his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them +the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the +advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or +occupied in similar inquiries. + +Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as +secretary of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most +ably seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + +These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin, +undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the +accommodation of the meeting. + +On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377 +members of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were +printed in a small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number, +to indicate his seat in the great concert room, in which the morning +meetings took place. Each member was also provided with an engraved card +of the hall of meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed +in black ink, and his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every +person immediately found his own place, and knew where to look for any +friend whom he might wish to find. + +At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being +assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage +of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the +side-boxes being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and +by the foreign ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the +eloquent address of the president. + +SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and +Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.--By +ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + +Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted +to open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of +gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never +yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of +scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover +new phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored +depths of nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to +me. You have assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, +and in a distant quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same +cause with yourselves, I was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have +likewise greeted my return home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude, +you might bind me still longer and closer to our common country. + +What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more +agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for +the first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the +birth-place of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the +Baltic plains; from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the +beneficent influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have +for centuries been collected and investigated, the friends of nature, +inspired with the same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock +together to this assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is +used, and its peculiar structure affects the spirit and disposition +of the people. From the Great European Alps, to the other side of the +Weichsel, where, in the country of Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed +splendour; everywhere in the extensive dominions of the German nation +we attempt to discover the secret operations of nature, whether in the +heavens, or in the deepest problems of mechanics, or in the interior of +the earth, or in the finely woven tissues of organic structure. + +Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in +interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion +or form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests +itself as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of +truth and performance of duty are the highest object of morality, +that feeling of unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion, +constitution, and laws of our country, have rendered dear to each of +us. Even this emulation in mental struggles has called forth (as the +glorious history of our country tells us,) the fairest blossoms of +humanity, science, and art. + +The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its +last meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through +the flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone +with peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance +between Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North. + +Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it +unexpectedly increases the mass of facts and opinions which are +here brought into one common and useful union. It also recalls lofty +recollections into the mind of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century +has elapsed since Linne appears, in the boldness of the undertakings +which he has attempted and accomplished, as one of the greatest men of +the last century. His glory, however bright, has not rendered Europe +blind to the merits of Scheele and Bergman. The catalogue of these great +names is not completed; but lest I shall offend noble modesty, I dare +not speak of the light which is still flowing in richest profusion +from the North, nor mention the discoveries in the chemical nature of +substances, in the numerical relation of their elements, or the eddying +streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The philosophers here referred to +are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those excellent persons, who, deterred +neither by perils of sea or land, have hastened to our meeting from +Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, and Poland, point our the way +to other strangers in succeeding years, so that by turns every part +of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific communication with the +different nations of Europe. + +But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings +in presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the +patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard +for those lives so dear to their country;--Goethe, whom the great +creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the +ARCANA of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely +friend, as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;--Olbers, who has +discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be +found;--the greatest anatomists of our age--Soemmering, who, with equal +zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and the spots +and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the photosphere;) +Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his works and +his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of comparative +anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and who +has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the +temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat, +as we are not favoured with their presence? + +These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the +progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to +the obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our +fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist, +as in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual +interchange of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be +printed in some general collection. The principal object of this Society +is, to bring those personally together who are engaged in the same field +of science. It is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange +of ideas, whether they present themselves as facts, opinions, or +doubts. It is the foundation of friendly connexion which throws light +on science, adds cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to +the manners. + +In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction +between words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst +a race, which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual +superiority, and to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the +shipwreck of nations, we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It +was not the difficulty of interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of +German science, which has spread thought as on wings through the world, +and insured it a long continuance, that then induced the friends of +philosophy and natural history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander +on long journeys. That ancient race knew the inspiring influence of +conversation as it extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates +the tissue of scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth +without difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its +greatest extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time. +Each step, which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his +object, only carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of +doubt does not diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and +new fields; and whoever has called that a golden period, when difference +of opinions, or, as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes +of the learned, will be finished, has as imperfect a conception of the +wants of science, and of its continued advancement, as a person who +expects that the same opinions in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, +will be maintained for several centuries. + +The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature, +have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical +knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy. +The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here, +therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type +of the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In +his physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us +a distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted +object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific +investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it +is not to break that link which embraces equally the investigation +of organic and inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily +developement of this institution renders it necessary, besides the +general meeting which is destined for these halls, to have specific +meetings for single branches of science. For it is only in such +contracted circles,--it is only among men whom reciprocity of studies +has brought together, that verbal discussions can take place. Without +this sort of communication, would the voluntary association of men in +search of truth be deprived of an inspiring principle. + +Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement +of the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility +of such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations +will meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding +you, that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the +duty of making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble +friend, M. Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and +indefatigable activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit +which animates the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy, +and in acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have +seconded all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness. + +In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been +prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums +dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to +the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The +greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like +the University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to +which the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have +during this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The +amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our +minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that +great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year +this royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of +still greater value than the treasures themselves,--what inspires every +Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the +ancient reigning family,--that he graciously attaches to himself every +species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection to +the free cultivation of the understanding. + +This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and +several other memoirs were then read. + +The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were +present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those +who chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had +been foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense +building used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this +purpose. One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were +arranged, at which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On +the evening of the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the +concert rooms attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on +this occasion, and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his +presence the fete of his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the +country, foreign princes, and foreign ambassadors, were present. It +was gratifying to observe the princes of the blood mingling with the +cultivators of science, and to see the heir-apparent to the throne, +during the course of the evening, engaged in conversation with those +most celebrated for their talents, of his own, or of other countries. + +Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration +of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert, +were printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most +illustrious philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in +letters of gold at the end of the great concert room. + +In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, +enrolls amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as +well she may be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius +of the first Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to +claim as entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name. + +The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting +of the academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In +the afternoon, through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M. +Lichtenstein, various rooms were appropriated for different sections of +the academy. In one, the chemical philosophers attended to some +chemical memoir, whilst the botanists assembled in another room, the +physiologists in a third, and the natural philosophers in a fourth. Each +attended to the reading of papers connected with their several sciences. +Thus every member was at liberty to choose that section in which he felt +most interest at the moment, and he had at all times power of access to +the others. The evenings were generally spent at some of the SOIREES +of the savans, resident at Berlin, whose hospitality and attentions to +their learned brethren of other countries were unbounded. During the +unoccupied hours of the morning, the collections of natural history, +which are rapidly rising into importance, were open to examination; and +the various professors and directors who assisted the stranger in his +inquiries, left him equally gratified by the knowledge and urbanity of +those who so kindly aided him. + +A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which +had sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers +sent by different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was +attached to it;-- + + Russia......... 1 + Austria........ 0 + England........ 1 + Holland........ 2 + Denmark........ 7 + France ........ 1 + Sardinia ....... 0 + Prussia........ 95 + Bavaria........ 12 + Hanover........ 5 + Saxony ........ 21 + Wirtemburg ...... 2 + Sweden ........ 13 + Naples ........ 1 + Poland ........ 3 + German States..... 43 + --- 206 + Berlin ....... 172 + --- 378 + +The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared, +was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more +eminent who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge. +The following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will +afford, perhaps, a tolerably fair view:-- + + Geometers............. 11 + Astronomers........... 5 + Natural Philosophers . 23 + -- 39 + + Mines............ 5 + Mineralogy ...... 16 + Geology.......... 9 + -- 30 + + Chemistry........... 18 + Geography........... 8 + Anatomy............. 12 + + Zoology............ 14 + Natural History.... 8 + Botany.............. 35 + -- 57 + + Physicians....... 175 + Amateurs ....... 9 + Various ......... 35 + ---381 + +A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed +that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all +those persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the +past and present age. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 2. + +An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four +candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the +meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed +pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the +charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member +to judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to +show how the ranks of the Society are recruited. + +EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. +DATED, 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + +"When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me +why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer +was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that +my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days +passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality +made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really +through modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until +something was said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, +which was published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal +Society; when you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, +because I was and am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if +I can be supposed worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + +EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED, +BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + +"All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission +into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject +upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary." + +Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the +Royal Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries, +pressing one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on +proposing him as, a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been +well aware of the feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to +the propriety of such a step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite +satisfied that such a course is advantageous to the interests of +the Society. That similar applications were not unfrequently made in +private, is well known; but it remains for the Society to consider +whether, now they are publicly and officially announced to them, it +will sanction this mode of augmenting the already numerous list of its +fellows. + + +APPENDIX, No. 3, + +LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE +PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + + +N. B.--The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, but +only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + + No. of No. of + Papers years on + printed Council. + in Phil. + Trans.-------- ------- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. + 109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. + +I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal +Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for +which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission +to employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes, +or from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised +at receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, +those adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety +of many individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a +different opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy, +I shall decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has +been already published in many ways, although the whole has never been +printed in a collected form. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1216 *** diff --git a/1216-h/1216-h.htm b/1216-h/1216-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4379c94 --- /dev/null +++ b/1216-h/1216-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6274 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1216 ***</div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, <br /> AND ON SOME OF ITS + CAUSES. + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Charles Babbage + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DEDICATION. + </h2> + <p> + HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO A + NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE + SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE MIGHT + HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, PERHAPS TOO + SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING THE NAME OF ONE + WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND RESPECT. + </p> + <p> + C. BABBAGE. + </p> + <p> + DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little to + say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service to + science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so thankless + a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion in which I + concur with several of my friends, although I should hope that what I have + written will not give just reason for the permanence of such feelings. On + one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected in any degree with + the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; the causes which + have led to it have been long operating, and would have produced this + result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and whatever might + have been the fate of my speculations. + </p> + <p> + If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these + pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself, I + think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and + declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is shared + by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I shall + offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered position, + are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, when combined + with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will be admitted to + deserve considerable attention. The following extract from the article + Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from the pen of a + gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and from his + acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled to respect. + Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be permitted to cite him + as high authority for the fact. + </p> + <p> + "In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of + Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret, + which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the space + of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do, the + electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers, we + still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree of + neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this + period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; + and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical + discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are we + sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are amongst + our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius, Guy-Lussac, + Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the doctrine of + definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic Theory. Is it a + representation of the laws of nature, or is it not?"—-CHEMISTRY, + ENCYC. METROP. p.596. + </p> + <p> + When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were + informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the + same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the + language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be + allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the + writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some + of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may infer + his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his last + work:— + </p> + <p> + "—But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for philosophers."——"There + are very few persons who pursue science with true dignity; it is followed + more as connected with objects of profit than those of fame."—SIR H. + DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL. + </p> + <p> + The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the varied + acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into which he + enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and in our + article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this ONLY + opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most + admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific + matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and + quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS + pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has + sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which abound in + it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical collections; + and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long suppression of + those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future volumes of that of + the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts of them which from time + to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the hands of the authors, or + from the reports rendered by the committees appointed to examine them; + which latter, indeed, are universally models of their kind, and have + contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the high scientific tone of + the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but will write his best, when he + knows that his work, if it have merit, will immediately be reported on by + a committee, who will enter into all its meaning; understand it, however + profound: and, not content with MERELY understanding it, pursue the trains + of thought to which it leads; place its discoveries and principles in new + and unexpected lights; and bring the whole of their knowledge of + collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor ought we to omit our + acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of Poggendorff and + Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic compeer, they + present a picture of the actual progress of physical science throughout + Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to see with what celerity + every thing, even moderately valuable in the scientific publications of + this country, finds its way into their pages. This ought to encourage our + men of science. They have a larger audience, and a wider sympathy than + they are perhaps aware of; and however disheartening the general diffusion + of smatterings of a number of subjects, and the almost equally general + indifference to profound knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may + be, they may rest assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good + experiment they may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and + commented upon, in Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the + obligation were mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are + unstudied, and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to + conceal the melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics + we have long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In + chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the + Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who + among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated acids,—Oersted's + and Berzelius's on the radicals of the earths,—Balard's and + Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,—and a hundred other + splendid trains of research in that fascinating science? Nor need we stop + here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not furnish matter for + similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and deep-seated; but this + is not the place to discuss them."—MR. HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON SOUND, + printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA. + </p> + <p> + With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of + the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some of + its causes, must be left to others to decide. + </p> + <p> + Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific + bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished upon + some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and Pamphlets, + have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has been cast upon + some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be established by + testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it can be proved, by + evidence to which the public have access, it is of no consequence (for the + cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of opinion derives weight from + the name which is attached to it; but a chain of reasoning is equally + conclusive, whoever may be its author. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be + avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured, + and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of + frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the + lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue + that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who + fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those + whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest + scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the + philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he may + think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections, from + the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was the author + of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered amongst the + most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be credited, from + the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with one of those + subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. [I merely observed + that the agreement made with the British Museum for exchanging the Arundel + MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been stated by the President,) + was UNWISE;—because it was not to be expected that many duplicates + should be found in a library like that of the Museum, weak in the physical + and mathematical sciences: that it was IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;—because + it neither fixed the TIME when the difference was to be paid, in case + their duplicates should be insufficient; nor did it appear that there were + any FUNDS out of which the money could be procured: and I added, that it + would be more advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we + wanted with the produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world + of science, my character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being + the subject of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of + correcting it, I will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it + more candid to mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have + disapproved, or whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader + inferences which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I + hope, therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so + unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described + individuals. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set up + to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a few + words will suffice. + </p> + <p> + I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the + injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There + is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine. The + public character of every public servant is legitimate subject of + discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly + canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from + such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for they + know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid from + the public purse. + </p> + <p> + The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and + to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose + appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the + merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they + are paid to perform. + </p> + <p> + This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of + State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal + Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure different. + But the President of a society, although not recompensed by any pecuniary + remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which he presides + possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who will esteem + themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the office, by the + consequence attached to it in public estimation. He, therefore, is + answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + </p> + <p> + There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other officers, + have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a train of + clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them. Science is + much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious labours the + routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be unwise, as well as + ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies, or even of the + negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes should justify such + a course. + </p> + <p> + Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry in + its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our + scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope, + temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms + of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those from + whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together all the + causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different departments, + endeavour to convince them that some alteration is essentially necessary + for the promotion of that very object which we both by such different + roads pursue. + </p> + <p> + I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the + departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been wholly + the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with justice, + in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the famous + maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of female + weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of those who + are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion. But, whoever + would claim the admiration of mankind for their good actions, must prove + his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil deeds. Adopt the + maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from its universality; + and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto deemed. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the + Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that + attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services, and + partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to science + in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited to take + steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having published + extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the permission of its + Council. To have asked permission of the present Council would have been + useless. I might, however, have given the substance of what I have + extracted without the words, and no one could then have reproached me with + any infringement of our rules: but there were two objections to that + course. In the first place, it is impossible, even for the most candid, in + all cases, to convey precisely the same sentiment in different language; + and I thought it therefore more fair towards those from whom I differed, + as well as to the public, to give the precise words. Again: had it been + possible to make so accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the + risk of incurring the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to + escaping their censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own + head; and I shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + </p> + <p> + If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse me + of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which + governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the + justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted with + the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their approbation, + appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need scarcely add I have + not the slightest anticipation. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> DEDICATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <b>REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN + ENGLAND</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF + SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS + TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT"> SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT2"> SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT3"> SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned + Societies. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES + IN ENGLAND. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN + PARTICULAR. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT4"> SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE + ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT5"> SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND + VICE-PRESIDENCIES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT6"> SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT7"> SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT8"> SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN + ONE PERSON. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT9"> SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT10"> SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT11"> SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT12"> SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT13"> SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT14"> SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE + OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT15"> SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE + SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT16"> SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT17"> SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT18"> SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF + SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT19"> SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE + ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT20"> SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT21"> SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF + PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT22"> SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL + INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT23"> SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL + SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT24"> SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT25"> SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_CONC"> CONCLUSION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> APPENDIX, No. 1. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE2"> APPENDIX, No. 2. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE3"> APPENDIX, No. 3, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_LIST"> LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, <br /> AND ON SOME OF ITS + CAUSES. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + </h2> + <p> + It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable + them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of + science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect to + the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other nations, + not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior power. That a + country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical and manufacturing + ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of inquiries which form + the highest departments of that knowledge on whose more elementary truths + its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is well deserving the + attention of those who shall inquire into the causes that influence the + progress of nations. + </p> + <p> + To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest + departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present, + must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who, + having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see and + regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see through + and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these remarks, + with the hope that they may excite discussion,—with the conviction + that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,—and with the + confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can + remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of the + science of England. + </p> + <p> + The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have + resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed, that + it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall, + therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination, but + rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant + circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of it, + shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for the + advancement of British science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + </h2> + <p> + That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive + influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a + principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally certain + that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them the traces + of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore not + unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science in + England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A young + man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant almost of + the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these latter + establishments, formed originally for instructing those who are intended + for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical pursuits are + nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition. + </p> + <p> + Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen + years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there is no + one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to believe + that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted by the + warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of its + institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of no + ordinary kind. + </p> + <p> + Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought + to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I am + inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose would + not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they would + contribute materially to that important object. + </p> + <p> + It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university, + ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a + certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered + knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet + this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for + instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must + attend, other sources of information from whence the students may acquire + sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on chemistry, geology, + botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of option with the + student, which, and how many of these courses he shall attend, and such it + should still remain. All that it would be necessary to add would be, that + previously to taking his degree, each person should be examined by those + Professors, whose lectures he had attended. The pupils should then be + arranged in two classes, according to their merits, and the names included + in these classes should be printed. I would then propose that no young + man, except his name was found amongst the "List of Honours," should be + allowed to take his degree, unless he had been placed in the first class + of some one at least of the courses given by the professors. But it should + still be imperative upon the student to possess such mathematical + knowledge as we usually require. If he had attained the first rank in + several of these examinations, it is obvious that we should run no hazard + in a little relaxing the strictness of his mathematical trial. + </p> + <p> + If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and the + following subjects be taken together:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Modern History. + Laws of England. + Civil Law. + + Political Economy. + Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + + Chemistry. + Mineralogy. + Geology. + + Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. + Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. +</pre> + <p> + One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young + person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most + frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics + and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of + his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect + every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should + be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits + in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of + examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It + might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations to + the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of them + in the first or second year, if he should prefer it. + </p> + <p> + By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with our + other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to keep + pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power and our + right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the church, as + well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected with our + academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open a field of + honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive nature of our + present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition to their stock + of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of the + country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open it + for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so much for + the improvement of our system of instruction, that public opinion will not + reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our first duty to be + well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations ought only to be the + result of a most mature consideration, and of a free interchange of + sentiments on the subject, in order that we may condense upon the question + the accumulated judgment of many minds. + </p> + <p> + It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of + education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the higher + classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of Commons, + which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with science, + sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the extremely + limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps, have doubted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + </h2> + <p> + Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this + matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in + each of the respective cases to be examined. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + </h2> + <p> + A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to + advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which + they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there + are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of + society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the + jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous + situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the + other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or + resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps + of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned + professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public opinion + is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress conduct that + is injurious either to the profession or to the public. Again, the mutual + jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body is so considerable, + that although the rank and estimation which an individual holds in the + profession may be most unfairly appreciated, by taking the opinion of his + rival; yet few estimations will be found generally more correct than the + opinion of a whole profession on the merits of any one of its body. This + test is of great value to the public, and becomes the more so, in + proportion to the difficulty of the study to which the profession is + devoted. It is by availing themselves of it that men of sense and + judgment, who have occasion for the services of professional persons, are, + in a great measure, guided in their choice. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct + profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on that + ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach to + professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this + circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so difficult, + and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who have not spent + years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge of those who + pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and even that men of + sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means to distinguish + between the possessors of knowledge, in the present day, merely + elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest order. This + remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult applications + of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the energies of those + who only look to reputation in England. + </p> + <p> + As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to science, + it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the proper + fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is vacant, + it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather from among + persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other subjects, and to + whom science has been only an occasional pursuit. A certain quantity of + scientific knowledge is of course possessed by individuals in many + professions; and when added to the professional acquirements of the army, + the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, is highly meritorious: but + it is obvious that this may become, when separated from the profession, + quite insignificant as the basis of a scientific reputation. + </p> + <p> + To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of + chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of + several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of + the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have + been connected with this profession. + </p> + <p> + The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are not + often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of + considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members + hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation, + nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our + church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of + science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments. + </p> + <p> + In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out the + strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it ability, + coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot fail of + obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction to public + life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a qualification + for many situations more or less remotely connected with it, as well as + from the circumstance that several of the highest officers of the state + must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + </p> + <p> + A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and + of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which is + less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science. This is + one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in public + situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches of + scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of such + persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + </p> + <p> + But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional + avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the + overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with success + by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be well + acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task; but to + add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be the lot of + but few English philosophers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT2" id="link2H_SECT2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + </h2> + <p> + The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded + by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of new + and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds: + </p> + <p> + 1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new + invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can be. + </p> + <p> + 2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually much + larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing; and it + is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want which the + public feel for the new article. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct: there + are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very reasoning + from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into these + exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth is + entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the + application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded. A few + instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The principle of + the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth in the time of + Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to raising heavy + weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on natural + philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it may + fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr. + Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted it + into a most valuable and powerful engine.—The principle of the + convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the + pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago, + remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant + proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly pointed + out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the foundation of + a most convenient practical method of determining the length of the + pendulum.—The interval which separated the discovery, by Dr. Black, + of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application of it to the + steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the efforts of two + minds; and both were of the highest order.—The influence of + electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable value as + an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be said to + have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the same + powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by a singular + felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the copper-sheathing of + vessels. That admirably connected chain of reasoning, the truth of which + is confirmed by its very failure as a remedy, will probably at some future + day supply, by its successful application, a new proof of the position we + are endeavouring to establish. + </p> + <p> + [I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the + greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing + the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,—the preventing the corrosion of + the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an + OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the + surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine + animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the + progress of the vessel.] + </p> + <p> + Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long + intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles in + science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to surprise + us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new principles + or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those which are + necessary for their practical application. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, it + required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the mathematical + science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries by new + creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a quick + perception of the details, and of the practical applications of the + principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of mankind that + minds of this high order should lavish their powers on subjects unsuited + to their grasp. + </p> + <p> + In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths + which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most remote + from all useful application, become in the next age the bases of profound + physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by proper + simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and daily aid + to the artist and the sailor. + </p> + <p> + It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles, + the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application + likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle + of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the + expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his name + received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has deservedly + brought it into such general use. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of + invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying + principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will + always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail. + </p> + <p> + If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles + should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also important + that encouragement should be held out to the few who are capable of adding + to the number of those truths on which such applications are founded. + Unless there exist peculiar institutions for the support of such + inquirers, or unless the Government directly interfere, the contriver of a + thaumatrope may derive profit from his ingenuity, whilst he who unravels + the laws of light and vision, on which multitudes of phenomena depend, + shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already afforded + to abstract science in our different universities, by the professorships + established at them. It is not however in the power of such institutions + to create; they may foster and aid the development of genius; and, when + rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair and honourable + rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and when otherwise, + the lectures which are required from the professor are not perhaps in all + cases the best mode of employing the energies of those who are capable of + inventing. + </p> + <p> + I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the + authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of + expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece of + scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the return + of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks, "But, + because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great hinderance and + interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely exempt from the + former, and in great measure from the latter."—LIFE OF GALILEO, + p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with gratitude of Cosmo, + the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me to attach myself to him + with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with the title of Philosopher + and principal Mathematician to his Highness, without the duties of any + office to perform, but with most complete leisure; so that I can complete + my treatise on Mechanics, &c."—p.31. [Life of Galileo, published + by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a country + far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's, to be + employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these + sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable + philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose + modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend + by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in + that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal + Society of England;—had he taken part with those who vote to each + other medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make + to each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant + to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been + represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his + claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes with + the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in the + mantle of his glory.—But the philosopher may find consolation for + the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If he + was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name + connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military + renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental power, + its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his life in + drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns? + </p> + <p> + If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the age + are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The doctrines + of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of electricity,"—principles + of a high order, which have immortalized the names of their discoverers,—were + not produced by the meditations of the cloister: nor is it in the least a + reproach to those valuable institutions to mention truths like these. + Fortunate circumstances must concur, even to the greatest, to render them + eminently successful. It is not permitted to all to be born, like + Archimedes, when a science was to be created; nor, like Newton, to find + the system of the world "without form and void;" and, by disclosing + gravitation, to shed throughout that system the same irresistible radiance + as that with which the Almighty Creator had illumined its material + substance. It can happen to but few philosophers, and but at distant + intervals, to snatch a science, like Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite + combination, and binding it in the chains of number, to exalt it to rank + amongst the exact. Triumphs like these are necessarily "few and far + between;" nor can it be expected that that portion of encouragement, which + a country may think fit to bestow on science, should be adapted to meet + such instances. Too extraordinary to be frequent, they must be left, if + they are to be encouraged at all, to some direct interference of the + government. + </p> + <p> + The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would + arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:—That + class of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess + sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose + judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to science, + might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the expression of + public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it might not enjoy, + in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high character for + independence. Should these causes concur in any country, it might become + highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science to any department + of the government. This reasoning does not appear to have escaped the + penetration of those who advised the abolition of the late Board of + Longitude. + </p> + <p> + The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country to + encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not perhaps + the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto pursued + science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of complaint; they + knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for it, that it led + to little honour, and to less profit. + </p> + <p> + That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering the + science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past + administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the present + ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion, it is not + necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain long insensible + to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing science were + thought of some importance by any administration, it would be difficult in + the present state of things to do much in its favour; because, on the one + hand, the higher classes in general have not a profound knowledge of + science, and, on the other, those persons whom they have usually + consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to deserve the confidence + of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the money allotted by + government to purposes of science ought to be expended with the same + regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money in the affairs + of private life. + </p> + <p> + [Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the expense + of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical + Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the Philosophical + Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at the Royal + Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only are printed? + </p> + <p> + Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be + distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they + will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country + incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see on + what principle a similar destination could be refused for the observations + made at the Cape of Good Hope.] + </p> + <p> + To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of science + by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state a fact, + which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves + attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the + terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and new + tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the time + that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of between two + and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of those annuities being + a losing concern was long known to many; and the government appear to have + been the last to be informed on the subject. Half the interest of half + that loss, judiciously applied to the encouragement of mathematical + science, would, in a few years, have rendered utterly impossible such + expensive errors. + </p> + <p> + To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have its + weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first translation + of this celebrated work into our own language, has just arrived in England + from—America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES PROBABILITES, were + both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the reign of that + extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent in Science as + they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which trained and + rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they have conferred + upon mankind! + </p> + <p> + In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge of + science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man does + not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory, or has + added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of animated + nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have begun their + career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples are perhaps + more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful to mention a + few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who now hold, high + official stations in the governments of their respective countries. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + (5) of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador. + + (1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. + (2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. + (3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE—RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS + FOSSILES &c. &c. + (4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, + and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. + (5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the + Transactions of the Academy of Forty. + (6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809—TABULAE VENERIS, + NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810—INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A + MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other + works. +</pre> + <p> + M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the + Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of the + Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at the + German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau was + invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of + Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the King + of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in our own + country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true, more than a + century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any person suggest an + appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and he will gather from + the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the highest knowledge + conduces nothing to success, and that political power is almost the only + recommendation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT3" id="link2H_SECT3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + </h2> + <p> + There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons pursuing + science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In former + times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art of + making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary. More + recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to science, it + has been found that those who are most capable of extending human + knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of printing + their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some means should + be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the volumes of the + transactions of academies have accomplished the desired end. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. When + they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their knowledge, + it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their list. Thus a + stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science, which urges on + their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for distinction. It is + clear that this envied position will be valued in proportion to the + difficulty of its attainment, and also to the celebrity of those who enjoy + it; and whenever the standard of scientific knowledge which qualifies for + its ranks is lowered, the value of the distinction itself will be + diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of persons having no sort of + knowledge of science are admitted, it must cease to be sought after as an + object of ambition by men of science, and the class of persons to whom it + will become an object of desire will be less intellectual. + </p> + <p> + Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies of + Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the Italian + Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst the most + distinguished. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Name Number of Number + Population. Members of + Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + + 1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 + 2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. + 8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16 + 4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8 +</pre> + <p> + It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member of + the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000 persons + is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000 inhabitants + produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at these + proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin, must be + more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in England; and a + member of the Institute of France will be more than thirteen times more + rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal Society is in England. + </p> + <p> + Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other + countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking + difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the + station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several + of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps, + at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that + which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement on + science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of this + support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose + enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered. + </p> + <p> + The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended by + those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the + circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia having + acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may attribute the + great force with which that maxim is appreciated. + </p> + <p> + In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as + profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few who + do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks of + royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I shall + mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to the English + reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the Institute, + printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for 1823.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class + Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. + to the Legion of Honour. + + GrandCroix......... 3 80 + GrandOfficier..... 3 160 + Commandeur........ 4 400 + Officier.......... 17 2,000 + Chevalier......... 40 Not limited. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of Members of the Institute Total Number + decorated with of + the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + + Grand Croix....... 2 + 100 + Chevalier......... 27 + + Amongst the members of the Institute there + are,— + + Dukes................... 2 + Marquis................. 1 + Counts.................. 4 + Viscounts................ 2 + Barons.................. 14 + —23 + + Of these there are + Peers of France.......... 5 +</pre> + <p> + We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal + Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute of + France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to inquire how + many titled members there are amongst those who have contributed to its + Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and nine members who had + contributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society; amongst these were + found:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Peer........................ 1 + Baronets.................... 5 + Knights..................... 5 +</pre> + <p> + It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of + members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy, + could be attributed exclusively to science. + </p> + <p> + It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list, + were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to + have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to + mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal. + </p> + <p> + The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and + England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the + translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His + Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette + de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, + "CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to + particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term + WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality most + esteemed amongst his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France, we + shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much that I + have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which I made + several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will not be + found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing no + inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years since, + to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time in + London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me that he + had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement of science. + </p> + <p> + Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison between + the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet of paper + before him, and requested him to write down the names of six Englishmen, + in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific reputation. + Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of six Frenchmen, + best known in England for their scientific discoveries. We exchanged these + lists, and I then requested him to place against each name (as far as he + knew) the annual income of the different appointments held by that person. + In the mean time, I performed the same operation on his list, against some + names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The result of the comparison + was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for the six French SAVANS whom I + had named. Of the average amount of the sums received by the English, I + only remember that it was very much smaller. When we consider what a + command over the necessaries and luxuries of life 1200L. will give in + France, it is underrating it to say it is equal to 2000L. in this country. + </p> + <p> + Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into life, + who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself to the + abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful power, + feels that the career of science is that in which his mental faculties are + most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants. What are his + prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add colour to the + blank before him? There are no situations in the state; there is no + position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him in his laborious + path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, there are some few + chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some distant day pretend; + but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries attached are seldom + sufficient for the sole support of the individual, they are very rarely + enough for that of a family. What then can he reply to the entreaties of + his friends, to betake himself to some business in which perhaps they have + power to assist him, or to choose some profession in which his talents may + produce for him their fair reward? If he have no fortune, the choice is + taken away: he MUST give up that line of life in which his habits of + thought and his ambition qualify him to succeed eminently, and he MUST + choose the bar, or some other profession, in which, amongst so many + competitors, in spite of his great talents, he can be but moderately + successful. The loss to him is great, but to the country it is greater. We + thus, by a destructive misapplication of talent which our institutions + create, exchange a profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer. + </p> + <p> + If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and, + intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the + state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration a + sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;—if, + so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he might + have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall have won a + station high in the ranks of European science, he may a little augment his + resources by some of those few employments to which science leads;—if + he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of Longitude, for + example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may be permitted to + exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry remuneration of a + clerk, he will find that other qualifications than knowledge and a love of + science are necessary for its attainment. He will also find that the high + and independent spirit, which usually dwells in the breast of those who + are deeply versed in these pursuits, is ill adapted for such appointments; + and that even if successful, he must hear many things he disapproves, and + raise no voice AGAINST them. + </p> + <p> + Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue + abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he can + resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus + situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if they + do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for them to + deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the greatest + delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to the public? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the + division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as it + had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The want of + competition in science produced effects similar to those which the same + cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany were the first + to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal Society was too + comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their favourite subject, + and they established the Linnean Society. After many years, a new science + arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At an another and more + recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the wants of their + science, united to establish the Astronomical Society. Each of these + bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science by the parent + establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each in succession + experienced from the Royal Society the most determined opposition. + </p> + <p> + Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the promotion + of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived that nothing + could be more likely to render these young institutions permanently + successful, than discouragement and opposition at their commencement. + Finding their first attempts so eminently successful, they redoubled the + severity of their persecution, and the result was commensurate with their + exertions, and surpassed even their wildest anticipations. The + Astronomical Society became in six years known and respected throughout + Europe, not from the halo of reputation which the glory of its vigourous + youth had thrown around the weakness of its declining years; but from the + sterling merit of "its unpretending deeds, from the sympathy it claimed + and received from every practical astronomer, whose labours it relieved, + and whose calculations it lightened." + </p> + <p> + But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological and + Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition: perhaps, + indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best proof of the + wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present, the various + societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, each pursuing + its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with filial regret, the + second childhood of their common parent, and the evil councils by which + that sad event has been anticipated. + </p> + <p> + It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who + belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by many + considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The + following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives + the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. + Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. + Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. + Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. + Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. + Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. + Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. + Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. + Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. + Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. + Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. + Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. + Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. + Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. +</pre> + <p> + [* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu of + annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the + member.] + </p> + <p> + Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according to + their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a tail of + upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. per letter. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a + country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is + indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are + maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless + the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should + rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, it + is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full + PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS and + inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due degree + of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these principles. + Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page; and I regret to + add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend it; but, like all + deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone can contribute to its + cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of remonstrance or reproof + found utterance through other channels, I had gladly been silent, content + to support by my vote the reasonings of the friend of science and of the + Society. But this has not been the case, and after frustrated efforts to + introduce improvements, I shall now endeavour, by the force of plain, but + perhaps painful truths, to direct public opinion in calling for such a + reform, as shall rescue the Royal Society from contempt in our own + country, from ridicule in others. + </p> + <p> + On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the + Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the + vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science, and + has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral + discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of + these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part of + the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, and + sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, though + insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other, and + ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these + discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good sense + of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal criticisms—praise + of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and contest for victory. This + latter is, perhaps, the most important of the three, both for the + interests of the Society and of truth. With regard to the published + volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, that if members were in + the habit of communicating their papers to the Society in a more finished + state, it would be attended with several advantages; amongst others, with + that of lightening the heavy duties of the officers, which are perhaps + more laborious in this Society than in most others. To court publicity in + their accounts and proceedings, and to endeavour to represent all the + feelings of the Society in the Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, + is a recommendation not peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would + contribute to the well-being of all. + </p> + <p> + Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits, could + scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the Geological, I + shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has caused its great + success, unless it be attention to the maxims which have just been stated. + </p> + <p> + On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the + public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income is + a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for jobs, and + it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to render + embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely to + occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from the + very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and Council + are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it is still right + to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially necessary to have + men of business on the Council, as well as persons possessing extensive + knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous in such a Society than in + any other, to pay compliments, by placing gentlemen on the Council who + have not the qualifications which are requisite; a frequent change in the + members of the Council is desirable, in order to find out who are the most + regular attendants, and most qualified to conduct its business. Publicity + in its accounts and proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more + essential to the Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a + fearful omen, that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at + the last anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the + friends of science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts. + </p> + <p> + It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more than one + scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive instruction + as to their merits, by observing the success of their measures in other + societies. + </p> + <p> + The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable + works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published. + </p> + <p> + The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is now + rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat impaired. + There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration, + notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have + ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage + to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO PERSONS,—to + making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,—and to auditing the accounts + WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form altogether. + </p> + <p> + The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the public; + its pretensions were great—its assurance unbounded. It speedily + became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the + number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose + the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that + institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed to + confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific + establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, if + those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this + Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest + claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the + only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country. As + with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to render + EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains for it to + exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is capable. [* + They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is but slight + praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical botanist of our + own country, and who is admired abroad as he is respected at home. The + circumstance which surprised the world was not his exit from, but his + previous entrance into that Society.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + </h2> + <p> + As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of + European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in the + opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially + involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in + detail. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT4" id="link2H_SECT4"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of a + Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of + arriving at that honour, has been as follows:— + </p> + <p> + A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he (A. + B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and + valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the + meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to be + perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however + small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on the + other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected with + science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the + members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; and, + unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being + black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the Council, + previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am not aware + that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number, which was, + at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + </p> + <p> + In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, have all + been known persons; but even in such cases a hope remains;—perseverance + will do much, and a gentleman who values so highly the distinction of + admission to the Royal Society, may try again; and even after being twice + black-balled, if he will a third time condescend to express his desire to + become a member, he may perhaps succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In + such circumstances, the odds are much in favour of the candidate + possessing great scientific claims; and the only objection that could then + reasonably be suggested, would arise from his estimating rather too highly + a distinction which had become insignificant from its unlimited extension. + </p> + <p> + It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that the + sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be ten pounds + on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this subscription is + so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men of real science from + entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on those who do so; for + very few indeed of the cultivators of science rank amongst the wealthy + classes. Several times, whilst I have been consulting books or papers at + Somerset House, persons have called to ask the Assistant-secretary the + mode of becoming a member of the Royal Society. I should conjecture, from + some of these applications, that it is not very unusual for gentlemen in + the country to order their agents in London to take measures for putting + them up at the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT5" id="link2H_SECT5"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + </h2> + <p> + Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot + precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this resolution + solve the enigma: + </p> + <p> + "It was Resolved, + </p> + <p> + "That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by far + the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching + anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly." + </p> + <p> + To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently + flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon the + rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST FIT" was + only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his supporters + indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I believe, even + at that very Council. + </p> + <p> + That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be instantly + admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with him: that he + is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed by few, except + those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted resolution. + </p> + <p> + Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he + might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round + him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits of + science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society. Instead of + himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a chairman ought + to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By the firmness of + his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate officers of the + Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying compliments to + Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he might have + maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest to allure, + or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself respected as the + powerful chief of a united republic,—that of science,—he has + grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble occupant of its desolated + kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions he might have directed, and + refused even the patronage of their names by those whose energies he might + have commanded. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and + this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office + which he had long held, and to which he wished to return. + </p> + <p> + Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board of + Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal + Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and Council. + Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he became, EX + OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy occurred, which + ought to have been filled up by the President and Council. But when this + subject was brought before them, in defiance of common sense, and the + plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had enacted that the Board + of Longitude should have the assistance of four persons belonging to the + Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow it to be filled up, on the + ground that he should not be President next year, and had made no vacancy. + </p> + <p> + Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but the + Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some LOCUM + TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure. + </p> + <p> + These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they + illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming the + dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so + circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting the + existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if such a + system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the frequency of + such arrangements. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT6" id="link2H_SECT6"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + </h2> + <p> + Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in reforming + the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard to the senior + Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more unfortunate than + the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude for a moment to his + personal character, I should say that the mild excellencies of his heart + have prevented the Royal Society from deriving the whole of that advantage + from his varied knowledge and liberal sentiments which some might perhaps + have anticipated; and many will agree with me in regretting that his + judgment has not directed a larger portion of the past deeds of the + Councils of the Royal Society. Of the junior Secretary I shall only + observe, that whilst I admit his industry, his perseverance, and his + talents, I regret to see such valuable qualities exerted at a + disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them all the success they merit in + situations more adapted for their developement. + </p> + <p> + There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to + investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of + the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already + arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the + conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in which + I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. [These + observations were written previous to the late appointment, to which I now + devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council of the Royal + Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the same + understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not to the + members of its Council. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to + consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have + military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several + peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not + absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of + science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices + in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command, + which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect + freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military chief + commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to retain the + confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as much as + possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course to win the + confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render his future + observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most full and + explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to the + professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when he + enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where the + force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits, that his + admission to the offices of science can be attended with any advantage to + it. + </p> + <p> + Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to + the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings of + men of science, when they have published their observations, are too apt + to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and to consider + that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their observations as it + is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious to science than that + such an opinion should be tolerated. The most unreserved criticism is + necessary for truth; and those suspicions respecting his own accuracy, + which every philosophical experimenter will entertain concerning his own + researches, ought never to be considered as a reproach, when they are kept + in view in examining the experiments of others. The minute circumstances + and apparently trivial causes which lend their influence towards error, + even in persons of the most candid judgment, are amongst the most curious + phenomena of the human mind. + </p> + <p> + The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits + of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall + conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his + Observations: + </p> + <p> + "Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti sui, + de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum, deque + mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut aliis + quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex nostris + observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent + precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice + tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot + vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii. + </p> + <p> + There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own character + as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions apparently + neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention, since it is + reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the province of its + Secretaries. + </p> + <p> + The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances attending + the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume of Astronomical + Observations which were made at the Observatory of Paramatta (New South + Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the Philosophical + Transactions for the Year 1829." + </p> + <p> + Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British + officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers + were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those + instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of the + observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their + employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet + has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions, + omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any part + of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable observations + to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Brisbane; + whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him to found, at his + own private expense, an establishment which it has been creditable to the + British Government to continue as a national institution. Had any kindred + feelings existed in the Council, instead of endeavouring to shift the + responsibility, they would have hastened to rectify an omission, less + unjust to the individual than it was injurious to English science. + </p> + <p> + Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity of + the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been publicly + stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes of the + Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry has been + asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true statement + of what actually passed at the Council. + </p> + <p> + The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to verify + by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall state + them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon them. In + the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find— + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon the + Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons, amongst + whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was absent + from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction, until he + saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had taken place. That + his name was the one substituted for that of Captain Beaufort I know, from + other evidence which need not be produced here, as the omission of the + latter name is the charge that has been made.], and that of Captain + Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy himself that this is not + a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in copying, by consulting the + rough minutes of that meeting of the Council, which it might perhaps be as + well to write in a rough minute-book, instead of upon loose sheets of + paper; nor can it be attributed to any error arising from accidentally + mislaying the real minutes, for in that case the error would have been + rectified immediately it was detected; and this has remained uncorrected, + although publicly spoken of for months. As there is no erasure in the + list, one is reluctantly compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of + that meeting have been destroyed.]] + </p> + <p> + Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on the + morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on the + evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on the + house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of his + profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President, + declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + </p> + <p> + Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution of + the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but in order + to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other information is + necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the Society, that the + President should not absolutely name his own Council, but that the subject + should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous to the Anniversary—this + has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and those who support him. Now, it + has been stated, that, at the meeting of the Council on the 26th of + November, the President took out of his pocket a bit of paper, from which + he read the names of several persons as fit to be on the Council for the + ensuing year;—that it was not understood that any motion was made, + and it is certain that none was seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such + an important question; and it was a matter of considerable surprise to + some of those present, to discover afterwards that it was entered on the + minutes as a resolution. This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and + I believe it to be substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was + dictated, not discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar + resolution stands on the council-books for any previous year. + </p> + <p> + On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of the + letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it omitted? + If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been no necessity + for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter, a resolution + would naturally have followed, recommending another name instead of the + one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but this would have + exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage it. If the rough + minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over before it separated, + and were copied previously to the next meeting, such a substitution could + hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this is not the case, and the + delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the minutes of the three + Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and on March 11, were not + entered on the minute-books of the Council on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor + was this the fault of the Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the + rough minutes of no one of those Councils had been transmitted to him. + </p> + <p> + Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an + occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be + ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed + the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of this + suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of estimating + the confidence due to the whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT7" id="link2H_SECT7"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + </h2> + <p> + Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, that its + Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the Admiralty + determined to render that body completely subservient to them, or whether + both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has been for years + its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal Society is in + public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for this last insult. In + order to inform the public and the Society, (for I believe the fact is + known to few of the members,) it will be necessary to trace the history of + those circumstances which led to the institution of the offices of + Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of the late Board of + Longitude. + </p> + <p> + That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which established + it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no knowledge of the + subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss—of certain + professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal, who had some + knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their attendance;—of + three honorary members of the Royal Society, who combined the + qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly, of "three other + persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were supposed to be "WELL + VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, OR NAVIGATION," and who + were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the Board. + </p> + <p> + The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other + persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at the + pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act of + parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the + Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal + Society, the copy of an Order in Council: + </p> + <p> + ADMIRALTY OFFICE, + </p> + <p> + November 1, 1828. + </p> + <p> + SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send + herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal + Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last + month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident + Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of the + Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them, + notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to + acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy Board + for the payment of the said salaries. + </p> + <p> + I am, Sir, + </p> + <p> + Your most obedient humble servant, + </p> + <p> + JOHN BARROW. AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, + </p> + <p> + 27th October, 1828. + </p> + <p> + PRESENT, + </p> + <p> + The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + </p> + <p> + Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right + Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this + instant, in the words following, viz.— + </p> + <p> + Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20, + instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude at + sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between the + Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole," three + persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, or + Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board of + Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a Superintendent + of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also appointed, with such + salaries for the execution of those services as his Majesty might, by any + Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, whereas, your Majesty was in + consequence, by your Order in Council of the 27th of May, 1828, most + graciously pleased to direct, that the three said Resident Commissioners + should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year each; and by your further Order + in Council, of the 31st October, 1818, that the Superintendent of the + Nautical Almanac should be allowed a salary of 300L., and the + Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; and, whereas, the act above + mentioned has been repealed, and the Board of Longitude abolished; and + doubts have therefore arisen, whether the said Orders in Council shall + still continue in force; and whereas it is expedient that the said + appointments be continued; We beg leave most humbly to submit to your + Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously pleased, by your Order in + Council, to direct that the said offices of Superintendent of the Nautical + Almanac, and of Superintendent of Chronometers; and also the three persons + before-mentioned as a Resident Committee, to advise with the Commissioners + for executing the Office of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of + discoveries, inventions, calculations, and other scientific subjects, be + continued, with the same duties and salaries, and under the same + regulations as heretofore; and further beg most humbly to propose, that + such three persons to form the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by + the Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from + among the Council of the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was + pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof + and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to + give the necessary directions herein accordingly. + </p> + <p> + (Signed) JAMES HILLER. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from + among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a year + each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape + the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was + made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted. + </p> + <p> + MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823. + </p> + <p> + RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords + Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal Society, + on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that inconvenience + may arise from the plan therein specified, from the circumstance of all + the members of the Council being annually elected by the Society at large; + and that body being consequently subject to continual changes from year to + year. + </p> + <p> + This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the + Admiralty: + </p> + <p> + ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + </p> + <p> + SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your + Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of the + proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the + communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his + Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their + Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President + and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the + inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their + Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific + Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were + induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to the + Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the persons + chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from the + circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members being + annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually appointed; + and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been felt during the + ten years that the Committee has been in existence, as four of the + distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have successively appointed + to this office, have continued during the whole period to be members of + the Council; and if any such difficulty or inconvenience should hereafter + arise, their Lordships will be ready to take proper measures for remedying + it. + </p> + <p> + Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and + Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had + resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board + of Longitude, to be appointed. + </p> + <p> + I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, + </p> + <p> + JOHN BARROW. + </p> + <p> + The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce much + effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff of + which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared the + bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended this + plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO THE PUBLIC + OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he delicately hints + to them their dependent situation, by observing, that the "RESIDENT + COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + </p> + <p> + The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom for + years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the Council, and + consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must first be indebted + to the President for being qualified to advise, and then to the Admiralty + for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then their Lordships, as a + "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the dependence of the Council on + the President, by making his nomination a qualification for place, and + establish a new dependence of the same Council on themselves, by giving a + hundred pounds each year to such three members of that Council as they may + select. "THE PLEDGE" they offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF + THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is, that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought + they would do for his Council. + </p> + <p> + What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this mark + of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must be + left to themselves to express. + </p> + <p> + In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society the + weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a + consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed + there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted + field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the + soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles + which pervade it are open and liberal as his own. + </p> + <p> + The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is, that + the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in any case, be + very small; and may, from several circumstances, be considerably reduced. + In a council fairly selected, to judge of the merits of the various + subjects likely to be brought under the consideration of the Society, + anatomy, chemistry, and the different branches of natural history, will + share with the numerous departments of physical science, in claiming to be + represented by persons competently skilled in those subjects. These claims + being satisfied, but few places will be left to fill up with + mathematicians, astronomers, and persons conversant with nautical + astronomy. + </p> + <p> + Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician + amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation + rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the + President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as a + mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser? + </p> + <p> + Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant + with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually be, + it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms his + Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such + situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best + qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of being + the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or + Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which + they disapprove. + </p> + <p> + Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best explained + by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals are, + notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better known + than he is willing that they should be. + </p> + <p> + Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both to + the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference to the + individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I shall now + examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never + considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the + character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have arrived + at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however, be arguments + which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must ultimately lead to + truth: but I confess that it appears to me the objections which have been + stated rest on principles of human nature, too deeply seated to be easily + removed. + </p> + <p> + That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears + from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these + appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of + the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe + the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who knew + these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any gentleman + on the Council who had accepted these situations; and, having myself the + same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be informed of the + names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although they remonstrated + against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO COGNIZANCE" of the + fact. + </p> + <p> + The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain Kater, who + were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident Commissioners + under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr. Young became one of + the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday were appointed by the + Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, who died shortly after, + I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge which qualified him for + the situation. + </p> + <p> + Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong to + that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of Parliament + point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be entertained. The + Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being the same, and + having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act; and it recites the + words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES + OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of the fitness of the gentlemen + who now hold those situations to pronounce judgment on mathematical + questions, the public will be better able to form an opinion when they + shall have communicated to the world any of their own mathematical + inquiries. Although it is the practice to consider that acceptance of + office is alone necessary to qualify a man for a statesman, a similar + doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world of science. One of these + gentlemen, who has established his reputation as a chemist, stands in the + same predicament with respect to the other two sciences. It remains then + to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which must rest on his skill in + "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"—a claim which can only be + allowed when the scientific world are set at rest respecting the + extraordinary nature of those observations contained in his work on the + Pendulum. + </p> + <p> + That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude, + excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of the + Government providing instruments and means of transport for the purpose of + these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means superior to + those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the industry with which + he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled him to bring home + multitudes of observations from situations rarely visited with such + instruments, and for such purposes. + </p> + <p> + The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist amongst + each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most conversant + with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one who had devoted + but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course of those voyages, + used some of the instruments for the first time in his life. + </p> + <p> + This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the + greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such lunars; + whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit instrument, + avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were conversant + with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more favourable + circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same opinion + prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever subject + Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by their + accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods of using the + instruments scarcely differed in any important point from those before + adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall presently + relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine possessed some + keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would be hopeless for + any to expect to rival. + </p> + <p> + The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy of + these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust Captain + Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner which must + have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter to the + Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of the same + persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of Longitude, + after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, are said to + have again recommended him to the Master-General of the Ordnance. That an + officer, commencing his scientific career, should be misled by such + praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the Council of the + Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly, and maintain it so + pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it was injurious to the + interests of science. + </p> + <p> + It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley + medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal of + Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from such a + complete investigation of his observations, as should place them beyond + the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may write, and + nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; and even the + Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer immortality. That + learned body is in the habit of making most interesting and profound + reports on any memoirs communicated to it; nothing escapes the penetration + of their committees appointed for such purposes. Surely, when they enter + on the much more important subject of the award of a medal, unusual pains + must be taken with the previous report, and it might, perhaps, be of some + advantage to science, and might furnish their admirers with arguments in + their defence, if they would publish that on which the decree of their + Lalande's medal to Captain Sabine was founded. + </p> + <p> + It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has been + written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall confine + myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I shall allude + to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that exists respecting + them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain them. The other point, + the error in the estimation of the division of the level, I shall discuss, + because it is an admitted fact. + </p> + <p> + Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the + difference of times of the passage of any star between the several wires; + supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of time + occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be + precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another are + usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens that the + accordance is perfect. + </p> + <p> + The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in length, + and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370 transits, + there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the intervals + between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of a second. At + Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same accordance; and of + the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of twenty-four are equally + exact. With larger instruments, and in great observatories, this is not + always the case. + </p> + <p> + Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. 427, + a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in which about + one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy; and it should + be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars selected, have, + in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's. + </p> + <p> + The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer, and + the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations of his + in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of accordance. In + thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January, 1828, fifteen have + this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with a ten-feet transit. + Now in none of these instances do the times agree within a tenth of a + second between all the wires; but I have accounted those as agreeing in + all the wires in which there is not more than four-tenths of a second + between the greatest and least. + </p> + <p> + This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some explanation. + One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine employs a chronometer + to observe transits with; and that since it beats five times in two + seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second; and this being the + smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes more probable than if + tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In general, the larger the + lowest unity employed the greater will be the apparent agreement amongst + the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of stars near the pole, the + times of passing the wires were only registered to the nearest minute, the + intervals would almost certainly be equal. There is another circumstance, + about which there is some difficulty. It is understood that the same + instrument,—the thirty-inch transit, was employed by Lieutenant + Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires were changed, although + this has most probably been the case. Now, in the transits which the later + observer has given, he has found it necessary to correct for a + considerable inequality between the first and second wires (See Phil. + Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone abroad on this subject, + it is doing a service to science to insure its correction, by drawing + attention to it. + </p> + <p> + Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem + to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact, and + therefore that it ought to be used in observatories. + </p> + <p> + Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle + of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the + express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be + diminished in size:—a most important subject, on which the Board + seem to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety. + </p> + <p> + The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important: + </p> + <p> + "The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of the + Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle of + repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six inches, + carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch aperture; + and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which might be + retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be increased, by + a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been previously + regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit of diminution to + which repeating circles, designed for astronomical purposes, ought to be + carried. + </p> + <p> + "The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated, by + comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at each + station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of observations + made with a circle, on the original construction, and of large dimensions; + such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations of the French are, + recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if due allowance be made + for the extensive experience and great skill of the distinguished persons + who conducted the French observations, the comparison will scarcely appear + to the disadvantage of the smaller circle, even if extended generally + through all the stations of the present volume; but if it be particularly + directed to Maranham and Spitzbergen,—at which stations the partial + results were more numerous than elsewhere, and obtained with especial + regard to every circumstance by which their accuracy might be affected, + the performance of the six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of + circles of the larger dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at + which a more than usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, + because it was essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the + French stations were required, that the observations should always be + conducted with the utmost possible regard to accuracy. + </p> + <p> + "It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches, the + disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact or + bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute + subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition." + </p> + <p> + Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most + favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places, and + compare the observations made there with the small repeating instrument of + six inches diameter, with those made by the French astronomers at + Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one centi-metres, or about + sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It is singular that this + instrument was directed, by the French Board of Longitude, to be made + expressly for this survey, and the French astronomers paid particular + attention to it, from the circumstance of some doubts having been + entertained respecting the value of the principle of repetition. + </p> + <p> + The following series of observations were made with the two instruments. + [I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because + the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference + between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken + above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a + half.] + </p> + <p> + Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches + diameter.—BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of Latitude Names of Observers. + Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot + 100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot + 120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot + 100 56.5 Arago + 102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + + Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. +</pre> + <p> + Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. + alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine + alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto + alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto + alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto + alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto + alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + + Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. +</pre> + <p> + In comparing these results, although the French observations were more + than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the + individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths is + the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations; whilst + the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds and + two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on + account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations, let + any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with the six + English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is the greatest + deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations less than in + those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that by the latitude + deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of Polaris by the same + observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to be 38deg. 39min + 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean of the 1318 + inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot be accounted + for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as neither the + employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of Groombridge, + of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a difference of + two-tenths of a second.] + </p> + <p> + These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain Sabine, + and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the merits of his + observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers equal, it seems a + necessary consequence that "the performance of the six-inch circle is" not + merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger dimensions," but that it + is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches in diameter. + </p> + <p> + This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for + astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and + rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered + that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to be + equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven + seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary a + recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a + re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it + necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this + instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed + satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising + from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will + depend on the nature of the deviations from it.] + </p> + <p> + This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of considerable + importance to navigation; and if it should have caused any alteration in + his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and small instruments, + it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was expressly directed + by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with an instrument + constructed for that especial purpose. + </p> + <p> + Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for the + task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to familiarity + with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this interesting + question. + </p> + <p> + The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of + level: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. + + Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + + Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + + Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + + Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + + Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + + Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + + New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + + Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + + Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + + Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + + Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 +</pre> + <p> + This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by the + small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and confining + ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE OBTAINED, WITH + ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR ACCURACY MIGHT BE + AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION WAS BESTOWED," it + appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, namely, "the + differences of the partial results from the mean at each station," the + deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were before; a + circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in the + decision of the question. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid + looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of + latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really + resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true + latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is + so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more + especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, + Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes + interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations, + to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so little + to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions of the + unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen. + </p> + <p> + In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of a + place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the + following columns— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Latitudes as + True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. + Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 + Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8 + Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5 + Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6 + Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0 + Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2 +</pre> + <p> + what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first + column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the + second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the level + being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as + diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider, if + he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still he + will find the odds against it enormous. + </p> + <p> + When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has thus + had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost + unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that at + eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the + differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station it + only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help feeling + that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his admitted + skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both mistaken in + their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so singular an + effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot bring myself + to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without foundation. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular + oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used for + determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the very + work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose of + comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which + occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265 to 275 + of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET ARAGO, + which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] are filled + with the details relative to the determination of the value of the + divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory, with such an + important object in view, to have read off some of the sets after each + pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of repetition + made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order to know how + many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost certainly + have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of the level; + for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a few minutes + of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to have arisen + from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed, they must + have been referred to some error in the instrument, which could scarcely, + in such circumstances, have escaped detection. + </p> + <p> + I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain + Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying are + inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an instance + of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should venture to + pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think enough has been + said to show, that the feeling which so generally prevails relative to it, + is neither captious nor unreasonable. + </p> + <p> + Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in + appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under the + peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as far + as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations which + are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for imitation + observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers to throw + aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a standard + which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified the + doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever even modified + it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the largest. + </p> + <p> + To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt. + It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with + official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to + depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose. + </p> + <p> + How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT TO + BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived, + appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best + observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered them + peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that + instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered, "FOR + ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the Astronomical + Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the most carefully + detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, persons who must have + examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. Captain Kater must have felt + those difficulties in the perusal of it which other observers have + experienced; and he who was placed in the Board of Longitude especially + for his knowledge of instruments, might, in a few hours, have arrived at + more decisive facts. But perhaps I am unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge + rendered it impossible for him to have been ignorant of the difficulties, + and his candour would have prevented him from concealing them: he must, + therefore, after examining the subject, have been outvoted by his + lay-brethren who had dispensed with that preliminary. + </p> + <p> + It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with + respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of the + errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant Foster, + aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed this + instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal to one + second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject, and made + all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him acquainted + with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated a paper [The + paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical Transactions, + 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal Society, in which he + states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed all the observations in + which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, from the original + observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury at the time of her + loss, the transcripts of his results could not be recomputed like the + rest, and were consequently useless. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT8" id="link2H_SECT8"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + </h2> + <p> + Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with science + may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat singularly + happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than one such + appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the late Dr. + Young, we have at present:— + </p> + <p> + MR. POND—Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and + Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + </p> + <p> + CAPTAIN SABINE—An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his + regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the + Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + MR. BRANDE—Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of + Chemistry at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to + the East-India Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; + Superintending Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; + Editor of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the + Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices, + either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be found + to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered; or else, that + it is too well paid, since each requires such little attention, that + almost any number can be executed by one person. + </p> + <p> + The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection + of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other + astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the almost + undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would a + superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being + acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his situation + at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign Secretary of + the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. Brande would + scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found time even for + them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that from the progress + the Society is making, those duties must become shortly, if they are not + already, almost extinct. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most anxiously + over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the Academics + of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of Hanover, and of France, + derived honour from the discoveries of their Secretaries;—that they + prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of Oersted, of Brewster, of + Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the President must have been + ambitious that England should contribute to this galaxy of glory, that the + Royal Society should restore the lost Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of + seven stars in the neck of the constellation Taurus. There are now only + six of them visible to the naked eye.—HUTTON'S DICTIONARY—Art. + Pleiades.] to the admiring science of Europe. But he could discover no + kindred name amongst the ranks of his supporters, and forgot, for a + moment, the interest of the Society, in an amiable consideration for the + feelings of his surrounding friends. For had the President chosen a + brighter star, the lustre of his other officers might have been + overpowered by its splendour: but relieved from the pain of such a + contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, by their united brightness, + these suns of his little system shall yet afford sufficient light to be + together visible to distant nations, as a faint NEBULA in the obscure + horizon of English science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT9" id="link2H_SECT9"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be + useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money. + </p> + <p> + EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.—The great expense of + the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, + is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings are quite + essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those papers are fit + for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry is necessary, when + such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour, therefore, to approximate + to the sum these engravings have cost the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of Sir E. + Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the + workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810, there + have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author. Many of + these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but I shall take + five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and twelve as that + of the latter. This would produce, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 70 X 5 = 350 + 187 X 12 = 2244 + ...... ——-...... L2594 +</pre> + <p> + As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd + hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE + branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question the + importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be + permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended + in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with + those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous + circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number, I + should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other countries + much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even the Council + of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from their Transactions + one of those productions which they had paid for as a lecture. + </p> + <p> + It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council so + repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually expending, + during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On the other hand, + when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of those valuable plates to + take off impressions for his large work on Comparative Anatomy, of which + they constitute almost the whole, it might have been as well not to have + obliterated from each plate all indication of the source to which he was + indebted for them. + </p> + <p> + THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.—I shall mention this circumstance, + because it fell under my own observation. + </p> + <p> + Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the President's + Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature of this item. + Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an opportunity, at an + early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for an explanation of the + following resolution, which stands in the Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be + printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade + price." + </p> + <p> + The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO + PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO + PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + </p> + <p> + I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as + the following statement will prove. + </p> + <p> + The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following + prices are very liberal: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + L s. d. + To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0 + Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0 + Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0 + + Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0 +</pre> + <p> + Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not + plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying + printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several of + the individual members must have known, from their own private experience, + that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different from that + they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to print it on + his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred pounds beyond + what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds of the Royal + Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his officers ever + condescend to explain this transaction to the Council; or were they + expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing proposed to them? + Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to order the payment of + above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a bookseller to do what + they might have done themselves for less than half the sum? Or did they + wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred pounds? If so, he must + have had powerful friends in the Council, and it is fit the Society should + know who they were; for they were not friends, either to its interests or + to its honour. + </p> + <p> + The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to + members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and out + of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the remainder + encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are still losers + of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction. + </p> + <p> + ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO PASTEBOARD.—Although + the printing of these observations is not paid for out of the funds of the + Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body are the visitors of the + Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to introduce the subject here. + </p> + <p> + Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned, that + there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity of the + volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On making + inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be disposed + of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the purpose of + converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get fourpence a + pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board. The fact was + mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society, and they + thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with every + regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick paper, + hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This magnificence is + advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought to be worthy of a + great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that nation spends on + science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not be applied with + the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really has a right to these + volumes, printed by the government at a large expense, it is, perhaps, the + most extravagant mode which was ever yet invented of paying a public + servant. When that right was given to him,—let us suppose somebody + had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he should sell the costly volumes + for waste paper,—who would have listened for one moment to such a + supposition? He would have been told that it was impossible to suppose a + person in that high and responsible situation, could be so indifferent to + his own reputation. + </p> + <p> + A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal + Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary + for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally + anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the request + appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and I was at + the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased at the + bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies of the + Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that practical + astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my pursuits, I feel + disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety of the refusal. + This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar refusals to other + gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with myself, and whose time + had been successfully devoted to the cultivation of that science. [M. + Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, projected a plan for + making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too vast for any individual to + attempt, it was proposed that a portion should be executed by the + astronomers of various countries, and invitations to this effect were + widely circulated. One only of the divisions of this map was applied for + by any English astronomer; and, after completing the portion of the map + assigned to him, he undertook another, which had remained unprovided for. + This gentleman, the Rev. Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants + for the Greenwich Observations.] + </p> + <p> + There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a + different result;—but those who occupy official situations, rendered + remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed in + no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly + insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they must + submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure, + therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must have + sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to propose + that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse so + trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once + filled. + </p> + <p> + In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a + copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of + copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was + insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned bodies + in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great their + inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants." Now I have + spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the council-books + of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the real state of the + case:— + </p> + <p> + In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, + wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785, from which + the following is extracted:— + </p> + <p> + "The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the Astronomical + Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and paid for by the + Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command, of July 21, 1767,) + which may at any time remain in the hands of the printer, shall, after you + have reserved such copies as you may think proper as presents, be given to + the said Nevil Maskelyne, in consideration of his trouble in the + superintending the printing thereof. I am to signify His Majesty's + pleasure, that you do, from time to time, give the necessary orders for + that purpose, until His Majesty's further commands shall be communicated + to you. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:— + </p> + <p> + "Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last published, + be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to the Astronomer + Royal." + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many + volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any + revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed by + the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving precisely the + same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe that in fact + they do not know the authority on which the right to those sixty rests. + </p> + <p> + Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the + discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from + time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore, + they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought to + have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they + found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they + ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order to + prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand, the + above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than sixty + copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress towards + pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society, as + visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to + Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if the + Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it for a + liberal compensation. + </p> + <p> + Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the + subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and + Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science, + from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer Royal. + </p> + <p> + It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to + science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not + so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can + be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to judge + no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his reputation + will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their circulation. + </p> + <p> + Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might be + said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal Society + that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is imagined, + is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of the parties + concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any amendments have + taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable importance, I was + myself a witness, when I was present officially at a visitation. At that + time, no original observations made at the transit instrument were ever + preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the process of an observation, + I should not have credited the fact. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT10" id="link2H_SECT10"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + </h2> + <p> + At a period when the attention of Government to science had not undergone + any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place. His Majesty + intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of State, his + intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to + be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal Society, according to the + rules they were desired to frame for that purpose. + </p> + <p> + The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:— + </p> + <p> + WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + </p> + <p> + SIR, + </p> + <p> + I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to + found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded + as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council of + the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of + competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the + object for which the Royal Society was instituted. + </p> + <p> + His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of the Royal + Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the regulations which + it may be convenient to establish with regard to the appropriation of the + medals; and I have, therefore, to request that you will make the necessary + communication to the Council of the Royal Society, in order that His + Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect. + </p> + <p> + I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this + gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It + was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement of + a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were immense. The + unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst the confidence + reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured the wavering faith + of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from knowing the + MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted the policy of + establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and spirit in which + they were offered. + </p> + <p> + The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting + them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on + the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the + Council-book of the 26th of January. + </p> + <p> + At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were + decided upon; they were as follow:— + </p> + <p> + 26th January, 1826. + </p> + <p> + RESOLVED, + </p> + <p> + That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for the + most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed and made + known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of their award. + </p> + <p> + That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the medals + should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if it should + be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the obverse of the + medal. + </p> + <p> + That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation; + one in gold, one in silver. + </p> + <p> + If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet they + are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a + councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education of a + pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as to have + made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely, that the + discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made known to + the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the award. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this communication, + to have convened a special general meeting of the Society, to have made + known to the whole body the munificent endowment of their Patron: and when + his approbation of the laws which were to govern the distribution of these + medals had been intimated to the Council, such a course would have been in + complete accordance with the wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO + EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known. + </p> + <p> + Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in the + following words:— + </p> + <p> + November 16, 1826. + </p> + <p> + ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was + awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary + Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his + other important labours and discoveries in physical science. + </p> + <p> + The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, Esq. for + his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the Philosophical + Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable papers on + mathematical subjects. + </p> + <p> + The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations of + double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's observed + and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January, + formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet together + in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them to two + philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his great + discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to stultify + themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for a paper + made known to them three years before. + </p> + <p> + Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their + decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict of + their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other + instances, with the semblance of a free discussion? + </p> + <p> + Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that + although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society + and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit of + their award, to those to whom that trust was confided? + </p> + <p> + Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive + deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch + with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it might + perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in + accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or + was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I + have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + </p> + <p> + Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility of + dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been pledged + to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent on + exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps, urged by the + near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the formality of + reading the laws on which they were about to act? + </p> + <p> + Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the + Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange + neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the + Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication of + these medals. + </p> + <p> + The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it + was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules + which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the medals + themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and they + ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no man + could feel the least security that he should get them, even though his + discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were offered, + </p> + <p> + The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced + me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of the + Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on our + character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now a + matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious + disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans for + doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I should + stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. [It is but + justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to state, that the + circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the same year awarded + to him, prevented him from taking any part in the discussion.] + </p> + <p> + The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind will + never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the distribution + of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as equally binding in + honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the Council, which + assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as void, IPSO FACTO, on + the ground that it was directly at variance with that part which CONFINES + the medals to discoveries made known to the Society within ONE YEAR + PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore moved the following + resolutions: + </p> + <p> + "1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November, + 1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is + invalid. + </p> + <p> + "2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton, Esq. + and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that letters be + written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope of the Council + that this, the only method which is open to them of honourably fulfilling + their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen as a mark of the high + sense entertained by the Council of the importance and value of their + discoveries, which require not the aid of medals to convey their + reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which distinguished the + age in which they lived." + </p> + <p> + It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning employed + in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal Society. + It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was SOMEWHAT + IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As the original + rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the Council,—it + would only be necessary to alter them, and then the award would agree + perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was contended, that the + original rules were unknown to the public and to the Society; and that, in + fact, they were only known to the members of the Council and a few of + their friends; and therefore the award was no breach of faith. + </p> + <p> + All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could + not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show + that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age; and + furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of the + Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council as + long as the present system of management is pursued. + </p> + <p> + The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its + peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little + communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens that + the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the Society, and, + indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who frequent the weekly + meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first notice to the great + majority of the Society of a breach of faith by their Council, which it is + impossible to suppose a body, consisting of more than six hundred + gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT11" id="link2H_SECT11"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + </h2> + <p> + An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which + seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society. + They may contain discoveries of new principles,—of laws of nature + hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations of + known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar + situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to + our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very + different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those + trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the + present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely + inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has + presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments + employed, or phenomena examined,—a talent, which can be much + improved by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of + tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to + detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and a + higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very different + order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of an almanac; + the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of the + accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those + computations are performed. + </p> + <p> + [*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national + observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not an + opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The + Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge. + </p> + <p> + On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826, + with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles, we + find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following + passage is extracted: + </p> + <p> + "But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, hard-working, + and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call them, although they + are drudges of a superior order), men who will be contented to pass half + their day in using their hands and eyes in the mechanical act of + observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process of calculation."] + </p> + <p> + Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some + difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be + proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked this + difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given to + observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for + discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by + such an association. + </p> + <p> + I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the + public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground + of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The first + objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the object for + which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal is given to + A. B. "for his various papers." + </p> + <p> + There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be + admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those who + judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his various + other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece to these + awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be more admired + if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to escape through + this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment on the main point + be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which made chemistry a + science, has attached to it in their award this feeble appendage. + </p> + <p> + It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been too + much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to their + patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished grounds + to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of the new ones. + I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal Society are + persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to suppose their + decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I may not have + had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was a member of that + Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall avail myself of the + judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined to appeal, who knew it + long and intimately, and who expressed his opinion deliberately and + solemnly. + </p> + <p> + The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the + distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the + Royal Society, the following clause:—"And I hereby empower the said + President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the + above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid or + reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY THAT NO + PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL RECEIVE OR + PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + </p> + <p> + Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally + inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery + is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite + unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently + have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits. + These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as the + last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. The + Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who + declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional + charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put a stop + to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a Copley medal + must by the will be annually given, some other person might not be found + deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do not intend to give + any this year." All further discussion was thus silenced.] + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious, + it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the + award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects, + the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their attention + to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY OF THE + COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO DECIDE. + </p> + <p> + If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the + Council, would communicate their information, something curious might + perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those of + which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state—of + three of them—that whatever may have been the official reasons for + their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being the + true causes:— + </p> + <p> + First.—A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate time—BECAUSE + HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + </p> + <p> + Second.—Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE + IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE + PRECEDING YEAR. + </p> + <p> + Third.—A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL + USED." + </p> + <p> + I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which was + peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of rendering + platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious philosopher who + invented the art, and who has left many other claims to the gratitude of + mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to place that subject in + its proper light. + </p> + <p> + An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as possessing + the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands we inherit from + our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and yielded produce + before they were cultivated. The products of genius are the actual + creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or honour to him, + they remain the permanent endowments of the human race. If the + institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support us fully + in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by the laws of + nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly restrict our + discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the products of + intellectual exertion? + </p> + <p> + Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with + Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they + have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of some + substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or comforts of + their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the legitimate reward + of their exertions. + </p> + <p> + It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have + torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to + claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the + inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life. + </p> + <p> + The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer, + having published his process, enters into equal competition with other + manufacturers. + </p> + <p> + If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his + secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During + his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the + philosopher had not existed. + </p> + <p> + Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and + reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary + rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments of + mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these have + been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a condition + with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing for which a + patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + </p> + <p> + Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of + rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity + having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary + magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process + selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him; and from + some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no written + record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that disorder, + which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the knowledge he + had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the subject, would + have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded the directions of + the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render useful even his + unfinished speculations, proves that the previous omission was most + probably accidental. + </p> + <p> + Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the Transactions + of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body to bestow on it + their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of Wollaston by their + medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then as an example, as a + stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of discovery. But did they + wish discoveries to be so endangered? + </p> + <p> + The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been + considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on + one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few + members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had long + been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of doing + justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was suggested + that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they immediately + altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to reserve their + medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at which period, for + aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the additional merit of + having been made prior to the limit allowed by their regulations. That + medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no one member present was + at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I shall, however, say no + more on this subject. They erred from feeling, an error so very rare with + them, that it might be pardoned even for its singularity. + </p> + <p> + I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly + dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving + pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science, or + the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of Wollaston, + was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting career, one + out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply, without which, + the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher be destitute of + tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank he held in + science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich in the + honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward in some + measure commensurate with his deserts,—then, indeed, there might + have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that, in such + circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no "niggard" + hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it, unreservedly, + the produce of his powerful mind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT12" id="link2H_SECT12"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + </h2> + <p> + Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This + was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South Sea + Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted annually + to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + </p> + <p> + Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or + of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years, from + 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for + twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr. + Ellis. + </p> + <p> + The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary + exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be + productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the + Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be + delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by members + of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place of worship + appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at the two + preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the gentleman + nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is to be + preached, should be stated. + </p> + <p> + With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the + first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon be + esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the + Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants, + persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion of + true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am + tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the + most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what is + already done on that subject. + </p> + <p> + The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too much + haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by others, as + inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been attentively + considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest and freest + inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character of indisputable + facts. But, I will not press this subject further on my reader's + attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the lecture. All + that I could have said on this point has been so much more ably stated by + one whose enlightened view of geological science has taken away some + difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed a stumbling-block + from many respectable individuals, that I should only weaken by adding to + the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's Geology in the + British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy of a philosopher + and a Christian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT13" id="link2H_SECT13"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + </h2> + <p> + The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the preceding, + is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual essay on the + subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted, that it should + have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he foreseen the + routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured to preserve it, + by affording it a wider range. + </p> + <p> + By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been + created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their + attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture; but from + causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the custom—one + individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems, like the + Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension. There have, + however, been some intervals; and we are still under obligations to those + who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing Sir Everard Home to read + the Croonian Lecture twenty years in SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we + might have heard of vested rights. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT14" id="link2H_SECT14"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they + regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever exists, + begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be amended. + </p> + <p> + The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal + Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has been + submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary to explain + the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in perpetuating it. + </p> + <p> + It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the power + of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council; and it is + also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and that printed + lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members on their entering + the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If these lists were, as + in other scientific societies, openly discussed in the Council, and then + offered by them as recommendations to the Society, little inconvenience + would arise; but the fact is, that they are private nominations by the + President, usually without notice, to the Council, and all the supporters + of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour to uphold the right of + this nomination in the President, and prevent or discourage any + alteration. + </p> + <p> + The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or by + whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of persons, + united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who act + together from a community of principles. That each individual has + invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the + case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very rare, + a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode of + meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of all + other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, as far + as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has usually + consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had the prudence, + whenever they could, to associate with themselves other members of greater + ability, provided these latter would not oppose the system, and would thus + lend to it the sanction of their name. The party have always praised each + other most highly—have invariably opposed all improvements in the + Society, all change in the mode of management; and have maintained, that + all those who wished for any alteration were factious; and, when they + discovered any symptoms of independence and inquiry breaking out in any + member of the Council, they have displaced him as soon as they decently + could. + </p> + <p> + Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by + which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples: + refutation is rendered quite unnecessary—juxta-position is alone + requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in contemplation, + or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the Society continued, + raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why should you interfere? + it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it is no affair of yours.—If, + on the other hand, it do relate to himself, the reply is equally ready. It + is immediately urged: The question is of a personal nature; you are the + last person who ought to bring it forward; you are yourself interested. If + any member of the Society, feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the + injuries or insults of the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is + immediately suggested to him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until + his feelings subside, and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst + with becoming candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. + If, after an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the + offence seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any + circumstances on which memory can dwell,—if it is then brought + forward, the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date—the + thing is gone by—it is too late to call in question a transaction so + long past. Thus, if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to + question an abuse; if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? + and if, notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a + meddler. If he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is + cool; and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his + remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred + to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any alteration + is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never adhered to. If + it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to an office, he is + immediately answered, that that is a personal question, in which it is + impossible to interfere—the officer, it seems, is considered to have + not merely a vested right to the continuance of every abuse, but an + interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + </p> + <p> + In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation + defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling to + be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is immediately + contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their magnitude. + Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige the world + with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the most RECENT + and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with the orthodox + creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human faculties to + detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size. + </p> + <p> + The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and their + emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them is, + nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the + science of England. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute + nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few + gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high opinion + they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who could + discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list a few + nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes would put + any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed, from its + station in society, to check any that might be proposed by others. + </p> + <p> + With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a + star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable + Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition. + </p> + <p> + The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, although + not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in several + societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much lightened + by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are their + salaries:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Senior Secretary ........... 105L. + The Junior Secretary, 105L........ ) + 5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L. + The Foreign Secretary........... 20L. +</pre> + <p> + Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices are + amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the President + to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently been + bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even for the + dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late Sir Joseph + Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in that situation, + although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject connected with the + pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice to his memory, by + saying that his respectability was preserved under such circumstances, by + the most candid admission of the fact, accompanied by a store of other + knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to the pursuits of the Society; and + I will add, that I regretted to see him insulted by one President in a + situation improperly given to him by a former. + </p> + <p> + Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the + President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient. + </p> + <p> + The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The + President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought, + after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at + large. + </p> + <p> + Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, and + recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a, + Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the + President. + </p> + <p> + Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising from + offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee of the + British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not a fit + person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it is the + EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I fear that + unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific appointments, and + unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public discussion, a + President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the British Museum, + is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his public duty to the + influence of power, or to private friendship. With respect to the merits + of that Institution, I have no inclination at present to inquire: but when + it is considered that there is at this moment attached to it no one whose + observations or whose writings have placed him even in the second rank + amongst the naturalists of Europe, the President of the Royal Society has + given some grounds for the remark made by several members of the Society, + that he is a little too much surrounded by the officers of a body who may + reasonably be supposed to entertain towards him feelings either of + gratitude or expectation. [It will be remembered that the name of Mr. + Robert Brown has been but recently attached to the British Museum, and + that it is to be attributed to his possessing a life interest in the + valuable collection of the late Sir Joseph Banks.] + </p> + <p> + The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which, + although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + </p> + <p> + There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these were + honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been expected that + this limited number of appointments would have been given in all cases to + persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient to pay compliments; + and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge insured him respect as + Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a British nobleman, was placed for + years in the situation as one of the Commissioners of the Board of + Longitude, for which every competent judge knew him to be wholly unfit. + What was the return which he made for this indulgence? Little informed + respecting the feelings of the Society, and probably misinformed by the + party whose influence had placed him there, he saved them in the day of + their peril. + </p> + <p> + When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of the + more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely necessary + to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to the Council + such improvements as they might consider it expedient to discuss. [Amongst + the names of the persons composing this Committee, which was proposed by + Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Herschel.] The Council + received their report at the close of the session; and in recording it on + the journals, they made an appeal to the Council for the ensuing year to + bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST SERIOUS ATTENTION." + </p> + <p> + Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would + have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken + up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful peer + came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting rid of + these improvements completely. + </p> + <p> + It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal Society + should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a peer or two + should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse to this + doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this tribute to any + one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank in advancing the + cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our pursuits, will + condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding a President to + stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended for consideration by + some of the most highly gifted members of the Society,—those who + doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably be pardoned for the + disgust they must necessarily entertain for the practical abuse to which + it leads. + </p> + <p> + Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year, + although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet it + was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact, + always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir + Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be + appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had spoken + to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the formation + of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take in + establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was + assigned to me by the President. + </p> + <p> + It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance of + time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the + Astronomical Society;—that I always talked of it publicly and openly + at the time;—that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding + President of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten + the communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them + well. + </p> + <p> + The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L. + more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + </p> + <p> + Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to + have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is to be + observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible, + notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + </p> + <p> + Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been instituted + since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President is supposed + to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the obedience of his + Council. + </p> + <p> + Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions + on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper persons + to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I am far + from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons the + second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT15" id="link2H_SECT15"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so + notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members + began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling, + together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to + re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most + active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings; and a + Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly + understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,—First, + as to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and + then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names of + the gentlemen composing this Committee were:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, + Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, + Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, + Mr. South, Captain Kater. +</pre> + <p> + The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in the + eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so select as + to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be elected into it, + was by no means new, as the following extract from the Minutes of the + Council will prove:— + </p> + <p> + "MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, + Sir John Lowther, + Sir John Cutler, + Sir Christopher Wren, + Mr. Oldenburgh, + Sir Paul Neile. +</pre> + <p> + "It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper, good + experiments must be in the first place provided to make the weekly + meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these experiments + must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the contributors; which + done, the Council might then with confidence proceed to the EJECTION OF + USELESS FELLOWS." + </p> + <p> + The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they + recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of the + numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was + suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation + should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not appear + to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected how long a + time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society could be + reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as long as those + who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their writings and + discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely the same terms, and on + the payment of the same sum of money as other gentlemen who contributed + only with their purse, it could never be an object of ambition to any man + of science to be enrolled on its list. + </p> + <p> + With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I + suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become + effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal + Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who had + contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the Transactions, + or that such a list should be printed separately at the end. + </p> + <p> + At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers to + the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 37 Contributors of.. 1 paper + 21.......... 2 papers + 19.......... 3 ditto + 5 .......... 4 ditto + 3 .......... 5 ditto + 3 .......... 6 ditto + 12.... from 7 to 12 ditto + 14... of more than 12 papers. +</pre> + <p> + 100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by + them. + </p> + <p> + Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division of + the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary for + placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist of + seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those of + the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or more + were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In either of + these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition to belong to + the first class; and a more minute investigation into the value of each + paper would naturally take place before it was admitted into the + Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only should be + allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit to be + printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such an + arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the Society, + and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society when no + distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued without + one. + </p> + <p> + Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will + only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment to + the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does, in truth, + maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position, accidentally + derive reputation which does not belong to them, are unwilling, when the + circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world to assign it to those who + have fairly won it; or else that they are incapable of producing any thing + worthy of being printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly + as the conduct of the Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, + I do not think so ill of the personal character of its members as to + believe that if the question were fairly stated to them, many would object + to it. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the + renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring + Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the ensuing + year. + </p> + <p> + The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is impossible + to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON. Our statutes + were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness of the members + elected to serve in the Council; and the President is directed, by those + statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to the anniversary, to + give notice of the elections, and "to declare how much it importeth the + good of the Society that such persons may be chosen into the Council as + are most likely to attend the meetings and business of the Council, and + out of whom may be made the best choice of a President and other + officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery of the wisdom of our + ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket the list of the future + Council he has already fixed upon. + </p> + <p> + In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the + discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for the + Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of the old + Council, and against each name is placed the number of times he has + attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has been + least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence from + London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, are + known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council the + number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out by + their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number than + can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?—but, + who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed on + the Council? + </p> + <p> + If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of + great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented in + the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle + opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some + chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even + before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be + put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated to + the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the commencement + of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be entertained of those + who endeavour to suppress inquiry. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should + never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its + business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the conduct + of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not led to such + discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of those who + disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to the + discretion of the party in not giving them cause. + </p> + <p> + The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong necessity + should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it which may, + in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at the + anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any one + great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than a + speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will probably + come under the consideration of a larger number of the members. Another + and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger of any + expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments employed. + </p> + <p> + There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the + Committee:— + </p> + <p> + REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING + THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH + SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE + OF THE SOCIETY. + </p> + <p> + Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council + under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves that + the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher ratio + than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth of + knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been the great + object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the following + Report:— + </p> + <p> + Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility of + the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That its + respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high + philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating persons + of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong to the + Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves fully + borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit the + Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the talent + of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every vacancy would + become an object of competition among persons of acknowledged merit. + </p> + <p> + From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who + have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the + persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science, + your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should be + fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such royal + personages as it may be thought proper to admit. + </p> + <p> + As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and + fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as it + would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science, that + no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your + Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place, four + new members should be annually admitted. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion, + that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding to + a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority. If the + above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for every + vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must be the + general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to + accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would be + necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of + earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating, but + probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee, + therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should take + place every year towards the end of the session, and that this should be + conducted on the same principles as the present annual election of the + Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of all the candidates + (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual time,) in which lists + each Fellow would mark the requisite number of persons. + </p> + <p> + As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the + Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been + determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the + successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in + accordance with the enactments of the said charter. + </p> + <p> + In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave to + remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of blackballing + would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and mortification; as + the result of such an open competition could only be construed by the + public into a fair preference of the superior claims of the successful + few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of the others. + </p> + <p> + Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual + admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the Society; + but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous economy its + present income might be rendered adequate to all its real wants, and the + aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by many small but + wholesome retrenchments. + </p> + <p> + It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was + received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual + contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was + a balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears, + that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly 340L. + for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit to your + consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially + controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + </p> + <p> + In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now + proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration. They + conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual + exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society, and + those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were distinguished by + being collected into a separate and honourable list. It would also be + found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of retrospective + justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who have formerly + obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals who have been + large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end of the list. It + would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual list, if all those + Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within the preceding year, + were regularly noticed. And your Committee think, that these lists should + always form part of the Transactions, and be stitched up with the last + part of the volume. + </p> + <p> + It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the Society + mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council; and as their + selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your Committee hope + that our excellent President will not consider it any impeachment of his + impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they venture to suggest, that + the usual recommendation to the Society of proper members for the future + Council should henceforth be considered as a fit subject for the diligent + and anxious deliberation of the expiring Council. + </p> + <p> + There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society, + and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations of + Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the nature and + value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the important task of + deciding on what papers should be published; and they are of opinion that + it would be a material improvement on the present mode, if each paper were + referred to a separate Committee, who should have sufficient time given + them to examine it carefully, who should be empowered to communicate on + any doubtful parts with the author; and who should report, not only their + opinion, but the grounds on which that opinion is formed, for the ultimate + decision of the Council. + </p> + <p> + If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your Committee + have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move, that another + Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to alter the necessary + statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance with the charters. + </p> + <p> + In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the + magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty to + propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest discussion + of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be unanimously + disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend, that the several + statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified, should be only entered + on your minutes, and not finally enacted. All innovations in the + constitution, or even the habits of the Royal Society, should be + scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. It is enough for the + present Council to have traced the plan; let the Council of the ensuing + sessions share the credit of carrying that plan into effect. + </p> + <p> + This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of 1827, + and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the + council-book:— + </p> + <p> + "The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting + the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think + conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered + to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance of + the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the Society, + in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering also the + advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious and early + consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + </p> + <p> + Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their hasty + adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the fullest + investigation before one of them should be tried. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not + coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to + make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the + Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the + consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it was + thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned by the + names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to "THE MOST + SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing year," was + by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of discussing its + merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained, not merely unfit + to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility as to be utterly + unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his officers feel, that + their power rested on an insecure foundation, and that they did not + possess the confidence of the working members of the Society? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. + </h2> + <p> + There are several reflections connected with the art of making + observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this + chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT16" id="link2H_SECT16"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. + </h2> + <p> + No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an + object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances + towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and expense, + than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of discovery, + and the first approximate measures, are those which add most to the + existing knowledge of mankind. + </p> + <p> + The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in some + respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion, that no + experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute, and the + accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of some use to + show, that even with large instruments, and most practised observers, this + is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken from a + representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the Council of the + Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the employment of two + mural circles:— + </p> + <p> + "That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same + time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of + that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE MOST + CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of + refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + </p> + <p> + In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. + Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains + relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have + been made. + </p> + <p> + "Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit tout + publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de + connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES + OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles + toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi par les + circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."—BASE DU SYSTEME + METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158. + </p> + <p> + This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of + experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to have + been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its tract, + not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the acutest + senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is forced to + record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that an observer, + possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly written. He who can + see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of his species, confers + an obligation on them, by recording what he sees; but their knowledge + depends both on his testimony and on his judgment. He who contrives a + method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary observers, communicates + to mankind an instrument of discovery, and stamps his own observations + with a character, alike independent of testimony or of judgment. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT17" id="link2H_SECT17"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + </h2> + <p> + The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of those + who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not + familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled + accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that + any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention, + ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and + himself. + </p> + <p> + If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to read + the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is + frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some + acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set the + instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, and then + request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any difference, he + should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his friend to point out + the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision. This should be + repeated frequently; and after some practice, he should note how many + times in a hundred his reading differs from his friend's, and also how + many divisions they usually differ. + </p> + <p> + The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner can + bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done without + assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument, but merely + to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any remarkable point, + read off the verniers, and write down the result; then displace the + telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such observations + will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in bisecting + an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the first direction + gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great measure, + appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he finds a + deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy himself if + he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, the student + should practise each adjustment separately, and write down the results + wherever he can measure its deviations. + </p> + <p> + Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an + observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let him + take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and having + registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat the + process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him + excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill. + </p> + <p> + The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits + within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME + CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can have + confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT + CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT + CIRCUMSTANCES. + </p> + <p> + These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person is + desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him begin by + adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the upper + contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then let him + derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the reading. When + he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make that adjustment, + let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but let him not, until he + knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, pronounce upon those of the + instrument. In the case of a barometer, he must also be assured, that the + temperature of the mercury does not change during the interval. + </p> + <p> + A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of mechanism, + for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth parts of a second + were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with a pin for stopping one + of the hands. I proposed that we should each endeavour to stop it twenty + times in succession, at the same point. We were both equally unpractised, + and our first endeavours showed that we could not be confident of the + twentieth part of a second. In fact, both the time occupied in causing the + extremities of the fingers to obey the volition, as well as the time + employed in compressing the flesh before the fingers acted on the stop, + appeared to influence the accuracy of our observations. From some few + experiments I made, I thought I perceived that the rapidity of the + transmission of the effects of the will, depended on the state of fatigue + or health of the body. If any one were to make experiments on this + subject, it might be interesting, to compare the rapidity of the + transmission of volition in different persons, with the time occupied in + obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the same persons. + For example, by having a mechanism to make a piece of ignited charcoal + revolve with different degrees of velocity, some persons will perceive a + continuous circle of light before others, whose retina does not retain so + long impressions that are made upon it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT18" id="link2H_SECT18"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + </h2> + <p> + Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of + pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really + value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by + unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of their + arts being known may deter future offenders. + </p> + <p> + There are several species of impositions that have been practised in + science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which it + may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary + understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, forging, + trimming, and cooking. + </p> + <p> + OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In the + year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an account of + a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great minuteness, + one species, the specific name of which has been taken from its habitat, + and the generic he took from his own family, calling it Gioenia Sicula. It + consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by the body of the + animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures of the animal, and of + its parts; described its structure, its mode of advancing along the sand, + the figure of the tract it left, and estimated the velocity of its course + at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He then described the structure + of the shell, which he treated with nitric acid, and found it approach + nearer to the nature of bone than any other shell. + </p> + <p> + The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this description, + and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact, however, is, that + no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, finding on the + Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the species of Bulla, + of which some are found on the south-western coast of England, [Bulla + lignaria] described and figured these bones most accurately, and drew the + whole of the rest of the description from the stores of his own + imagination. + </p> + <p> + Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been made + for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies which + had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered, that + the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness is very + far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any creature for + which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the neck of the + plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, unless the + memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to outweigh the + evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction which is here + alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained final causes; for + instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed animals, is in no case + combined with the claw-shaped form of the extremities, frequent in many of + the carniverous animals, and necessary to some of them for the purpose of + seizing their prey] it can only be regarded as a deception, without the + accompaniment of wit. + </p> + <p> + FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is + intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of + those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to + acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has never + made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations by + calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. The + observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by the + Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at length + proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The pretended + observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any possible + orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of the + observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost + precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the + logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all the + rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + </p> + <p> + TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those + observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in sticking + them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable adjustment," + as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in science. + </p> + <p> + This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the + trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of + this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is the + same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a + reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect + for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position + of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect + him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + </p> + <p> + OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to + give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of the + highest degree of accuracy. + </p> + <p> + One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and + out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree. If a + hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he cannot + pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up. + </p> + <p> + Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not come + within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall + possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference in + the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy effect + in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still greater + accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather + hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in + different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, + specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no + catalogue contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; + and if he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be + cruel to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, + however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons + might fall. + </p> + <p> + If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes + them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they been + computed from other catalogues the difference would have been + considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for—those + catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or—they may have + been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments; or—the + observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + </p> + <p> + It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by the + highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet they + will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which the + skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry himself + triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of such + constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative merits + of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with admirable + candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to Gauss, and + to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used by three + such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord to a + miracle. + </p> + <p> + There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those + who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in my + opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, it must require much time to try different formulae. + In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human knowledge, + more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may be determined + with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some physical + circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at the time) + the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered from other + contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, the state of + the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of observations has + been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with the latest + determination, there is some little danger that the average of the whole + may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law of nature, + dependent on the interval between the two sets, which law some future + philosopher may discover, and thus the very best observations may have + been thrown aside. + </p> + <p> + In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably happen + that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled accuracy + at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the effect of + rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for that part of + the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is generally so + unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations of those in whom + they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the artist. In fact, the + character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted is destroyed. + </p> + <p> + The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even + after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and a + few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed by + the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been lost; + and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and boiling + water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained useless + from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. M. Libri, + of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing their + registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some warm + springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during a + century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced. + </p> + <p> + Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor of + Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of the + legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain word + had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before the + court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed + themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those who + committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the + colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless matter + remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the solvent having + weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the supposed letters) that + the effect of the slow application of heat would be to render some + difference of texture or of applied substance evident, by some variety in + the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances might be expected to + produce. Permission having been given to try the experiment, on the + application of heat the important word reappeared, to the great + satisfaction of the court. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT19" id="link2H_SECT19"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS. + </h2> + + <p> + One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is to + be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names + added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little + firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times have + those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest, + proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the names + of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be matured, + were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, as having + sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job. + </p> + <p> + Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance, + when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more than + two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have occurred, + which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that members have + spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the contrary. + </p> + <p> + This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too + extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal + Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring + disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as strongly + as an officious interference and flippant manner do the charlatan, or the + trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that improper deference + which was long paid to every dictum of the President, and much of it to + that natural indisposition to take trouble on any point in which a man's + own interest is not immediately concerned. It is to be hoped, for the + credit of that learned body, that no anticipation of the next feast of St. + Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their disposition. [It may be + necessary to inform those who are not members of the Royal Society, that + this is the day on which those Fellows who choose, meet at Somerset House, + to register the names of the Council and Officers the President has been + pleased to appoint for the ensuing year; and who afterwards dine together, + for the purpose of praising each other over wine, which, until within + these few years, was PAID for out of the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse + was attacked by an enterprising reformer, and of course defended by the + coterie. It was, however, given up as too bad. The public may form some + idea of the feeling which prevails in the Council, when they are informed + that this practice was defended by one of the officers of the Society, on + the ground that, if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS + PERCENTAGE ON THE TAVERN BILLS.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT20" id="link2H_SECT20"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + </h2> + <p> + The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science + seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who + conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried until + the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform should be + attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether the + practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy + imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two + sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement; but + the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and Geological + Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the period of his + reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society over which he + presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the officers of those + Societies, would become impossible if it were required to be continued for + a much longer period. Another circumstance of considerable importance is, + that the personal character of the President is less impressed on the + Society; and, supposing any injudicious alterations to be made, it is much + less difficult to correct them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT21" id="link2H_SECT21"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS + </h2> + <p> + IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </p> + <p> + The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after by + medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional efforts, + and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the pages of the + Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain medical papers of + very moderate merit; and, in the second, the preponderance of the medical + interest introduces into the Society some of the jealousies of that + profession. On the other hand, medicine is intimately connected with many + sciences, and its professors are usually too much occupied in their + practice to exert themselves, except upon great occasions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT22" id="link2H_SECT22"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more popular + and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen, partly + from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the decline of the + Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would otherwise have + occupied in the science of England. Its general effects in diffusing + knowledge among the more educated classes of the metropolis, have been, + and continue to be, valuable. Its influence, however, in the government of + the Royal Society, is by no means attended with similar advantages, and + has justly been viewed with considerable jealousy by many of the Fellows + of that body. It may be stated, without disparagement to the Royal + Institution, that the scientific qualifications necessary for its + officers, however respectable, are not quite of that high order which + ought to be required for those of the Royal Society, if the latter body + were in a state of vigour. + </p> + <p> + The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one + of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they + have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put to + this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the + officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal + Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of + services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a + stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager or + officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold + office in the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their + power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes + of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage by + those who doubt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT23" id="link2H_SECT23"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign + academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The + volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in the + preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a + meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals, + without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom that + selection and that award have been made. + </p> + <p> + Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one + point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the + highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes + of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at + intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate + publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and + publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper was + really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be added, + the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing, a + circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other + societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which + the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, + however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely + allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are placed + in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation, and for + the interests of science. + </p> + <p> + It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the first + scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be thus + negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the more to be + regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the circumstance, that + the memoirs admitted into their collection are usually of the highest + merit. I know some of their most active members have wished it were + otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a practice, which, whilst it + has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust to those who contribute, and + is only calculated to produce conflicting claims, equally injurious to + science, and to the reputation of that body, whose negligence may have + given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, + observes—"This memoir was read to the Institute, 7th of October, + 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of January, 1818; M. Arago's report + on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and while every optical philosopher in + Europe has been impatiently expecting its appearance for seven years, it + lies as yet unpublished, and is only known to us by meagre notices in a + periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.—ENCYCLOPAEDIA + METROPOLITANA.] + </p> + <p> + One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in the + volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our own + members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a means of + giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800 copies of + the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to our members or + to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was taken in our volume + for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, nor of the conditions + under which they were to be distributed. [That the Council refrained from + having their first award of those medals thus communicated, is rather + creditable to them, and proves that they had a becoming feeling respecting + their former errors.] That in 1828, when a new fund, called the donation + fund, was established, and through the liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. + Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by them with the respective sums of 2,000L. + and 1,000L. 3 per cents; no notice of such fact appears in our + Transactions for 1829. Other gentlemen have contributed; and if it is + desirable to possess such a fund, it is surely of importance to inform the + non-attending, which is by far the largest part of the Society, that it + exists; and that we are grateful to those by whom it has been founded and + augmented. Neither did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent + members, that they could purchase the President's Discourses at the + trade-price. + </p> + <p> + The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is + printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical + Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with a + single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own + library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the names + of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute to + prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it would + also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on the + distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the + practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be made + up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they might + appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the plan of + prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would be preferable + to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason, however, appeared at + last. It was objected to the plan, that by the present arrangement, the + porter of the Royal Society took round the list to those members resident + in London, and got from some of them a remuneration, in the shape of a + Christmas-box; and this would be lost, if the time of printing were + changed. [During the printing of this chapter, a friend, on whom I had + called, complained that the porter of the Royal Society had demanded + half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such are the paltry interests to which + those of the Royal Society are made to bow. + </p> + <p> + Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume, is + the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals are made. + It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with the Statutes of + the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of members, and it is + for the credit of the medals themselves, that the laws which regulate + their award should be widely known, in order that persons, not members of + the Society, might enter into competition for them. + </p> + <p> + Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society + would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society + had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each year, + would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to be given + with each volume of our Transactions. + </p> + <p> + The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society, and + those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many + arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases, + injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible. + </p> + <p> + Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the + Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are + interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800 + copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them + altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for + distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense of + printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage would + accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the Universities, + public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases, be disposed to + present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies of their works, if + they knew that they were likely to be placed in the hands of persons who + would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional copies might, in some cases, + not be objected to on the ground of expense, when seven or eight hundred + would be quite out of the question. + </p> + <p> + Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical process + to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public body; it + will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on the + Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the case. + If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over to the + Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant with + chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of the work + were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had contributed + most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all probability be + placed in the fittest hands. + </p> + <p> + Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become extremely + bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the knowledge of + the many valuable papers they contain would not be much spread, by + publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the ordinary + meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, would + contain all that has been done in this way during the last century. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the + proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of + all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular + subject. + </p> + <p> + Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever + been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better + able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the + Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT24" id="link2H_SECT24"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. + </h2> + <p> + Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution of + an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that whilst + in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for the purpose + of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the arts of life, + or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the kind has been + established in England. [At the great meeting of the philosophers at + Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the Appendix; the respect + in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt were held in their + respective countries was apparent in the orders bestowed on them by the + Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover, and of Prussia; and there + were present many other philosophers, whose decorations sufficiently + attested the respect in which science was held in the countries from which + they came.] + </p> + <p> + Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction. It + has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a + cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has been + objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary distinctions + by making them common. The latter objection is of little weight, because + the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, will long continue + so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting the number of the + order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar class of another + order. Another objection, however, appears to me to possess far greater + weight; and, however strong the disposition of the Government might be (if + such an order existed) to fill it properly, I do not believe that, in the + present state of public opinion respecting science, it could be done, and, + in all probability, it would be filled up through the channels of + patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + </p> + <p> + Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which it + may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would be + considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the greatest + scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention political causes, + the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited from the army, the + navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that man, whose name is + imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be enrolled amongst the + nobility of his country? In utility and profit, not merely to that + country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly claim comparison + even with the most splendid of those achieved by classes so rich in + glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases fatal to such a + course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title, unless a + considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance very rarely + occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be removed, by + creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until there existed + some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and a sound state of + public opinion relative to science, the execution of the plan could only + be injurious. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT25" id="link2H_SECT25"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + </h2> + <p> + This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to + considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies + could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable economy + would result from the union. By properly arranging their evenings of + meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The libraries might + either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and such a system would + greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific persons. + </p> + <p> + Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different societies + to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but although, on some + accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for the purpose of their + having a common residence. + </p> + <p> + The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first + to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of + diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and + ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But even + here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a little + particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately + attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with + them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society are + far from imitating. + </p> + <p> + The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of + resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and + though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union + which might be generally advantageous to science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_CONC" id="link2H_CONC"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CONCLUSION. + </h2> + <p> + In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so + recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused + if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of Davy. + Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends shall be + cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls their cherished + forms, invested with all the life and energy of recent existence, the + volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their contemporaries can expect + only to read their eloge. + </p> + <p> + In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals, + sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their + minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to + view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated by + the eyes of long and very intimate friendship. + </p> + <p> + Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character of + Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of principles, + would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned his philosophical, + to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral character. It may indeed + be questioned whether the latter quality will not in all persons of great + abilities produce the former. + </p> + <p> + Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of Davy, and + with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest conclusions to + which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a more common + attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was in possession + of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the world, doubtful + perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident in his own + powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping some part of + that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must still fall to his + own share. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of the + inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated, when + he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he brought + all the information that he could collect from others, or which arose from + his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he delivered it to + the world. + </p> + <p> + The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and + distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know; and + this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution. + </p> + <p> + It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except + himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and + affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of + manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those who + sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He usually, + by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer knew upon + the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance commenced, a + process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking up the subject + at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly explain it. + </p> + <p> + His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since, when + I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics, I + applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground of + its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought it + would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none + whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the + state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several + times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the + age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this as + in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended and retained + all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary applications of + mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed greater command over + those subjects than many of far more extensive knowledge. + </p> + <p> + In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant + principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it was + the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have been a + poet; Davy might have been a great one. + </p> + <p> + A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished + philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by + minds even of the highest order. + </p> + <p> + About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression + of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to + bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it, + which I will presently mention. + </p> + <p> + Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I proposed + this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are mixed + together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so + condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the + gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think + they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they + would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired + whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did + not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed. + </p> + <p> + A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He at + once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring + whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was a + good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it must + succeed. + </p> + <p> + These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to have + recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it adds to + the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr. + Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose from the + nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining unchanged, + an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose discoveries + had given birth to it. + </p> + <p> + [The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be of + the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which it + was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite + proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of one + atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it + occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of + success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one + substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the + mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess + which resulted from their union, then either that such union would + actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be most + favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or other + causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to follow, that + if combination should take place under such circumstances, then the most + probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should be that which + furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but until the experiments + are made, it is by no means certain that other combinations might not be + produced.] + </p> + <p> + The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr. + Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all those + who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the methods + he employed deserve to be much more widely known. + </p> + <p> + It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been + adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of + the bodily senses of the individual,—a circumstance which, if it + were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am, + however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it + one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + </p> + <p> + During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute + experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any remarkable + difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either of his + hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other persons + who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's observatory, + and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of his equatorial; + but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to TEACH ME HOW TO + SEE THEM.] + </p> + <p> + He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his, + and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made + relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone + which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe + this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds had + been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed their + faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + </p> + <p> + It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such + inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could + command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A + striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen, + FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ + of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough. + Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar spectrum + by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my replying in + the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them, he mentioned the + extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's description in his + hand and the long time which it had cost him in detecting them. My friend + then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and put you in such a position + that they shall be visible, and yet you shall look for them and not find + them: after which, while you remain in the same position, I will instruct + you how to see them, and you shall see them, and not merely wonder you did + not see them before, but you shall find it impossible to look at the + spectrum without seeing them." + </p> + <p> + On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I did + not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen, when + the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied with + such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of precipitation + the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in a gallon of a + solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so slight, as to + require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous evaporation, + quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the solution more + concentrated. + </p> + <p> + The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and the + extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands like + those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I have + thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider its + true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that injustice + has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing to some of his + bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to have depended on + the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. And, in the next + place, if I have established the fact, whilst it affords us better means + of judging of such observations as lay claim to an accuracy "MORE THAN + HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer into truth, a path by which + he may acquire powers that he would otherwise have thought were only the + gift of nature to a favoured few. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 1. + </h2> + <p> + In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science + at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that its + influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting to be held + in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria having + expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords should be + given to promote its objects. + </p> + <p> + It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been + considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced + of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the + numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the paths + of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those of + politics. + </p> + <p> + ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF + SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829. + </p> + <p> + The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences + meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe, is + a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention, from + the important advantages which may arise from it. + </p> + <p> + About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an + annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine and + botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at Leipsic, + in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg, Frankfort on + the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had printed a + certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects were + considered members of this academy. + </p> + <p> + The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the + communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced + an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge were + admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure + mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy. + </p> + <p> + Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the + academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting, which + took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year. + </p> + <p> + The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed by + any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans. + </p> + <p> + The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made + knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians + previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have + impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that + its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there + is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for + their possessors the road to wealth and distinction. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the numbers + of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which is + annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The + universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the + wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by + friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age; + whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of + acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes + his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them + the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the + advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or occupied + in similar inquiries. + </p> + <p> + Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as secretary + of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most ably + seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + </p> + <p> + These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin, + undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the + accommodation of the meeting. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377 members + of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were printed in a + small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number, to indicate his + seat in the great concert room, in which the morning meetings took place. + Each member was also provided with an engraved card of the hall of + meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed in black ink, and + his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every person immediately + found his own place, and knew where to look for any friend whom he might + wish to find. + </p> + <p> + At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being + assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage + of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the side-boxes + being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and by the foreign + ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the eloquent address + of the president. + </p> + <p> + SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and + Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.—By + ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + </p> + <p> + Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted to + open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of + gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never + yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of + scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover new + phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored depths of + nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to me. You have + assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, and in a distant + quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same cause with yourselves, I + was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have likewise greeted my return + home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude, you might bind me still longer + and closer to our common country. + </p> + <p> + What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more + agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for the + first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the birth-place + of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the Baltic plains; + from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the beneficent + influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have for centuries + been collected and investigated, the friends of nature, inspired with the + same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock together to this + assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is used, and its peculiar + structure affects the spirit and disposition of the people. From the Great + European Alps, to the other side of the Weichsel, where, in the country of + Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed splendour; everywhere in the + extensive dominions of the German nation we attempt to discover the secret + operations of nature, whether in the heavens, or in the deepest problems + of mechanics, or in the interior of the earth, or in the finely woven + tissues of organic structure. + </p> + <p> + Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in + interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion or + form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests itself + as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of truth and + performance of duty are the highest object of morality, that feeling of + unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion, constitution, and laws + of our country, have rendered dear to each of us. Even this emulation in + mental struggles has called forth (as the glorious history of our country + tells us,) the fairest blossoms of humanity, science, and art. + </p> + <p> + The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its last + meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through the + flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone with + peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance between + Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North. + </p> + <p> + Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it unexpectedly + increases the mass of facts and opinions which are here brought into one + common and useful union. It also recalls lofty recollections into the mind + of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century has elapsed since Linne + appears, in the boldness of the undertakings which he has attempted and + accomplished, as one of the greatest men of the last century. His glory, + however bright, has not rendered Europe blind to the merits of Scheele and + Bergman. The catalogue of these great names is not completed; but lest I + shall offend noble modesty, I dare not speak of the light which is still + flowing in richest profusion from the North, nor mention the discoveries + in the chemical nature of substances, in the numerical relation of their + elements, or the eddying streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The + philosophers here referred to are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those + excellent persons, who, deterred neither by perils of sea or land, have + hastened to our meeting from Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, + and Poland, point our the way to other strangers in succeeding years, so + that by turns every part of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific + communication with the different nations of Europe. + </p> + <p> + But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings in + presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the + patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard for + those lives so dear to their country;—Goethe, whom the great + creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the ARCANA + of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely friend, + as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;—Olbers, who has + discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be + found;—the greatest anatomists of our age—Soemmering, who, + with equal zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and + the spots and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the + photosphere;) Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his + works and his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of + comparative anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and + who has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the + temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat, + as we are not favoured with their presence? + </p> + <p> + These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the + progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to the + obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our + fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist, as + in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual interchange + of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be printed in some + general collection. The principal object of this Society is, to bring + those personally together who are engaged in the same field of science. It + is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange of ideas, whether + they present themselves as facts, opinions, or doubts. It is the + foundation of friendly connexion which throws light on science, adds + cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to the manners. + </p> + <p> + In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction between + words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst a race, + which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual superiority, and + to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the shipwreck of nations, + we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It was not the difficulty of + interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of German science, which has + spread thought as on wings through the world, and insured it a long + continuance, that then induced the friends of philosophy and natural + history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander on long journeys. That + ancient race knew the inspiring influence of conversation as it + extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates the tissue of + scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth without + difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its greatest + extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time. Each step, + which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his object, only + carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of doubt does not + diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and new fields; and + whoever has called that a golden period, when difference of opinions, or, + as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes of the learned, will be + finished, has as imperfect a conception of the wants of science, and of + its continued advancement, as a person who expects that the same opinions + in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, will be maintained for several + centuries. + </p> + <p> + The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature, + have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical + knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy. + The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here, + therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type of + the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In his + physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us a + distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted + object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific + investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it is not + to break that link which embraces equally the investigation of organic and + inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily developement of this + institution renders it necessary, besides the general meeting which is + destined for these halls, to have specific meetings for single branches of + science. For it is only in such contracted circles,—it is only among + men whom reciprocity of studies has brought together, that verbal + discussions can take place. Without this sort of communication, would the + voluntary association of men in search of truth be deprived of an + inspiring principle. + </p> + <p> + Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement of + the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility of + such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations will + meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding you, + that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the duty of + making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble friend, M. + Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and indefatigable + activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit which animates + the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy, and in + acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have seconded + all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness. + </p> + <p> + In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been + prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums + dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to + the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The + greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like the + University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to which + the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have during + this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The + amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our + minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that + great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year this + royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of still + greater value than the treasures themselves,—what inspires every + Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the + ancient reigning family,—that he graciously attaches to himself + every species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection + to the free cultivation of the understanding. + </p> + <p> + This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and + several other memoirs were then read. + </p> + <p> + The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were + present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those who + chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had been + foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense building + used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this purpose. + One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were arranged, at + which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On the evening of + the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the concert rooms + attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on this occasion, + and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his presence the fete of + his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the country, foreign princes, + and foreign ambassadors, were present. It was gratifying to observe the + princes of the blood mingling with the cultivators of science, and to see + the heir-apparent to the throne, during the course of the evening, engaged + in conversation with those most celebrated for their talents, of his own, + or of other countries. + </p> + <p> + Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration + of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert, were + printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most illustrious + philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in letters of gold + at the end of the great concert room. + </p> + <p> + In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, enrolls + amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as well she may + be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius of the first + Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to claim as + entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name. + </p> + <p> + The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting of the + academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In the afternoon, + through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M. Lichtenstein, various + rooms were appropriated for different sections of the academy. In one, the + chemical philosophers attended to some chemical memoir, whilst the + botanists assembled in another room, the physiologists in a third, and the + natural philosophers in a fourth. Each attended to the reading of papers + connected with their several sciences. Thus every member was at liberty to + choose that section in which he felt most interest at the moment, and he + had at all times power of access to the others. The evenings were + generally spent at some of the SOIREES of the savans, resident at Berlin, + whose hospitality and attentions to their learned brethren of other + countries were unbounded. During the unoccupied hours of the morning, the + collections of natural history, which are rapidly rising into importance, + were open to examination; and the various professors and directors who + assisted the stranger in his inquiries, left him equally gratified by the + knowledge and urbanity of those who so kindly aided him. + </p> + <p> + A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which had + sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers sent by + different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was attached to + it;— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Russia......... 1 + Austria........ 0 + England........ 1 + Holland........ 2 + Denmark........ 7 + France ........ 1 + Sardinia ....... 0 + Prussia........ 95 + Bavaria........ 12 + Hanover........ 5 + Saxony ........ 21 + Wirtemburg ...... 2 + Sweden ........ 13 + Naples ........ 1 + Poland ........ 3 + German States..... 43 + —- 206 + Berlin ....... 172 + —- 378 +</pre> + <p> + The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared, + was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more eminent + who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge. The + following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will afford, + perhaps, a tolerably fair view:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Geometers............. 11 + Astronomers........... 5 + Natural Philosophers . 23 + — 39 + + Mines............ 5 + Mineralogy ...... 16 + Geology.......... 9 + — 30 + + Chemistry........... 18 + Geography........... 8 + Anatomy............. 12 + + Zoology............ 14 + Natural History.... 8 + Botany.............. 35 + — 57 + + Physicians....... 175 + Amateurs ....... 9 + Various ......... 35 + —-381 +</pre> + <p> + A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed + that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all those + persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the past and + present age. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE2" id="link2H_APPE2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 2. + </h2> + <p> + An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four + candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the + meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed + pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the + charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member to + judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to show + how the ranks of the Society are recruited. + </p> + <p> + EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. DATED, + 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + </p> + <p> + "When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me + why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer + was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that + my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days + passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality + made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really through + modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until something was + said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, which was + published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal Society; when + you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, because I was and + am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if I can be supposed + worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + </p> + <p> + EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED, + BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + </p> + <p> + "All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission + into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject + upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary." + </p> + <p> + Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the Royal + Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries, pressing + one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on proposing him as, + a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been well aware of the + feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to the propriety of such a + step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite satisfied that such a course + is advantageous to the interests of the Society. That similar applications + were not unfrequently made in private, is well known; but it remains for + the Society to consider whether, now they are publicly and officially + announced to them, it will sanction this mode of augmenting the already + numerous list of its fellows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE3" id="link2H_APPE3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 3, + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE + </h2> + <p> + PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + </p> + <p> + N. B.—The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, + but only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + No. of No. of + Papers years on + printed Council. + in Phil. + Trans.———— ———- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. + 109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. +</pre> + <p> + I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal + Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for + which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission to + employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes, or + from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised at + receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, those + adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety of many + individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a different + opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy, I shall + decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has been + already published in many ways, although the whole has never been printed + in a collected form. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1216 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Decline of Science in England + +Author: Charles Babbage + +Release Date: August 16, 2008 [EBook #1216] +Last Updated: March 20, 2020 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, <br /> AND ON SOME OF ITS + CAUSES. + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Charles Babbage + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DEDICATION. + </h2> + <p> + HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO A + NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE + SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE MIGHT + HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, PERHAPS TOO + SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING THE NAME OF ONE + WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND RESPECT. + </p> + <p> + C. BABBAGE. + </p> + <p> + DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little to + say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service to + science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so thankless + a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion in which I + concur with several of my friends, although I should hope that what I have + written will not give just reason for the permanence of such feelings. On + one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected in any degree with + the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; the causes which + have led to it have been long operating, and would have produced this + result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and whatever might + have been the fate of my speculations. + </p> + <p> + If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these + pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself, I + think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and + declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is shared + by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I shall + offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered position, + are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, when combined + with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will be admitted to + deserve considerable attention. The following extract from the article + Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from the pen of a + gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and from his + acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled to respect. + Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be permitted to cite him + as high authority for the fact. + </p> + <p> + "In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of + Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret, + which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the space + of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do, the + electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers, we + still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree of + neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this + period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; + and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical + discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are we + sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are amongst + our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius, Guy-Lussac, + Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the doctrine of + definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic Theory. Is it a + representation of the laws of nature, or is it not?"—-CHEMISTRY, + ENCYC. METROP. p.596. + </p> + <p> + When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were + informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the + same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the + language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be + allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the + writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some + of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may infer + his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his last + work:— + </p> + <p> + "—But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for philosophers."——"There + are very few persons who pursue science with true dignity; it is followed + more as connected with objects of profit than those of fame."—SIR H. + DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL. + </p> + <p> + The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the varied + acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into which he + enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and in our + article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this ONLY + opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most + admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific + matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and + quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS + pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has + sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which abound in + it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical collections; + and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long suppression of + those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future volumes of that of + the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts of them which from time + to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the hands of the authors, or + from the reports rendered by the committees appointed to examine them; + which latter, indeed, are universally models of their kind, and have + contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the high scientific tone of + the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but will write his best, when he + knows that his work, if it have merit, will immediately be reported on by + a committee, who will enter into all its meaning; understand it, however + profound: and, not content with MERELY understanding it, pursue the trains + of thought to which it leads; place its discoveries and principles in new + and unexpected lights; and bring the whole of their knowledge of + collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor ought we to omit our + acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of Poggendorff and + Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic compeer, they + present a picture of the actual progress of physical science throughout + Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to see with what celerity + every thing, even moderately valuable in the scientific publications of + this country, finds its way into their pages. This ought to encourage our + men of science. They have a larger audience, and a wider sympathy than + they are perhaps aware of; and however disheartening the general diffusion + of smatterings of a number of subjects, and the almost equally general + indifference to profound knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may + be, they may rest assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good + experiment they may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and + commented upon, in Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the + obligation were mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are + unstudied, and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to + conceal the melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics + we have long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In + chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the + Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who + among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated acids,—Oersted's + and Berzelius's on the radicals of the earths,—Balard's and + Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,—and a hundred other + splendid trains of research in that fascinating science? Nor need we stop + here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not furnish matter for + similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and deep-seated; but this + is not the place to discuss them."—MR. HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON SOUND, + printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA. + </p> + <p> + With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of + the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some of + its causes, must be left to others to decide. + </p> + <p> + Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific + bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished upon + some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and Pamphlets, + have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has been cast upon + some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be established by + testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it can be proved, by + evidence to which the public have access, it is of no consequence (for the + cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of opinion derives weight from + the name which is attached to it; but a chain of reasoning is equally + conclusive, whoever may be its author. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be + avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured, + and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of + frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the + lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue + that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who + fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those + whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest + scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the + philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he may + think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections, from + the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was the author + of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered amongst the + most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be credited, from + the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with one of those + subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. [I merely observed + that the agreement made with the British Museum for exchanging the Arundel + MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been stated by the President,) + was UNWISE;—because it was not to be expected that many duplicates + should be found in a library like that of the Museum, weak in the physical + and mathematical sciences: that it was IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;—because + it neither fixed the TIME when the difference was to be paid, in case + their duplicates should be insufficient; nor did it appear that there were + any FUNDS out of which the money could be procured: and I added, that it + would be more advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we + wanted with the produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world + of science, my character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being + the subject of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of + correcting it, I will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it + more candid to mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have + disapproved, or whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader + inferences which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I + hope, therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so + unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described + individuals. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set up + to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a few + words will suffice. + </p> + <p> + I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the + injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There + is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine. The + public character of every public servant is legitimate subject of + discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly + canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from + such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for they + know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid from + the public purse. + </p> + <p> + The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and + to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose + appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the + merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they + are paid to perform. + </p> + <p> + This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of + State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal + Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure different. + But the President of a society, although not recompensed by any pecuniary + remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which he presides + possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who will esteem + themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the office, by the + consequence attached to it in public estimation. He, therefore, is + answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + </p> + <p> + There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other officers, + have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a train of + clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them. Science is + much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious labours the + routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be unwise, as well as + ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies, or even of the + negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes should justify such + a course. + </p> + <p> + Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry in + its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our + scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope, + temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms + of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those from + whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together all the + causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different departments, + endeavour to convince them that some alteration is essentially necessary + for the promotion of that very object which we both by such different + roads pursue. + </p> + <p> + I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the + departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been wholly + the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with justice, + in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the famous + maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of female + weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of those who + are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion. But, whoever + would claim the admiration of mankind for their good actions, must prove + his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil deeds. Adopt the + maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from its universality; + and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto deemed. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the + Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that + attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services, and + partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to science + in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited to take + steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having published + extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the permission of its + Council. To have asked permission of the present Council would have been + useless. I might, however, have given the substance of what I have + extracted without the words, and no one could then have reproached me with + any infringement of our rules: but there were two objections to that + course. In the first place, it is impossible, even for the most candid, in + all cases, to convey precisely the same sentiment in different language; + and I thought it therefore more fair towards those from whom I differed, + as well as to the public, to give the precise words. Again: had it been + possible to make so accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the + risk of incurring the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to + escaping their censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own + head; and I shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + </p> + <p> + If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse me + of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which + governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the + justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted with + the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their approbation, + appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need scarcely add I have + not the slightest anticipation. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> DEDICATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <b>REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN + ENGLAND</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF + SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS + TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT"> SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT2"> SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT3"> SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned + Societies. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES + IN ENGLAND. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN + PARTICULAR. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT4"> SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE + ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT5"> SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND + VICE-PRESIDENCIES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT6"> SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT7"> SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT8"> SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN + ONE PERSON. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT9"> SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT10"> SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT11"> SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT12"> SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT13"> SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT14"> SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE + OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT15"> SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE + SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT16"> SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT17"> SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT18"> SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF + SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT19"> SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE + ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT20"> SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT21"> SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF + PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT22"> SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL + INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT23"> SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL + SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT24"> SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT25"> SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_CONC"> CONCLUSION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> APPENDIX, No. 1. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE2"> APPENDIX, No. 2. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE3"> APPENDIX, No. 3, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_LIST"> LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, <br /> AND ON SOME OF ITS + CAUSES. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + </h2> + <p> + It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable + them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of + science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect to + the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other nations, + not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior power. That a + country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical and manufacturing + ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of inquiries which form + the highest departments of that knowledge on whose more elementary truths + its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is well deserving the + attention of those who shall inquire into the causes that influence the + progress of nations. + </p> + <p> + To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest + departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present, + must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who, + having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see and + regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see through + and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these remarks, + with the hope that they may excite discussion,—with the conviction + that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,—and with the + confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can + remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of the + science of England. + </p> + <p> + The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have + resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed, that + it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall, + therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination, but + rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant + circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of it, + shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for the + advancement of British science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + </h2> + <p> + That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive + influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a + principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally certain + that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them the traces + of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore not + unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science in + England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A young + man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant almost of + the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these latter + establishments, formed originally for instructing those who are intended + for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical pursuits are + nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition. + </p> + <p> + Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen + years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there is no + one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to believe + that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted by the + warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of its + institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of no + ordinary kind. + </p> + <p> + Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought + to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I am + inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose would + not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they would + contribute materially to that important object. + </p> + <p> + It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university, + ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a + certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered + knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet + this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for + instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must + attend, other sources of information from whence the students may acquire + sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on chemistry, geology, + botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of option with the + student, which, and how many of these courses he shall attend, and such it + should still remain. All that it would be necessary to add would be, that + previously to taking his degree, each person should be examined by those + Professors, whose lectures he had attended. The pupils should then be + arranged in two classes, according to their merits, and the names included + in these classes should be printed. I would then propose that no young + man, except his name was found amongst the "List of Honours," should be + allowed to take his degree, unless he had been placed in the first class + of some one at least of the courses given by the professors. But it should + still be imperative upon the student to possess such mathematical + knowledge as we usually require. If he had attained the first rank in + several of these examinations, it is obvious that we should run no hazard + in a little relaxing the strictness of his mathematical trial. + </p> + <p> + If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and the + following subjects be taken together:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Modern History. + Laws of England. + Civil Law. + + Political Economy. + Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + + Chemistry. + Mineralogy. + Geology. + + Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. + Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. +</pre> + <p> + One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young + person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most + frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics + and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of + his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect + every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should + be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits + in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of + examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It + might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations to + the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of them + in the first or second year, if he should prefer it. + </p> + <p> + By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with our + other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to keep + pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power and our + right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the church, as + well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected with our + academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open a field of + honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive nature of our + present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition to their stock + of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of the + country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open it + for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so much for + the improvement of our system of instruction, that public opinion will not + reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our first duty to be + well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations ought only to be the + result of a most mature consideration, and of a free interchange of + sentiments on the subject, in order that we may condense upon the question + the accumulated judgment of many minds. + </p> + <p> + It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of + education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the higher + classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of Commons, + which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with science, + sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the extremely + limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps, have doubted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + </h2> + <p> + Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this + matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in + each of the respective cases to be examined. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + </h2> + <p> + A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to + advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which + they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there + are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of + society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the + jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous + situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the + other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or + resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps + of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned + professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public opinion + is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress conduct that + is injurious either to the profession or to the public. Again, the mutual + jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body is so considerable, + that although the rank and estimation which an individual holds in the + profession may be most unfairly appreciated, by taking the opinion of his + rival; yet few estimations will be found generally more correct than the + opinion of a whole profession on the merits of any one of its body. This + test is of great value to the public, and becomes the more so, in + proportion to the difficulty of the study to which the profession is + devoted. It is by availing themselves of it that men of sense and + judgment, who have occasion for the services of professional persons, are, + in a great measure, guided in their choice. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct + profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on that + ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach to + professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this + circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so difficult, + and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who have not spent + years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge of those who + pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and even that men of + sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means to distinguish + between the possessors of knowledge, in the present day, merely + elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest order. This + remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult applications + of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the energies of those + who only look to reputation in England. + </p> + <p> + As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to science, + it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the proper + fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is vacant, + it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather from among + persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other subjects, and to + whom science has been only an occasional pursuit. A certain quantity of + scientific knowledge is of course possessed by individuals in many + professions; and when added to the professional acquirements of the army, + the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, is highly meritorious: but + it is obvious that this may become, when separated from the profession, + quite insignificant as the basis of a scientific reputation. + </p> + <p> + To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of + chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of + several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of + the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have + been connected with this profession. + </p> + <p> + The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are not + often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of + considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members + hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation, + nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our + church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of + science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments. + </p> + <p> + In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out the + strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it ability, + coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot fail of + obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction to public + life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a qualification + for many situations more or less remotely connected with it, as well as + from the circumstance that several of the highest officers of the state + must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + </p> + <p> + A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and + of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which is + less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science. This is + one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in public + situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches of + scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of such + persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + </p> + <p> + But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional + avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the + overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with success + by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be well + acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task; but to + add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be the lot of + but few English philosophers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT2" id="link2H_SECT2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + </h2> + <p> + The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded + by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of new + and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds: + </p> + <p> + 1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new + invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can be. + </p> + <p> + 2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually much + larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing; and it + is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want which the + public feel for the new article. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct: there + are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very reasoning + from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into these + exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth is + entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the + application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded. A few + instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The principle of + the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth in the time of + Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to raising heavy + weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on natural + philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it may + fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr. + Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted it + into a most valuable and powerful engine.—The principle of the + convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the + pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago, + remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant + proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly pointed + out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the foundation of + a most convenient practical method of determining the length of the + pendulum.—The interval which separated the discovery, by Dr. Black, + of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application of it to the + steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the efforts of two + minds; and both were of the highest order.—The influence of + electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable value as + an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be said to + have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the same + powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by a singular + felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the copper-sheathing of + vessels. That admirably connected chain of reasoning, the truth of which + is confirmed by its very failure as a remedy, will probably at some future + day supply, by its successful application, a new proof of the position we + are endeavouring to establish. + </p> + <p> + [I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the + greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing + the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,—the preventing the corrosion of + the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an + OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the + surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine + animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the + progress of the vessel.] + </p> + <p> + Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long + intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles in + science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to surprise + us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new principles + or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those which are + necessary for their practical application. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, it + required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the mathematical + science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries by new + creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a quick + perception of the details, and of the practical applications of the + principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of mankind that + minds of this high order should lavish their powers on subjects unsuited + to their grasp. + </p> + <p> + In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths + which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most remote + from all useful application, become in the next age the bases of profound + physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by proper + simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and daily aid + to the artist and the sailor. + </p> + <p> + It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles, + the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application + likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle + of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the + expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his name + received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has deservedly + brought it into such general use. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of + invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying + principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will + always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail. + </p> + <p> + If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles + should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also important + that encouragement should be held out to the few who are capable of adding + to the number of those truths on which such applications are founded. + Unless there exist peculiar institutions for the support of such + inquirers, or unless the Government directly interfere, the contriver of a + thaumatrope may derive profit from his ingenuity, whilst he who unravels + the laws of light and vision, on which multitudes of phenomena depend, + shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already afforded + to abstract science in our different universities, by the professorships + established at them. It is not however in the power of such institutions + to create; they may foster and aid the development of genius; and, when + rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair and honourable + rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and when otherwise, + the lectures which are required from the professor are not perhaps in all + cases the best mode of employing the energies of those who are capable of + inventing. + </p> + <p> + I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the + authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of + expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece of + scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the return + of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks, "But, + because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great hinderance and + interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely exempt from the + former, and in great measure from the latter."—LIFE OF GALILEO, + p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with gratitude of Cosmo, + the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me to attach myself to him + with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with the title of Philosopher + and principal Mathematician to his Highness, without the duties of any + office to perform, but with most complete leisure; so that I can complete + my treatise on Mechanics, &c."—p.31. [Life of Galileo, published + by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a country + far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's, to be + employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these + sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable + philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose + modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend + by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in + that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal + Society of England;—had he taken part with those who vote to each + other medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make + to each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant + to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been + represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his + claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes with + the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in the + mantle of his glory.—But the philosopher may find consolation for + the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If he + was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name + connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military + renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental power, + its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his life in + drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns? + </p> + <p> + If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the age + are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The doctrines + of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of electricity,"—principles + of a high order, which have immortalized the names of their discoverers,—were + not produced by the meditations of the cloister: nor is it in the least a + reproach to those valuable institutions to mention truths like these. + Fortunate circumstances must concur, even to the greatest, to render them + eminently successful. It is not permitted to all to be born, like + Archimedes, when a science was to be created; nor, like Newton, to find + the system of the world "without form and void;" and, by disclosing + gravitation, to shed throughout that system the same irresistible radiance + as that with which the Almighty Creator had illumined its material + substance. It can happen to but few philosophers, and but at distant + intervals, to snatch a science, like Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite + combination, and binding it in the chains of number, to exalt it to rank + amongst the exact. Triumphs like these are necessarily "few and far + between;" nor can it be expected that that portion of encouragement, which + a country may think fit to bestow on science, should be adapted to meet + such instances. Too extraordinary to be frequent, they must be left, if + they are to be encouraged at all, to some direct interference of the + government. + </p> + <p> + The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would + arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:—That + class of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess + sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose + judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to science, + might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the expression of + public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it might not enjoy, + in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high character for + independence. Should these causes concur in any country, it might become + highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science to any department + of the government. This reasoning does not appear to have escaped the + penetration of those who advised the abolition of the late Board of + Longitude. + </p> + <p> + The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country to + encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not perhaps + the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto pursued + science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of complaint; they + knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for it, that it led + to little honour, and to less profit. + </p> + <p> + That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering the + science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past + administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the present + ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion, it is not + necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain long insensible + to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing science were + thought of some importance by any administration, it would be difficult in + the present state of things to do much in its favour; because, on the one + hand, the higher classes in general have not a profound knowledge of + science, and, on the other, those persons whom they have usually + consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to deserve the confidence + of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the money allotted by + government to purposes of science ought to be expended with the same + regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money in the affairs + of private life. + </p> + <p> + [Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the expense + of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical + Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the Philosophical + Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at the Royal + Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only are printed? + </p> + <p> + Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be + distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they + will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country + incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see on + what principle a similar destination could be refused for the observations + made at the Cape of Good Hope.] + </p> + <p> + To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of science + by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state a fact, + which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves + attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the + terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and new + tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the time + that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of between two + and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of those annuities being + a losing concern was long known to many; and the government appear to have + been the last to be informed on the subject. Half the interest of half + that loss, judiciously applied to the encouragement of mathematical + science, would, in a few years, have rendered utterly impossible such + expensive errors. + </p> + <p> + To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have its + weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first translation + of this celebrated work into our own language, has just arrived in England + from—America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES PROBABILITES, were + both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the reign of that + extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent in Science as + they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which trained and + rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they have conferred + upon mankind! + </p> + <p> + In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge of + science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man does + not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory, or has + added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of animated + nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have begun their + career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples are perhaps + more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful to mention a + few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who now hold, high + official stations in the governments of their respective countries. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + (5) of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador. + + (1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. + (2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. + (3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE—RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS + FOSSILES &c. &c. + (4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, + and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. + (5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the + Transactions of the Academy of Forty. + (6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809—TABULAE VENERIS, + NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810—INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A + MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other + works. +</pre> + <p> + M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the + Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of the + Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at the + German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau was + invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of + Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the King + of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in our own + country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true, more than a + century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any person suggest an + appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and he will gather from + the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the highest knowledge + conduces nothing to success, and that political power is almost the only + recommendation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT3" id="link2H_SECT3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + </h2> + <p> + There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons pursuing + science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In former + times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art of + making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary. More + recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to science, it + has been found that those who are most capable of extending human + knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of printing + their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some means should + be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the volumes of the + transactions of academies have accomplished the desired end. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. When + they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their knowledge, + it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their list. Thus a + stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science, which urges on + their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for distinction. It is + clear that this envied position will be valued in proportion to the + difficulty of its attainment, and also to the celebrity of those who enjoy + it; and whenever the standard of scientific knowledge which qualifies for + its ranks is lowered, the value of the distinction itself will be + diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of persons having no sort of + knowledge of science are admitted, it must cease to be sought after as an + object of ambition by men of science, and the class of persons to whom it + will become an object of desire will be less intellectual. + </p> + <p> + Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies of + Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the Italian + Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst the most + distinguished. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Name Number of Number + Population. Members of + Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + + 1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 + 2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. + 8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16 + 4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8 +</pre> + <p> + It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member of + the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000 persons + is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000 inhabitants + produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at these + proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin, must be + more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in England; and a + member of the Institute of France will be more than thirteen times more + rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal Society is in England. + </p> + <p> + Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other + countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking + difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the + station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several + of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps, + at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that + which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement on + science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of this + support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose + enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered. + </p> + <p> + The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended by + those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the + circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia having + acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may attribute the + great force with which that maxim is appreciated. + </p> + <p> + In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as + profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few who + do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks of + royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I shall + mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to the English + reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the Institute, + printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for 1823.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class + Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. + to the Legion of Honour. + + GrandCroix......... 3 80 + GrandOfficier..... 3 160 + Commandeur........ 4 400 + Officier.......... 17 2,000 + Chevalier......... 40 Not limited. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of Members of the Institute Total Number + decorated with of + the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + + Grand Croix....... 2 + 100 + Chevalier......... 27 + + Amongst the members of the Institute there + are,— + + Dukes................... 2 + Marquis................. 1 + Counts.................. 4 + Viscounts................ 2 + Barons.................. 14 + —23 + + Of these there are + Peers of France.......... 5 +</pre> + <p> + We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal + Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute of + France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to inquire how + many titled members there are amongst those who have contributed to its + Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and nine members who had + contributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society; amongst these were + found:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Peer........................ 1 + Baronets.................... 5 + Knights..................... 5 +</pre> + <p> + It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of + members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy, + could be attributed exclusively to science. + </p> + <p> + It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list, + were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to + have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to + mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal. + </p> + <p> + The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and + England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the + translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His + Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette + de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, + "CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to + particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term + WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality most + esteemed amongst his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France, we + shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much that I + have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which I made + several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will not be + found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing no + inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years since, + to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time in + London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me that he + had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement of science. + </p> + <p> + Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison between + the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet of paper + before him, and requested him to write down the names of six Englishmen, + in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific reputation. + Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of six Frenchmen, + best known in England for their scientific discoveries. We exchanged these + lists, and I then requested him to place against each name (as far as he + knew) the annual income of the different appointments held by that person. + In the mean time, I performed the same operation on his list, against some + names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The result of the comparison + was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for the six French SAVANS whom I + had named. Of the average amount of the sums received by the English, I + only remember that it was very much smaller. When we consider what a + command over the necessaries and luxuries of life 1200L. will give in + France, it is underrating it to say it is equal to 2000L. in this country. + </p> + <p> + Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into life, + who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself to the + abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful power, + feels that the career of science is that in which his mental faculties are + most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants. What are his + prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add colour to the + blank before him? There are no situations in the state; there is no + position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him in his laborious + path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, there are some few + chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some distant day pretend; + but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries attached are seldom + sufficient for the sole support of the individual, they are very rarely + enough for that of a family. What then can he reply to the entreaties of + his friends, to betake himself to some business in which perhaps they have + power to assist him, or to choose some profession in which his talents may + produce for him their fair reward? If he have no fortune, the choice is + taken away: he MUST give up that line of life in which his habits of + thought and his ambition qualify him to succeed eminently, and he MUST + choose the bar, or some other profession, in which, amongst so many + competitors, in spite of his great talents, he can be but moderately + successful. The loss to him is great, but to the country it is greater. We + thus, by a destructive misapplication of talent which our institutions + create, exchange a profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer. + </p> + <p> + If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and, + intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the + state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration a + sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;—if, + so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he might + have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall have won a + station high in the ranks of European science, he may a little augment his + resources by some of those few employments to which science leads;—if + he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of Longitude, for + example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may be permitted to + exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry remuneration of a + clerk, he will find that other qualifications than knowledge and a love of + science are necessary for its attainment. He will also find that the high + and independent spirit, which usually dwells in the breast of those who + are deeply versed in these pursuits, is ill adapted for such appointments; + and that even if successful, he must hear many things he disapproves, and + raise no voice AGAINST them. + </p> + <p> + Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue + abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he can + resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus + situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if they + do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for them to + deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the greatest + delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to the public? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the + division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as it + had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The want of + competition in science produced effects similar to those which the same + cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany were the first + to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal Society was too + comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their favourite subject, + and they established the Linnean Society. After many years, a new science + arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At an another and more + recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the wants of their + science, united to establish the Astronomical Society. Each of these + bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science by the parent + establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each in succession + experienced from the Royal Society the most determined opposition. + </p> + <p> + Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the promotion + of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived that nothing + could be more likely to render these young institutions permanently + successful, than discouragement and opposition at their commencement. + Finding their first attempts so eminently successful, they redoubled the + severity of their persecution, and the result was commensurate with their + exertions, and surpassed even their wildest anticipations. The + Astronomical Society became in six years known and respected throughout + Europe, not from the halo of reputation which the glory of its vigourous + youth had thrown around the weakness of its declining years; but from the + sterling merit of "its unpretending deeds, from the sympathy it claimed + and received from every practical astronomer, whose labours it relieved, + and whose calculations it lightened." + </p> + <p> + But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological and + Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition: perhaps, + indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best proof of the + wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present, the various + societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, each pursuing + its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with filial regret, the + second childhood of their common parent, and the evil councils by which + that sad event has been anticipated. + </p> + <p> + It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who + belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by many + considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The + following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives + the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. + Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. + Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. + Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. + Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. + Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. + Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. + Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. + Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. + Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. + Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. + Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. + Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. + Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. +</pre> + <p> + [* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu of + annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the + member.] + </p> + <p> + Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according to + their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a tail of + upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. per letter. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a + country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is + indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are + maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless + the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should + rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, it + is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full + PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS and + inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due degree + of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these principles. + Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page; and I regret to + add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend it; but, like all + deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone can contribute to its + cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of remonstrance or reproof + found utterance through other channels, I had gladly been silent, content + to support by my vote the reasonings of the friend of science and of the + Society. But this has not been the case, and after frustrated efforts to + introduce improvements, I shall now endeavour, by the force of plain, but + perhaps painful truths, to direct public opinion in calling for such a + reform, as shall rescue the Royal Society from contempt in our own + country, from ridicule in others. + </p> + <p> + On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the + Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the + vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science, and + has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral + discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of + these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part of + the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, and + sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, though + insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other, and + ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these + discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good sense + of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal criticisms—praise + of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and contest for victory. This + latter is, perhaps, the most important of the three, both for the + interests of the Society and of truth. With regard to the published + volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, that if members were in + the habit of communicating their papers to the Society in a more finished + state, it would be attended with several advantages; amongst others, with + that of lightening the heavy duties of the officers, which are perhaps + more laborious in this Society than in most others. To court publicity in + their accounts and proceedings, and to endeavour to represent all the + feelings of the Society in the Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, + is a recommendation not peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would + contribute to the well-being of all. + </p> + <p> + Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits, could + scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the Geological, I + shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has caused its great + success, unless it be attention to the maxims which have just been stated. + </p> + <p> + On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the + public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income is + a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for jobs, and + it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to render + embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely to + occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from the + very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and Council + are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it is still right + to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially necessary to have + men of business on the Council, as well as persons possessing extensive + knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous in such a Society than in + any other, to pay compliments, by placing gentlemen on the Council who + have not the qualifications which are requisite; a frequent change in the + members of the Council is desirable, in order to find out who are the most + regular attendants, and most qualified to conduct its business. Publicity + in its accounts and proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more + essential to the Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a + fearful omen, that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at + the last anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the + friends of science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts. + </p> + <p> + It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more than one + scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive instruction + as to their merits, by observing the success of their measures in other + societies. + </p> + <p> + The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable + works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published. + </p> + <p> + The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is now + rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat impaired. + There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration, + notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have + ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage + to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO PERSONS,—to + making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,—and to auditing the accounts + WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form altogether. + </p> + <p> + The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the public; + its pretensions were great—its assurance unbounded. It speedily + became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the + number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose + the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that + institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed to + confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific + establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, if + those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this + Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest + claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the + only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country. As + with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to render + EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains for it to + exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is capable. [* + They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is but slight + praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical botanist of our + own country, and who is admired abroad as he is respected at home. The + circumstance which surprised the world was not his exit from, but his + previous entrance into that Society.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + </h2> + <p> + As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of + European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in the + opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially + involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in + detail. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT4" id="link2H_SECT4"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of a + Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of + arriving at that honour, has been as follows:— + </p> + <p> + A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he (A. + B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and + valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the + meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to be + perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however + small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on the + other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected with + science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the + members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; and, + unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being + black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the Council, + previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am not aware + that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number, which was, + at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + </p> + <p> + In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, have all + been known persons; but even in such cases a hope remains;—perseverance + will do much, and a gentleman who values so highly the distinction of + admission to the Royal Society, may try again; and even after being twice + black-balled, if he will a third time condescend to express his desire to + become a member, he may perhaps succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In + such circumstances, the odds are much in favour of the candidate + possessing great scientific claims; and the only objection that could then + reasonably be suggested, would arise from his estimating rather too highly + a distinction which had become insignificant from its unlimited extension. + </p> + <p> + It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that the + sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be ten pounds + on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this subscription is + so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men of real science from + entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on those who do so; for + very few indeed of the cultivators of science rank amongst the wealthy + classes. Several times, whilst I have been consulting books or papers at + Somerset House, persons have called to ask the Assistant-secretary the + mode of becoming a member of the Royal Society. I should conjecture, from + some of these applications, that it is not very unusual for gentlemen in + the country to order their agents in London to take measures for putting + them up at the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT5" id="link2H_SECT5"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + </h2> + <p> + Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot + precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this resolution + solve the enigma: + </p> + <p> + "It was Resolved, + </p> + <p> + "That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by far + the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching + anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly." + </p> + <p> + To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently + flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon the + rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST FIT" was + only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his supporters + indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I believe, even + at that very Council. + </p> + <p> + That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be instantly + admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with him: that he + is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed by few, except + those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted resolution. + </p> + <p> + Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he + might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round + him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits of + science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society. Instead of + himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a chairman ought + to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By the firmness of + his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate officers of the + Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying compliments to + Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he might have + maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest to allure, + or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself respected as the + powerful chief of a united republic,—that of science,—he has + grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble occupant of its desolated + kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions he might have directed, and + refused even the patronage of their names by those whose energies he might + have commanded. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and + this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office + which he had long held, and to which he wished to return. + </p> + <p> + Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board of + Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal + Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and Council. + Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he became, EX + OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy occurred, which + ought to have been filled up by the President and Council. But when this + subject was brought before them, in defiance of common sense, and the + plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had enacted that the Board + of Longitude should have the assistance of four persons belonging to the + Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow it to be filled up, on the + ground that he should not be President next year, and had made no vacancy. + </p> + <p> + Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but the + Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some LOCUM + TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure. + </p> + <p> + These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they + illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming the + dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so + circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting the + existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if such a + system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the frequency of + such arrangements. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT6" id="link2H_SECT6"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + </h2> + <p> + Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in reforming + the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard to the senior + Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more unfortunate than + the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude for a moment to his + personal character, I should say that the mild excellencies of his heart + have prevented the Royal Society from deriving the whole of that advantage + from his varied knowledge and liberal sentiments which some might perhaps + have anticipated; and many will agree with me in regretting that his + judgment has not directed a larger portion of the past deeds of the + Councils of the Royal Society. Of the junior Secretary I shall only + observe, that whilst I admit his industry, his perseverance, and his + talents, I regret to see such valuable qualities exerted at a + disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them all the success they merit in + situations more adapted for their developement. + </p> + <p> + There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to + investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of + the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already + arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the + conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in which + I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. [These + observations were written previous to the late appointment, to which I now + devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council of the Royal + Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the same + understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not to the + members of its Council. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to + consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have + military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several + peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not + absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of + science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices + in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command, + which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect + freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military chief + commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to retain the + confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as much as + possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course to win the + confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render his future + observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most full and + explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to the + professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when he + enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where the + force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits, that his + admission to the offices of science can be attended with any advantage to + it. + </p> + <p> + Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to + the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings of + men of science, when they have published their observations, are too apt + to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and to consider + that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their observations as it + is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious to science than that + such an opinion should be tolerated. The most unreserved criticism is + necessary for truth; and those suspicions respecting his own accuracy, + which every philosophical experimenter will entertain concerning his own + researches, ought never to be considered as a reproach, when they are kept + in view in examining the experiments of others. The minute circumstances + and apparently trivial causes which lend their influence towards error, + even in persons of the most candid judgment, are amongst the most curious + phenomena of the human mind. + </p> + <p> + The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits + of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall + conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his + Observations: + </p> + <p> + "Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti sui, + de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum, deque + mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut aliis + quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex nostris + observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent + precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice + tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot + vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii. + </p> + <p> + There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own character + as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions apparently + neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention, since it is + reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the province of its + Secretaries. + </p> + <p> + The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances attending + the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume of Astronomical + Observations which were made at the Observatory of Paramatta (New South + Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the Philosophical + Transactions for the Year 1829." + </p> + <p> + Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British + officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers + were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those + instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of the + observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their + employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet + has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions, + omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any part + of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable observations + to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Brisbane; + whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him to found, at his + own private expense, an establishment which it has been creditable to the + British Government to continue as a national institution. Had any kindred + feelings existed in the Council, instead of endeavouring to shift the + responsibility, they would have hastened to rectify an omission, less + unjust to the individual than it was injurious to English science. + </p> + <p> + Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity of + the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been publicly + stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes of the + Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry has been + asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true statement + of what actually passed at the Council. + </p> + <p> + The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to verify + by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall state + them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon them. In + the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find— + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon the + Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons, amongst + whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was absent + from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction, until he + saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had taken place. That + his name was the one substituted for that of Captain Beaufort I know, from + other evidence which need not be produced here, as the omission of the + latter name is the charge that has been made.], and that of Captain + Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy himself that this is not + a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in copying, by consulting the + rough minutes of that meeting of the Council, which it might perhaps be as + well to write in a rough minute-book, instead of upon loose sheets of + paper; nor can it be attributed to any error arising from accidentally + mislaying the real minutes, for in that case the error would have been + rectified immediately it was detected; and this has remained uncorrected, + although publicly spoken of for months. As there is no erasure in the + list, one is reluctantly compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of + that meeting have been destroyed.]] + </p> + <p> + Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on the + morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on the + evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on the + house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of his + profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President, + declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + </p> + <p> + Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution of + the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but in order + to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other information is + necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the Society, that the + President should not absolutely name his own Council, but that the subject + should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous to the Anniversary—this + has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and those who support him. Now, it + has been stated, that, at the meeting of the Council on the 26th of + November, the President took out of his pocket a bit of paper, from which + he read the names of several persons as fit to be on the Council for the + ensuing year;—that it was not understood that any motion was made, + and it is certain that none was seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such + an important question; and it was a matter of considerable surprise to + some of those present, to discover afterwards that it was entered on the + minutes as a resolution. This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and + I believe it to be substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was + dictated, not discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar + resolution stands on the council-books for any previous year. + </p> + <p> + On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of the + letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it omitted? + If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been no necessity + for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter, a resolution + would naturally have followed, recommending another name instead of the + one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but this would have + exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage it. If the rough + minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over before it separated, + and were copied previously to the next meeting, such a substitution could + hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this is not the case, and the + delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the minutes of the three + Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and on March 11, were not + entered on the minute-books of the Council on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor + was this the fault of the Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the + rough minutes of no one of those Councils had been transmitted to him. + </p> + <p> + Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an + occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be + ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed + the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of this + suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of estimating + the confidence due to the whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT7" id="link2H_SECT7"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + </h2> + <p> + Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, that its + Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the Admiralty + determined to render that body completely subservient to them, or whether + both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has been for years + its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal Society is in + public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for this last insult. In + order to inform the public and the Society, (for I believe the fact is + known to few of the members,) it will be necessary to trace the history of + those circumstances which led to the institution of the offices of + Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of the late Board of + Longitude. + </p> + <p> + That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which established + it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no knowledge of the + subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss—of certain + professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal, who had some + knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their attendance;—of + three honorary members of the Royal Society, who combined the + qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly, of "three other + persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were supposed to be "WELL + VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, OR NAVIGATION," and who + were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the Board. + </p> + <p> + The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other + persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at the + pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act of + parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the + Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal + Society, the copy of an Order in Council: + </p> + <p> + ADMIRALTY OFFICE, + </p> + <p> + November 1, 1828. + </p> + <p> + SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send + herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal + Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last + month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident + Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of the + Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them, + notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to + acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy Board + for the payment of the said salaries. + </p> + <p> + I am, Sir, + </p> + <p> + Your most obedient humble servant, + </p> + <p> + JOHN BARROW. AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, + </p> + <p> + 27th October, 1828. + </p> + <p> + PRESENT, + </p> + <p> + The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + </p> + <p> + Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right + Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this + instant, in the words following, viz.— + </p> + <p> + Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20, + instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude at + sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between the + Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole," three + persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, or + Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board of + Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a Superintendent + of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also appointed, with such + salaries for the execution of those services as his Majesty might, by any + Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, whereas, your Majesty was in + consequence, by your Order in Council of the 27th of May, 1828, most + graciously pleased to direct, that the three said Resident Commissioners + should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year each; and by your further Order + in Council, of the 31st October, 1818, that the Superintendent of the + Nautical Almanac should be allowed a salary of 300L., and the + Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; and, whereas, the act above + mentioned has been repealed, and the Board of Longitude abolished; and + doubts have therefore arisen, whether the said Orders in Council shall + still continue in force; and whereas it is expedient that the said + appointments be continued; We beg leave most humbly to submit to your + Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously pleased, by your Order in + Council, to direct that the said offices of Superintendent of the Nautical + Almanac, and of Superintendent of Chronometers; and also the three persons + before-mentioned as a Resident Committee, to advise with the Commissioners + for executing the Office of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of + discoveries, inventions, calculations, and other scientific subjects, be + continued, with the same duties and salaries, and under the same + regulations as heretofore; and further beg most humbly to propose, that + such three persons to form the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by + the Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from + among the Council of the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was + pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof + and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to + give the necessary directions herein accordingly. + </p> + <p> + (Signed) JAMES HILLER. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from + among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a year + each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape + the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was + made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted. + </p> + <p> + MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823. + </p> + <p> + RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords + Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal Society, + on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that inconvenience + may arise from the plan therein specified, from the circumstance of all + the members of the Council being annually elected by the Society at large; + and that body being consequently subject to continual changes from year to + year. + </p> + <p> + This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the + Admiralty: + </p> + <p> + ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + </p> + <p> + SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your + Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of the + proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the + communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his + Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their + Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President + and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the + inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their + Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific + Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were + induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to the + Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the persons + chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from the + circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members being + annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually appointed; + and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been felt during the + ten years that the Committee has been in existence, as four of the + distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have successively appointed + to this office, have continued during the whole period to be members of + the Council; and if any such difficulty or inconvenience should hereafter + arise, their Lordships will be ready to take proper measures for remedying + it. + </p> + <p> + Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and + Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had + resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board + of Longitude, to be appointed. + </p> + <p> + I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, + </p> + <p> + JOHN BARROW. + </p> + <p> + The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce much + effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff of + which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared the + bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended this + plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO THE PUBLIC + OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he delicately hints + to them their dependent situation, by observing, that the "RESIDENT + COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + </p> + <p> + The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom for + years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the Council, and + consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must first be indebted + to the President for being qualified to advise, and then to the Admiralty + for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then their Lordships, as a + "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the dependence of the Council on + the President, by making his nomination a qualification for place, and + establish a new dependence of the same Council on themselves, by giving a + hundred pounds each year to such three members of that Council as they may + select. "THE PLEDGE" they offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF + THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is, that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought + they would do for his Council. + </p> + <p> + What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this mark + of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must be + left to themselves to express. + </p> + <p> + In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society the + weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a + consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed + there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted + field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the + soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles + which pervade it are open and liberal as his own. + </p> + <p> + The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is, that + the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in any case, be + very small; and may, from several circumstances, be considerably reduced. + In a council fairly selected, to judge of the merits of the various + subjects likely to be brought under the consideration of the Society, + anatomy, chemistry, and the different branches of natural history, will + share with the numerous departments of physical science, in claiming to be + represented by persons competently skilled in those subjects. These claims + being satisfied, but few places will be left to fill up with + mathematicians, astronomers, and persons conversant with nautical + astronomy. + </p> + <p> + Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician + amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation + rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the + President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as a + mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser? + </p> + <p> + Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant + with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually be, + it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms his + Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such + situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best + qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of being + the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or + Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which + they disapprove. + </p> + <p> + Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best explained + by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals are, + notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better known + than he is willing that they should be. + </p> + <p> + Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both to + the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference to the + individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I shall now + examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never + considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the + character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have arrived + at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however, be arguments + which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must ultimately lead to + truth: but I confess that it appears to me the objections which have been + stated rest on principles of human nature, too deeply seated to be easily + removed. + </p> + <p> + That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears + from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these + appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of + the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe + the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who knew + these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any gentleman + on the Council who had accepted these situations; and, having myself the + same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be informed of the + names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although they remonstrated + against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO COGNIZANCE" of the + fact. + </p> + <p> + The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain Kater, who + were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident Commissioners + under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr. Young became one of + the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday were appointed by the + Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, who died shortly after, + I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge which qualified him for + the situation. + </p> + <p> + Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong to + that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of Parliament + point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be entertained. The + Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being the same, and + having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act; and it recites the + words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES + OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of the fitness of the gentlemen + who now hold those situations to pronounce judgment on mathematical + questions, the public will be better able to form an opinion when they + shall have communicated to the world any of their own mathematical + inquiries. Although it is the practice to consider that acceptance of + office is alone necessary to qualify a man for a statesman, a similar + doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world of science. One of these + gentlemen, who has established his reputation as a chemist, stands in the + same predicament with respect to the other two sciences. It remains then + to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which must rest on his skill in + "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"—a claim which can only be + allowed when the scientific world are set at rest respecting the + extraordinary nature of those observations contained in his work on the + Pendulum. + </p> + <p> + That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude, + excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of the + Government providing instruments and means of transport for the purpose of + these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means superior to + those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the industry with which + he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled him to bring home + multitudes of observations from situations rarely visited with such + instruments, and for such purposes. + </p> + <p> + The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist amongst + each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most conversant + with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one who had devoted + but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course of those voyages, + used some of the instruments for the first time in his life. + </p> + <p> + This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the + greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such lunars; + whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit instrument, + avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were conversant + with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more favourable + circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same opinion + prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever subject + Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by their + accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods of using the + instruments scarcely differed in any important point from those before + adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall presently + relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine possessed some + keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would be hopeless for + any to expect to rival. + </p> + <p> + The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy of + these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust Captain + Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner which must + have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter to the + Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of the same + persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of Longitude, + after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, are said to + have again recommended him to the Master-General of the Ordnance. That an + officer, commencing his scientific career, should be misled by such + praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the Council of the + Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly, and maintain it so + pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it was injurious to the + interests of science. + </p> + <p> + It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley + medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal of + Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from such a + complete investigation of his observations, as should place them beyond + the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may write, and + nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; and even the + Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer immortality. That + learned body is in the habit of making most interesting and profound + reports on any memoirs communicated to it; nothing escapes the penetration + of their committees appointed for such purposes. Surely, when they enter + on the much more important subject of the award of a medal, unusual pains + must be taken with the previous report, and it might, perhaps, be of some + advantage to science, and might furnish their admirers with arguments in + their defence, if they would publish that on which the decree of their + Lalande's medal to Captain Sabine was founded. + </p> + <p> + It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has been + written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall confine + myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I shall allude + to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that exists respecting + them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain them. The other point, + the error in the estimation of the division of the level, I shall discuss, + because it is an admitted fact. + </p> + <p> + Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the + difference of times of the passage of any star between the several wires; + supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of time + occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be + precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another are + usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens that the + accordance is perfect. + </p> + <p> + The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in length, + and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370 transits, + there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the intervals + between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of a second. At + Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same accordance; and of + the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of twenty-four are equally + exact. With larger instruments, and in great observatories, this is not + always the case. + </p> + <p> + Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. 427, + a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in which about + one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy; and it should + be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars selected, have, + in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's. + </p> + <p> + The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer, and + the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations of his + in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of accordance. In + thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January, 1828, fifteen have + this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with a ten-feet transit. + Now in none of these instances do the times agree within a tenth of a + second between all the wires; but I have accounted those as agreeing in + all the wires in which there is not more than four-tenths of a second + between the greatest and least. + </p> + <p> + This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some explanation. + One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine employs a chronometer + to observe transits with; and that since it beats five times in two + seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second; and this being the + smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes more probable than if + tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In general, the larger the + lowest unity employed the greater will be the apparent agreement amongst + the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of stars near the pole, the + times of passing the wires were only registered to the nearest minute, the + intervals would almost certainly be equal. There is another circumstance, + about which there is some difficulty. It is understood that the same + instrument,—the thirty-inch transit, was employed by Lieutenant + Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires were changed, although + this has most probably been the case. Now, in the transits which the later + observer has given, he has found it necessary to correct for a + considerable inequality between the first and second wires (See Phil. + Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone abroad on this subject, + it is doing a service to science to insure its correction, by drawing + attention to it. + </p> + <p> + Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem + to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact, and + therefore that it ought to be used in observatories. + </p> + <p> + Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle + of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the + express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be + diminished in size:—a most important subject, on which the Board + seem to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety. + </p> + <p> + The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important: + </p> + <p> + "The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of the + Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle of + repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six inches, + carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch aperture; + and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which might be + retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be increased, by + a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been previously + regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit of diminution to + which repeating circles, designed for astronomical purposes, ought to be + carried. + </p> + <p> + "The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated, by + comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at each + station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of observations + made with a circle, on the original construction, and of large dimensions; + such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations of the French are, + recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if due allowance be made + for the extensive experience and great skill of the distinguished persons + who conducted the French observations, the comparison will scarcely appear + to the disadvantage of the smaller circle, even if extended generally + through all the stations of the present volume; but if it be particularly + directed to Maranham and Spitzbergen,—at which stations the partial + results were more numerous than elsewhere, and obtained with especial + regard to every circumstance by which their accuracy might be affected, + the performance of the six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of + circles of the larger dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at + which a more than usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, + because it was essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the + French stations were required, that the observations should always be + conducted with the utmost possible regard to accuracy. + </p> + <p> + "It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches, the + disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact or + bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute + subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition." + </p> + <p> + Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most + favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places, and + compare the observations made there with the small repeating instrument of + six inches diameter, with those made by the French astronomers at + Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one centi-metres, or about + sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It is singular that this + instrument was directed, by the French Board of Longitude, to be made + expressly for this survey, and the French astronomers paid particular + attention to it, from the circumstance of some doubts having been + entertained respecting the value of the principle of repetition. + </p> + <p> + The following series of observations were made with the two instruments. + [I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because + the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference + between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken + above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a + half.] + </p> + <p> + Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches + diameter.—BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of Latitude Names of Observers. + Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot + 100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot + 120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot + 100 56.5 Arago + 102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + + Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. +</pre> + <p> + Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. + alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine + alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto + alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto + alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto + alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto + alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + + Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. +</pre> + <p> + In comparing these results, although the French observations were more + than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the + individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths is + the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations; whilst + the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds and + two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on + account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations, let + any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with the six + English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is the greatest + deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations less than in + those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that by the latitude + deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of Polaris by the same + observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to be 38deg. 39min + 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean of the 1318 + inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot be accounted + for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as neither the + employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of Groombridge, + of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a difference of + two-tenths of a second.] + </p> + <p> + These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain Sabine, + and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the merits of his + observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers equal, it seems a + necessary consequence that "the performance of the six-inch circle is" not + merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger dimensions," but that it + is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches in diameter. + </p> + <p> + This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for + astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and + rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered + that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to be + equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven + seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary a + recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a + re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it + necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this + instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed + satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising + from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will + depend on the nature of the deviations from it.] + </p> + <p> + This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of considerable + importance to navigation; and if it should have caused any alteration in + his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and small instruments, + it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was expressly directed + by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with an instrument + constructed for that especial purpose. + </p> + <p> + Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for the + task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to familiarity + with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this interesting + question. + </p> + <p> + The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of + level: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. + + Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + + Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + + Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + + Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + + Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + + Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + + New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + + Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + + Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + + Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + + Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 +</pre> + <p> + This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by the + small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and confining + ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE OBTAINED, WITH + ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR ACCURACY MIGHT BE + AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION WAS BESTOWED," it + appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, namely, "the + differences of the partial results from the mean at each station," the + deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were before; a + circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in the + decision of the question. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid + looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of + latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really + resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true + latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is + so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more + especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, + Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes + interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations, + to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so little + to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions of the + unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen. + </p> + <p> + In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of a + place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the + following columns— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Latitudes as + True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. + Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 + Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8 + Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5 + Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6 + Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0 + Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2 +</pre> + <p> + what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first + column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the + second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the level + being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as + diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider, if + he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still he + will find the odds against it enormous. + </p> + <p> + When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has thus + had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost + unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that at + eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the + differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station it + only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help feeling + that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his admitted + skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both mistaken in + their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so singular an + effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot bring myself + to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without foundation. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular + oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used for + determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the very + work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose of + comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which + occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265 to 275 + of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET ARAGO, + which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] are filled + with the details relative to the determination of the value of the + divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory, with such an + important object in view, to have read off some of the sets after each + pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of repetition + made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order to know how + many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost certainly + have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of the level; + for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a few minutes + of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to have arisen + from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed, they must + have been referred to some error in the instrument, which could scarcely, + in such circumstances, have escaped detection. + </p> + <p> + I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain + Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying are + inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an instance + of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should venture to + pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think enough has been + said to show, that the feeling which so generally prevails relative to it, + is neither captious nor unreasonable. + </p> + <p> + Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in + appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under the + peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as far + as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations which + are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for imitation + observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers to throw + aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a standard + which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified the + doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever even modified + it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the largest. + </p> + <p> + To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt. + It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with + official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to + depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose. + </p> + <p> + How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT TO + BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived, + appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best + observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered them + peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that + instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered, "FOR + ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the Astronomical + Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the most carefully + detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, persons who must have + examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. Captain Kater must have felt + those difficulties in the perusal of it which other observers have + experienced; and he who was placed in the Board of Longitude especially + for his knowledge of instruments, might, in a few hours, have arrived at + more decisive facts. But perhaps I am unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge + rendered it impossible for him to have been ignorant of the difficulties, + and his candour would have prevented him from concealing them: he must, + therefore, after examining the subject, have been outvoted by his + lay-brethren who had dispensed with that preliminary. + </p> + <p> + It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with + respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of the + errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant Foster, + aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed this + instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal to one + second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject, and made + all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him acquainted + with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated a paper [The + paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical Transactions, + 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal Society, in which he + states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed all the observations in + which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, from the original + observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury at the time of her + loss, the transcripts of his results could not be recomputed like the + rest, and were consequently useless. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT8" id="link2H_SECT8"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + </h2> + <p> + Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with science + may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat singularly + happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than one such + appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the late Dr. + Young, we have at present:— + </p> + <p> + MR. POND—Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and + Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + </p> + <p> + CAPTAIN SABINE—An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his + regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the + Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + MR. BRANDE—Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of + Chemistry at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to + the East-India Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; + Superintending Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; + Editor of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the + Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices, + either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be found + to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered; or else, that + it is too well paid, since each requires such little attention, that + almost any number can be executed by one person. + </p> + <p> + The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection + of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other + astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the almost + undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would a + superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being + acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his situation + at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign Secretary of + the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. Brande would + scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found time even for + them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that from the progress + the Society is making, those duties must become shortly, if they are not + already, almost extinct. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most anxiously + over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the Academics + of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of Hanover, and of France, + derived honour from the discoveries of their Secretaries;—that they + prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of Oersted, of Brewster, of + Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the President must have been + ambitious that England should contribute to this galaxy of glory, that the + Royal Society should restore the lost Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of + seven stars in the neck of the constellation Taurus. There are now only + six of them visible to the naked eye.—HUTTON'S DICTIONARY—Art. + Pleiades.] to the admiring science of Europe. But he could discover no + kindred name amongst the ranks of his supporters, and forgot, for a + moment, the interest of the Society, in an amiable consideration for the + feelings of his surrounding friends. For had the President chosen a + brighter star, the lustre of his other officers might have been + overpowered by its splendour: but relieved from the pain of such a + contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, by their united brightness, + these suns of his little system shall yet afford sufficient light to be + together visible to distant nations, as a faint NEBULA in the obscure + horizon of English science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT9" id="link2H_SECT9"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be + useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money. + </p> + <p> + EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.—The great expense of + the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, + is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings are quite + essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those papers are fit + for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry is necessary, when + such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour, therefore, to approximate + to the sum these engravings have cost the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of Sir E. + Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the + workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810, there + have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author. Many of + these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but I shall take + five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and twelve as that + of the latter. This would produce, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 70 X 5 = 350 + 187 X 12 = 2244 + ...... ——-...... L2594 +</pre> + <p> + As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd + hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE + branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question the + importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be + permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended + in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with + those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous + circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number, I + should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other countries + much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even the Council + of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from their Transactions + one of those productions which they had paid for as a lecture. + </p> + <p> + It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council so + repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually expending, + during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On the other hand, + when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of those valuable plates to + take off impressions for his large work on Comparative Anatomy, of which + they constitute almost the whole, it might have been as well not to have + obliterated from each plate all indication of the source to which he was + indebted for them. + </p> + <p> + THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.—I shall mention this circumstance, + because it fell under my own observation. + </p> + <p> + Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the President's + Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature of this item. + Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an opportunity, at an + early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for an explanation of the + following resolution, which stands in the Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be + printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade + price." + </p> + <p> + The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO + PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO + PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + </p> + <p> + I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as + the following statement will prove. + </p> + <p> + The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following + prices are very liberal: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + L s. d. + To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0 + Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0 + Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0 + + Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0 +</pre> + <p> + Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not + plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying + printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several of + the individual members must have known, from their own private experience, + that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different from that + they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to print it on + his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred pounds beyond + what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds of the Royal + Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his officers ever + condescend to explain this transaction to the Council; or were they + expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing proposed to them? + Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to order the payment of + above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a bookseller to do what + they might have done themselves for less than half the sum? Or did they + wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred pounds? If so, he must + have had powerful friends in the Council, and it is fit the Society should + know who they were; for they were not friends, either to its interests or + to its honour. + </p> + <p> + The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to + members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and out + of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the remainder + encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are still losers + of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction. + </p> + <p> + ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO PASTEBOARD.—Although + the printing of these observations is not paid for out of the funds of the + Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body are the visitors of the + Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to introduce the subject here. + </p> + <p> + Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned, that + there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity of the + volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On making + inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be disposed + of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the purpose of + converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get fourpence a + pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board. The fact was + mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society, and they + thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with every + regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick paper, + hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This magnificence is + advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought to be worthy of a + great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that nation spends on + science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not be applied with + the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really has a right to these + volumes, printed by the government at a large expense, it is, perhaps, the + most extravagant mode which was ever yet invented of paying a public + servant. When that right was given to him,—let us suppose somebody + had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he should sell the costly volumes + for waste paper,—who would have listened for one moment to such a + supposition? He would have been told that it was impossible to suppose a + person in that high and responsible situation, could be so indifferent to + his own reputation. + </p> + <p> + A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal + Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary + for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally + anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the request + appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and I was at + the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased at the + bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies of the + Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that practical + astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my pursuits, I feel + disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety of the refusal. + This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar refusals to other + gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with myself, and whose time + had been successfully devoted to the cultivation of that science. [M. + Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, projected a plan for + making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too vast for any individual to + attempt, it was proposed that a portion should be executed by the + astronomers of various countries, and invitations to this effect were + widely circulated. One only of the divisions of this map was applied for + by any English astronomer; and, after completing the portion of the map + assigned to him, he undertook another, which had remained unprovided for. + This gentleman, the Rev. Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants + for the Greenwich Observations.] + </p> + <p> + There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a + different result;—but those who occupy official situations, rendered + remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed in + no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly + insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they must + submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure, + therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must have + sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to propose + that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse so + trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once + filled. + </p> + <p> + In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a + copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of + copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was + insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned bodies + in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great their + inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants." Now I have + spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the council-books + of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the real state of the + case:— + </p> + <p> + In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, + wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785, from which + the following is extracted:— + </p> + <p> + "The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the Astronomical + Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and paid for by the + Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command, of July 21, 1767,) + which may at any time remain in the hands of the printer, shall, after you + have reserved such copies as you may think proper as presents, be given to + the said Nevil Maskelyne, in consideration of his trouble in the + superintending the printing thereof. I am to signify His Majesty's + pleasure, that you do, from time to time, give the necessary orders for + that purpose, until His Majesty's further commands shall be communicated + to you. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:— + </p> + <p> + "Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last published, + be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to the Astronomer + Royal." + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many + volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any + revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed by + the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving precisely the + same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe that in fact + they do not know the authority on which the right to those sixty rests. + </p> + <p> + Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the + discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from + time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore, + they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought to + have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they + found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they + ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order to + prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand, the + above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than sixty + copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress towards + pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society, as + visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to + Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if the + Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it for a + liberal compensation. + </p> + <p> + Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the + subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and + Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science, + from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer Royal. + </p> + <p> + It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to + science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not + so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can + be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to judge + no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his reputation + will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their circulation. + </p> + <p> + Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might be + said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal Society + that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is imagined, + is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of the parties + concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any amendments have + taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable importance, I was + myself a witness, when I was present officially at a visitation. At that + time, no original observations made at the transit instrument were ever + preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the process of an observation, + I should not have credited the fact. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT10" id="link2H_SECT10"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + </h2> + <p> + At a period when the attention of Government to science had not undergone + any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place. His Majesty + intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of State, his + intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to + be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal Society, according to the + rules they were desired to frame for that purpose. + </p> + <p> + The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:— + </p> + <p> + WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + </p> + <p> + SIR, + </p> + <p> + I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to + found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded + as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council of + the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of + competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the + object for which the Royal Society was instituted. + </p> + <p> + His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of the Royal + Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the regulations which + it may be convenient to establish with regard to the appropriation of the + medals; and I have, therefore, to request that you will make the necessary + communication to the Council of the Royal Society, in order that His + Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect. + </p> + <p> + I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this + gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It + was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement of + a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were immense. The + unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst the confidence + reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured the wavering faith + of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from knowing the + MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted the policy of + establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and spirit in which + they were offered. + </p> + <p> + The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting + them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on + the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the + Council-book of the 26th of January. + </p> + <p> + At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were + decided upon; they were as follow:— + </p> + <p> + 26th January, 1826. + </p> + <p> + RESOLVED, + </p> + <p> + That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for the + most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed and made + known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of their award. + </p> + <p> + That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the medals + should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if it should + be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the obverse of the + medal. + </p> + <p> + That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation; + one in gold, one in silver. + </p> + <p> + If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet they + are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a + councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education of a + pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as to have + made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely, that the + discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made known to + the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the award. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this communication, + to have convened a special general meeting of the Society, to have made + known to the whole body the munificent endowment of their Patron: and when + his approbation of the laws which were to govern the distribution of these + medals had been intimated to the Council, such a course would have been in + complete accordance with the wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO + EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known. + </p> + <p> + Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in the + following words:— + </p> + <p> + November 16, 1826. + </p> + <p> + ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was + awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary + Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his + other important labours and discoveries in physical science. + </p> + <p> + The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, Esq. for + his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the Philosophical + Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable papers on + mathematical subjects. + </p> + <p> + The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations of + double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's observed + and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January, + formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet together + in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them to two + philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his great + discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to stultify + themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for a paper + made known to them three years before. + </p> + <p> + Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their + decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict of + their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other + instances, with the semblance of a free discussion? + </p> + <p> + Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that + although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society + and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit of + their award, to those to whom that trust was confided? + </p> + <p> + Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive + deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch + with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it might + perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in + accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or + was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I + have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + </p> + <p> + Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility of + dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been pledged + to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent on + exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps, urged by the + near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the formality of + reading the laws on which they were about to act? + </p> + <p> + Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the + Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange + neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the + Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication of + these medals. + </p> + <p> + The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it + was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules + which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the medals + themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and they + ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no man + could feel the least security that he should get them, even though his + discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were offered, + </p> + <p> + The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced + me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of the + Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on our + character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now a + matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious + disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans for + doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I should + stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. [It is but + justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to state, that the + circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the same year awarded + to him, prevented him from taking any part in the discussion.] + </p> + <p> + The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind will + never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the distribution + of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as equally binding in + honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the Council, which + assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as void, IPSO FACTO, on + the ground that it was directly at variance with that part which CONFINES + the medals to discoveries made known to the Society within ONE YEAR + PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore moved the following + resolutions: + </p> + <p> + "1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November, + 1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is + invalid. + </p> + <p> + "2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton, Esq. + and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that letters be + written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope of the Council + that this, the only method which is open to them of honourably fulfilling + their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen as a mark of the high + sense entertained by the Council of the importance and value of their + discoveries, which require not the aid of medals to convey their + reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which distinguished the + age in which they lived." + </p> + <p> + It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning employed + in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal Society. + It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was SOMEWHAT + IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As the original + rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the Council,—it + would only be necessary to alter them, and then the award would agree + perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was contended, that the + original rules were unknown to the public and to the Society; and that, in + fact, they were only known to the members of the Council and a few of + their friends; and therefore the award was no breach of faith. + </p> + <p> + All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could + not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show + that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age; and + furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of the + Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council as + long as the present system of management is pursued. + </p> + <p> + The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its + peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little + communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens that + the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the Society, and, + indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who frequent the weekly + meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first notice to the great + majority of the Society of a breach of faith by their Council, which it is + impossible to suppose a body, consisting of more than six hundred + gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT11" id="link2H_SECT11"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + </h2> + <p> + An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which + seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society. + They may contain discoveries of new principles,—of laws of nature + hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations of + known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar + situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to + our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very + different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those + trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the + present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely + inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has + presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments + employed, or phenomena examined,—a talent, which can be much + improved by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of + tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to + detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and a + higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very different + order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of an almanac; + the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of the + accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those + computations are performed. + </p> + <p> + [*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national + observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not an + opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The + Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge. + </p> + <p> + On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826, + with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles, we + find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following + passage is extracted: + </p> + <p> + "But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, hard-working, + and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call them, although they + are drudges of a superior order), men who will be contented to pass half + their day in using their hands and eyes in the mechanical act of + observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process of calculation."] + </p> + <p> + Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some + difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be + proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked this + difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given to + observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for + discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by + such an association. + </p> + <p> + I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the + public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground + of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The first + objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the object for + which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal is given to + A. B. "for his various papers." + </p> + <p> + There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be + admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those who + judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his various + other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece to these + awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be more admired + if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to escape through + this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment on the main point + be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which made chemistry a + science, has attached to it in their award this feeble appendage. + </p> + <p> + It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been too + much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to their + patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished grounds + to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of the new ones. + I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal Society are + persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to suppose their + decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I may not have + had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was a member of that + Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall avail myself of the + judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined to appeal, who knew it + long and intimately, and who expressed his opinion deliberately and + solemnly. + </p> + <p> + The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the + distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the + Royal Society, the following clause:—"And I hereby empower the said + President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the + above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid or + reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY THAT NO + PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL RECEIVE OR + PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + </p> + <p> + Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally + inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery + is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite + unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently + have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits. + These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as the + last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. The + Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who + declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional + charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put a stop + to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a Copley medal + must by the will be annually given, some other person might not be found + deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do not intend to give + any this year." All further discussion was thus silenced.] + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious, + it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the + award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects, + the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their attention + to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY OF THE + COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO DECIDE. + </p> + <p> + If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the + Council, would communicate their information, something curious might + perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those of + which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state—of + three of them—that whatever may have been the official reasons for + their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being the + true causes:— + </p> + <p> + First.—A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate time—BECAUSE + HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + </p> + <p> + Second.—Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE + IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE + PRECEDING YEAR. + </p> + <p> + Third.—A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL + USED." + </p> + <p> + I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which was + peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of rendering + platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious philosopher who + invented the art, and who has left many other claims to the gratitude of + mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to place that subject in + its proper light. + </p> + <p> + An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as possessing + the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands we inherit from + our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and yielded produce + before they were cultivated. The products of genius are the actual + creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or honour to him, + they remain the permanent endowments of the human race. If the + institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support us fully + in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by the laws of + nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly restrict our + discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the products of + intellectual exertion? + </p> + <p> + Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with + Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they + have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of some + substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or comforts of + their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the legitimate reward + of their exertions. + </p> + <p> + It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have + torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to + claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the + inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life. + </p> + <p> + The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer, + having published his process, enters into equal competition with other + manufacturers. + </p> + <p> + If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his + secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During + his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the + philosopher had not existed. + </p> + <p> + Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and + reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary + rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments of + mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these have + been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a condition + with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing for which a + patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + </p> + <p> + Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of + rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity + having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary + magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process + selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him; and from + some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no written + record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that disorder, + which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the knowledge he + had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the subject, would + have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded the directions of + the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render useful even his + unfinished speculations, proves that the previous omission was most + probably accidental. + </p> + <p> + Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the Transactions + of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body to bestow on it + their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of Wollaston by their + medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then as an example, as a + stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of discovery. But did they + wish discoveries to be so endangered? + </p> + <p> + The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been + considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on + one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few + members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had long + been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of doing + justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was suggested + that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they immediately + altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to reserve their + medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at which period, for + aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the additional merit of + having been made prior to the limit allowed by their regulations. That + medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no one member present was + at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I shall, however, say no + more on this subject. They erred from feeling, an error so very rare with + them, that it might be pardoned even for its singularity. + </p> + <p> + I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly + dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving + pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science, or + the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of Wollaston, + was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting career, one + out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply, without which, + the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher be destitute of + tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank he held in + science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich in the + honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward in some + measure commensurate with his deserts,—then, indeed, there might + have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that, in such + circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no "niggard" + hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it, unreservedly, + the produce of his powerful mind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT12" id="link2H_SECT12"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + </h2> + <p> + Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This + was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South Sea + Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted annually + to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + </p> + <p> + Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or + of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years, from + 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for + twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr. + Ellis. + </p> + <p> + The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary + exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be + productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the + Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be + delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by members + of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place of worship + appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at the two + preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the gentleman + nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is to be + preached, should be stated. + </p> + <p> + With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the + first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon be + esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the + Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants, + persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion of + true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am + tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the + most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what is + already done on that subject. + </p> + <p> + The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too much + haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by others, as + inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been attentively + considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest and freest + inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character of indisputable + facts. But, I will not press this subject further on my reader's + attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the lecture. All + that I could have said on this point has been so much more ably stated by + one whose enlightened view of geological science has taken away some + difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed a stumbling-block + from many respectable individuals, that I should only weaken by adding to + the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's Geology in the + British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy of a philosopher + and a Christian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT13" id="link2H_SECT13"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + </h2> + <p> + The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the preceding, + is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual essay on the + subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted, that it should + have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he foreseen the + routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured to preserve it, + by affording it a wider range. + </p> + <p> + By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been + created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their + attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture; but from + causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the custom—one + individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems, like the + Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension. There have, + however, been some intervals; and we are still under obligations to those + who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing Sir Everard Home to read + the Croonian Lecture twenty years in SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we + might have heard of vested rights. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT14" id="link2H_SECT14"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they + regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever exists, + begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be amended. + </p> + <p> + The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal + Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has been + submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary to explain + the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in perpetuating it. + </p> + <p> + It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the power + of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council; and it is + also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and that printed + lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members on their entering + the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If these lists were, as + in other scientific societies, openly discussed in the Council, and then + offered by them as recommendations to the Society, little inconvenience + would arise; but the fact is, that they are private nominations by the + President, usually without notice, to the Council, and all the supporters + of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour to uphold the right of + this nomination in the President, and prevent or discourage any + alteration. + </p> + <p> + The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or by + whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of persons, + united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who act + together from a community of principles. That each individual has + invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the + case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very rare, + a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode of + meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of all + other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, as far + as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has usually + consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had the prudence, + whenever they could, to associate with themselves other members of greater + ability, provided these latter would not oppose the system, and would thus + lend to it the sanction of their name. The party have always praised each + other most highly—have invariably opposed all improvements in the + Society, all change in the mode of management; and have maintained, that + all those who wished for any alteration were factious; and, when they + discovered any symptoms of independence and inquiry breaking out in any + member of the Council, they have displaced him as soon as they decently + could. + </p> + <p> + Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by + which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples: + refutation is rendered quite unnecessary—juxta-position is alone + requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in contemplation, + or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the Society continued, + raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why should you interfere? + it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it is no affair of yours.—If, + on the other hand, it do relate to himself, the reply is equally ready. It + is immediately urged: The question is of a personal nature; you are the + last person who ought to bring it forward; you are yourself interested. If + any member of the Society, feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the + injuries or insults of the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is + immediately suggested to him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until + his feelings subside, and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst + with becoming candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. + If, after an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the + offence seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any + circumstances on which memory can dwell,—if it is then brought + forward, the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date—the + thing is gone by—it is too late to call in question a transaction so + long past. Thus, if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to + question an abuse; if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? + and if, notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a + meddler. If he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is + cool; and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his + remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred + to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any alteration + is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never adhered to. If + it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to an office, he is + immediately answered, that that is a personal question, in which it is + impossible to interfere—the officer, it seems, is considered to have + not merely a vested right to the continuance of every abuse, but an + interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + </p> + <p> + In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation + defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling to + be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is immediately + contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their magnitude. + Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige the world + with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the most RECENT + and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with the orthodox + creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human faculties to + detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size. + </p> + <p> + The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and their + emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them is, + nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the + science of England. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute + nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few + gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high opinion + they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who could + discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list a few + nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes would put + any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed, from its + station in society, to check any that might be proposed by others. + </p> + <p> + With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a + star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable + Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition. + </p> + <p> + The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, although + not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in several + societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much lightened + by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are their + salaries:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Senior Secretary ........... 105L. + The Junior Secretary, 105L........ ) + 5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L. + The Foreign Secretary........... 20L. +</pre> + <p> + Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices are + amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the President + to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently been + bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even for the + dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late Sir Joseph + Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in that situation, + although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject connected with the + pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice to his memory, by + saying that his respectability was preserved under such circumstances, by + the most candid admission of the fact, accompanied by a store of other + knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to the pursuits of the Society; and + I will add, that I regretted to see him insulted by one President in a + situation improperly given to him by a former. + </p> + <p> + Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the + President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient. + </p> + <p> + The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The + President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought, + after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at + large. + </p> + <p> + Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, and + recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a, + Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the + President. + </p> + <p> + Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising from + offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee of the + British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not a fit + person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it is the + EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I fear that + unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific appointments, and + unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public discussion, a + President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the British Museum, + is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his public duty to the + influence of power, or to private friendship. With respect to the merits + of that Institution, I have no inclination at present to inquire: but when + it is considered that there is at this moment attached to it no one whose + observations or whose writings have placed him even in the second rank + amongst the naturalists of Europe, the President of the Royal Society has + given some grounds for the remark made by several members of the Society, + that he is a little too much surrounded by the officers of a body who may + reasonably be supposed to entertain towards him feelings either of + gratitude or expectation. [It will be remembered that the name of Mr. + Robert Brown has been but recently attached to the British Museum, and + that it is to be attributed to his possessing a life interest in the + valuable collection of the late Sir Joseph Banks.] + </p> + <p> + The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which, + although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + </p> + <p> + There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these were + honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been expected that + this limited number of appointments would have been given in all cases to + persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient to pay compliments; + and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge insured him respect as + Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a British nobleman, was placed for + years in the situation as one of the Commissioners of the Board of + Longitude, for which every competent judge knew him to be wholly unfit. + What was the return which he made for this indulgence? Little informed + respecting the feelings of the Society, and probably misinformed by the + party whose influence had placed him there, he saved them in the day of + their peril. + </p> + <p> + When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of the + more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely necessary + to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to the Council + such improvements as they might consider it expedient to discuss. [Amongst + the names of the persons composing this Committee, which was proposed by + Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Herschel.] The Council + received their report at the close of the session; and in recording it on + the journals, they made an appeal to the Council for the ensuing year to + bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST SERIOUS ATTENTION." + </p> + <p> + Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would + have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken + up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful peer + came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting rid of + these improvements completely. + </p> + <p> + It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal Society + should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a peer or two + should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse to this + doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this tribute to any + one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank in advancing the + cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our pursuits, will + condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding a President to + stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended for consideration by + some of the most highly gifted members of the Society,—those who + doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably be pardoned for the + disgust they must necessarily entertain for the practical abuse to which + it leads. + </p> + <p> + Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year, + although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet it + was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact, + always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir + Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be + appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had spoken + to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the formation + of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take in + establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was + assigned to me by the President. + </p> + <p> + It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance of + time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the + Astronomical Society;—that I always talked of it publicly and openly + at the time;—that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding + President of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten + the communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them + well. + </p> + <p> + The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L. + more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + </p> + <p> + Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to + have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is to be + observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible, + notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + </p> + <p> + Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been instituted + since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President is supposed + to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the obedience of his + Council. + </p> + <p> + Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions + on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper persons + to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I am far + from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons the + second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT15" id="link2H_SECT15"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so + notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members + began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling, + together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to + re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most + active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings; and a + Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly + understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,—First, + as to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and + then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names of + the gentlemen composing this Committee were:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, + Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, + Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, + Mr. South, Captain Kater. +</pre> + <p> + The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in the + eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so select as + to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be elected into it, + was by no means new, as the following extract from the Minutes of the + Council will prove:— + </p> + <p> + "MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, + Sir John Lowther, + Sir John Cutler, + Sir Christopher Wren, + Mr. Oldenburgh, + Sir Paul Neile. +</pre> + <p> + "It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper, good + experiments must be in the first place provided to make the weekly + meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these experiments + must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the contributors; which + done, the Council might then with confidence proceed to the EJECTION OF + USELESS FELLOWS." + </p> + <p> + The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they + recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of the + numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was + suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation + should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not appear + to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected how long a + time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society could be + reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as long as those + who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their writings and + discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely the same terms, and on + the payment of the same sum of money as other gentlemen who contributed + only with their purse, it could never be an object of ambition to any man + of science to be enrolled on its list. + </p> + <p> + With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I + suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become + effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal + Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who had + contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the Transactions, + or that such a list should be printed separately at the end. + </p> + <p> + At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers to + the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 37 Contributors of.. 1 paper + 21.......... 2 papers + 19.......... 3 ditto + 5 .......... 4 ditto + 3 .......... 5 ditto + 3 .......... 6 ditto + 12.... from 7 to 12 ditto + 14... of more than 12 papers. +</pre> + <p> + 100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by + them. + </p> + <p> + Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division of + the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary for + placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist of + seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those of + the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or more + were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In either of + these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition to belong to + the first class; and a more minute investigation into the value of each + paper would naturally take place before it was admitted into the + Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only should be + allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit to be + printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such an + arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the Society, + and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society when no + distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued without + one. + </p> + <p> + Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will + only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment to + the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does, in truth, + maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position, accidentally + derive reputation which does not belong to them, are unwilling, when the + circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world to assign it to those who + have fairly won it; or else that they are incapable of producing any thing + worthy of being printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly + as the conduct of the Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, + I do not think so ill of the personal character of its members as to + believe that if the question were fairly stated to them, many would object + to it. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the + renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring + Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the ensuing + year. + </p> + <p> + The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is impossible + to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON. Our statutes + were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness of the members + elected to serve in the Council; and the President is directed, by those + statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to the anniversary, to + give notice of the elections, and "to declare how much it importeth the + good of the Society that such persons may be chosen into the Council as + are most likely to attend the meetings and business of the Council, and + out of whom may be made the best choice of a President and other + officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery of the wisdom of our + ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket the list of the future + Council he has already fixed upon. + </p> + <p> + In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the + discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for the + Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of the old + Council, and against each name is placed the number of times he has + attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has been + least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence from + London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, are + known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council the + number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out by + their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number than + can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?—but, + who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed on + the Council? + </p> + <p> + If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of + great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented in + the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle + opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some + chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even + before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be + put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated to + the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the commencement + of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be entertained of those + who endeavour to suppress inquiry. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should + never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its + business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the conduct + of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not led to such + discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of those who + disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to the + discretion of the party in not giving them cause. + </p> + <p> + The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong necessity + should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it which may, + in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at the + anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any one + great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than a + speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will probably + come under the consideration of a larger number of the members. Another + and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger of any + expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments employed. + </p> + <p> + There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the + Committee:— + </p> + <p> + REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING + THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH + SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE + OF THE SOCIETY. + </p> + <p> + Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council + under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves that + the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher ratio + than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth of + knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been the great + object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the following + Report:— + </p> + <p> + Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility of + the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That its + respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high + philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating persons + of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong to the + Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves fully + borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit the + Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the talent + of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every vacancy would + become an object of competition among persons of acknowledged merit. + </p> + <p> + From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who + have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the + persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science, + your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should be + fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such royal + personages as it may be thought proper to admit. + </p> + <p> + As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and + fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as it + would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science, that + no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your + Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place, four + new members should be annually admitted. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion, + that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding to + a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority. If the + above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for every + vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must be the + general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to + accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would be + necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of + earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating, but + probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee, + therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should take + place every year towards the end of the session, and that this should be + conducted on the same principles as the present annual election of the + Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of all the candidates + (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual time,) in which lists + each Fellow would mark the requisite number of persons. + </p> + <p> + As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the + Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been + determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the + successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in + accordance with the enactments of the said charter. + </p> + <p> + In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave to + remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of blackballing + would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and mortification; as + the result of such an open competition could only be construed by the + public into a fair preference of the superior claims of the successful + few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of the others. + </p> + <p> + Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual + admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the Society; + but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous economy its + present income might be rendered adequate to all its real wants, and the + aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by many small but + wholesome retrenchments. + </p> + <p> + It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was + received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual + contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was + a balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears, + that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly 340L. + for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit to your + consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially + controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + </p> + <p> + In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now + proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration. They + conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual + exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society, and + those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were distinguished by + being collected into a separate and honourable list. It would also be + found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of retrospective + justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who have formerly + obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals who have been + large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end of the list. It + would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual list, if all those + Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within the preceding year, + were regularly noticed. And your Committee think, that these lists should + always form part of the Transactions, and be stitched up with the last + part of the volume. + </p> + <p> + It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the Society + mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council; and as their + selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your Committee hope + that our excellent President will not consider it any impeachment of his + impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they venture to suggest, that + the usual recommendation to the Society of proper members for the future + Council should henceforth be considered as a fit subject for the diligent + and anxious deliberation of the expiring Council. + </p> + <p> + There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society, + and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations of + Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the nature and + value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the important task of + deciding on what papers should be published; and they are of opinion that + it would be a material improvement on the present mode, if each paper were + referred to a separate Committee, who should have sufficient time given + them to examine it carefully, who should be empowered to communicate on + any doubtful parts with the author; and who should report, not only their + opinion, but the grounds on which that opinion is formed, for the ultimate + decision of the Council. + </p> + <p> + If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your Committee + have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move, that another + Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to alter the necessary + statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance with the charters. + </p> + <p> + In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the + magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty to + propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest discussion + of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be unanimously + disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend, that the several + statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified, should be only entered + on your minutes, and not finally enacted. All innovations in the + constitution, or even the habits of the Royal Society, should be + scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. It is enough for the + present Council to have traced the plan; let the Council of the ensuing + sessions share the credit of carrying that plan into effect. + </p> + <p> + This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of 1827, + and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the + council-book:— + </p> + <p> + "The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting + the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think + conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered + to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance of + the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the Society, + in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering also the + advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious and early + consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + </p> + <p> + Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their hasty + adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the fullest + investigation before one of them should be tried. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not + coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to + make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the + Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the + consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it was + thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned by the + names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to "THE MOST + SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing year," was + by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of discussing its + merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained, not merely unfit + to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility as to be utterly + unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his officers feel, that + their power rested on an insecure foundation, and that they did not + possess the confidence of the working members of the Society? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. + </h2> + <p> + There are several reflections connected with the art of making + observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this + chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT16" id="link2H_SECT16"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. + </h2> + <p> + No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an + object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances + towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and expense, + than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of discovery, + and the first approximate measures, are those which add most to the + existing knowledge of mankind. + </p> + <p> + The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in some + respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion, that no + experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute, and the + accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of some use to + show, that even with large instruments, and most practised observers, this + is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken from a + representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the Council of the + Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the employment of two + mural circles:— + </p> + <p> + "That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same + time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of + that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE MOST + CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of + refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + </p> + <p> + In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. + Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains + relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have + been made. + </p> + <p> + "Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit tout + publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de + connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES + OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles + toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi par les + circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."—BASE DU SYSTEME + METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158. + </p> + <p> + This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of + experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to have + been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its tract, + not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the acutest + senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is forced to + record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that an observer, + possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly written. He who can + see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of his species, confers + an obligation on them, by recording what he sees; but their knowledge + depends both on his testimony and on his judgment. He who contrives a + method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary observers, communicates + to mankind an instrument of discovery, and stamps his own observations + with a character, alike independent of testimony or of judgment. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT17" id="link2H_SECT17"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + </h2> + <p> + The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of those + who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not + familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled + accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that + any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention, + ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and + himself. + </p> + <p> + If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to read + the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is + frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some + acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set the + instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, and then + request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any difference, he + should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his friend to point out + the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision. This should be + repeated frequently; and after some practice, he should note how many + times in a hundred his reading differs from his friend's, and also how + many divisions they usually differ. + </p> + <p> + The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner can + bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done without + assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument, but merely + to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any remarkable point, + read off the verniers, and write down the result; then displace the + telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such observations + will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in bisecting + an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the first direction + gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great measure, + appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he finds a + deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy himself if + he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, the student + should practise each adjustment separately, and write down the results + wherever he can measure its deviations. + </p> + <p> + Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an + observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let him + take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and having + registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat the + process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him + excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill. + </p> + <p> + The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits + within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME + CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can have + confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT + CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT + CIRCUMSTANCES. + </p> + <p> + These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person is + desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him begin by + adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the upper + contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then let him + derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the reading. When + he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make that adjustment, + let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but let him not, until he + knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, pronounce upon those of the + instrument. In the case of a barometer, he must also be assured, that the + temperature of the mercury does not change during the interval. + </p> + <p> + A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of mechanism, + for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth parts of a second + were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with a pin for stopping one + of the hands. I proposed that we should each endeavour to stop it twenty + times in succession, at the same point. We were both equally unpractised, + and our first endeavours showed that we could not be confident of the + twentieth part of a second. In fact, both the time occupied in causing the + extremities of the fingers to obey the volition, as well as the time + employed in compressing the flesh before the fingers acted on the stop, + appeared to influence the accuracy of our observations. From some few + experiments I made, I thought I perceived that the rapidity of the + transmission of the effects of the will, depended on the state of fatigue + or health of the body. If any one were to make experiments on this + subject, it might be interesting, to compare the rapidity of the + transmission of volition in different persons, with the time occupied in + obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the same persons. + For example, by having a mechanism to make a piece of ignited charcoal + revolve with different degrees of velocity, some persons will perceive a + continuous circle of light before others, whose retina does not retain so + long impressions that are made upon it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT18" id="link2H_SECT18"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + </h2> + <p> + Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of + pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really + value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by + unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of their + arts being known may deter future offenders. + </p> + <p> + There are several species of impositions that have been practised in + science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which it + may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary + understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, forging, + trimming, and cooking. + </p> + <p> + OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In the + year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an account of + a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great minuteness, + one species, the specific name of which has been taken from its habitat, + and the generic he took from his own family, calling it Gioenia Sicula. It + consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by the body of the + animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures of the animal, and of + its parts; described its structure, its mode of advancing along the sand, + the figure of the tract it left, and estimated the velocity of its course + at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He then described the structure + of the shell, which he treated with nitric acid, and found it approach + nearer to the nature of bone than any other shell. + </p> + <p> + The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this description, + and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact, however, is, that + no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, finding on the + Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the species of Bulla, + of which some are found on the south-western coast of England, [Bulla + lignaria] described and figured these bones most accurately, and drew the + whole of the rest of the description from the stores of his own + imagination. + </p> + <p> + Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been made + for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies which + had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered, that + the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness is very + far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any creature for + which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the neck of the + plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, unless the + memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to outweigh the + evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction which is here + alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained final causes; for + instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed animals, is in no case + combined with the claw-shaped form of the extremities, frequent in many of + the carniverous animals, and necessary to some of them for the purpose of + seizing their prey] it can only be regarded as a deception, without the + accompaniment of wit. + </p> + <p> + FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is + intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of + those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to + acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has never + made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations by + calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. The + observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by the + Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at length + proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The pretended + observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any possible + orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of the + observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost + precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the + logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all the + rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + </p> + <p> + TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those + observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in sticking + them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable adjustment," + as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in science. + </p> + <p> + This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the + trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of + this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is the + same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a + reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect + for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position + of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect + him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + </p> + <p> + OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to + give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of the + highest degree of accuracy. + </p> + <p> + One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and + out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree. If a + hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he cannot + pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up. + </p> + <p> + Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not come + within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall + possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference in + the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy effect + in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still greater + accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather + hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in + different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, + specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no + catalogue contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; + and if he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be + cruel to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, + however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons + might fall. + </p> + <p> + If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes + them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they been + computed from other catalogues the difference would have been + considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for—those + catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or—they may have + been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments; or—the + observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + </p> + <p> + It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by the + highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet they + will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which the + skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry himself + triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of such + constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative merits + of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with admirable + candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to Gauss, and + to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used by three + such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord to a + miracle. + </p> + <p> + There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those + who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in my + opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, it must require much time to try different formulae. + In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human knowledge, + more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may be determined + with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some physical + circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at the time) + the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered from other + contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, the state of + the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of observations has + been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with the latest + determination, there is some little danger that the average of the whole + may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law of nature, + dependent on the interval between the two sets, which law some future + philosopher may discover, and thus the very best observations may have + been thrown aside. + </p> + <p> + In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably happen + that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled accuracy + at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the effect of + rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for that part of + the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is generally so + unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations of those in whom + they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the artist. In fact, the + character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted is destroyed. + </p> + <p> + The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even + after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and a + few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed by + the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been lost; + and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and boiling + water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained useless + from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. M. Libri, + of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing their + registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some warm + springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during a + century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced. + </p> + <p> + Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor of + Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of the + legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain word + had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before the + court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed + themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those who + committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the + colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless matter + remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the solvent having + weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the supposed letters) that + the effect of the slow application of heat would be to render some + difference of texture or of applied substance evident, by some variety in + the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances might be expected to + produce. Permission having been given to try the experiment, on the + application of heat the important word reappeared, to the great + satisfaction of the court. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT19" id="link2H_SECT19"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS. + </h2> + + <p> + One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is to + be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names + added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little + firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times have + those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest, + proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the names + of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be matured, + were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, as having + sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job. + </p> + <p> + Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance, + when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more than + two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have occurred, + which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that members have + spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the contrary. + </p> + <p> + This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too + extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal + Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring + disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as strongly + as an officious interference and flippant manner do the charlatan, or the + trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that improper deference + which was long paid to every dictum of the President, and much of it to + that natural indisposition to take trouble on any point in which a man's + own interest is not immediately concerned. It is to be hoped, for the + credit of that learned body, that no anticipation of the next feast of St. + Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their disposition. [It may be + necessary to inform those who are not members of the Royal Society, that + this is the day on which those Fellows who choose, meet at Somerset House, + to register the names of the Council and Officers the President has been + pleased to appoint for the ensuing year; and who afterwards dine together, + for the purpose of praising each other over wine, which, until within + these few years, was PAID for out of the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse + was attacked by an enterprising reformer, and of course defended by the + coterie. It was, however, given up as too bad. The public may form some + idea of the feeling which prevails in the Council, when they are informed + that this practice was defended by one of the officers of the Society, on + the ground that, if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS + PERCENTAGE ON THE TAVERN BILLS.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT20" id="link2H_SECT20"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + </h2> + <p> + The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science + seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who + conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried until + the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform should be + attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether the + practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy + imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two + sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement; but + the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and Geological + Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the period of his + reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society over which he + presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the officers of those + Societies, would become impossible if it were required to be continued for + a much longer period. Another circumstance of considerable importance is, + that the personal character of the President is less impressed on the + Society; and, supposing any injudicious alterations to be made, it is much + less difficult to correct them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT21" id="link2H_SECT21"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS + </h2> + <p> + IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </p> + <p> + The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after by + medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional efforts, + and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the pages of the + Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain medical papers of + very moderate merit; and, in the second, the preponderance of the medical + interest introduces into the Society some of the jealousies of that + profession. On the other hand, medicine is intimately connected with many + sciences, and its professors are usually too much occupied in their + practice to exert themselves, except upon great occasions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT22" id="link2H_SECT22"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more popular + and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen, partly + from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the decline of the + Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would otherwise have + occupied in the science of England. Its general effects in diffusing + knowledge among the more educated classes of the metropolis, have been, + and continue to be, valuable. Its influence, however, in the government of + the Royal Society, is by no means attended with similar advantages, and + has justly been viewed with considerable jealousy by many of the Fellows + of that body. It may be stated, without disparagement to the Royal + Institution, that the scientific qualifications necessary for its + officers, however respectable, are not quite of that high order which + ought to be required for those of the Royal Society, if the latter body + were in a state of vigour. + </p> + <p> + The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one + of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they + have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put to + this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the + officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal + Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of + services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a + stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager or + officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold + office in the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their + power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes + of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage by + those who doubt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT23" id="link2H_SECT23"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign + academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The + volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in the + preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a + meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals, + without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom that + selection and that award have been made. + </p> + <p> + Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one + point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the + highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes + of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at + intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate + publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and + publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper was + really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be added, + the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing, a + circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other + societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which + the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, + however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely + allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are placed + in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation, and for + the interests of science. + </p> + <p> + It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the first + scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be thus + negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the more to be + regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the circumstance, that + the memoirs admitted into their collection are usually of the highest + merit. I know some of their most active members have wished it were + otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a practice, which, whilst it + has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust to those who contribute, and + is only calculated to produce conflicting claims, equally injurious to + science, and to the reputation of that body, whose negligence may have + given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, + observes—"This memoir was read to the Institute, 7th of October, + 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of January, 1818; M. Arago's report + on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and while every optical philosopher in + Europe has been impatiently expecting its appearance for seven years, it + lies as yet unpublished, and is only known to us by meagre notices in a + periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.—ENCYCLOPAEDIA + METROPOLITANA.] + </p> + <p> + One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in the + volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our own + members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a means of + giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800 copies of + the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to our members or + to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was taken in our volume + for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, nor of the conditions + under which they were to be distributed. [That the Council refrained from + having their first award of those medals thus communicated, is rather + creditable to them, and proves that they had a becoming feeling respecting + their former errors.] That in 1828, when a new fund, called the donation + fund, was established, and through the liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. + Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by them with the respective sums of 2,000L. + and 1,000L. 3 per cents; no notice of such fact appears in our + Transactions for 1829. Other gentlemen have contributed; and if it is + desirable to possess such a fund, it is surely of importance to inform the + non-attending, which is by far the largest part of the Society, that it + exists; and that we are grateful to those by whom it has been founded and + augmented. Neither did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent + members, that they could purchase the President's Discourses at the + trade-price. + </p> + <p> + The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is + printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical + Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with a + single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own + library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the names + of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute to + prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it would + also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on the + distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the + practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be made + up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they might + appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the plan of + prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would be preferable + to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason, however, appeared at + last. It was objected to the plan, that by the present arrangement, the + porter of the Royal Society took round the list to those members resident + in London, and got from some of them a remuneration, in the shape of a + Christmas-box; and this would be lost, if the time of printing were + changed. [During the printing of this chapter, a friend, on whom I had + called, complained that the porter of the Royal Society had demanded + half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such are the paltry interests to which + those of the Royal Society are made to bow. + </p> + <p> + Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume, is + the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals are made. + It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with the Statutes of + the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of members, and it is + for the credit of the medals themselves, that the laws which regulate + their award should be widely known, in order that persons, not members of + the Society, might enter into competition for them. + </p> + <p> + Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society + would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society + had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each year, + would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to be given + with each volume of our Transactions. + </p> + <p> + The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society, and + those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many + arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases, + injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible. + </p> + <p> + Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the + Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are + interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800 + copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them + altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for + distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense of + printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage would + accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the Universities, + public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases, be disposed to + present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies of their works, if + they knew that they were likely to be placed in the hands of persons who + would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional copies might, in some cases, + not be objected to on the ground of expense, when seven or eight hundred + would be quite out of the question. + </p> + <p> + Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical process + to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public body; it + will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on the + Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the case. + If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over to the + Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant with + chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of the work + were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had contributed + most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all probability be + placed in the fittest hands. + </p> + <p> + Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become extremely + bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the knowledge of + the many valuable papers they contain would not be much spread, by + publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the ordinary + meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, would + contain all that has been done in this way during the last century. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the + proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of + all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular + subject. + </p> + <p> + Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever + been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better + able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the + Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT24" id="link2H_SECT24"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. + </h2> + <p> + Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution of + an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that whilst + in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for the purpose + of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the arts of life, + or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the kind has been + established in England. [At the great meeting of the philosophers at + Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the Appendix; the respect + in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt were held in their + respective countries was apparent in the orders bestowed on them by the + Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover, and of Prussia; and there + were present many other philosophers, whose decorations sufficiently + attested the respect in which science was held in the countries from which + they came.] + </p> + <p> + Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction. It + has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a + cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has been + objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary distinctions + by making them common. The latter objection is of little weight, because + the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, will long continue + so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting the number of the + order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar class of another + order. Another objection, however, appears to me to possess far greater + weight; and, however strong the disposition of the Government might be (if + such an order existed) to fill it properly, I do not believe that, in the + present state of public opinion respecting science, it could be done, and, + in all probability, it would be filled up through the channels of + patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + </p> + <p> + Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which it + may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would be + considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the greatest + scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention political causes, + the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited from the army, the + navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that man, whose name is + imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be enrolled amongst the + nobility of his country? In utility and profit, not merely to that + country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly claim comparison + even with the most splendid of those achieved by classes so rich in + glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases fatal to such a + course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title, unless a + considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance very rarely + occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be removed, by + creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until there existed + some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and a sound state of + public opinion relative to science, the execution of the plan could only + be injurious. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT25" id="link2H_SECT25"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + </h2> + <p> + This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to + considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies + could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable economy + would result from the union. By properly arranging their evenings of + meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The libraries might + either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and such a system would + greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific persons. + </p> + <p> + Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different societies + to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but although, on some + accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for the purpose of their + having a common residence. + </p> + <p> + The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first + to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of + diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and + ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But even + here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a little + particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately + attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with + them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society are + far from imitating. + </p> + <p> + The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of + resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and + though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union + which might be generally advantageous to science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_CONC" id="link2H_CONC"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CONCLUSION. + </h2> + <p> + In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so + recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused + if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of Davy. + Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends shall be + cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls their cherished + forms, invested with all the life and energy of recent existence, the + volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their contemporaries can expect + only to read their eloge. + </p> + <p> + In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals, + sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their + minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to + view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated by + the eyes of long and very intimate friendship. + </p> + <p> + Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character of + Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of principles, + would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned his philosophical, + to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral character. It may indeed + be questioned whether the latter quality will not in all persons of great + abilities produce the former. + </p> + <p> + Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of Davy, and + with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest conclusions to + which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a more common + attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was in possession + of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the world, doubtful + perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident in his own + powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping some part of + that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must still fall to his + own share. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of the + inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated, when + he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he brought + all the information that he could collect from others, or which arose from + his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he delivered it to + the world. + </p> + <p> + The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and + distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know; and + this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution. + </p> + <p> + It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except + himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and + affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of + manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those who + sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He usually, + by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer knew upon + the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance commenced, a + process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking up the subject + at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly explain it. + </p> + <p> + His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since, when + I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics, I + applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground of + its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought it + would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none + whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the + state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several + times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the + age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this as + in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended and retained + all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary applications of + mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed greater command over + those subjects than many of far more extensive knowledge. + </p> + <p> + In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant + principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it was + the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have been a + poet; Davy might have been a great one. + </p> + <p> + A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished + philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by + minds even of the highest order. + </p> + <p> + About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression + of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to + bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it, + which I will presently mention. + </p> + <p> + Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I proposed + this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are mixed + together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so + condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the + gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think + they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they + would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired + whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did + not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed. + </p> + <p> + A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He at + once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring + whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was a + good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it must + succeed. + </p> + <p> + These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to have + recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it adds to + the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr. + Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose from the + nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining unchanged, + an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose discoveries + had given birth to it. + </p> + <p> + [The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be of + the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which it + was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite + proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of one + atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it + occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of + success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one + substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the + mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess + which resulted from their union, then either that such union would + actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be most + favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or other + causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to follow, that + if combination should take place under such circumstances, then the most + probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should be that which + furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but until the experiments + are made, it is by no means certain that other combinations might not be + produced.] + </p> + <p> + The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr. + Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all those + who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the methods + he employed deserve to be much more widely known. + </p> + <p> + It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been + adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of + the bodily senses of the individual,—a circumstance which, if it + were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am, + however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it + one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + </p> + <p> + During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute + experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any remarkable + difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either of his + hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other persons + who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's observatory, + and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of his equatorial; + but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to TEACH ME HOW TO + SEE THEM.] + </p> + <p> + He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his, + and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made + relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone + which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe + this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds had + been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed their + faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + </p> + <p> + It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such + inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could + command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A + striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen, + FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ + of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough. + Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar spectrum + by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my replying in + the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them, he mentioned the + extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's description in his + hand and the long time which it had cost him in detecting them. My friend + then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and put you in such a position + that they shall be visible, and yet you shall look for them and not find + them: after which, while you remain in the same position, I will instruct + you how to see them, and you shall see them, and not merely wonder you did + not see them before, but you shall find it impossible to look at the + spectrum without seeing them." + </p> + <p> + On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I did + not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen, when + the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied with + such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of precipitation + the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in a gallon of a + solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so slight, as to + require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous evaporation, + quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the solution more + concentrated. + </p> + <p> + The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and the + extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands like + those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I have + thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider its + true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that injustice + has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing to some of his + bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to have depended on + the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. And, in the next + place, if I have established the fact, whilst it affords us better means + of judging of such observations as lay claim to an accuracy "MORE THAN + HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer into truth, a path by which + he may acquire powers that he would otherwise have thought were only the + gift of nature to a favoured few. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 1. + </h2> + <p> + In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science + at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that its + influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting to be held + in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria having + expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords should be + given to promote its objects. + </p> + <p> + It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been + considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced + of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the + numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the paths + of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those of + politics. + </p> + <p> + ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF + SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829. + </p> + <p> + The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences + meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe, is + a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention, from + the important advantages which may arise from it. + </p> + <p> + About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an + annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine and + botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at Leipsic, + in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg, Frankfort on + the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had printed a + certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects were + considered members of this academy. + </p> + <p> + The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the + communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced + an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge were + admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure + mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy. + </p> + <p> + Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the + academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting, which + took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year. + </p> + <p> + The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed by + any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans. + </p> + <p> + The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made + knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians + previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have + impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that + its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there + is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for + their possessors the road to wealth and distinction. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the numbers + of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which is + annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The + universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the + wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by + friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age; + whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of + acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes + his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them + the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the + advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or occupied + in similar inquiries. + </p> + <p> + Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as secretary + of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most ably + seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + </p> + <p> + These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin, + undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the + accommodation of the meeting. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377 members + of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were printed in a + small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number, to indicate his + seat in the great concert room, in which the morning meetings took place. + Each member was also provided with an engraved card of the hall of + meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed in black ink, and + his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every person immediately + found his own place, and knew where to look for any friend whom he might + wish to find. + </p> + <p> + At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being + assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage + of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the side-boxes + being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and by the foreign + ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the eloquent address + of the president. + </p> + <p> + SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and + Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.—By + ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + </p> + <p> + Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted to + open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of + gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never + yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of + scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover new + phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored depths of + nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to me. You have + assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, and in a distant + quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same cause with yourselves, I + was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have likewise greeted my return + home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude, you might bind me still longer + and closer to our common country. + </p> + <p> + What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more + agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for the + first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the birth-place + of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the Baltic plains; + from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the beneficent + influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have for centuries + been collected and investigated, the friends of nature, inspired with the + same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock together to this + assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is used, and its peculiar + structure affects the spirit and disposition of the people. From the Great + European Alps, to the other side of the Weichsel, where, in the country of + Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed splendour; everywhere in the + extensive dominions of the German nation we attempt to discover the secret + operations of nature, whether in the heavens, or in the deepest problems + of mechanics, or in the interior of the earth, or in the finely woven + tissues of organic structure. + </p> + <p> + Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in + interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion or + form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests itself + as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of truth and + performance of duty are the highest object of morality, that feeling of + unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion, constitution, and laws + of our country, have rendered dear to each of us. Even this emulation in + mental struggles has called forth (as the glorious history of our country + tells us,) the fairest blossoms of humanity, science, and art. + </p> + <p> + The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its last + meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through the + flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone with + peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance between + Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North. + </p> + <p> + Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it unexpectedly + increases the mass of facts and opinions which are here brought into one + common and useful union. It also recalls lofty recollections into the mind + of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century has elapsed since Linne + appears, in the boldness of the undertakings which he has attempted and + accomplished, as one of the greatest men of the last century. His glory, + however bright, has not rendered Europe blind to the merits of Scheele and + Bergman. The catalogue of these great names is not completed; but lest I + shall offend noble modesty, I dare not speak of the light which is still + flowing in richest profusion from the North, nor mention the discoveries + in the chemical nature of substances, in the numerical relation of their + elements, or the eddying streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The + philosophers here referred to are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those + excellent persons, who, deterred neither by perils of sea or land, have + hastened to our meeting from Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, + and Poland, point our the way to other strangers in succeeding years, so + that by turns every part of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific + communication with the different nations of Europe. + </p> + <p> + But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings in + presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the + patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard for + those lives so dear to their country;—Goethe, whom the great + creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the ARCANA + of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely friend, + as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;—Olbers, who has + discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be + found;—the greatest anatomists of our age—Soemmering, who, + with equal zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and + the spots and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the + photosphere;) Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his + works and his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of + comparative anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and + who has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the + temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat, + as we are not favoured with their presence? + </p> + <p> + These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the + progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to the + obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our + fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist, as + in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual interchange + of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be printed in some + general collection. The principal object of this Society is, to bring + those personally together who are engaged in the same field of science. It + is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange of ideas, whether + they present themselves as facts, opinions, or doubts. It is the + foundation of friendly connexion which throws light on science, adds + cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to the manners. + </p> + <p> + In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction between + words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst a race, + which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual superiority, and + to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the shipwreck of nations, + we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It was not the difficulty of + interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of German science, which has + spread thought as on wings through the world, and insured it a long + continuance, that then induced the friends of philosophy and natural + history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander on long journeys. That + ancient race knew the inspiring influence of conversation as it + extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates the tissue of + scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth without + difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its greatest + extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time. Each step, + which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his object, only + carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of doubt does not + diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and new fields; and + whoever has called that a golden period, when difference of opinions, or, + as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes of the learned, will be + finished, has as imperfect a conception of the wants of science, and of + its continued advancement, as a person who expects that the same opinions + in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, will be maintained for several + centuries. + </p> + <p> + The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature, + have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical + knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy. + The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here, + therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type of + the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In his + physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us a + distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted + object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific + investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it is not + to break that link which embraces equally the investigation of organic and + inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily developement of this + institution renders it necessary, besides the general meeting which is + destined for these halls, to have specific meetings for single branches of + science. For it is only in such contracted circles,—it is only among + men whom reciprocity of studies has brought together, that verbal + discussions can take place. Without this sort of communication, would the + voluntary association of men in search of truth be deprived of an + inspiring principle. + </p> + <p> + Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement of + the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility of + such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations will + meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding you, + that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the duty of + making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble friend, M. + Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and indefatigable + activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit which animates + the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy, and in + acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have seconded + all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness. + </p> + <p> + In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been + prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums + dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to + the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The + greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like the + University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to which + the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have during + this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The + amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our + minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that + great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year this + royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of still + greater value than the treasures themselves,—what inspires every + Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the + ancient reigning family,—that he graciously attaches to himself + every species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection + to the free cultivation of the understanding. + </p> + <p> + This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and + several other memoirs were then read. + </p> + <p> + The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were + present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those who + chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had been + foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense building + used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this purpose. + One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were arranged, at + which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On the evening of + the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the concert rooms + attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on this occasion, + and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his presence the fete of + his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the country, foreign princes, + and foreign ambassadors, were present. It was gratifying to observe the + princes of the blood mingling with the cultivators of science, and to see + the heir-apparent to the throne, during the course of the evening, engaged + in conversation with those most celebrated for their talents, of his own, + or of other countries. + </p> + <p> + Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration + of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert, were + printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most illustrious + philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in letters of gold + at the end of the great concert room. + </p> + <p> + In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, enrolls + amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as well she may + be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius of the first + Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to claim as + entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name. + </p> + <p> + The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting of the + academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In the afternoon, + through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M. Lichtenstein, various + rooms were appropriated for different sections of the academy. In one, the + chemical philosophers attended to some chemical memoir, whilst the + botanists assembled in another room, the physiologists in a third, and the + natural philosophers in a fourth. Each attended to the reading of papers + connected with their several sciences. Thus every member was at liberty to + choose that section in which he felt most interest at the moment, and he + had at all times power of access to the others. The evenings were + generally spent at some of the SOIREES of the savans, resident at Berlin, + whose hospitality and attentions to their learned brethren of other + countries were unbounded. During the unoccupied hours of the morning, the + collections of natural history, which are rapidly rising into importance, + were open to examination; and the various professors and directors who + assisted the stranger in his inquiries, left him equally gratified by the + knowledge and urbanity of those who so kindly aided him. + </p> + <p> + A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which had + sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers sent by + different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was attached to + it;— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Russia......... 1 + Austria........ 0 + England........ 1 + Holland........ 2 + Denmark........ 7 + France ........ 1 + Sardinia ....... 0 + Prussia........ 95 + Bavaria........ 12 + Hanover........ 5 + Saxony ........ 21 + Wirtemburg ...... 2 + Sweden ........ 13 + Naples ........ 1 + Poland ........ 3 + German States..... 43 + —- 206 + Berlin ....... 172 + —- 378 +</pre> + <p> + The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared, + was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more eminent + who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge. The + following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will afford, + perhaps, a tolerably fair view:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Geometers............. 11 + Astronomers........... 5 + Natural Philosophers . 23 + — 39 + + Mines............ 5 + Mineralogy ...... 16 + Geology.......... 9 + — 30 + + Chemistry........... 18 + Geography........... 8 + Anatomy............. 12 + + Zoology............ 14 + Natural History.... 8 + Botany.............. 35 + — 57 + + Physicians....... 175 + Amateurs ....... 9 + Various ......... 35 + —-381 +</pre> + <p> + A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed + that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all those + persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the past and + present age. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE2" id="link2H_APPE2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 2. + </h2> + <p> + An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four + candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the + meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed + pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the + charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member to + judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to show + how the ranks of the Society are recruited. + </p> + <p> + EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. DATED, + 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + </p> + <p> + "When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me + why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer + was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that + my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days + passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality + made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really through + modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until something was + said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, which was + published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal Society; when + you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, because I was and + am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if I can be supposed + worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + </p> + <p> + EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED, + BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + </p> + <p> + "All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission + into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject + upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary." + </p> + <p> + Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the Royal + Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries, pressing + one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on proposing him as, + a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been well aware of the + feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to the propriety of such a + step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite satisfied that such a course + is advantageous to the interests of the Society. That similar applications + were not unfrequently made in private, is well known; but it remains for + the Society to consider whether, now they are publicly and officially + announced to them, it will sanction this mode of augmenting the already + numerous list of its fellows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE3" id="link2H_APPE3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 3, + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE + </h2> + <p> + PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + </p> + <p> + N. B.—The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, + but only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + No. of No. of + Papers years on + printed Council. + in Phil. + Trans.———— ———- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. + 109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. +</pre> + <p> + I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal + Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for + which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission to + employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes, or + from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised at + receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, those + adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety of many + individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a different + opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy, I shall + decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has been + already published in many ways, although the whole has never been printed + in a collected form. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 1216-h.htm or 1216-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/1/1216/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Decline of Science in England + +Author: Charles Babbage + +Posting Date: August 16, 2008 [EBook #1216] +Release Date: March 2,, 2020 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, + +AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES. + +By Charles Babbage + + + + +DEDICATION. + +HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO +A NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE +SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE +MIGHT HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, +PERHAPS TOO SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING +THE NAME OF ONE WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND +RESPECT. + +C. BABBAGE. + + +DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little +to say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service +to science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so +thankless a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion +in which I concur with several of my friends, although I should hope +that what I have written will not give just reason for the permanence of +such feelings. On one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected +in any degree with the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; +the causes which have led to it have been long operating, and would have +produced this result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and +whatever might have been the fate of my speculations. + +If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these +pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself, +I think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and +declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is +shared by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I +shall offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered +position, are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, +when combined with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will +be admitted to deserve considerable attention. The following extract +from the article Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from +the pen of a gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and +from his acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled +to respect. Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be +permitted to cite him as high authority for the fact. + +"In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of +Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret, +which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the +space of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do, +the electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers, +we still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree +of neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this +period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; +and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical +discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are +we sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are +amongst our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius, +Guy-Lussac, Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the +doctrine of definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic +Theory. Is it a representation of the laws of nature, or is it +not?"---CHEMISTRY, ENCYC. METROP. p.596. + +When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were +informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the +same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the +language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be +allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the +writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some +of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + +Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may +infer his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his +last work:-- + +"--But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for +philosophers."----"There are very few persons who pursue science with +true dignity; it is followed more as connected with objects of profit +than those of fame."--SIR H. DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL. + +The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the +varied acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into +which he enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and +in our article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this +ONLY opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most +admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific +matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and +quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS +pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has +sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which +abound in it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical +collections; and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long +suppression of those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future +volumes of that of the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts +of them which from time to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the +hands of the authors, or from the reports rendered by the committees +appointed to examine them; which latter, indeed, are universally models +of their kind, and have contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the +high scientific tone of the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but +will write his best, when he knows that his work, if it have merit, will +immediately be reported on by a committee, who will enter into all its +meaning; understand it, however profound: and, not content with MERELY +understanding it, pursue the trains of thought to which it leads; place +its discoveries and principles in new and unexpected lights; and bring +the whole of their knowledge of collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor +ought we to omit our acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of +Poggendorff and Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic +compeer, they present a picture of the actual progress of physical +science throughout Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to +see with what celerity every thing, even moderately valuable in the +scientific publications of this country, finds its way into their pages. +This ought to encourage our men of science. They have a larger audience, +and a wider sympathy than they are perhaps aware of; and however +disheartening the general diffusion of smatterings of a number of +subjects, and the almost equally general indifference to profound +knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may be, they may rest +assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good experiment they +may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and commented upon, in +Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the obligation were +mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are unstudied, +and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to conceal the +melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics we have +long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In +chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the +Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who +among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated +acids,--Oersted's and Berzelius's on the radicals of the +earths,--Balard's and Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,--and a +hundred other splendid trains of research in that fascinating science? +Nor need we stop here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not +furnish matter for similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and +deep-seated; but this is not the place to discuss them."--MR. HERSCHEL'S +TREATISE ON SOUND, printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA. + +With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of +the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some +of its causes, must be left to others to decide. + +Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific +bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished +upon some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and +Pamphlets, have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has +been cast upon some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be +established by testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it +can be proved, by evidence to which the public have access, it is of +no consequence (for the cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of +opinion derives weight from the name which is attached to it; but a +chain of reasoning is equally conclusive, whoever may be its author. + +Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be +avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured, +and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of +frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the +lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue +that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who +fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those +whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest +scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the +philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he +may think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections, +from the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was +the author of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered +amongst the most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be +credited, from the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with +one of those subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. +[I merely observed that the agreement made with the British Museum for +exchanging the Arundel MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been +stated by the President,) was UNWISE;--because it was not to be expected +that many duplicates should be found in a library like that of the +Museum, weak in the physical and mathematical sciences: that it was +IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;--because it neither fixed the TIME +when the difference was to be paid, in case their duplicates should be +insufficient; nor did it appear that there were any FUNDS out of +which the money could be procured: and I added, that it would be more +advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we wanted with the +produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world of science, my +character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being the subject +of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of correcting it, I +will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it more candid to +mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have disapproved, or +whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader inferences +which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I hope, +therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so +unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described +individuals. + +With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set +up to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a +few words will suffice. + +I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the +injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There +is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine. +The public character of every public servant is legitimate subject +of discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly +canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from +such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for +they know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid +from the public purse. + +The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and +to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose +appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the +merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they +are paid to perform. + +This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of +State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal +Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty. + +With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure +different. But the President of a society, although not recompensed by +any pecuniary remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which +he presides possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who +will esteem themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the +office, by the consequence attached to it in public estimation. He, +therefore, is answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + +There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other +officers, have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a +train of clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them. +Science is much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious +labours the routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be +unwise, as well as ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies, +or even of the negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes +should justify such a course. + +Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry +in its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our +scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope, +temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms +of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those +from whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together +all the causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different +departments, endeavour to convince them that some alteration is +essentially necessary for the promotion of that very object which we +both by such different roads pursue. + +I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the +departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been +wholly the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with +justice, in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the +famous maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of +female weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of +those who are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion. +But, whoever would claim the admiration of mankind for their good +actions, must prove his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil +deeds. Adopt the maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from +its universality; and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto +deemed. + +Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the +Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that +attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services, +and partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to +science in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited +to take steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having +published extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the +permission of its Council. To have asked permission of the present +Council would have been useless. I might, however, have given the +substance of what I have extracted without the words, and no one could +then have reproached me with any infringement of our rules: but +there were two objections to that course. In the first place, it is +impossible, even for the most candid, in all cases, to convey precisely +the same sentiment in different language; and I thought it therefore +more fair towards those from whom I differed, as well as to the public, +to give the precise words. Again: had it been possible to make so +accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the risk of incurring +the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to escaping their +censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own head; and I +shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + +If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse +me of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which +governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the +justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted +with the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their +approbation, appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need +scarcely add I have not the slightest anticipation. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PREFACE + Introductory Remarks + CHAP. I. On the Reciprocal Influence of Science and Education. + CHAP. II. Of the Inducements to Individuals to cultivate Science. + --Sect. 1. Professional Impulses. + ------ 2. Of National Encouragement. + ------ 3. Of Encouragement from learned Societies. + CHAP. III. General State of learned Societies in England. + CHAP. IV. State of the Royal Society in particular. + --Sect. 1. Mode of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society. + ------ 2. Of the Presidency and Vice-Presidencies. + ------ 3. Of the Secretariships + ------ 4. Of the Scientific Advisers. + ------ 5. Of the Union of several Offices in one person. + ------ 6. Of the Funds of the Society. + ------ 7. Of the Royal Medals. + ------ 8. Of the Copley Medals. + ------ 9. Of the Fairchild Lecture. + ------ 10. Of the Croonian Lecture. + ------ 11. Of the Causes of the Present State of the Royal Society. + ------ 12. Of the Plan for Reforming the Society. + CHAP. V. Of Observations. + --Sect. 1. Of Minute Precision. + ------ 2. On the Art of Observing. + ------ 3. On the Frauds of Observers. + CHAP. VI. Suggestions for the Advancement of Science in England. + --Sect. 1. Of the Necessity that Members of the Royal Society + --------- should express their Opinions. + ------ 2. Of Biennial Presidents. + ------ 3. Of the Influence of the Colleges of Physicians and + --------- Surgeons in the Royal Society. + ------ 4. Of the Influence of the Royal Institution on the Royal + --------- Society. + ------ 5. Of the Transactions of the Royal Society. + ------ 6. Order of Merit. + ------ 7. Of the Union of Scientific Societies. + CONCLUSION. + APPENDIX NO. 1. + ------- NO. 2. + ------- NO. 3. + + + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, AND ON SOME OF ITS +CAUSES. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + +It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable +them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of +science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect +to the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other +nations, not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior +power. That a country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical +and manufacturing ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of +inquiries which form the highest departments of that knowledge on whose +more elementary truths its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is +well deserving the attention of those who shall inquire into the causes +that influence the progress of nations. + +To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest +departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present, +must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who, +having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see +and regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see +through and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these +remarks, with the hope that they may excite discussion,--with the +conviction that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,--and with the +confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can +remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of +the science of England. + +The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have +resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed, +that it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall, +therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination, +but rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant +circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of +it, shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for +the advancement of British science. + + + +CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + +That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive +influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a +principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally +certain that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them +the traces of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore +not unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science +in England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A +young man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant +almost of the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these +latter establishments, formed originally for instructing those who +are intended for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical +pursuits are nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition. + +Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen +years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there +is no one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to +believe that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted +by the warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of +its institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of +no ordinary kind. + +Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought +to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I +am inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose +would not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they +would contribute materially to that important object. + +It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university, +ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a +certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered +knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet +this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for +instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must +attend, other sources of information from whence the students may +acquire sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on +chemistry, geology, botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of +option with the student, which, and how many of these courses he shall +attend, and such it should still remain. All that it would be necessary +to add would be, that previously to taking his degree, each person +should be examined by those Professors, whose lectures he had attended. +The pupils should then be arranged in two classes, according to their +merits, and the names included in these classes should be printed. I +would then propose that no young man, except his name was found amongst +the "List of Honours," should be allowed to take his degree, unless he +had been placed in the first class of some one at least of the courses +given by the professors. But it should still be imperative upon the +student to possess such mathematical knowledge as we usually require. If +he had attained the first rank in several of these examinations, it +is obvious that we should run no hazard in a little relaxing the +strictness of his mathematical trial. + +If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and +the following subjects be taken together:-- + + Modern History. + Laws of England. + Civil Law. + + Political Economy. + Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + + Chemistry. + Mineralogy. + Geology. + + Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. + Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. + +One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young +person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most +frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics +and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of +his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect +every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should +be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits +in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of +examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It +might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations +to the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of +them in the first or second year, if he should prefer it. + +By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with +our other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to +keep pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power +and our right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the +church, as well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected +with our academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open +a field of honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive +nature of our present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition +to their stock of knowledge. + +Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of +the country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open +it for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so +much for the improvement of our system of instruction, that public +opinion will not reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our +first duty to be well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations +ought only to be the result of a most mature consideration, and of a +free interchange of sentiments on the subject, in order that we may +condense upon the question the accumulated judgment of many minds. + +It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of +education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the +higher classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of +Commons, which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with +science, sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the +extremely limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps, +have doubted. + + + +CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + +Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this +matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in +each of the respective cases to be examined. + + + + +SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + +A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to +advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which +they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there +are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of +society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the +jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous +situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the +other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or +resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps +of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned +professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public +opinion is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress +conduct that is injurious either to the profession or to the public. +Again, the mutual jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body +is so considerable, that although the rank and estimation which an +individual holds in the profession may be most unfairly appreciated, +by taking the opinion of his rival; yet few estimations will be found +generally more correct than the opinion of a whole profession on the +merits of any one of its body. This test is of great value to the +public, and becomes the more so, in proportion to the difficulty of the +study to which the profession is devoted. It is by availing themselves +of it that men of sense and judgment, who have occasion for the services +of professional persons, are, in a great measure, guided in their +choice. + +The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct +profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on +that ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach +to professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this +circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so +difficult, and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who +have not spent years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge +of those who pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and +even that men of sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means +to distinguish between the possessors of knowledge, in the present +day, merely elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest +order. This remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult +applications of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the +energies of those who only look to reputation in England. + +As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to +science, it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the +proper fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is +vacant, it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather +from among persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other +subjects, and to whom science has been only an occasional pursuit. +A certain quantity of scientific knowledge is of course possessed by +individuals in many professions; and when added to the professional +acquirements of the army, the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, +is highly meritorious: but it is obvious that this may become, when +separated from the profession, quite insignificant as the basis of a +scientific reputation. + +To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of +chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of +several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of +the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have +been connected with this profession. + +The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are +not often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of +considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members +hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation, +nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our +church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of +science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments. + +In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out +the strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it +ability, coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot +fail of obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction +to public life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a +qualification for many situations more or less remotely connected +with it, as well as from the circumstance that several of the highest +officers of the state must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + +A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and +of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which +is less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science. +This is one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in +public situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches +of scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of +such persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + +But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional +avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the +overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with +success by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be +well acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task; +but to add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be +the lot of but few English philosophers. + + + + +SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + +The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded +by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of +new and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds: + +1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new +invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can +be. + +2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually +much larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing; +and it is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want +which the public feel for the new article. + +It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct: +there are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very +reasoning from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into +these exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth +is entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the +application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded. +A few instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The +principle of the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth +in the time of Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to +raising heavy weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on +natural philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it +may fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr. +Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted +it into a most valuable and powerful engine.--The principle of the +convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the +pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago, +remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant +proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly +pointed out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the +foundation of a most convenient practical method of determining the +length of the pendulum.--The interval which separated the discovery, by +Dr. Black, of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application +of it to the steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the +efforts of two minds; and both were of the highest order.--The influence +of electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable +value as an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be +said to have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the +same powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by +a singular felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the +copper-sheathing of vessels. That admirably connected chain of +reasoning, the truth of which is confirmed by its very failure as a +remedy, will probably at some future day supply, by its successful +application, a new proof of the position we are endeavouring to +establish. + +[I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the +greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing +the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,--the preventing the corrosion of +the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an +OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the +surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine +animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the +progress of the vessel.] + +Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long +intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles +in science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to +surprise us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new +principles or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those +which are necessary for their practical application. + +At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, +it required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the +mathematical science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries +by new creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a +quick perception of the details, and of the practical applications +of the principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of +mankind that minds of this high order should lavish their powers on +subjects unsuited to their grasp. + +In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths +which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most +remote from all useful application, become in the next age the bases +of profound physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by +proper simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and +daily aid to the artist and the sailor. + +It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles, +the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application +likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle +of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the +expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his +name received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has +deservedly brought it into such general use. + +On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of +invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying +principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will +always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail. + +If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles +should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also +important that encouragement should be held out to the few who +are capable of adding to the number of those truths on which such +applications are founded. Unless there exist peculiar institutions +for the support of such inquirers, or unless the Government directly +interfere, the contriver of a thaumatrope may derive profit from his +ingenuity, whilst he who unravels the laws of light and vision, on which +multitudes of phenomena depend, shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + +Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already +afforded to abstract science in our different universities, by the +professorships established at them. It is not however in the power of +such institutions to create; they may foster and aid the development of +genius; and, when rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair +and honourable rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and +when otherwise, the lectures which are required from the professor are +not perhaps in all cases the best mode of employing the energies of +those who are capable of inventing. + +I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the +authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of +expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece +of scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the +return of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks, +"But, because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great +hinderance and interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely +exempt from the former, and in great measure from the latter."--LIFE +OF GALILEO, p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with +gratitude of Cosmo, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me +to attach myself to him with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with +the title of Philosopher and principal Mathematician to his Highness, +without the duties of any office to perform, but with most complete +leisure; so that I can complete my treatise on Mechanics, &c."--p.31. +[Life of Galileo, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful +Knowledge.] + +Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a +country far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's, +to be employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these +sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable +philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose +modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend +by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in +that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal +Society of England;--had he taken part with those who vote to each other +medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make to +each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant +to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been +represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his +claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes +with the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in +the mantle of his glory.--But the philosopher may find consolation for +the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If +he was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name +connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military +renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental +power, its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his +life in drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns? + +If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the +age are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The +doctrines of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of +electricity,"--principles of a high order, which have immortalized the +names of their discoverers,--were not produced by the meditations of +the cloister: nor is it in the least a reproach to those valuable +institutions to mention truths like these. Fortunate circumstances must +concur, even to the greatest, to render them eminently successful. It is +not permitted to all to be born, like Archimedes, when a science was to +be created; nor, like Newton, to find the system of the world "without +form and void;" and, by disclosing gravitation, to shed throughout that +system the same irresistible radiance as that with which the Almighty +Creator had illumined its material substance. It can happen to but few +philosophers, and but at distant intervals, to snatch a science, like +Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite combination, and binding it in the +chains of number, to exalt it to rank amongst the exact. Triumphs like +these are necessarily "few and far between;" nor can it be expected that +that portion of encouragement, which a country may think fit to bestow +on science, should be adapted to meet such instances. Too extraordinary +to be frequent, they must be left, if they are to be encouraged at all, +to some direct interference of the government. + +The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would +arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:--That class +of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess +sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose +judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to +science, might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the +expression of public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it +might not enjoy, in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high +character for independence. Should these causes concur in any country, +it might become highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science +to any department of the government. This reasoning does not appear to +have escaped the penetration of those who advised the abolition of the +late Board of Longitude. + +The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country +to encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not +perhaps the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto +pursued science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of +complaint; they knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for +it, that it led to little honour, and to less profit. + +That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering +the science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past +administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the +present ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion, +it is not necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain +long insensible to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing +science were thought of some importance by any administration, it would +be difficult in the present state of things to do much in its favour; +because, on the one hand, the higher classes in general have not a +profound knowledge of science, and, on the other, those persons whom +they have usually consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to +deserve the confidence of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the +money allotted by government to purposes of science ought to be expended +with the same regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money +in the affairs of private life. + +[Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the +expense of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical +Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the +Philosophical Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at +the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only +are printed? + +Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be +distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they +will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country +incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see +on what principle a similar destination could be refused for the +observations made at the Cape of Good Hope.] + +To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of +science by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state +a fact, which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves +attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the +terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and +new tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the +time that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of +between two and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of +those annuities being a losing concern was long known to many; and the +government appear to have been the last to be informed on the subject. +Half the interest of half that loss, judiciously applied to the +encouragement of mathematical science, would, in a few years, have +rendered utterly impossible such expensive errors. + +To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have +its weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first +translation of this celebrated work into our own language, has just +arrived in England from--America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES +PROBABILITES, were both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the +reign of that extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent +in Science as they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which +trained and rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they +have conferred upon mankind! + +In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge +of science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man +does not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory, +or has added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of +animated nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have +begun their career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples +are perhaps more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful +to mention a few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who +now hold, high official stations in the governments of their respective +countries. + + + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + (5) of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador. + + (1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. + (2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. + (3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE--RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS + FOSSILES &c. &c. + (4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, + and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. + (5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the + Transactions of the Academy of Forty. + (6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809--TABULAE VENERIS, + NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810--INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A + MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other + works. + + +M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the +Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of +the Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at +the German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau +was invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of +Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the +King of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in +our own country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true, +more than a century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any +person suggest an appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and +he will gather from the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the +highest knowledge conduces nothing to success, and that political power +is almost the only recommendation. + + + + +SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + +There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons +pursuing science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In +former times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art +of making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary. +More recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to +science, it has been found that those who are most capable of extending +human knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of +printing their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some +means should be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the +volumes of the transactions of academies have accomplished the desired +end. + +There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. +When they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their +knowledge, it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their +list. Thus a stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science, +which urges on their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for +distinction. It is clear that this envied position will be valued +in proportion to the difficulty of its attainment, and also to the +celebrity of those who enjoy it; and whenever the standard of scientific +knowledge which qualifies for its ranks is lowered, the value of the +distinction itself will be diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of +persons having no sort of knowledge of science are admitted, it must +cease to be sought after as an object of ambition by men of science, and +the class of persons to whom it will become an object of desire will be +less intellectual. + +Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies +of Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the +Italian Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst +the most distinguished. + + Name Number of Number + Population. Members of + Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + + 1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 + 2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. + 8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16 + 4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8 + +It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member +of the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000 +persons is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000 +inhabitants produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at +these proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin, +must be more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in +England; and a member of the Institute of France will be more than +thirteen times more rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal +Society is in England. + +Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other +countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking +difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the +station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several +of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps, +at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that +which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement +on science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of +this support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose +enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered. + +The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended +by those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the +circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia +having acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may +attribute the great force with which that maxim is appreciated. + +In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as +profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few +who do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks +of royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I +shall mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to +the English reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the +Institute, printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for +1823.] + + + Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class + Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. + to the Legion of Honour. + + GrandCroix......... 3 80 + GrandOfficier..... 3 160 + Commandeur........ 4 400 + Officier.......... 17 2,000 + Chevalier......... 40 Not limited. + + + + Number of Members of the Institute Total Number + decorated with of + the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + + Grand Croix....... 2 + 100 + Chevalier......... 27 + + Amongst the members of the Institute there + are,-- + + Dukes................... 2 + Marquis................. 1 + Counts.................. 4 + Viscounts................ 2 + Barons.................. 14 + --23 + + Of these there are + Peers of France.......... 5 + +We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal +Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute +of France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to +inquire how many titled members there are amongst those who have +contributed to its Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and +nine members who had contributed to the Transactions of the Royal +Society; amongst these were found:-- + + Peer........................ 1 + Baronets.................... 5 + Knights..................... 5 + +It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of +members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy, +could be attributed exclusively to science. + +It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list, +were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to +have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to +mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal. + +The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and +England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the +translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His +Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette +de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, +"CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to +particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term +WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality +most esteemed amongst his countrymen. + +If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France, +we shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much +that I have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which +I made several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will +not be found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing +no inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years +since, to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time +in London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me +that he had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement +of science. + +Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison +between the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet +of paper before him, and requested him to write down the names of six +Englishmen, in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific +reputation. Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of +six Frenchmen, best known in England for their scientific discoveries. +We exchanged these lists, and I then requested him to place against each +name (as far as he knew) the annual income of the different appointments +held by that person. In the mean time, I performed the same operation on +his list, against some names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The +result of the comparison was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for +the six French SAVANS whom I had named. Of the average amount of the +sums received by the English, I only remember that it was very much +smaller. When we consider what a command over the necessaries and +luxuries of life 1200L. will give in France, it is underrating it to say +it is equal to 2000L. in this country. + +Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into +life, who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself +to the abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful +power, feels that the career of science is that in which his mental +faculties are most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants. +What are his prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add +colour to the blank before him? There are no situations in the state; +there is no position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him +in his laborious path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, +there are some few chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some +distant day pretend; but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries +attached are seldom sufficient for the sole support of the individual, +they are very rarely enough for that of a family. What then can he reply +to the entreaties of his friends, to betake himself to some business +in which perhaps they have power to assist him, or to choose some +profession in which his talents may produce for him their fair reward? +If he have no fortune, the choice is taken away: he MUST give up that +line of life in which his habits of thought and his ambition qualify +him to succeed eminently, and he MUST choose the bar, or some other +profession, in which, amongst so many competitors, in spite of his great +talents, he can be but moderately successful. The loss to him is +great, but to the country it is greater. We thus, by a destructive +misapplication of talent which our institutions create, exchange a +profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer. + +If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and, +intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the +state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration +a sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;--if, +so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he +might have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall +have won a station high in the ranks of European science, he may a +little augment his resources by some of those few employments to which +science leads;--if he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of +Longitude, for example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may +be permitted to exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry +remuneration of a clerk, he will find that other qualifications than +knowledge and a love of science are necessary for its attainment. He +will also find that the high and independent spirit, which usually +dwells in the breast of those who are deeply versed in these pursuits, +is ill adapted for such appointments; and that even if successful, he +must hear many things he disapproves, and raise no voice AGAINST them. + +Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue +abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he +can resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus +situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if +they do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for +them to deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the +greatest delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to +the public? + + + +CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + +The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the +division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as +it had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The +want of competition in science produced effects similar to those which +the same cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany +were the first to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal +Society was too comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their +favourite subject, and they established the Linnean Society. After many +years, a new science arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At +an another and more recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the +wants of their science, united to establish the Astronomical Society. +Each of these bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science +by the parent establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each +in succession experienced from the Royal Society the most determined +opposition. + +Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the +promotion of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived +that nothing could be more likely to render these young institutions +permanently successful, than discouragement and opposition at their +commencement. Finding their first attempts so eminently successful, +they redoubled the severity of their persecution, and the result was +commensurate with their exertions, and surpassed even their wildest +anticipations. The Astronomical Society became in six years known and +respected throughout Europe, not from the halo of reputation which +the glory of its vigourous youth had thrown around the weakness of its +declining years; but from the sterling merit of "its unpretending +deeds, from the sympathy it claimed and received from every practical +astronomer, whose labours it relieved, and whose calculations it +lightened." + +But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological +and Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition: +perhaps, indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best +proof of the wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present, +the various societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, +each pursuing its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with +filial regret, the second childhood of their common parent, and the evil +councils by which that sad event has been anticipated. + +It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who +belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by +many considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The +following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives +the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third. + + + SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. + Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. + Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. + Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. + Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. + Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. + Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. + Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. + Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. + Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. + Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. + Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. + Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. + Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. + +[* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu +of annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the +member.] + +Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according +to their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a +tail of upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. +per letter. + +Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a +country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is +indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are +maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless +the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should +rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, +it is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full +PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS +and inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due +degree of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these +principles. Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page; +and I regret to add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend +it; but, like all deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone +can contribute to its cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of +remonstrance or reproof found utterance through other channels, I had +gladly been silent, content to support by my vote the reasonings of the +friend of science and of the Society. But this has not been the case, +and after frustrated efforts to introduce improvements, I shall now +endeavour, by the force of plain, but perhaps painful truths, to direct +public opinion in calling for such a reform, as shall rescue the Royal +Society from contempt in our own country, from ridicule in others. + +On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the +Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the +vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science, +and has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral +discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of +these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part +of the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, +and sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, +though insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other, +and ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these +discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good +sense of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal +criticisms--praise of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and +contest for victory. This latter is, perhaps, the most important of the +three, both for the interests of the Society and of truth. With regard +to the published volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, +that if members were in the habit of communicating their papers to the +Society in a more finished state, it would be attended with several +advantages; amongst others, with that of lightening the heavy duties of +the officers, which are perhaps more laborious in this Society than in +most others. To court publicity in their accounts and proceedings, +and to endeavour to represent all the feelings of the Society in the +Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, is a recommendation not +peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would contribute to the +well-being of all. + +Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits, +could scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the +Geological, I shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has +caused its great success, unless it be attention to the maxims which +have just been stated. + +On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the +public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income +is a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for +jobs, and it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to +render embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely +to occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from +the very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and +Council are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it +is still right to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially +necessary to have men of business on the Council, as well as persons +possessing extensive knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous +in such a Society than in any other, to pay compliments, by placing +gentlemen on the Council who have not the qualifications which are +requisite; a frequent change in the members of the Council is desirable, +in order to find out who are the most regular attendants, and most +qualified to conduct its business. Publicity in its accounts and +proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more essential to the +Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a fearful omen, +that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at the last +anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the friends of +science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts. + +It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more +than one scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive +instruction as to their merits, by observing the success of their +measures in other societies. + +The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable +works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published. + +The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is +now rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat +impaired. There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration, +notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have +ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage +to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO +PERSONS,--to making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,--and to auditing the +accounts WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form +altogether. + +The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the +public; its pretensions were great--its assurance unbounded. It speedily +became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the +number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose +the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that +institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed +to confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific +establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, +if those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this +Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest +claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the +only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country. +As with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to +render EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains +for it to exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is +capable. [* They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is +but slight praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical +botanist of our own country, and who is admired abroad as he is +respected at home. The circumstance which surprised the world was not +his exit from, but his previous entrance into that Society.] + + + +CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + +As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of +European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in +the opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially +involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in +detail. + + + + +SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of +a Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of +arriving at that honour, has been as follows:-- + +A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he +(A. B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and +valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the +meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to +be perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however +small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on +the other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected +with science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the +members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; +and, unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being +black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the +Council, previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am +not aware that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number, +which was, at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + +In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, +have all been known persons; but even in such cases a hope +remains;--perseverance will do much, and a gentleman who values so +highly the distinction of admission to the Royal Society, may try +again; and even after being twice black-balled, if he will a third time +condescend to express his desire to become a member, he may perhaps +succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In such circumstances, the odds +are much in favour of the candidate possessing great scientific claims; +and the only objection that could then reasonably be suggested, would +arise from his estimating rather too highly a distinction which had +become insignificant from its unlimited extension. + +It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that +the sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be +ten pounds on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this +subscription is so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men +of real science from entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on +those who do so; for very few indeed of the cultivators of science +rank amongst the wealthy classes. Several times, whilst I have been +consulting books or papers at Somerset House, persons have called to +ask the Assistant-secretary the mode of becoming a member of the Royal +Society. I should conjecture, from some of these applications, that it +is not very unusual for gentlemen in the country to order their agents +in London to take measures for putting them up at the Royal Society. + + + + +SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + +Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot +precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this +resolution solve the enigma: + +"It was Resolved, + +"That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by +far the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching +anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly." + +To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently +flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon +the rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST +FIT" was only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his +supporters indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I +believe, even at that very Council. + +That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be +instantly admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with +him: that he is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed +by few, except those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted +resolution. + +Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he +might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round +him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits +of science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society. +Instead of himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a +chairman ought to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By +the firmness of his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate +officers of the Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying +compliments to Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he +might have maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of +knowledge. + +But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest +to allure, or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself +respected as the powerful chief of a united republic,--that of +science,--he has grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble +occupant of its desolated kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions +he might have directed, and refused even the patronage of their names by +those whose energies he might have commanded. + +Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and +this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office +which he had long held, and to which he wished to return. + +Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board +of Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal +Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and +Council. Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he +became, EX OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy +occurred, which ought to have been filled up by the President and +Council. But when this subject was brought before them, in defiance of +common sense, and the plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had +enacted that the Board of Longitude should have the assistance of four +persons belonging to the Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow +it to be filled up, on the ground that he should not be President next +year, and had made no vacancy. + +Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but +the Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some +LOCUM TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure. + +These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they +illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming +the dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so +circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting +the existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if +such a system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the +frequency of such arrangements. + + + + +SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + +Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in +reforming the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard +to the senior Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more +unfortunate than the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude +for a moment to his personal character, I should say that the mild +excellencies of his heart have prevented the Royal Society from deriving +the whole of that advantage from his varied knowledge and liberal +sentiments which some might perhaps have anticipated; and many will +agree with me in regretting that his judgment has not directed a larger +portion of the past deeds of the Councils of the Royal Society. Of the +junior Secretary I shall only observe, that whilst I admit his industry, +his perseverance, and his talents, I regret to see such valuable +qualities exerted at a disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them +all the success they merit in situations more adapted for their +developement. + +There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to +investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of +the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already +arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the +conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in +which I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. +[These observations were written previous to the late appointment, to +which I now devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council +of the Royal Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the +same understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not +to the members of its Council. + +Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to +consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have +military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several +peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not +absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of +science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices +in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command, +which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect +freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military +chief commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to +retain the confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as +much as possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course +to win the confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render +his future observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most +full and explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to +the professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when +he enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where +the force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits, +that his admission to the offices of science can be attended with any +advantage to it. + +Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to +the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings +of men of science, when they have published their observations, are too +apt to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and +to consider that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their +observations as it is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious +to science than that such an opinion should be tolerated. The most +unreserved criticism is necessary for truth; and those suspicions +respecting his own accuracy, which every philosophical experimenter will +entertain concerning his own researches, ought never to be considered as +a reproach, when they are kept in view in examining the experiments of +others. The minute circumstances and apparently trivial causes which +lend their influence towards error, even in persons of the most candid +judgment, are amongst the most curious phenomena of the human mind. + +The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits +of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall +conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his +Observations: + +"Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti +sui, de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum, +deque mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut +aliis quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex +nostris observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent +precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice +tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot +vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii. + +There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own +character as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions +apparently neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention, +since it is reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the +province of its Secretaries. + +The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances +attending the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume +of Astronomical Observations which were made at the Observatory of +Paramatta (New South Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the +Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1829." + +Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British +officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers +were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those +instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of +the observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their +employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet +has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions, +omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any +part of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable +observations to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir +Thomas Brisbane; whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him +to found, at his own private expense, an establishment which it has +been creditable to the British Government to continue as a national +institution. Had any kindred feelings existed in the Council, instead +of endeavouring to shift the responsibility, they would have hastened to +rectify an omission, less unjust to the individual than it was injurious +to English science. + +Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity +of the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been +publicly stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes +of the Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry +has been asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true +statement of what actually passed at the Council. + +The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to +verify by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall +state them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon +them. In the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find-- + +"Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon +the Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons, +amongst whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was +absent from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction, +until he saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had +taken place. That his name was the one substituted for that of Captain +Beaufort I know, from other evidence which need not be produced here, as +the omission of the latter name is the charge that has been made.], +and that of Captain Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy +himself that this is not a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in +copying, by consulting the rough minutes of that meeting of the Council, +which it might perhaps be as well to write in a rough minute-book, +instead of upon loose sheets of paper; nor can it be attributed to any +error arising from accidentally mislaying the real minutes, for in that +case the error would have been rectified immediately it was detected; +and this has remained uncorrected, although publicly spoken of for +months. As there is no erasure in the list, one is reluctantly +compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of that meeting have been +destroyed.]] + +Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on +the morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on +the evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on +the house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of +his profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President, +declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + +Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution +of the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but +in order to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other +information is necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the +Society, that the President should not absolutely name his own Council, +but that the subject should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous +to the Anniversary--this has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and +those who support him. Now, it has been stated, that, at the meeting +of the Council on the 26th of November, the President took out of his +pocket a bit of paper, from which he read the names of several persons +as fit to be on the Council for the ensuing year;--that it was not +understood that any motion was made, and it is certain that none was +seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such an important question; and +it was a matter of considerable surprise to some of those present, to +discover afterwards that it was entered on the minutes as a resolution. +This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and I believe it to be +substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was dictated, not +discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar resolution +stands on the council-books for any previous year. + +On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of +the letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it +omitted? If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been +no necessity for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter, +a resolution would naturally have followed, recommending another name +instead of the one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but +this would have exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage +it. If the rough minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over +before it separated, and were copied previously to the next meeting, +such a substitution could hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this +is not the case, and the delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the +minutes of the three Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and +on March 11, were not entered on the minute-books of the Council +on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor was this the fault of the +Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the rough minutes of no one of +those Councils had been transmitted to him. + +Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an +occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be +ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed +the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of +this suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of +estimating the confidence due to the whole. + + + + +SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + +Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, +that its Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the +Admiralty determined to render that body completely subservient to them, +or whether both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has +been for years its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal +Society is in public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for +this last insult. In order to inform the public and the Society, (for I +believe the fact is known to few of the members,) it will be necessary +to trace the history of those circumstances which led to the institution +of the offices of Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of +the late Board of Longitude. + +That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which +established it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no +knowledge of the subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss--of +certain professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal, +who had some knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their +attendance;--of three honorary members of the Royal Society, who +combined the qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly, +of "three other persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were +supposed to be "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, +OR NAVIGATION," and who were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the +Board. + +The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other +persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at +the pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act +of parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the +Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal +Society, the copy of an Order in Council: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, + +November 1, 1828. + +SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send +herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal +Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last +month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident +Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of +the Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them, +notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to +acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy +Board for the payment of the said salaries. + +I am, Sir, + +Your most obedient humble servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + + +AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, + +27th October, 1828. + +PRESENT, + +The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + +Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right +Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this +instant, in the words following, viz.-- + +Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20, +instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude +at sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between +the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole," +three persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, +or Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board +of Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also +appointed, with such salaries for the execution of those services as +his Majesty might, by any Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, +whereas, your Majesty was in consequence, by your Order in Council of +the 27th of May, 1828, most graciously pleased to direct, that the three +said Resident Commissioners should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year +each; and by your further Order in Council, of the 31st October, 1818, +that the Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac should be allowed a +salary of 300L., and the Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; +and, whereas, the act above mentioned has been repealed, and the Board +of Longitude abolished; and doubts have therefore arisen, whether the +said Orders in Council shall still continue in force; and whereas it +is expedient that the said appointments be continued; We beg leave most +humbly to submit to your Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously +pleased, by your Order in Council, to direct that the said offices +of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and of Superintendent of +Chronometers; and also the three persons before-mentioned as a Resident +Committee, to advise with the Commissioners for executing the Office +of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of discoveries, inventions, +calculations, and other scientific subjects, be continued, with the same +duties and salaries, and under the same regulations as heretofore; and +further beg most humbly to propose, that such three persons to form +the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by the Commissioners for +executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from among the Council of the +Royal Society. + +His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was +pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof +and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to +give the necessary directions herein accordingly. + +(Signed) JAMES HILLER. + +Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from +among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a +year each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + +Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape +the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was +made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted. + +MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823. + +RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords +Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal +Society, on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that +inconvenience may arise from the plan therein specified, from the +circumstance of all the members of the Council being annually elected +by the Society at large; and that body being consequently subject to +continual changes from year to year. + +This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the +Admiralty: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + +SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your +Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of +the proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the +communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his +Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their +Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President +and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the +inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their +Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific +Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were +induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to +the Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the +persons chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from +the circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members +being annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually +appointed; and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been +felt during the ten years that the Committee has been in existence, +as four of the distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have +successively appointed to this office, have continued during the whole +period to be members of the Council; and if any such difficulty or +inconvenience should hereafter arise, their Lordships will be ready to +take proper measures for remedying it. + +Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and +Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had +resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board +of Longitude, to be appointed. + +I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + +The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce +much effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff +of which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared +the bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended +this plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO +THE PUBLIC OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he +delicately hints to them their dependent situation, by observing, that +the "RESIDENT COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + +The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom +for years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the +Council, and consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must +first be indebted to the President for being qualified to advise, and +then to the Admiralty for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then +their Lordships, as a "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the +dependence of the Council on the President, by making his nomination +a qualification for place, and establish a new dependence of the same +Council on themselves, by giving a hundred pounds each year to such +three members of that Council as they may select. "THE PLEDGE" they +offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is, +that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought they would do for his +Council. + +What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this +mark of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must +be left to themselves to express. + +In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society +the weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a +consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed +there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted +field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the +soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles +which pervade it are open and liberal as his own. + +The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is, +that the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in +any case, be very small; and may, from several circumstances, be +considerably reduced. In a council fairly selected, to judge of +the merits of the various subjects likely to be brought under the +consideration of the Society, anatomy, chemistry, and the different +branches of natural history, will share with the numerous departments of +physical science, in claiming to be represented by persons competently +skilled in those subjects. These claims being satisfied, but few places +will be left to fill up with mathematicians, astronomers, and persons +conversant with nautical astronomy. + +Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician +amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation +rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the +President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as +a mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser? + +Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant +with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually +be, it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms +his Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such +situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best +qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of +being the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or +Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which +they disapprove. + +Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best +explained by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals +are, notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better +known than he is willing that they should be. + +Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both +to the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference +to the individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I +shall now examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made. + +Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never +considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the +character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have +arrived at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however, +be arguments which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must +ultimately lead to truth: but I confess that it appears to me the +objections which have been stated rest on principles of human nature, +too deeply seated to be easily removed. + +That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears +from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these +appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of +the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe +the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who +knew these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any +gentleman on the Council who had accepted these situations; and, +having myself the same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be +informed of the names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although +they remonstrated against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO +COGNIZANCE" of the fact. + +The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain +Kater, who were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident +Commissioners under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr. +Young became one of the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday +were appointed by the Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, +who died shortly after, I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge +which qualified him for the situation. + +Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong +to that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of +Parliament point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be +entertained. The Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being +the same, and having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act; +and it recites the words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL +VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of +the fitness of the gentlemen who now hold those situations to pronounce +judgment on mathematical questions, the public will be better able to +form an opinion when they shall have communicated to the world any +of their own mathematical inquiries. Although it is the practice to +consider that acceptance of office is alone necessary to qualify a man +for a statesman, a similar doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world +of science. One of these gentlemen, who has established his reputation +as a chemist, stands in the same predicament with respect to the other +two sciences. It remains then to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which +must rest on his skill in "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"--a claim +which can only be allowed when the scientific world are set at rest +respecting the extraordinary nature of those observations contained in +his work on the Pendulum. + +That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude, +excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of +the Government providing instruments and means of transport for the +purpose of these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means +superior to those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the +industry with which he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled +him to bring home multitudes of observations from situations rarely +visited with such instruments, and for such purposes. + +The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist +amongst each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most +conversant with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one +who had devoted but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course +of those voyages, used some of the instruments for the first time in his +life. + +This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the +greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such +lunars; whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit +instrument, avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were +conversant with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more +favourable circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same +opinion prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever +subject Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by +their accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods +of using the instruments scarcely differed in any important point from +those before adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall +presently relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine +possessed some keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would +be hopeless for any to expect to rival. + +The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy +of these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust +Captain Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner +which must have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter +to the Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of +the same persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of +Longitude, after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, +are said to have again recommended him to the Master-General of the +Ordnance. That an officer, commencing his scientific career, should be +misled by such praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the +Council of the Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly, +and maintain it so pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it +was injurious to the interests of science. + +It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley +medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal +of Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from +such a complete investigation of his observations, as should place them +beyond the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may +write, and nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; +and even the Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer +immortality. That learned body is in the habit of making most +interesting and profound reports on any memoirs communicated to it; +nothing escapes the penetration of their committees appointed for such +purposes. Surely, when they enter on the much more important subject +of the award of a medal, unusual pains must be taken with the previous +report, and it might, perhaps, be of some advantage to science, and +might furnish their admirers with arguments in their defence, if they +would publish that on which the decree of their Lalande's medal to +Captain Sabine was founded. + +It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has +been written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall +confine myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I +shall allude to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that +exists respecting them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain +them. The other point, the error in the estimation of the division of +the level, I shall discuss, because it is an admitted fact. + +Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the +difference of times of the passage of any star between the several +wires; supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of +time occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be +precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another +are usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens +that the accordance is perfect. + +The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in +length, and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370 +transits, there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the +intervals between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of +a second. At Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same +accordance; and of the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of +twenty-four are equally exact. With larger instruments, and in great +observatories, this is not always the case. + +Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. +427, a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in +which about one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy; +and it should be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars +selected, have, in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's. + +The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer, +and the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations +of his in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of +accordance. In thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January, +1828, fifteen have this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with +a ten-feet transit. Now in none of these instances do the times agree +within a tenth of a second between all the wires; but I have accounted +those as agreeing in all the wires in which there is not more than +four-tenths of a second between the greatest and least. + +This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some +explanation. One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine +employs a chronometer to observe transits with; and that since it beats +five times in two seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second; +and this being the smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes +more probable than if tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In +general, the larger the lowest unity employed the greater will be the +apparent agreement amongst the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of +stars near the pole, the times of passing the wires were only registered +to the nearest minute, the intervals would almost certainly be equal. +There is another circumstance, about which there is some difficulty. It +is understood that the same instrument,--the thirty-inch transit, was +employed by Lieutenant Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires +were changed, although this has most probably been the case. Now, in the +transits which the later observer has given, he has found it necessary +to correct for a considerable inequality between the first and second +wires (See Phil. Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone +abroad on this subject, it is doing a service to science to insure its +correction, by drawing attention to it. + +Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem +to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact, +and therefore that it ought to be used in observatories. + +Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle +of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the +express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be +diminished in size:--a most important subject, on which the Board seem +to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety. + +The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important: + +"The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of +the Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle +of repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six +inches, carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch +aperture; and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which +might be retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be +increased, by a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been +previously regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit +of diminution to which repeating circles, designed for astronomical +purposes, ought to be carried. + +"The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated, +by comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at +each station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of +observations made with a circle, on the original construction, and of +large dimensions; such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations +of the French are, recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if +due allowance be made for the extensive experience and great skill of +the distinguished persons who conducted the French observations, the +comparison will scarcely appear to the disadvantage of the smaller +circle, even if extended generally through all the stations of the +present volume; but if it be particularly directed to Maranham and +Spitzbergen,--at which stations the partial results were more numerous +than elsewhere, and obtained with especial regard to every circumstance +by which their accuracy might be affected, the performance of the +six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of circles of the larger +dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at which a more than +usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, because it was +essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the French stations +were required, that the observations should always be conducted with the +utmost possible regard to accuracy. + +"It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches, +the disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact +or bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute +subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition." + +Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most +favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places, +and compare the observations made there with the small repeating +instrument of six inches diameter, with those made by the French +astronomers at Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one +centi-metres, or about sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It +is singular that this instrument was directed, by the French Board +of Longitude, to be made expressly for this survey, and the French +astronomers paid particular attention to it, from the circumstance +of some doubts having been entertained respecting the value of the +principle of repetition. + +The following series of observations were made with the two instruments. +[I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because +the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference +between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken +above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a +half.] + +Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches +diameter.--BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + + Number of Latitude Names of Observers. + Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot + 100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot + 120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot + 100 56.5 Arago + 102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + + Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. + + + +Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham. + + Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. + alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine + alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto + alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto + alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto + alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto + alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + + Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. + + +In comparing these results, although the French observations were more +than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the +individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths +is the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations; +whilst the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds +and two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on +account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations, +let any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with +the six English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is +the greatest deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations +less than in those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that +by the latitude deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of +Polaris by the same observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to +be 38deg. 39min 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean +of the 1318 inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot +be accounted for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as +neither the employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of +Groombridge, of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a +difference of two-tenths of a second.] + +These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain +Sabine, and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the +merits of his observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers +equal, it seems a necessary consequence that "the performance of the +six-inch circle is" not merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger +dimensions," but that it is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches +in diameter. + +This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for +astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and +rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered +that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to +be equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven +seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary +a recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a +re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it +necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this +instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed +satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising +from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will +depend on the nature of the deviations from it.] + +This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of +considerable importance to navigation; and if it should have caused +any alteration in his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and +small instruments, it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was +expressly directed by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with +an instrument constructed for that especial purpose. + +Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for +the task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to +familiarity with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this +interesting question. + +The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of +level: + + Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. + + Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + + Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + + Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + + Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + + Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + + Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + + New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + + Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + + Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + + Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + + Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 + + +This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by +the small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and +confining ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE +OBTAINED, WITH ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR +ACCURACY MIGHT BE AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION +WAS BESTOWED," it appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, +namely, "the differences of the partial results from the mean at each +station," the deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were +before; a circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in +the decision of the question. + +There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid +looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of +latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really +resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true +latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is +so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more +especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, +Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes +interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations, +to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so +little to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions +of the unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen. + +In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of +a place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the +following columns-- + + Latitudes as + True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. + Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 + Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8 + Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5 + Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6 + Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0 + Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2 + +what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first +column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the +second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the +level being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as +diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider, +if he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still +he will find the odds against it enormous. + +When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has +thus had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost +unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that +at eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the +differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station +it only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help +feeling that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his +admitted skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both +mistaken in their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so +singular an effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot +bring myself to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without +foundation. + +Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular +oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used +for determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the +very work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose +of comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which +occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265 +to 275 of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET +ARAGO, which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] +are filled with the details relative to the determination of the value +of the divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory, +with such an important object in view, to have read off some of the sets +after each pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of +repetition made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order +to know how many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost +certainly have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of +the level; for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a +few minutes of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to +have arisen from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed, +they must have been referred to some error in the instrument, which +could scarcely, in such circumstances, have escaped detection. + +I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain +Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying +are inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an +instance of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should +venture to pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think +enough has been said to show, that the feeling which so generally +prevails relative to it, is neither captious nor unreasonable. + +Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in +appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under +the peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as +far as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations +which are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for +imitation observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers +to throw aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a +standard which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified +the doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever +even modified it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the +largest. + +To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt. +It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with +official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to +depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose. + +How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT +TO BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived, +appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best +observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered +them peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that +instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered, +"FOR ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the +Astronomical Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the +most carefully detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, +persons who must have examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. +Captain Kater must have felt those difficulties in the perusal of it +which other observers have experienced; and he who was placed in the +Board of Longitude especially for his knowledge of instruments, might, +in a few hours, have arrived at more decisive facts. But perhaps I am +unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge rendered it impossible for him to have +been ignorant of the difficulties, and his candour would have prevented +him from concealing them: he must, therefore, after examining the +subject, have been outvoted by his lay-brethren who had dispensed with +that preliminary. + +It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with +respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of +the errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant +Foster, aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed +this instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal +to one second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject, +and made all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him +acquainted with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated +a paper [The paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical +Transactions, 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal +Society, in which he states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed +all the observations in which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, +from the original observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury +at the time of her loss, the transcripts of his results could not be +recomputed like the rest, and were consequently useless. + + + + +SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + +Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with +science may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat +singularly happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than +one such appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the +late Dr. Young, we have at present:-- + +MR. POND--Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +CAPTAIN SABINE--An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his +regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the +Admiralty. + +MR. BRANDE--Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of Chemistry +at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to the East-India +Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; Superintending +Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; Editor +of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the Royal +Society. + +One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices, +either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be +found to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered; +or else, that it is too well paid, since each requires such little +attention, that almost any number can be executed by one person. + +The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection +of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other +astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the +almost undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would +a superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being +acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his +situation at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign +Secretary of the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. +Brande would scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found +time even for them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that +from the progress the Society is making, those duties must become +shortly, if they are not already, almost extinct. + +Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most +anxiously over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the +Academics of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of +Hanover, and of France, derived honour from the discoveries of their +Secretaries;--that they prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of +Oersted, of Brewster, of Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the +President must have been ambitious that England should contribute to +this galaxy of glory, that the Royal Society should restore the lost +Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of seven stars in the neck of the +constellation Taurus. There are now only six of them visible to the +naked eye.--HUTTON'S DICTIONARY--Art. Pleiades.] to the admiring science +of Europe. But he could discover no kindred name amongst the ranks of +his supporters, and forgot, for a moment, the interest of the Society, +in an amiable consideration for the feelings of his surrounding friends. +For had the President chosen a brighter star, the lustre of his other +officers might have been overpowered by its splendour: but relieved +from the pain of such a contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, +by their united brightness, these suns of his little system shall yet +afford sufficient light to be together visible to distant nations, as a +faint NEBULA in the obscure horizon of English science. + + + + +SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + +Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be +useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money. + +EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.--The great expense +of the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical +Transactions, is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings +are quite essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those +papers are fit for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry +is necessary, when such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour, +therefore, to approximate to the sum these engravings have cost the +Royal Society. + +Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of +Sir E. Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the +workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810, +there have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author. +Many of these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but +I shall take five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and +twelve as that of the latter. This would produce, + + 70 X 5 = 350 + 187 X 12 = 2244 + ...... -----...... L2594 + +As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd +hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE +branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question +the importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be +permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended +in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with +those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous +circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number, +I should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other +countries much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even +the Council of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from +their Transactions one of those productions which they had paid for as a +lecture. + +It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council +so repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually +expending, during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On +the other hand, when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of +those valuable plates to take off impressions for his large work on +Comparative Anatomy, of which they constitute almost the whole, it might +have been as well not to have obliterated from each plate all indication +of the source to which he was indebted for them. + + +THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.--I shall mention this circumstance, because +it fell under my own observation. + +Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the +President's Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature +of this item. Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an +opportunity, at an early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for +an explanation of the following resolution, which stands in the +Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + +"Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be +printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade +price." + +The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO +PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO +PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + +I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as +the following statement will prove. + +The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following +prices are very liberal: + + L s. d. + To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0 + Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0 + Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0 + + Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0 + +Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not +plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying +printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several +of the individual members must have known, from their own private +experience, that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different +from that they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to +print it on his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred +pounds beyond what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds +of the Royal Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his +officers ever condescend to explain this transaction to the Council; +or were they expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing +proposed to them? Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to +order the payment of above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a +bookseller to do what they might have done themselves for less than half +the sum? Or did they wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred +pounds? If so, he must have had powerful friends in the Council, and it +is fit the Society should know who they were; for they were not friends, +either to its interests or to its honour. + +The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to +members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and +out of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the +remainder encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are +still losers of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction. + + +ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO +PASTEBOARD.--Although the printing of these observations is not paid for +out of the funds of the Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body +are the visitors of the Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to +introduce the subject here. + +Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned, +that there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity +of the volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On +making inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be +disposed of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the +purpose of converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get +fourpence a pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board. +The fact was mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society, +and they thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances. + +Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with +every regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick +paper, hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This +magnificence is advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought +to be worthy of a great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that +nation spends on science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not +be applied with the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really +has a right to these volumes, printed by the government at a large +expense, it is, perhaps, the most extravagant mode which was ever +yet invented of paying a public servant. When that right was given to +him,--let us suppose somebody had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he +should sell the costly volumes for waste paper,--who would have listened +for one moment to such a supposition? He would have been told that +it was impossible to suppose a person in that high and responsible +situation, could be so indifferent to his own reputation. + +A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal +Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary +for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally +anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the +request appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and +I was at the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased +at the bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies +of the Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that +practical astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my +pursuits, I feel disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety +of the refusal. This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar +refusals to other gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with +myself, and whose time had been successfully devoted to the cultivation +of that science. [M. Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, +projected a plan for making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too +vast for any individual to attempt, it was proposed that a portion +should be executed by the astronomers of various countries, and +invitations to this effect were widely circulated. One only of the +divisions of this map was applied for by any English astronomer; and, +after completing the portion of the map assigned to him, he undertook +another, which had remained unprovided for. This gentleman, the Rev. +Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants for the Greenwich +Observations.] + +There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a +different result;--but those who occupy official situations, rendered +remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed +in no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly +insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they +must submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure, +therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must +have sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to +propose that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse +so trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once +filled. + +In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a +copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of +copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was +insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned +bodies in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great +their inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants." +Now I have spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the +council-books of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the +real state of the case:-- + +In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of +State, wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785, +from which the following is extracted:-- + +"The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the +Astronomical Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and +paid for by the Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command, +of July 21, 1767,) which may at any time remain in the hands of the +printer, shall, after you have reserved such copies as you may +think proper as presents, be given to the said Nevil Maskelyne, in +consideration of his trouble in the superintending the printing thereof. +I am to signify His Majesty's pleasure, that you do, from time to time, +give the necessary orders for that purpose, until His Majesty's further +commands shall be communicated to you. + +Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:-- + +"Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last +published, be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to +the Astronomer Royal." + +It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many +volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any +revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed +by the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving +precisely the same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe +that in fact they do not know the authority on which the right to those +sixty rests. + +Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the +discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from +time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore, +they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought +to have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they +found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they +ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order +to prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand, +the above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than +sixty copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress +towards pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society, +as visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to +Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if +the Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it +for a liberal compensation. + +Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the +subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and +Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science, +from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer +Royal. + +It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to +science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not +so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can +be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to +judge no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his +reputation will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their +circulation. + +Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might +be said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal +Society that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is +imagined, is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of +the parties concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any +amendments have taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable +importance, I was myself a witness, when I was present officially at a +visitation. At that time, no original observations made at the transit +instrument were ever preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the +process of an observation, I should not have credited the fact. + + + + +SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + +At a period when the attention of Government to science had not +undergone any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place. +His Majesty intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of +State, his intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty +guineas each, to be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal +Society, according to the rules they were desired to frame for that +purpose. + +The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:-- + +WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + +SIR, + +I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to +found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded +as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council +of the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of +competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the +object for which the Royal Society was instituted. + +His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of +the Royal Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the +regulations which it may be convenient to establish with regard to the +appropriation of the medals; and I have, therefore, to request that +you will make the necessary communication to the Council of the Royal +Society, in order that His Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect. + +I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL. + +Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this +gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It +was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement +of a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were +immense. The unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst +the confidence reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured +the wavering faith of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from +knowing the MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted +the policy of establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and +spirit in which they were offered. + +The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting +them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on +the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the +Council-book of the 26th of January. + +At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were +decided upon; they were as follow:-- + +26th January, 1826. + +RESOLVED, + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for +the most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed +and made known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of +their award. + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the +medals should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if +it should be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the +obverse of the medal. + +That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation; +one in gold, one in silver. + +If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet +they are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a +councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education +of a pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as +to have made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely, +that the discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made +known to the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the +award. + +Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this +communication, to have convened a special general meeting of the +Society, to have made known to the whole body the munificent endowment +of their Patron: and when his approbation of the laws which were to +govern the distribution of these medals had been intimated to the +Council, such a course would have been in complete accordance with the +wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN +OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known. + +Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in +the following words:-- + +November 16, 1826. + +ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was +awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary +Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his +other important labours and discoveries in physical science. + +The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, +Esq. for his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the +Philosophical Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable +papers on mathematical subjects. + +The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations +of double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's +observed and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions. + +It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January, +formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet +together in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them +to two philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his +great discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to +stultify themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for +a paper made known to them three years before. + +Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their +decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict +of their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other +instances, with the semblance of a free discussion? + +Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that +although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society +and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit +of their award, to those to whom that trust was confided? + +Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive +deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch +with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it +might perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in +accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or +was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I +have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + +Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility +of dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been +pledged to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent +on exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps, +urged by the near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the +formality of reading the laws on which they were about to act? + +Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the +Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange +neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the +Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication +of these medals. + +The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it +was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules +which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the +medals themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and +they ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no +man could feel the least security that he should get them, even though +his discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were +offered, + +The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced +me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of +the Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on +our character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now +a matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious +disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans +for doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I +should stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. +[It is but justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to +state, that the circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the +same year awarded to him, prevented him from taking any part in the +discussion.] + +The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind +will never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the +distribution of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as +equally binding in honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the +Council, which assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as +void, IPSO FACTO, on the ground that it was directly at variance with +that part which CONFINES the medals to discoveries made known to the +Society within ONE YEAR PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore +moved the following resolutions: + +"1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November, +1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is +invalid. + +"2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton, +Esq. and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that +letters be written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope +of the Council that this, the only method which is open to them of +honourably fulfilling their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen +as a mark of the high sense entertained by the Council of the importance +and value of their discoveries, which require not the aid of medals +to convey their reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which +distinguished the age in which they lived." + +It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning +employed in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal +Society. It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was +SOMEWHAT IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As +the original rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the +Council,--it would only be necessary to alter them, and then the +award would agree perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was +contended, that the original rules were unknown to the public and to the +Society; and that, in fact, they were only known to the members of +the Council and a few of their friends; and therefore the award was no +breach of faith. + +All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could +not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show +that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age; +and furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of +the Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council +as long as the present system of management is pursued. + +The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its +peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little +communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens +that the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the +Society, and, indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who +frequent the weekly meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first +notice to the great majority of the Society of a breach of faith by +their Council, which it is impossible to suppose a body, consisting of +more than six hundred gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + + + + +SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + +An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which +seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society. +They may contain discoveries of new principles,--of laws of nature +hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations +of known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar +situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to +our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very +different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those +trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the +present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely +inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has +presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments +employed, or phenomena examined,--a talent, which can be much improved +by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of +tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to +detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and +a higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very +different order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of +an almanac; the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of +the accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those +computations are performed. + +[*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national +observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not +an opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The +Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge. + +On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826, +with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles, +we find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following +passage is extracted: + +"But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, +hard-working, and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call +them, although they are drudges of a superior order), men who will be +contented to pass half their day in using their hands and eyes in the +mechanical act of observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process +of calculation."] + +Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some +difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be +proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked +this difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given +to observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for +discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by +such an association. + +I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the +public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground +of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The +first objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the +object for which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal +is given to A. B. "for his various papers." + +There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be +admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those +who judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his +various other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece +to these awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be +more admired if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to +escape through this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment +on the main point be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which +made chemistry a science, has attached to it in their award this feeble +appendage. + +It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been +too much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to +their patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished +grounds to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of +the new ones. I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal +Society are persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to +suppose their decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I +may not have had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was +a member of that Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall +avail myself of the judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined +to appeal, who knew it long and intimately, and who expressed his +opinion deliberately and solemnly. + +The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the +distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the +Royal Society, the following clause:--"And I hereby empower the said +President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the +above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid +or reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY +THAT NO PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL +RECEIVE OR PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + +Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally +inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery +is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite +unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently +have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits. +These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as +the last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. +The Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who +declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional +charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put +a stop to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a +Copley medal must by the will be annually given, some other person might +not be found deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do +not intend to give any this year." All further discussion was thus +silenced.] + +Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious, +it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the +award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects, +the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their +attention to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY +OF THE COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO +DECIDE. + +If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the +Council, would communicate their information, something curious might +perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those +of which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state--of +three of them--that whatever may have been the official reasons for +their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being +the true causes:-- + +First.--A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate +time--BECAUSE HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + +Second.--Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE +IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE +PRECEDING YEAR. + +Third.--A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL USED." + +I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which +was peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of +rendering platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious +philosopher who invented the art, and who has left many other claims +to the gratitude of mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to +place that subject in its proper light. + +An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as +possessing the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands +we inherit from our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and +yielded produce before they were cultivated. The products of genius are +the actual creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or +honour to him, they remain the permanent endowments of the human race. +If the institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support +us fully in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by +the laws of nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly +restrict our discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the +products of intellectual exertion? + +Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with +Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they +have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of +some substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or +comforts of their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the +legitimate reward of their exertions. + +It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have +torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to +claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the +inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life. + +The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer, +having published his process, enters into equal competition with other +manufacturers. + +If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his +secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During +his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the +philosopher had not existed. + +Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and +reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary +rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments +of mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these +have been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a +condition with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing +for which a patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + +Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of +rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity +having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary +magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process +selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him; +and from some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no +written record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that +disorder, which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the +knowledge he had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the +subject, would have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded +the directions of the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render +useful even his unfinished speculations, proves that the previous +omission was most probably accidental. + +Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body +to bestow on it their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of +Wollaston by their medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then +as an example, as a stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of +discovery. But did they wish discoveries to be so endangered? + +The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been +considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on +one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few +members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had +long been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of +doing justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was +suggested that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they +immediately altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to +reserve their medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at +which period, for aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the +additional merit of having been made prior to the limit allowed by their +regulations. That medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no +one member present was at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I +shall, however, say no more on this subject. They erred from feeling, +an error so very rare with them, that it might be pardoned even for its +singularity. + +I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly +dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving +pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + +Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science, +or the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of +Wollaston, was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting +career, one out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply, +without which, the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher +be destitute of tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank +he held in science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich +in the honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward +in some measure commensurate with his deserts,--then, indeed, there +might have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that, +in such circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no +"niggard" hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it, +unreservedly, the produce of his powerful mind. + + + + +SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + +Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This +was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South +Sea Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted +annually to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + +Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or +of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years, +from 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for +twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr. +Ellis. + +The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary +exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be +productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the +Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be +delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by +members of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place +of worship appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at +the two preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the +gentleman nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is +to be preached, should be stated. + +With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the +first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon +be esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the +Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants, +persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion +of true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am +tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the +most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what +is already done on that subject. + +The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too +much haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by +others, as inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been +attentively considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest +and freest inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character +of indisputable facts. But, I will not press this subject further on +my reader's attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the +lecture. All that I could have said on this point has been so much more +ably stated by one whose enlightened view of geological science has +taken away some difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed +a stumbling-block from many respectable individuals, that I should only +weaken by adding to the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's +Geology in the British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy +of a philosopher and a Christian.] + + + + +SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + +The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the +preceding, is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual +essay on the subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted, +that it should have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he +foreseen the routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured +to preserve it, by affording it a wider range. + +By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been +created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their +attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture; +but from causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the +custom--one individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems, +like the Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension. +There have, however, been some intervals; and we are still under +obligations to those who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing +Sir Everard Home to read the Croonian Lecture twenty years in +SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we might have heard of vested rights. + + + + +SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they +regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever +exists, begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be +amended. + +The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal +Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has +been submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary +to explain the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in +perpetuating it. + +It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the +power of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council; +and it is also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and +that printed lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members +on their entering the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If +these lists were, as in other scientific societies, openly discussed in +the Council, and then offered by them as recommendations to the Society, +little inconvenience would arise; but the fact is, that they are private +nominations by the President, usually without notice, to the Council, +and all the supporters of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour +to uphold the right of this nomination in the President, and prevent or +discourage any alteration. + +The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or +by whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of +persons, united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who +act together from a community of principles. That each individual has +invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the +case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very +rare, a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode +of meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of +all other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, +as far as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has +usually consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had +the prudence, whenever they could, to associate with themselves other +members of greater ability, provided these latter would not oppose the +system, and would thus lend to it the sanction of their name. The party +have always praised each other most highly--have invariably opposed all +improvements in the Society, all change in the mode of management; +and have maintained, that all those who wished for any alteration were +factious; and, when they discovered any symptoms of independence and +inquiry breaking out in any member of the Council, they have displaced +him as soon as they decently could. + +Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT +by which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples: +refutation is rendered quite unnecessary--juxta-position is +alone requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in +contemplation, or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the +Society continued, raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why +should you interfere? it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it +is no affair of yours.--If, on the other hand, it do relate to himself, +the reply is equally ready. It is immediately urged: The question is +of a personal nature; you are the last person who ought to bring it +forward; you are yourself interested. If any member of the Society, +feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the injuries or insults of +the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is immediately suggested to +him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until his feelings subside, +and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst with becoming +candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. If, after +an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the offence +seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any +circumstances on which memory can dwell,--if it is then brought forward, +the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date--the thing is gone +by--it is too late to call in question a transaction so long past. Thus, +if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to question an abuse; +if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? and if, +notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a meddler. If +he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is cool; +and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his +remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred +to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any +alteration is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never +adhered to. If it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to +an office, he is immediately answered, that that is a personal question, +in which it is impossible to interfere--the officer, it seems, is +considered to have not merely a vested right to the continuance of every +abuse, but an interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + +In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation +defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling +to be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is +immediately contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their +magnitude. Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige +the world with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the +most RECENT and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with +the orthodox creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human +faculties to detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size. + +The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and +their emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them +is, nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the +science of England. + +In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute +nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few +gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high +opinion they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who +could discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list +a few nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes +would put any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed, +from its station in society, to check any that might be proposed by +others. + +With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a +star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable +Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition. + +The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, +although not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in +several societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much +lightened by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are +their salaries:-- + + The Senior Secretary ........... 105L. + The Junior Secretary, 105L........ ) + 5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L. + The Foreign Secretary........... 20L. + +Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices +are amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the +President to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently +been bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even +for the dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late +Sir Joseph Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in +that situation, although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject +connected with the pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice +to his memory, by saying that his respectability was preserved +under such circumstances, by the most candid admission of the fact, +accompanied by a store of other knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to +the pursuits of the Society; and I will add, that I regretted to see him +insulted by one President in a situation improperly given to him by a +former. + +Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the +President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient. + +The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The +President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought, +after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at +large. + +Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, +and recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a +Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the +President. + +Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising +from offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee +of the British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not +a fit person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it +is the EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I +fear that unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific +appointments, and unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public +discussion, a President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the +British Museum, is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his +public duty to the influence of power, or to private friendship. With +respect to the merits of that Institution, I have no inclination at +present to inquire: but when it is considered that there is at this +moment attached to it no one whose observations or whose writings have +placed him even in the second rank amongst the naturalists of Europe, +the President of the Royal Society has given some grounds for the remark +made by several members of the Society, that he is a little too much +surrounded by the officers of a body who may reasonably be supposed to +entertain towards him feelings either of gratitude or expectation. +[It will be remembered that the name of Mr. Robert Brown has been but +recently attached to the British Museum, and that it is to be attributed +to his possessing a life interest in the valuable collection of the late +Sir Joseph Banks.] + +The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which, +although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + +There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these +were honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been +expected that this limited number of appointments would have been given +in all cases to persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient +to pay compliments; and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge +insured him respect as Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a +British nobleman, was placed for years in the situation as one of the +Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, for which every competent judge +knew him to be wholly unfit. What was the return which he made for this +indulgence? Little informed respecting the feelings of the Society, and +probably misinformed by the party whose influence had placed him there, +he saved them in the day of their peril. + +When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of +the more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely +necessary to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to +the Council such improvements as they might consider it expedient to +discuss. [Amongst the names of the persons composing this Committee, +which was proposed by Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and +Mr. Herschel.] The Council received their report at the close of the +session; and in recording it on the journals, they made an appeal to the +Council for the ensuing year to bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST +SERIOUS ATTENTION." + +Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would +have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken +up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful +peer came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting +rid of these improvements completely. + +It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal +Society should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a +peer or two should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse +to this doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this +tribute to any one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank +in advancing the cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our +pursuits, will condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding +a President to stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended +for consideration by some of the most highly gifted members of the +Society,--those who doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably +be pardoned for the disgust they must necessarily entertain for the +practical abuse to which it leads. + +Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year, +although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet +it was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact, +always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir +Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be +appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had +spoken to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the +formation of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take +in establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was +assigned to me by the President. + +It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance +of time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the +Astronomical Society;--that I always talked of it publicly and openly at +the time;--that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding President +of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten the +communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them +well. + +The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L. +more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to +have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is +to be observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible, +notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + +Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been +instituted since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President +is supposed to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the +obedience of his Council. + +Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions +on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper +persons to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I +am far from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons +the second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be +mentioned. + + + + +SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + +The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so +notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members +began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling, +together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to +re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most +active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings; +and a Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly +understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,--First, as +to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and +then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names +of the gentlemen composing this Committee were:-- + + Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, + Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, + Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, + Mr. South, Captain Kater. + +The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in +the eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so +select as to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be +elected into it, was by no means new, as the following extract from the +Minutes of the Council will prove:-- + +"MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present, + + Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, + Sir John Lowther, + Sir John Cutler, + Sir Christopher Wren, + Mr. Oldenburgh, + Sir Paul Neile. + +"It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper, +good experiments must be in the first place provided to make the +weekly meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these +experiments must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the +contributors; which done, the Council might then with confidence proceed +to the EJECTION OF USELESS FELLOWS." + +The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they +recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of +the numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was +suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation +should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not +appear to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected +how long a time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society +could be reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as +long as those who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their +writings and discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely +the same terms, and on the payment of the same sum of money as other +gentlemen who contributed only with their purse, it could never be an +object of ambition to any man of science to be enrolled on its list. + +With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I +suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become +effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal +Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who +had contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the +Transactions, or that such a list should be printed separately at the +end. + +At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers +to the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + + 37 Contributors of.. 1 paper + 21.......... 2 papers + 19.......... 3 ditto + 5 .......... 4 ditto + 3 .......... 5 ditto + 3 .......... 6 ditto + 12.... from 7 to 12 ditto + 14... of more than 12 papers. + +100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by +them. + +Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division +of the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary +for placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist +of seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those +of the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or +more were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In +either of these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition +to belong to the first class; and a more minute investigation into the +value of each paper would naturally take place before it was admitted +into the Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only +should be allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit +to be printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such +an arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the +Society, and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society +when no distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued +without one. + +Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will +only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment +to the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does, +in truth, maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position, +accidentally derive reputation which does not belong to them, are +unwilling, when the circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world +to assign it to those who have fairly won it; or else that they +are incapable of producing any thing worthy of being printed in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly as the conduct of the +Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, I do not think so +ill of the personal character of its members as to believe that if the +question were fairly stated to them, many would object to it. + +Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the +renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring +Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the +ensuing year. + +The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is +impossible to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON. +Our statutes were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness +of the members elected to serve in the Council; and the President is +directed, by those statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to +the anniversary, to give notice of the elections, and "to declare how +much it importeth the good of the Society that such persons may be +chosen into the Council as are most likely to attend the meetings and +business of the Council, and out of whom may be made the best choice of +a President and other officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery +of the wisdom of our ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket +the list of the future Council he has already fixed upon. + +In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the +discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for +the Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of +the old Council, and against each name is placed the number of times +he has attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has +been least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence +from London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, +are known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council +the number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out +by their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number +than can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?--but, +who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed +on the Council? + +If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of +great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented +in the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle +opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some +chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even +before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be +put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated +to the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the +commencement of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be +entertained of those who endeavour to suppress inquiry. + +On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should +never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its +business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the +conduct of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not +led to such discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of +those who disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to +the discretion of the party in not giving them cause. + +The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong +necessity should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it +which may, in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at +the anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any +one great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than +a speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will +probably come under the consideration of a larger number of the members. +Another and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger +of any expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments +employed. + +There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the +Committee:-- + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING +THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH +SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE +OF THE SOCIETY. + +Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council +under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves +that the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher +ratio than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth +of knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been +the great object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the +following Report:-- + +Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility +of the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That +its respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high +philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating +persons of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong +to the Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves +fully borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit +the Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the +talent of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every +vacancy would become an object of competition among persons of +acknowledged merit. + +From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who +have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the +persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science, +your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should +be fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such +royal personages as it may be thought proper to admit. + +As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and +fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as +it would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science, +that no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your +Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place, +four new members should be annually admitted. + +With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion, +that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding +to a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority. +If the above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for +every vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must +be the general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to +accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would +be necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of +earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating, +but probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee, +therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should +take place every year towards the end of the session, and that this +should be conducted on the same principles as the present annual +election of the Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of +all the candidates (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual +time,) in which lists each Fellow would mark the requisite number of +persons. + +As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the +Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been +determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the +successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in +accordance with the enactments of the said charter. + +In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave +to remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of +blackballing would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and +mortification; as the result of such an open competition could only be +construed by the public into a fair preference of the superior claims of +the successful few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of +the others. + +Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual +admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the +Society; but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous +economy its present income might be rendered adequate to all its real +wants, and the aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by +many small but wholesome retrenchments. + +It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was +received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual +contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was a +balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears, +that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly +340L. for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit +to your consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially +controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + +In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now +proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration. +They conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual +exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society, +and those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were +distinguished by being collected into a separate and honourable list. It +would also be found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of +retrospective justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who +have formerly obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals +who have been large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end +of the list. It would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual +list, if all those Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within +the preceding year, were regularly noticed. And your Committee think, +that these lists should always form part of the Transactions, and be +stitched up with the last part of the volume. + +It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the +Society mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council; +and as their selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your +Committee hope that our excellent President will not consider it any +impeachment of his impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they +venture to suggest, that the usual recommendation to the Society of +proper members for the future Council should henceforth be considered as +a fit subject for the diligent and anxious deliberation of the expiring +Council. + +There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society, +and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations +of Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the +nature and value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the +important task of deciding on what papers should be published; and they +are of opinion that it would be a material improvement on the present +mode, if each paper were referred to a separate Committee, who should +have sufficient time given them to examine it carefully, who should be +empowered to communicate on any doubtful parts with the author; and who +should report, not only their opinion, but the grounds on which that +opinion is formed, for the ultimate decision of the Council. + +If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your +Committee have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move, +that another Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to +alter the necessary statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance +with the charters. + +In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the +magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty +to propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest +discussion of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be +unanimously disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend, +that the several statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified, +should be only entered on your minutes, and not finally enacted. +All innovations in the constitution, or even the habits of the Royal +Society, should be scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. +It is enough for the present Council to have traced the plan; let the +Council of the ensuing sessions share the credit of carrying that plan +into effect. + +This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of +1827, and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the +council-book:-- + +"The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting +the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think +conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered +to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance +of the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the +Society, in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering +also the advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious +and early consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + +Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their +hasty adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the +fullest investigation before one of them should be tried. + +Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not +coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to +make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the +Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the +consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it +was thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned +by the names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to +"THE MOST SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing +year," was by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of +discussing its merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained, +not merely unfit to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility +as to be utterly unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his +officers feel, that their power rested on an insecure foundation, and +that they did not possess the confidence of the working members of the +Society? + + + +CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. + +There are several reflections connected with the art of making +observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this +chapter. + + + + +SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. + +No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an +object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances +towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and +expense, than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of +discovery, and the first approximate measures, are those which add most +to the existing knowledge of mankind. + +The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in +some respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion, +that no experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute, +and the accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of +some use to show, that even with large instruments, and most practised +observers, this is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken +from a representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the +Council of the Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the +employment of two mural circles:-- + +"That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same +time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of +that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE +MOST CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of +refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + +In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. +Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains +relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have +been made. + +"Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit +tout publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de +connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES +OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles +toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi +par les circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."--BASE DU SYSTEME +METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158. + +This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of +experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to +have been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its +tract, not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the +acutest senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is +forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that +an observer, possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly +written. He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of +his species, confers an obligation on them, by recording what he sees; +but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment. +He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary +observers, communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery, and +stamps his own observations with a character, alike independent of +testimony or of judgment. + + + + +SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + +The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of +those who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not +familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled +accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that +any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention, +ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and +himself. + +If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to +read the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is +frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some +acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set +the instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, +and then request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any +difference, he should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his +friend to point out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his +decision. This should be repeated frequently; and after some practice, +he should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his +friend's, and also how many divisions they usually differ. + +The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner +can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done +without assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument, +but merely to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any +remarkable point, read off the verniers, and write down the result; then +displace the telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such +observations will show the confidence which is due to the observer's +eye in bisecting an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the +first direction gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great +measure, appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he +finds a deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy +himself if he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, +the student should practise each adjustment separately, and write down +the results wherever he can measure its deviations. + +Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an +observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let +him take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and +having registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat +the process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him +excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill. + +The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits +within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME +CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can +have confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT +CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT +CIRCUMSTANCES. + +These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person +is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him +begin by adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the +upper contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then +let him derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the +reading. When he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make +that adjustment, let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but +let him not, until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, +pronounce upon those of the instrument. In the case of a barometer, +he must also be assured, that the temperature of the mercury does not +change during the interval. + +A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of +mechanism, for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth +parts of a second were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with +a pin for stopping one of the hands. I proposed that we should each +endeavour to stop it twenty times in succession, at the same point. We +were both equally unpractised, and our first endeavours showed that we +could not be confident of the twentieth part of a second. In fact, both +the time occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the +volition, as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before +the fingers acted on the stop, appeared to influence the accuracy of our +observations. From some few experiments I made, I thought I perceived +that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will, +depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body. If any one were +to make experiments on this subject, it might be interesting, to compare +the rapidity of the transmission of volition in different persons, +with the time occupied in obliterating an impression made on one of the +senses of the same persons. For example, by having a mechanism to make +a piece of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity, +some persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others, +whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it. + + + + +SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + +Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of +pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really +value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by +unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of +their arts being known may deter future offenders. + +There are several species of impositions that have been practised in +science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which +it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary +understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, +forging, trimming, and cooking. + +OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In +the year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an +account of a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great +minuteness, one species, the specific name of which has been taken from +its habitat, and the generic he took from his own family, calling it +Gioenia Sicula. It consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by +the body of the animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures +of the animal, and of its parts; described its structure, its mode of +advancing along the sand, the figure of the tract it left, and estimated +the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He +then described the structure of the shell, which he treated with nitric +acid, and found it approach nearer to the nature of bone than any other +shell. + +The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this +description, and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact, +however, is, that no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, +finding on the Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the +species of Bulla, of which some are found on the south-western coast +of England, [Bulla lignaria] described and figured these bones most +accurately, and drew the whole of the rest of the description from the +stores of his own imagination. + +Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been +made for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies +which had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered, +that the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness +is very far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any +creature for which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the +neck of the plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, +unless the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to +outweigh the evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction +which is here alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained +final causes; for instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed +animals, is in no case combined with the claw-shaped form of the +extremities, frequent in many of the carniverous animals, and necessary +to some of them for the purpose of seizing their prey] it can only be +regarded as a deception, without the accompaniment of wit. + +FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is +intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of +those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to +acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has +never made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations +by calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. +The observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by +the Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at +length proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The +pretended observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any +possible orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of +the observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost +precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the +logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all +the rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + +Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + +TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those +observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in +sticking them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable +adjustment," as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in +science. + +This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the +trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of +this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is +the same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a +reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect +for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position +of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect +him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + +OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to +give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of +the highest degree of accuracy. + +One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and +out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree. +If a hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he +cannot pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up. + +Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not +come within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall +possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference +in the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy +effect in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still +greater accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used. + +It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather +hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in +different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, +specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no catalogue +contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; and if +he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be cruel +to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, +however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons +might fall. + +If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes +them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they +been computed from other catalogues the difference would have been +considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for--those +catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or--they may have +been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments; +or--the observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + +It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by +the highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet +they will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which +the skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry +himself triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of +such constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative +merits of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with +admirable candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to +Gauss, and to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used +by three such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord +to a miracle. + +There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those +who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in +my opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept. + +In the first place, it must require much time to try different +formulae. In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human +knowledge, more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may +be determined with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some +physical circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at +the time) the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered +from other contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, +the state of the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of +observations has been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with +the latest determination, there is some little danger that the average +of the whole may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law +of nature, dependent on the interval between the two sets, which +law some future philosopher may discover, and thus the very best +observations may have been thrown aside. + +In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably +happen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled +accuracy at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the +effect of rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for +that part of the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is +generally so unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations +of those in whom they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the +artist. In fact, the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted +is destroyed. + +The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even +after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and +a few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed +by the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been +lost; and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and +boiling water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained +useless from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. +M. Libri, of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing +their registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some +warm springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during +a century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced. + +Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor +of Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of +the legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain +word had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before +the court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed +themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those +who committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the +colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless +matter remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the +solvent having weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the +supposed letters) that the effect of the slow application of heat would +be to render some difference of texture or of applied substance evident, +by some variety in the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances +might be expected to produce. Permission having been given to try the +experiment, on the application of heat the important word reappeared, to +the great satisfaction of the court. + + + +CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + + + + +SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD +EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS. + +One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is +to be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names +added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little +firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times +have those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest, +proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the +names of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be +matured, were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, +as having sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job. + +Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance, +when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more +than two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have +occurred, which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that +members have spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the +contrary. + +This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too +extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal +Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring +disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as +strongly as an officious interference and flippant manner do the +charlatan, or the trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that +improper deference which was long paid to every dictum of the President, +and much of it to that natural indisposition to take trouble on any +point in which a man's own interest is not immediately concerned. It is +to be hoped, for the credit of that learned body, that no anticipation +of the next feast of St. Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their +disposition. [It may be necessary to inform those who are not members +of the Royal Society, that this is the day on which those Fellows who +choose, meet at Somerset House, to register the names of the Council and +Officers the President has been pleased to appoint for the ensuing year; +and who afterwards dine together, for the purpose of praising each other +over wine, which, until within these few years, was PAID for out of +the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse was attacked by an enterprising +reformer, and of course defended by the coterie. It was, however, +given up as too bad. The public may form some idea of the feeling which +prevails in the Council, when they are informed that this practice was +defended by one of the officers of the Society, on the ground that, +if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS PERCENTAGE ON THE +TAVERN BILLS.] + + + + +SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + +The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science +seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who +conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried +until the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform +should be attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether +the practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy +imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two +sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement; +but the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and +Geological Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the +period of his reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society +over which he presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the +officers of those Societies, would become impossible if it were required +to be continued for a much longer period. Another circumstance of +considerable importance is, that the personal character of the President +is less impressed on the Society; and, supposing any injudicious +alterations to be made, it is much less difficult to correct them. + + + + +SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS +IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after +by medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional +efforts, and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the +pages of the Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain +medical papers of very moderate merit; and, in the second, the +preponderance of the medical interest introduces into the Society some +of the jealousies of that profession. On the other hand, medicine is +intimately connected with many sciences, and its professors are usually +too much occupied in their practice to exert themselves, except upon +great occasions. + + + + +SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL +SOCIETY. + +The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more +popular and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen, +partly from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the +decline of the Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would +otherwise have occupied in the science of England. Its general +effects in diffusing knowledge among the more educated classes of the +metropolis, have been, and continue to be, valuable. Its influence, +however, in the government of the Royal Society, is by no means attended +with similar advantages, and has justly been viewed with considerable +jealousy by many of the Fellows of that body. It may be stated, +without disparagement to the Royal Institution, that the scientific +qualifications necessary for its officers, however respectable, are not +quite of that high order which ought to be required for those of the +Royal Society, if the latter body were in a state of vigour. + +The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one +of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they +have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put +to this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the +officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal +Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of +services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a +stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager +or officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold +office in the Royal Society. + +The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their +power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes +of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage +by those who doubt. + + + + +SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign +academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The +volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in +the preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a +meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals, +without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom +that selection and that award have been made. + +Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one +point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the +highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes +of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at +intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate +publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and +publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper +was really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be +added, the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing, +a circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other +societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which +the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, +however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely +allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are +placed in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation, +and for the interests of science. + +It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the +first scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be +thus negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the +more to be regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the +circumstance, that the memoirs admitted into their collection are +usually of the highest merit. I know some of their most active members +have wished it were otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a +practice, which, whilst it has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust +to those who contribute, and is only calculated to produce conflicting +claims, equally injurious to science, and to the reputation of that +body, whose negligence may have given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, +speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, observes--"This memoir was read to +the Institute, 7th of October, 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of +January, 1818; M. Arago's report on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and +while every optical philosopher in Europe has been impatiently expecting +its appearance for seven years, it lies as yet unpublished, and is only +known to us by meagre notices in a periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S +TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.--ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.] + +One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in +the volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our +own members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a +means of giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800 +copies of the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to +our members or to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was +taken in our volume for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, +nor of the conditions under which they were to be distributed. [That +the Council refrained from having their first award of those medals thus +communicated, is rather creditable to them, and proves that they had a +becoming feeling respecting their former errors.] That in 1828, when +a new fund, called the donation fund, was established, and through the +liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by +them with the respective sums of 2,000L. and 1,000L. 3 per cents; +no notice of such fact appears in our Transactions for 1829. Other +gentlemen have contributed; and if it is desirable to possess such a +fund, it is surely of importance to inform the non-attending, which is +by far the largest part of the Society, that it exists; and that we are +grateful to those by whom it has been founded and augmented. Neither +did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent members, that they +could purchase the President's Discourses at the trade-price. + +The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is +printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical +Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with +a single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own +library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the +names of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute +to prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it +would also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on +the distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the +practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be +made up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they +might appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the +plan of prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would +be preferable to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason, +however, appeared at last. It was objected to the plan, that by the +present arrangement, the porter of the Royal Society took round the +list to those members resident in London, and got from some of them a +remuneration, in the shape of a Christmas-box; and this would be lost, +if the time of printing were changed. [During the printing of this +chapter, a friend, on whom I had called, complained that the porter of +the Royal Society had demanded half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such +are the paltry interests to which those of the Royal Society are made to +bow. + +Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume, +is the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals +are made. It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with +the Statutes of the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of +members, and it is for the credit of the medals themselves, that the +laws which regulate their award should be widely known, in order that +persons, not members of the Society, might enter into competition for +them. + +Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society +would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society +had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each +year, would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to +be given with each volume of our Transactions. + +The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society, +and those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many +arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases, +injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible. + +Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the +Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are +interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800 +copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them +altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for +distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense +of printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage +would accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the +Universities, public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases, +be disposed to present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies +of their works, if they knew that they were likely to be placed in +the hands of persons who would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional +copies might, in some cases, not be objected to on the ground of +expense, when seven or eight hundred would be quite out of the question. + +Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical +process to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public +body; it will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on +the Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the +case. If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over +to the Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant +with chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of +the work were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had +contributed most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all +probability be placed in the fittest hands. + +Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become +extremely bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the +knowledge of the many valuable papers they contain would not be much +spread, by publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the +ordinary meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, +would contain all that has been done in this way during the last +century. + +Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the +proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of +all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular +subject. + +Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever +been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better +able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the +Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions. + + + + +SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. + +Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution +of an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that +whilst in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for +the purpose of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the +arts of life, or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the +kind has been established in England. [At the great meeting of the +philosophers at Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the +Appendix; the respect in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt +were held in their respective countries was apparent in the orders +bestowed on them by the Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover, +and of Prussia; and there were present many other philosophers, whose +decorations sufficiently attested the respect in which science was held +in the countries from which they came.] + +Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction. +It has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a +cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has +been objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary +distinctions by making them common. The latter objection is of little +weight, because the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, +will long continue so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting +the number of the order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar +class of another order. Another objection, however, appears to me to +possess far greater weight; and, however strong the disposition of the +Government might be (if such an order existed) to fill it properly, I +do not believe that, in the present state of public opinion respecting +science, it could be done, and, in all probability, it would be filled +up through the channels of patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + +Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which +it may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would +be considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the +greatest scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention +political causes, the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited +from the army, the navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that +man, whose name is imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be +enrolled amongst the nobility of his country? In utility and profit, +not merely to that country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly +claim comparison even with the most splendid of those achieved by +classes so rich in glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases +fatal to such a course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title, +unless a considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance +very rarely occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be +removed, by creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until +there existed some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and +a sound state of public opinion relative to science, the execution of +the plan could only be injurious. + + + + +SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + +This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to +considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies +could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable +economy would result from the union. By properly arranging their +evenings of meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The +libraries might either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and +such a system would greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific +persons. + +Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different +societies to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but +although, on some accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for +the purpose of their having a common residence. + +The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first +to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of +diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and +ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But +even here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a +little particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately +attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with +them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society +are far from imitating. + +The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of +resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and +though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union +which might be generally advantageous to science. + + + +CONCLUSION. + +In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so +recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused +if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of +Davy. Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends +shall be cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls +their cherished forms, invested with all the life and energy of +recent existence, the volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their +contemporaries can expect only to read their eloge. + +In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals, +sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their +minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to +view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated +by the eyes of long and very intimate friendship. + +Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character +of Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of +principles, would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned +his philosophical, to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral +character. It may indeed be questioned whether the latter quality will +not in all persons of great abilities produce the former. + +Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of +Davy, and with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest +conclusions to which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a +more common attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was +in possession of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the +world, doubtful perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident +in his own powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping +some part of that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must +still fall to his own share. + +Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of +the inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated, +when he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he +brought all the information that he could collect from others, or which +arose from his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he +delivered it to the world. + +The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and +distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know; +and this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution. + +It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except +himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and +affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of +manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those +who sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He +usually, by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer +knew upon the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance +commenced, a process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking +up the subject at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly +explain it. + +His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since, +when I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics, +I applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground +of its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought +it would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none +whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the +state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several +times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the +age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this +as in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended +and retained all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary +applications of mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed +greater command over those subjects than many of far more extensive +knowledge. + +In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant +principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it +was the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have +been a poet; Davy might have been a great one. + +A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished +philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by +minds even of the highest order. + +About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression +of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to +bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it, +which I will presently mention. + +Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I +proposed this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are +mixed together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so +condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the +gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think +they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they +would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired +whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did +not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed. + +A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He +at once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring +whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was +a good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it +must succeed. + +These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to +have recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it +adds to the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr. +Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose +from the nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining +unchanged, an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose +discoveries had given birth to it. + +[The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be +of the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which +it was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite +proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of +one atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it +occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of +success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one +substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the +mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess +which resulted from their union, then either that such union would +actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be +most favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or +other causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to +follow, that if combination should take place under such circumstances, +then the most probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should +be that which furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but +until the experiments are made, it is by no means certain that other +combinations might not be produced.] + +The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr. +Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all +those who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the +methods he employed deserve to be much more widely known. + +It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been +adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of +the bodily senses of the individual,--a circumstance which, if it +were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am, +however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it +one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + +During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute +experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any +remarkable difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either +of his hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other +persons who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's +observatory, and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of +his equatorial; but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to +TEACH ME HOW TO SEE THEM.] + +He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his, +and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made +relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone +which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe +this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds +had been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed +their faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + +It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such +inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could +command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A +striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen, +FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ +of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough. +Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar +spectrum by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my +replying in the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them, +he mentioned the extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's +description in his hand and the long time which it had cost him in +detecting them. My friend then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and +put you in such a position that they shall be visible, and yet you shall +look for them and not find them: after which, while you remain in the +same position, I will instruct you how to see them, and you shall see +them, and not merely wonder you did not see them before, but you shall +find it impossible to look at the spectrum without seeing them." + +On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I +did not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen, +when the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled. + +It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied +with such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of +precipitation the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in +a gallon of a solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so +slight, as to require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous +evaporation, quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the +solution more concentrated. + +The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and +the extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands +like those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I +have thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider +its true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that +injustice has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing +to some of his bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to +have depended on the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. +And, in the next place, if I have established the fact, whilst it +affords us better means of judging of such observations as lay claim to +an accuracy "MORE THAN HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer +into truth, a path by which he may acquire powers that he would +otherwise have thought were only the gift of nature to a favoured few. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 1. + +In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science +at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that +its influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting +to be held in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria +having expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords +should be given to promote its objects. + +It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been +considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced +of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the +numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the +paths of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those +of politics. + + +ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF +SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829. + +The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences +meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe, +is a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention, +from the important advantages which may arise from it. + +About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an +annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine +and botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at +Leipsic, in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg, +Frankfort on the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had +printed a certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects +were considered members of this academy. + +The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the +communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced +an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge +were admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure +mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy. + +Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the +academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting, +which took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year. + +The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed +by any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans. + +The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made +knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians +previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have +impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that +its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there +is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for +their possessors the road to wealth and distinction. + +Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the +numbers of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which +is annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The +universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the +wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by +friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age; +whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of +acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes +his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them +the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the +advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or +occupied in similar inquiries. + +Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as +secretary of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most +ably seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + +These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin, +undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the +accommodation of the meeting. + +On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377 +members of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were +printed in a small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number, +to indicate his seat in the great concert room, in which the morning +meetings took place. Each member was also provided with an engraved card +of the hall of meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed +in black ink, and his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every +person immediately found his own place, and knew where to look for any +friend whom he might wish to find. + +At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being +assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage +of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the +side-boxes being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and +by the foreign ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the +eloquent address of the president. + +SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and +Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.--By +ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + +Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted +to open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of +gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never +yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of +scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover +new phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored +depths of nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to +me. You have assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, +and in a distant quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same +cause with yourselves, I was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have +likewise greeted my return home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude, +you might bind me still longer and closer to our common country. + +What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more +agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for +the first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the +birth-place of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the +Baltic plains; from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the +beneficent influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have +for centuries been collected and investigated, the friends of nature, +inspired with the same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock +together to this assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is +used, and its peculiar structure affects the spirit and disposition +of the people. From the Great European Alps, to the other side of the +Weichsel, where, in the country of Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed +splendour; everywhere in the extensive dominions of the German nation +we attempt to discover the secret operations of nature, whether in the +heavens, or in the deepest problems of mechanics, or in the interior of +the earth, or in the finely woven tissues of organic structure. + +Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in +interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion +or form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests +itself as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of +truth and performance of duty are the highest object of morality, +that feeling of unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion, +constitution, and laws of our country, have rendered dear to each of +us. Even this emulation in mental struggles has called forth (as the +glorious history of our country tells us,) the fairest blossoms of +humanity, science, and art. + +The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its +last meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through +the flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone +with peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance +between Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North. + +Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it +unexpectedly increases the mass of facts and opinions which are +here brought into one common and useful union. It also recalls lofty +recollections into the mind of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century +has elapsed since Linne appears, in the boldness of the undertakings +which he has attempted and accomplished, as one of the greatest men of +the last century. His glory, however bright, has not rendered Europe +blind to the merits of Scheele and Bergman. The catalogue of these great +names is not completed; but lest I shall offend noble modesty, I dare +not speak of the light which is still flowing in richest profusion +from the North, nor mention the discoveries in the chemical nature of +substances, in the numerical relation of their elements, or the eddying +streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The philosophers here referred to +are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those excellent persons, who, deterred +neither by perils of sea or land, have hastened to our meeting from +Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, and Poland, point our the way +to other strangers in succeeding years, so that by turns every part +of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific communication with the +different nations of Europe. + +But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings +in presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the +patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard +for those lives so dear to their country;--Goethe, whom the great +creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the +ARCANA of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely +friend, as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;--Olbers, who has +discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be +found;--the greatest anatomists of our age--Soemmering, who, with equal +zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and the spots +and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the photosphere;) +Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his works and +his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of comparative +anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and who +has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the +temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat, +as we are not favoured with their presence? + +These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the +progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to +the obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our +fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist, +as in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual +interchange of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be +printed in some general collection. The principal object of this Society +is, to bring those personally together who are engaged in the same field +of science. It is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange +of ideas, whether they present themselves as facts, opinions, or +doubts. It is the foundation of friendly connexion which throws light +on science, adds cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to +the manners. + +In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction +between words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst +a race, which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual +superiority, and to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the +shipwreck of nations, we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It +was not the difficulty of interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of +German science, which has spread thought as on wings through the world, +and insured it a long continuance, that then induced the friends of +philosophy and natural history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander +on long journeys. That ancient race knew the inspiring influence of +conversation as it extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates +the tissue of scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth +without difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its +greatest extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time. +Each step, which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his +object, only carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of +doubt does not diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and +new fields; and whoever has called that a golden period, when difference +of opinions, or, as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes +of the learned, will be finished, has as imperfect a conception of the +wants of science, and of its continued advancement, as a person who +expects that the same opinions in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, +will be maintained for several centuries. + +The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature, +have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical +knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy. +The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here, +therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type +of the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In +his physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us +a distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted +object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific +investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it +is not to break that link which embraces equally the investigation +of organic and inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily +developement of this institution renders it necessary, besides the +general meeting which is destined for these halls, to have specific +meetings for single branches of science. For it is only in such +contracted circles,--it is only among men whom reciprocity of studies +has brought together, that verbal discussions can take place. Without +this sort of communication, would the voluntary association of men in +search of truth be deprived of an inspiring principle. + +Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement +of the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility +of such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations +will meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding +you, that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the +duty of making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble +friend, M. Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and +indefatigable activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit +which animates the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy, +and in acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have +seconded all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness. + +In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been +prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums +dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to +the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The +greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like +the University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to +which the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have +during this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The +amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our +minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that +great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year +this royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of +still greater value than the treasures themselves,--what inspires every +Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the +ancient reigning family,--that he graciously attaches to himself every +species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection to +the free cultivation of the understanding. + +This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and +several other memoirs were then read. + +The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were +present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those +who chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had +been foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense +building used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this +purpose. One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were +arranged, at which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On +the evening of the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the +concert rooms attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on +this occasion, and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his +presence the fete of his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the +country, foreign princes, and foreign ambassadors, were present. It +was gratifying to observe the princes of the blood mingling with the +cultivators of science, and to see the heir-apparent to the throne, +during the course of the evening, engaged in conversation with those +most celebrated for their talents, of his own, or of other countries. + +Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration +of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert, +were printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most +illustrious philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in +letters of gold at the end of the great concert room. + +In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, +enrolls amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as +well she may be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius +of the first Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to +claim as entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name. + +The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting +of the academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In +the afternoon, through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M. +Lichtenstein, various rooms were appropriated for different sections of +the academy. In one, the chemical philosophers attended to some +chemical memoir, whilst the botanists assembled in another room, the +physiologists in a third, and the natural philosophers in a fourth. Each +attended to the reading of papers connected with their several sciences. +Thus every member was at liberty to choose that section in which he felt +most interest at the moment, and he had at all times power of access to +the others. The evenings were generally spent at some of the SOIREES +of the savans, resident at Berlin, whose hospitality and attentions to +their learned brethren of other countries were unbounded. During the +unoccupied hours of the morning, the collections of natural history, +which are rapidly rising into importance, were open to examination; and +the various professors and directors who assisted the stranger in his +inquiries, left him equally gratified by the knowledge and urbanity of +those who so kindly aided him. + +A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which +had sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers +sent by different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was +attached to it;-- + + Russia......... 1 + Austria........ 0 + England........ 1 + Holland........ 2 + Denmark........ 7 + France ........ 1 + Sardinia ....... 0 + Prussia........ 95 + Bavaria........ 12 + Hanover........ 5 + Saxony ........ 21 + Wirtemburg ...... 2 + Sweden ........ 13 + Naples ........ 1 + Poland ........ 3 + German States..... 43 + --- 206 + Berlin ....... 172 + --- 378 + +The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared, +was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more +eminent who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge. +The following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will +afford, perhaps, a tolerably fair view:-- + + Geometers............. 11 + Astronomers........... 5 + Natural Philosophers . 23 + -- 39 + + Mines............ 5 + Mineralogy ...... 16 + Geology.......... 9 + -- 30 + + Chemistry........... 18 + Geography........... 8 + Anatomy............. 12 + + Zoology............ 14 + Natural History.... 8 + Botany.............. 35 + -- 57 + + Physicians....... 175 + Amateurs ....... 9 + Various ......... 35 + ---381 + +A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed +that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all +those persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the +past and present age. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 2. + +An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four +candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the +meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed +pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the +charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member +to judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to +show how the ranks of the Society are recruited. + +EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. +DATED, 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + +"When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me +why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer +was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that +my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days +passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality +made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really +through modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until +something was said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, +which was published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal +Society; when you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, +because I was and am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if +I can be supposed worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + +EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED, +BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + +"All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission +into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject +upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary." + +Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the +Royal Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries, +pressing one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on +proposing him as, a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been +well aware of the feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to +the propriety of such a step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite +satisfied that such a course is advantageous to the interests of +the Society. That similar applications were not unfrequently made in +private, is well known; but it remains for the Society to consider +whether, now they are publicly and officially announced to them, it +will sanction this mode of augmenting the already numerous list of its +fellows. + + +APPENDIX, No. 3, + +LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE +PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + + +N. B.--The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, but +only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + + No. of No. of + Papers years on + printed Council. + in Phil. + Trans.-------- ------- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. + 109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. + +I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal +Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for +which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission +to employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes, +or from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised +at receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, +those adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety +of many individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a +different opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy, +I shall decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has +been already published in many ways, although the whole has never been +printed in a collected form. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 1216.txt or 1216.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/1/1216/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, +AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES. +by + +CHARLES BABBAGE + + + + +DEDICATION. + +HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED +IT TO A NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT +CAN ADVANCE SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE +KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE MIGHT HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME +CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, PERHAPS TOO SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, +THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING THE NAME OF ONE WHO WILL FEEL +THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND RESPECT. + +C. BABBAGE. + + +DORSET STREET, +MANCHESTER SQUARE, +29th April, 1830. + + + +PREFACE. + + +Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have +little to say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some +service to science, and without that belief I would not have +undertaken so thankless a task. That it is too true not to make +enemies, is an opinion in which I concur with several of my +friends, although I should hope that what I have written will not +give just reason for the permanence of such feelings. On one +point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected in any degree +with the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; the +causes which have led to it have been long operating, and would +have produced this result whether I had ever speculated on that +subject, and whatever might have been the fate of my +speculations. + +If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in +these pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance +peculiar to myself, I think he will be mistaken. That science +has long been neglected and declining in England, is not an +opinion originating with me, but is shared by many, and has been +expressed by higher authority than mine. I shall offer a few +notices on this subject, which, from their scattered position, +are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, when +combined with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will +be admitted to deserve considerable attention. The following +extract from the article Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia +Metropolitana, is from the pen of a gentleman equally qualified +by his extensive reading, and from his acquaintance with foreign +nations, to form an opinion entitled to respect. Differing from +him widely as to the cause, I may be permitted to cite him as +high authority for the fact. + +"In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of +Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of +regret, which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds +within the space of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we +most sincerely do, the electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor +Oersted and his followers, we still, as chemists, fear that our +science has suffered some degree of neglect in consequence of +them. At least, we remark that, during this period, good +chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; and +yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical +discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected +fluorine! Are we sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? +And yet these are amongst our elements. Much has been done by +Wollaston, Berzelius, Guy-Lussac, Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and +others, with regard to the doctrine of definite proportions; but +there yet remains the Atomic Theory. Is it a representation of +the laws of nature, or is it not?"---CHEMISTRY, ENCYC. METROP. +p.596. + +When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public +were informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a +work, having the same title as the present, and that his +sentiments were expressed in the language of feeling and of +eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be allowed by his +friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the +writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to +forget some of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + +Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we +may infer his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment +expressed in his last work:-- + +"--But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for +philosophers."----"There are very few persons who pursue science +with true dignity; it is followed more as connected with objects +of profit than those of fame."--SIR H. DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN +TRAVEL. + +The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from +the varied acquirements of its author, and from the greater +detail into which he enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the +present Essay, and in our article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE +CHEMIE, and we take this ONLY opportunity distinctly to +acknowledge our obligations to that most admirably conducted +work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific matter which +suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and +quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted +into ITS pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few +exceptions, has sterling merit. Indeed, among the original +communications which abound in it, there are few which would +misbecome the first academical collections; and if any thing +could diminish our regret at the long suppression of those noble +memoirs, which are destined to adorn future volumes of that of +the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts of them which +from time to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the hands of +the authors, or from the reports rendered by the committees +appointed to examine them; which latter, indeed, are universally +models of their kind, and have contributed, perhaps more than any +thing, to the high scientific tone of the French SAVANS. What +author, indeed, but will write his best, when he knows that his +work, if it have merit, will immediately be reported on by a +committee, who will enter into all its meaning; understand it, +however profound: and, not content with MERELY understanding it, +pursue the trains of thought to which it leads; place its +discoveries and principles in new and unexpected lights; and +bring the whole of their knowledge of collateral subjects to bear +upon it. Nor ought we to omit our acknowledgement to the very +valuable Journals of Poggendorff and Schweigger. Less +exclusively national than their Gallic compeer, they present a +picture of the actual progress of physical science throughout +Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to see with what +celerity every thing, even moderately valuable in the scientific +publications of this country, finds its way into their pages. +This ought to encourage our men of science. They have a larger +audience, and a wider sympathy than they are perhaps aware of; +and however disheartening the general diffusion of smatterings of +a number of subjects, and the almost equally general indifference +to profound knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may be, +they may rest assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a +good experiment they may make, but is instantly repeated, +verified, and commented upon, in Germany, and, we may add too, in +Italy. We wish the obligation were mutual. Here, whole branches +of continental discovery are unstudied, and indeed almost +unknown, even by name. It is in vain to conceal the melancholy +truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics we have long +since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In +chemistry the case is not much letter. Who can tell us any thing +of the Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of +Isomorphism? Nay, who among us has even verified Thenard's +experiments on the oxygenated acids,--Oersted's and Berzelius's +on the radicals of the earths,--Balard's and Serrulas's on the +combinations of Brome,--and a hundred other splendid trains of +research in that fascinating science? Nor need we stop here. +There are, indeed, few sciences which would not furnish matter +for similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and +deep-seated; but this is not the place to discuss them."-- MR. +HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON SOUND, printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA +METROPOLITANA. + +With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the +fact of the decline of science in England: how far I may have +pointed out some of its causes, must be left to others to decide. + +Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various +scientific bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism +has been lavished upon some of their productions. Newspapers, +Magazines, Reviews, and Pamphlets, have all been put in +requisition for the purpose. Odium has been cast upon some of +these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be established by +testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it can be +proved, by evidence to which the public have access, it is of no +consequence (for the cause of truth) who produces it. A matter +of opinion derives weight from the name which is attached to it; +but a chain of reasoning is equally conclusive, whoever may be +its author. + +Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should +be avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it +more matured, and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would +have the evil of frequently repressing it altogether, because +there exists amongst the lower ranks of science, a "GENUS +IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue that every criticism is +personal. It is clearly the interest of all who fear inquiries, +to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those whose +sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest +scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly +distinguish the philosopher, as the calmness with which he can +reply to criticisms he may think undeservedly severe. I have +been led into these reflections, from the circumstance of its +having been stated publicly, that I was the author of several of +those anonymous writings, which were considered amongst the most +severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be credited, +from the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with one +of those subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. +[I merely observed that the agreement made with the British +Museum for exchanging the Arundel MSS. for their duplicates, +(which had just been stated by the President,) was UNWISE; +--because it was not to be expected that many duplicates should +be found in a library like that of the Museum, weak in the +physical and mathematical sciences: that it was IMPROVIDENT and +UNBUSINESSLIKE;--because it neither fixed the TIME when the +difference was to be paid, in case their duplicates should be +insufficient; nor did it appear that there were any FUNDS out of +which the money could be procured: and I added, that it would be +more advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we +wanted with the produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, +the world of science, my character had been sufficiently known to +have escaped being the subject of such a mistake; and, in taking +this opportunity of correcting it, I will add that, in the +present volume, I have thought it more candid to mention +distinctly those whose line of conduct I have disapproved, or +whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader +inferences which he might make far more extensive than I have +intended. I hope, therefore, that where I have depicted species, +no person will be so unkind to others and unjust to me, as to +suppose I have described individuals. + +With respect to the cry against personality, which has been +lately set up to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific +misgovernment, a few words will suffice. + +I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but +the injustice of introducing private character into such +discussions. There is, however, a maxim too well established to +need any comment of mine. The public character of every public +servant is legitimate subject of discussion, and his fitness or +unfitness for office may be fairly canvassed by any person. Those +whose too sensitive feelings shrink from such an ordeal, have no +right to accept the emoluments of office, for they know that it +is the condition to which all must submit who are paid from the +public purse. + +The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to +Societies, and to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary +is drawn, and by whose appointment the officer was made, have +always a right to discuss the merits of their officers, and their +modes of exercising the duties they are paid to perform. + +This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a +Secretary of State, or to that of a constable; to that of a +Secretary of the Royal Society, or of an adviser to the +Admiralty. + +With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure +different. But the President of a society, although not +recompensed by any pecuniary remuneration, enjoys a station, when +the body over which he presides possesses a high character, to +which many will aspire, who will esteem themselves amply repaid +for the time they devote to the office, by the consequence +attached to it in public estimation. He, therefore, is +answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + +There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other +officers, have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided +by a train of clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given +to them. Science is much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and +unostentatious labours the routine of its institutions is carried +on. It would be unwise, as well as ungrateful, to judge severely +of the inadvertencies, or even of the negligence of such persons: +nothing but weighty causes should justify such a course. + +Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and +inquiry in its widest sense, because I consider it equally the +safeguard of our scientific as of our political institutions, I +shall use it, I hope, temperately; and having no personal +feelings myself, but living in terms of intercourse with almost +all, and of intimacy with several of those from whom I most +widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together all the +causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different +departments, endeavour to convince them that some alteration is +essentially necessary for the promotion of that very object which +we both by such different roads pursue. + +I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak +of the departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has +not been wholly the result of even the present race. It is said, +and I think with justice, in the life of Young, inserted amongst +Dr. Johnson's, that the famous maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI +BONUM," "appears to savour more of female weakness than of manly +reason." The foibles and the follies of those who are gone, may, +without injury to society, repose in oblivion. But, whoever +would claim the admiration of mankind for their good actions, +must prove his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil +deeds. Adopt the maxim, and praise to the dead becomes +worthless, from its universality; and history, a greater fable +than it has been hitherto deemed. + +Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted +to the Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no +claim to that attention; and I do it partly from respect for its +former services, and partly from the hope that, if such an +Institution can be of use to science in the present day, the +attention of its members may be excited to take steps for its +restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having published +extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the +permission of its Council. To have asked permission of the +present Council would have been useless. I might, however, have +given the substance of what I have extracted without the words, +and no one could then have reproached me with any infringement of +our rules: but there were two objections to that course. In the +first place, it is impossible, even for the most candid, in all +cases, to convey precisely the same sentiment in different +language; and I thought it therefore more fair towards those from +whom I differed, as well as to the public, to give the precise +words. Again: had it been possible to make so accurate a +paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the risk of incurring the +reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to escaping their +censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own head; +and I shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + +If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should +accuse me of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that +the party which governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I +will only admit the justice of the accusation, when the whole +body, becoming acquainted with the system I have exposed, shall, +by ratifying it with their approbation, appropriate it to +themselves: an event of which I need scarcely add I have not the +slightest anticipation. + + +* + +CONTENTS. + + +PREFACE +Introductory Remarks +CHAP. I. On the Reciprocal Influence of Science and Education. +CHAP. II. Of the Inducements to Individuals to cultivate Science. +--Sect. 1. Professional Impulses. +------ 2. Of National Encouragement. +------ 3. Of Encouragement from learned Societies. +CHAP. III. General State of learned Societies in England. +CHAP. IV. State of the Royal Society in particular. +--Sect. 1. Mode of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society. +------ 2. Of the Presidency and Vice-Presidencies. +------ 3. Of the Secretariships +------ 4. Of the Scientific Advisers. +------ 5. Of the Union of several Offices in one person. +------ 6. Of the Funds of the Society. +------ 7. Of the Royal Medals. +------ 8. Of the Copley Medals. +------ 9. Of the Fairchild Lecture. +------ 10. Of the Croonian Lecture. +------ 11. Of the Causes of the Present State of the Royal Society. +------ 12. Of the Plan for Reforming the Society. +CHAP. V. Of Observations. +--Sect. 1. Of Minute Precision. +------ 2. On the Art of Observing. +------ 3. On the Frauds of Observers. +CHAP. VI. Suggestions for the Advancement of Science in England. +--Sect. 1. Of the Necessity that Members of the Royal Society +--------- should express their Opinions. +------ 2. Of Biennial Presidents. +------ 3. Of the Influence of the Colleges of Physicians and +--------- Surgeons in the Royal Society. +------ 4. Of the Influence of the Royal Institution on the Royal +--------- Society. +------ 5. Of the Transactions of the Royal Society. +------ 6. Order of Merit. +------ 7. Of the Union of Scientific Societies. +CONCLUSION. +APPENDIX NO. 1. +------- NO. 2. +------- NO. 3. + +* + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, AND ON SOME OF +ITS CAUSES. + + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + +It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements +enable them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining +the state of science in other countries, that in England, +particularly with respect to the more difficult and abstract +sciences, we are much below other nations, not merely of equal +rank, but below several even of inferior power. That a country, +eminently distinguished for its mechanical and manufacturing +ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of inquiries +which form the highest departments of that knowledge on whose +more elementary truths its wealth and rank depend, is a fact +which is well deserving the attention of those who shall inquire +into the causes that influence the progress of nations. + +To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the +highest departments of physical science, from the days of Newton +to the present, must be left to the historian. It is not within +the province of one who, having mixed sufficiently with +scientific society in England to see and regret the weakness of +some of its greatest ornaments, and to see through and deplore +the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these remarks, with +the hope that they may excite discussion,--with the conviction +that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,--and with the +confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion +can remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the +energies of the science of England. + +The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which +have resulted from, the present state of science in England, are +so mixed, that it is difficult to distinguish accurately between +them. I shall, therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute +discrimination, but rather present the result of my reflections +on the concomitant circumstances which have attended the decay, +and at the conclusion of it, shall examine some of the +suggestions which have been offered for the advancement of +British science. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + +That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive +influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is +a principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is +equally certain that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will +bear on them the traces of the earlier impressions of our +education. It is therefore not unreasonable to suppose that some +portion of the neglect of science in England, may be attributed +to the system of education we pursue. A young man passes from +our public schools to the universities, ignorant almost of the +elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these latter +establishments, formed originally for instructing those who are +intended for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical +pursuits are nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's +ambition. + +Much has been done at one of our universities during the last +fifteen years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident +that there is no one connected with that body, who will not do me +the justice to believe that, whatever suggestions I may venture +to offer, are prompted by the warmest feelings for the honour and +the increasing prosperity of its institutions. The ties which +connect me with Cambridge are indeed of no ordinary kind. + +Taking it then for granted that our system of academical +education ought to be adapted to nearly the whole of the +aristocracy of the country, I am inclined to believe that whilst +the modifications I should propose would not be great innovations +on the spirit of our institutions, they would contribute +materially to that important object. + +It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an +university, ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds +it possesses a certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of +society has rendered knowledge far more various in its kinds than +it used to be; and to meet this variety in the tastes and +inclinations of those who come to us for instruction, we have, +besides the regular lectures to which all must attend, other +sources of information from whence the students may acquire sound +and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on chemistry, +geology, botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of +option with the student, which, and how many of these courses he +shall attend, and such it should still remain. All that it would +be necessary to add would be, that previously to taking his +degree, each person should be examined by those Professors, whose +lectures he had attended. The pupils should then be arranged in +two classes, according to their merits, and the names included in +these classes should be printed. I would then propose that no +young man, except his name was found amongst the "List of +Honours," should be allowed to take his degree, unless he had +been placed in the first class of some one at least of the +courses given by the professors. But it should still be +imperative upon the student to possess such mathematical +knowledge as we usually require. If he had attained the first +rank in several of these examinations, it is obvious that we +should run no hazard in a little relaxing: the strictness of his +mathematical trial. + +If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be +grouped, and the following subjects be taken together:-- + +Modern History. +Laws of England. +Civil Law. + +Political Economy. +Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + +Chemistry. +Mineralogy. +Geology. + +Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. +Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. + +One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no +young person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, +as is most frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at +Cambridge, classics and mathematics, are not adapted either to +his taste, or to the wants of his after life. His friends and +relatives would then reasonably expect every student to have +acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should be feared +that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits in +the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number +of examinations into which the same person might be permitted to +enter. It might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of +these examinations to the third year, but to allow the student to +enter on some portion of them in the first or second year, if he +should prefer it. + +By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously +with our other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled +effectually to keep pace with the wants of society, and retaining +fully our power and our right to direct the studies of those who +are intended for the church, as well as of those who aspire to +the various offices connected with our academical institutions; +we should, at the same time, open a field of honourable ambition +to multitudes, who, from the exclusive nature of our present +studies, leave us with but a very limited addition to their stock +of knowledge. + +Much more might be said on a subject so important to the +interests of the country, as well as of our university, but my +wish is merely to open it for our own consideration and +discussion. We have already done so much for the improvement of +our system of instruction, that public opinion will not reproach +us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our first duty to be +well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations ought only +to be the result of a most mature consideration, and of a free +interchange of sentiments on the subject, in order that we may +condense upon the question the accumulated judgment of many +minds. + +It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our +system of education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists +amongst the higher classes of society. The discussions in the +Houses of Lords or of Commons, which arise on the occurrence of +any subjects connected with science, sufficiently prove this +fact, which, if I had consulted the extremely limited nature of +my personal experience, I should, perhaps, have doubted. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + +Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in +this matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate +influence in each of the respective cases to be examined. + + +SECTION 1. + +PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + +A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or +necessity to advance themselves in the world, make choice of some +profession in which they imagine their talents likely to be +rewarded with success; and there are peculiar advantages +resulting to each from this classification of society into +professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the +jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to +advantageous situations some of the more fortunate of the +profession; whilst, on the other hand, any injury or insult +offered to the weakest, is redressed or resented by the whole +body. There are other advantages which are perhaps of more +importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned +professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public +opinion is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to +repress conduct that is injurious either to the profession or to +the public. Again, the mutual jealousy and rivalry excited +amongst the whole body is so considerable, that although the rank +and estimation which an individual holds in the profession may be +most unfairly appreciated, by taking the opinion of his rival; +yet few estimations will be found generally more correct than the +opinion of a whole profession on the merits of any one of its +body. This test is of great value to the public, and becomes the +more so, in proportion to the difficulty of the study to which +the profession is devoted. It is by availing themselves of it +that men of sense and judgment, who have occasion for the +services of professional persons, are, in a great measure, guided +in their choice. + +The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a +distinct profession, as it does in many other countries. It is +therefore, on that ground alone, deprived of many of the +advantages which attach to professions. One of its greatest +misfortunes arises from this circumstance; for the subjects on +which it is conversant are so difficult, and require such +unremitted devotion of time, that few who have not spent years in +their study can judge of the relative knowledge of those who +pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and even +that men of sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means +to distinguish between the possessors of knowledge, in the +present day, merely elementary, and those whose acquirements are +of the highest order. This remark applies with peculiar force to +all the more difficult applications of mathematics; and the fact +is calculated to check the energies of those who only look to +reputation in England. + +As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to +science, it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring +for the proper fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific +attainments, is vacant, it becomes necessary to select from among +amateurs, or rather from among persons whose chief attention has +been bestowed on other subjects, and to whom science has been +only an occasional pursuit. A certain quantity of scientific +knowledge is of course possessed by individuals in many +professions; and when added to the professional acquirements of +the army, the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, is +highly meritorious: but it is obvious that this may become, when +separated from the profession, quite insignificant as the basis +of a scientific reputation. + +To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge +of chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, +indeed, of several other departments of science, affords useful +assistance. Some of the most valuable names which adorn the +history of English science have been connected with this +profession. + +The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession +are not often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a +question of considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold +out to its members hopes of advancement from such acquirements. +As a source of recreation, nothing can be more fit to occupy the +attention of a divine; and our church may boast, in the present +as in past times, that the domain of science has been extended by +some of its brightest ornaments. + +In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold +out the strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, +that in it ability, coupled with exertion, even though unaided by +patronage, cannot fail of obtaining reward. It is frequently +chosen as an introduction to public life. It also presents great +advantages, from its being a qualification for many situations +more or less remotely connected with it, as well as from the +circumstance that several of the highest officers of the state +must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + +A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a +study and of duties of all others engrossing the time most +completely, and which is less benefited than most others by any +acquaintance with science. This is one amongst the causes why it +so very rarely happens that men in public situations are at all +conversant even with the commonest branches of scientific +knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of such +persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + +But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional +avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and +the overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued +with success by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other +claims. To be well acquainted with the present state of +mathematics, is no easy task; but to add to the powers which that +science possesses, is likely to be the lot of but few English +philosophers. + + +SECTION 2. + +OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + +The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been +afforded by the English Government to the authors of useful +discoveries, or of new and valuable inventions, is justified on +the following grounds: + +1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the +new invention, are much better judges of its merit than the +government can be. + +2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is +usually much larger than that which government would be justified +in bestowing; and it is exactly proportioned to the consumption, +that is, to the want which the public feel for the new article. + +It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are +correct: there are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily +from the very reasoning from which they were deduced. Without +entering minutely into these exceptions, it will be sufficient to +show that all abstract truth is entirely excluded from reward +under this system. It is only the application of principles to +common life which can be thus rewarded. A few instances may +perhaps render this position more evident. The principle of the +hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth in the time +of Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to raising +heavy weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on +natural philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. +Yet, it may fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, +until the late Mr. Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the +smaller column, converted it into a most valuable and powerful +engine.--The principle of the convertibility of the centres of +oscillation and suspension in the pendulum, discovered by Huygens +more than a century and a half ago, remained, until within these +few years, a sterile, though most elegant proposition; when, +after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly pointed out by +Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the foundation +of a most convenient practical method of determining the length +of the pendulum.--The interval which separated the discovery, by +Dr. Black, of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful +application of it to the steam engine, was comparatively short; +but it required the efforts of two minds; and both were of the +highest order.--The influence of electricity in producing +decompositions, although of inestimable value as an instrument of +discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be said to have been +applied to the practical purposes of life, until the same +powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by a +singular felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the +copper-sheathing of vessels. That admirably connected chain of +reasoning, the truth of which is confirmed by its very failure as +a remedy, will probably at some future day supply, by its +successful application, a new proof of the position we are +endeavouring to establish. + +[I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as +the greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail +in producing the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,--the preventing +the corrosion of the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, +by producing one of an OPPOSITE character; either by preserving +too perfectly from decay the surface of the copper, or by +rendering it negative, it allowed marine animals and vegetables +to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the progress of the +vessel.] + +Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that +long intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new +principles in science and their practical application: nor ought +this at all to surprise us. Those intellectual qualifications, +which give birth to new principles or to new methods, are of +quite a different order from those which are necessary for their +practical application. + +At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, +it required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the +mathematical science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its +boundaries by new creations of his own. Such talents are not +always united with a quick perception of the details, and of the +practical applications of the principles they have developed, +nor is it for the interest of mankind that minds of this high +order should lavish their powers on subjects unsuited to their +grasp. + +In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that +truths which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently +the most remote from all useful application, become in the next +age the bases of profound physical inquiries, and in the +succeeding one, perhaps, by proper simplification and reduction +to tables, furnish their ready and daily aid to the artist and +the sailor. + +It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such +principles, the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render +their application likely to be attended with success. Such was +the case with the principle of the hydrostatic paradox; and it +was not, I believe, until the expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, +that the press which bears his name received that mechanical +perfection in its execution, which has deservedly brought it into +such general use. + +On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power +of invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of +applying principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these +applications will always depend on the care and labour bestowed +in the practical detail. + +If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract +principles should be applied to practical use, it is clear that +it is also important that encouragement should be held out to the +few who are capable of adding to the number of those truths on +which such applications are founded. Unless there exist peculiar +institutions for the support of such inquirers, or unless the +Government directly interfere, the contriver of a thaumatrope may +derive profit from his ingenuity, whilst he who unravels the laws +of light and vision, on which multitudes of phenomena depend, +shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + +Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already +afforded to abstract science in our different universities, by +the professorships established at them. It is not however in the +power of such institutions to create; they may foster and aid the +development of genius; and, when rightly applied, such stations +ought to be its fair and honourable rewards. In many instances +their emolument is small; and when otherwise, the lectures which +are required from the professor are not perhaps in all cases the +best mode of employing the energies of those who are capable of +inventing. + +I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by +the authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, +and of expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most +interesting piece of scientific biography. In the correspondence +which terminated in the return of Galileo to a professorship in +his native country, he remarks, "But, because my private lectures +and domestic pupils are a great hinderance and interruption of my +studies, I wish to live entirely exempt from the former, and in +great measure from the latter."--LIFE OF GALILEO, p.18. And, in +another letter to Kepler, he speaks with gratitude of Cosmo, the +Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me to attach myself +to him with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with the title +of Philosopher and principal Mathematician to his Highness, +without the duties of any office to perform, but with most +complete leisure; so that I can complete my treatise on +Mechanics, &c."--p.31." [Life of Galileo, published by the +Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.] + +Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in +a country far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. +Dalton's, to be employed in the drudgery of elementary +instruction. [I utter these sentiments from no feelings of +private friendship to that estimable philosopher, to whom it is +my regret to be almost unknown, and whose modest and retiring +merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend by these +remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in +that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the +Royal Society of England;--had he taken part with those who vote +to each other medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues +of office, make to each other requisitions to retain places they +would be most reluctant to quit; his great and splendid discovery +would long since have been represented to government. Expectant +mediocrity would have urged on his claims to remuneration, and +those who covered their selfish purposes with the cloak of +science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in the mantle +of his glory.--But the philosopher may find consolation for the +tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If +he was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his +name connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been +the military renown of England, if, with an equally improvident +waste of mental power, its institutions had forced the Duke of +Wellington to employ his life in drilling recruits, instead of +planning campaigns? + +If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions +of the age are not, with us at least, always produced in +universities. The doctrines of "definite proportions," and of +the "chemical agency of electricity,"-- principles of a high +order, which have immortalized the names of their discoverers, +--were not produced by the meditations of the cloister: nor is +it in the least a reproach to those valuable institutions to +mention truths like these. Fortunate circumstances must concur, +even to the greatest, to render them eminently successful. It is +not permitted to all to be born, like Archimedes, when a science +was to be created; nor, like Newton, to find the system of the +world "without form and void;" and, by disclosing gravitation, to +shed throughout that system the same irresistible radiance as +that with which the Almighty Creator had illumined its material +substance. It can happen to but few philosophers, and but at +distant intervals, to snatch a science, like Dalton, from the +chaos of indefinite combination, and binding it in the chains of +number, to exalt it to rank amongst the exact. Triumphs like +these are necessarily "few and far between;" nor can it be +expected that that portion of encouragement, which a country may +think fit to bestow on science, should be adapted to meet such +instances. Too extraordinary to be frequent, they must be left, +if they are to be encouraged at all, to some direct interference +of the government. + +The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, +would arise from one, or several, of the following +circumstances:--That class of society, from whom the government +is selected, might not possess sufficient knowledge either to +judge themselves, or know upon whose judgment to rely. Or the +number of persons devoting themselves to science, might not be +sufficiently large to have due weight in the expression of public +opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it might not +enjoy, in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high +character for independence. Should these causes concur in any +country, it might become highly injurious to commit the +encouragement of science to any department of the government. +This reasoning does not appear to have escaped the penetration of +those who advised the abolition of the late Board of Longitude. + +The question whether it is good policy in the government of a +country to encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate +it are not perhaps the most unbiassed judges. In England, those +who have hitherto pursued science, have in general no very +reasonable grounds of complaint; they knew, or should have known, +that there was no demand for it, that it led to little honour, +and to less profit. + +That blame has been attributed to the government for not +fostering the science of the country is certain; and, as far as +regards past administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with +respect to the present ministers, whose strength essentially +depends on public opinion, it is not necessary that they should +precede, and they cannot remain long insensible to any expression +of the general feeling. But supposing science were thought of +some importance by any administration, it would be difficult in +the present state of things to do much in its favour; because, on +the one hand, the higher classes in general have not a profound +knowledge of science, and, on the other, those persons whom they +have usually consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to +deserve the confidence of government. It seems to be forgotten, +that the money allotted by government to purposes of science +ought to be expended with the same regard to prudence and economy +as in the disposal of money in the affairs of private life. + +[Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur +the expense of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the +Astronomical Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part +of the Philosophical Transactions for 1829, whilst of the +Observations made at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, two +hundred and fifty copies only are printed? + +Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten +will be distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six +hundred of whom they will probably be wholly uninteresting or +useless; and thus the country incurs a constantly recurring +annual expense. Nor is it easy to see on what principle a +similar destination could be refused for the observations made at +the Cape of Good Hope.] + +To those who measure the question of the national encouragement +of science by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will +here state a fact, which, although pretty generally known, still, +I think, deserves attention. A short time since it was +discovered by government that the terms on which annuities had +been granted by them were erroneous, and new tables were +introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the time that +the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of between +two and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of those +annuities being a losing concern was long known to many; and the +government appear to have been the last to be informed on the +subject. Half the interest of half that loss, judiciously applied +to the encouragement of mathematical science, would, in a few +years, have rendered utterly impossible such expensive errors. + +To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may +have its weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of +the first translation of this celebrated work into our own +language, has just arrived in England from--America.] and the +THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES PROBABILITES, were both dedicated, by +Laplace, to Napoleon. During the reign of that extraordinary +man, the triumphs of France were as eminent in Science as they +were splendid in arms. May the institutions which trained and +rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they have +conferred upon mankind! + +In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a +knowledge of science is a recommendation to public appointments, +and that a man does not make a worse ambassador because he has +directed an observatory, or has added by his discoveries to the +extent of our knowledge of animated nature. Instances even are +not wanting of ministers who have begun their career in the +inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples are perhaps more +frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful to mention +a few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who now +hold, high official stations in the governments of their +respective countries. + + + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France .. Marquis Laplace[1] Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France .. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France .. Count Chaptal[2] Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France .. Baron Cuvier[3] Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena . Marquis Rangoni[4] Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany . Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + [5] of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony .. M. Lindenau[6] Astronomy Ambassador. + +[1] Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. +[2] Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. +[3] Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE--RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS +FOSSILES &c. &c. +[4] Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, +and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. +[5] Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the +Transactions of the Academy of Forty. +[6] Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809--TABULAE VENERIS, +NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810--INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A +MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other +works. + + +M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of +the Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the +observatory of the Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as +his representative at the German Diet. On the death of the late +reigning Duke, M. Lindenau was invited to Dresden, and filled the +same situation under the King of Saxony; after which he was +appointed his minister at the court of the King of the +Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in our +own country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is +true, more than a century since, appointed Master of the Mint; +but let any person suggest an appointment of a similar kind in +the present day, and he will gather from the smiles of those to +whom he proposes it that the highest knowledge conduces nothing +to success, and that political power is almost the only +recommendation. + + +SECTION 3. + +Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + +There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons +pursuing science, to unite together, to form societies or +academies. In former times, when philosophical instruments were +more rare, and the art of making experiments was less perfectly +known, it was almost necessary. More recently, whilst numerous +additions are constantly making to science, it has been found +that those who are most capable of extending human knowledge, are +frequently least able to encounter the expense of printing their +investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some means +should be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and +the volumes of the transactions of academies have accomplished +the desired end. + +There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. +When they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for +their knowledge, it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted +on their list. Thus a stimulus is applied to all those who +cultivate science, which urges on their exertions, in order to +acquire the wished-for distinction. It is clear that this envied +position will be valued in proportion to the difficulty of its +attainment, and also to the celebrity of those who enjoy it; and +whenever the standard of scientific knowledge which qualifies for +its ranks is lowered, the value of the distinction itself will be +diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of persons having no +sort of knowledge of science are admitted, it must cease to be +sought after as an object of ambition by men of science, and the +class of persons to whom it will become an object of desire will +be less intellectual. + +Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various +academies of Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute +of France, the Italian Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of +Berlin, are amongst the most distinguished. + +Name Number of Number + Population. Members of +Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + +1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 +2. France . 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. +8. Prussia . 12,915,000 38 16 +4. Italy . . 12,000,000 40 8 + + It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a +member of the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out +of 300,000 persons is a member of their Academies. That in +England, every 32,000 inhabitants produces a Fellow of the Royal +Society. Looking merely at these proportions, the estimation of +a seat in the Academy of Berlin, must be more than nine times as +valuable as a similar situation in England; and a member of the +Institute of France will be more than thirteen times more rare in +his country than a Fellow of the Royal Society is in England. + +Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in +other countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most +striking difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we +look at the station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other +countries, in several of them we shall find it high, and their +situations profitable. Perhaps, at the present moment, Prussia +is, of all the countries in Europe, that which bestows the +greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement on science. +Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of this +support arises from the character of the reigning family, by +whose enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are +fostered. + +The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly +comprehended by those only who are themselves well versed in +science; and to the circumstance of the younger branches of the +royal family of Prussia having acquired considerable knowledge in +such subjects, we may attribute the great force with which that +maxim is appreciated. + +In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as +well as profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we +shall find few who do not possess titles or decorations; but as +the value of such marks of royal favour must depend, in a great +measure, on their frequency, I shall mention several particulars +which are probably not familiar to the English reader. [This +analysis was made by comparing the list of the Institute, printed +for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for 1823.] + + +Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class +Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. +to the Legion of Honour. + +GrandCroix......... 3 80 +GrandOfficier ..... 3 160 +Commandeur ........ 4 400 +Officier .......... 17 2,000 +Chevalier ......... 40 Not limited. + + + +Number of Members of the Institute Total Number +decorated with of +the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + +Grand Croix ....... 2 + 100 +Chevalier ......... 27 + +Amongst the members of the Institute there +are,-- +Dukes ................... 2 +Marquis ................. 1 +Counts .................. 4 +Viscounts................ 2 +Barons .................. 14 + -- + 23 + +Of these there are +Peers of France .......... 5 + +We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the +Royal Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in +the Institute of France; but a fairer mode of instituting the +comparison, is to inquire how many titled members there are +amongst those who have contributed to its Transactions. In 1827, +there were one hundred and nine members who had contributed to +the Transactions of the Royal Society; amongst these were found:- + +Peer ........................ 1 +Baronets .................... 5 +Knights ..................... 5 + +It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards +of members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir +H. Davy, could be attributed exclusively to science. + +It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French +list, were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many +are known to have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for +the argument to mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, +Berthollet, and Chaptal. + +The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France +and England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental +expression in the translation of the debates in the House of +Lords, on the occasion of His Majesty's speech at the +commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette de France +stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, "CHEF +DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to +particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed +the term WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of +that quality most esteemed amongst his countrymen. + +If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in +France, we shall find them far exceed those in our own country. +I regret much that I have mislaid a most interesting memorandum +on this subject, which I made several years since: but I believe +my memory on the point will not be found widely incorrect. A +foreign gentleman, himself possessing no inconsiderable +acquaintance with science, called on me a few years since, to +present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time +in London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to +me that he had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our +encouragement of science. + +Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison +between the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed +a sheet of paper before him, and requested him to write down the +names of six Englishmen, in his opinion, best known in France for +their scientific reputation. Taking another sheet of paper, I +wrote upon it the names of six Frenchmen, best known in England +for their scientific discoveries. We exchanged these lists, and I +then requested him to place against each name (as far as he knew) +the annual income of the different appointments held by that +person. In the mean time, I performed the same operation on his +list, against some names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. +The result of the comparison was an average of nearly 1200L. per +annum for the six French SAVANS whom I had named. Of the average +amount of the sums received by the English, I only remember that +it was very much smaller. When we consider what a command over +the necessaries and luxuries of life 1200L. will give in France, +it is underrating it to say it is equal to 2000L. in this +country. + +Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance +into life, who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to +devote himself to the abstruser sciences, or who, confident in +the energy of youthful power, feels that the career of science is +that in which his mental faculties are most fitted to achieve the +reputation for which he pants. What are his prospects? Can even +the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add colour to the blank before +him? There are no situations in the state; there is no position +in society to which hope can point, to cheer him in his laborious +path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, there +are some few chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some +distant day pretend; but these are not numerous; and whilst the +salaries attached are seldom sufficient for the sole support of +the individual, they are very rarely enough for that of a family. +What then can he reply to the entreaties of his friends, to +betake himself to some business in which perhaps they have power +to assist him, or to choose some profession in which his talents +may produce for him their fair reward? If he have no fortune, the +choice is taken away: he MUST give up that line of life in which +his habits of thought and his ambition qualify him to succeed +eminently, and he MUST choose the bar, or some other profession, +in which, amongst so many competitors, in spite of his great +talents, he can be but moderately successful. The loss to him is +great, but to the country it is greater. We thus, by a +destructive misapplication of talent which our institutions +create, exchange a profound philosopher for but a tolerable +lawyer. + +If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his +own; and, intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not +blindly ignorant of the state of science in this country, he +resolve to make for that aspiration a sacrifice the greater, +because he is fully aware of its extent;--if, so circumstanced, +he give up a business or a profession on which he might have +entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall have +won a station high in the ranks of European science, he may a +little augment his resources by some of those few employments to +which science leads;--if he hope to obtain some situation, (at +the Board of Longitude, for example,) [This body is now +dissolved] where he may be permitted to exercise the talents of +a philosopher for the paltry remuneration of a clerk, he will +find that other qualifications than knowledge and a love of +science are necessary for its attainment. He will also find that +the high and independent spirit, which usually dwells in the +breast of those who are deeply versed in these pursuits, is ill +adapted for such appointments; and that even if successful, he +must hear many things he disapproves, and raise no voice AGAINST +them. + +Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to +pursue abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and +unless he can resolve to give up all intention of improving it. +Yet, how few thus situated are likely to undergo the labour of +the acquisition; and if they do from some irresistible impulse, +what inducement is there for them to deviate one step from those +inquiries in which they find the greatest delight, into those +which might be more immediately useful to the public? + + + +CHAPTER III. + +GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + +The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of +the division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to +science, as it had been found available for the improvement of +manufactures. The want of competition in science produced +effects similar to those which the same cause gives birth to in +the arts. The cultivators of botany were the first to feel that +the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal Society was too +comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their favourite +subject, and they established the Linnean Society. After many +years, a new science arose, and the Geological Society was +produced. At an another and more recent epoch, the friends of +astronomy, urged by the wants of their science, united to +establish the Astronomical Society. Each of these bodies found, +that the attention devoted to their science by the parent +establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each in +succession experienced from the Royal Society the most determined +opposition. + +Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the +promotion of the natural sciences, that learned body justly +conceived that nothing could be more likely to render these young +institutions permanently successful, than discouragement and +opposition at their commencement. Finding their first attempts +so eminently successful, they redoubled the severity of their +persecution, and the result was commensurate with their +exertions, and surpassed even their wildest anticipations. The +Astronomical Society became in six years known and respected +throughout Europe, not from the halo of reputation which the +glory of its vigourous youth had thrown around the weakness of +its declining years; but from the sterling merit of "its +unpretending deeds, from the sympathy it claimed and received +from every practical astronomer, whose labours it relieved, and +whose calculations it lightened." + +But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the +Zoological and Medico-Botanical Societies were established +without opposition: perhaps, indeed, the total failure of the +latter society is the best proof of the wisdom which guided the +councils of the Royal. At present, the various societies exist +with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, each pursuing its +separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with filial +regret, the second childhood of their common parent, and the evil +councils by which that sad event has been anticipated. + +It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those +who belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership +are by many considered the only valuable part of their purchase +on entry. The following is a list of some of these societies. +The second column gives the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces +indicated in the third. + + +SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. +Royal Society ............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. +Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. +Royal Academy of Dublin ... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. +Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. +Antiquarian ............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. +Linnean ................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. +Geological ................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. +Astronomical .............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. +Zoological ................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. +Royal Institution ......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. +Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. +Horticultural ............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. +Medico-Botanical .......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. + +[* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in +lieu of annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the +life of the member.] + +Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, +according to their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, +carrying with it a tail of upwards of forty letters, at the +average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. per letter. + +Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining +in a country which supports so many institutions for its +cultivation. It is indeed creditable to us, that the greater +part of these societies are maintained by the voluntary +contributions of their members. But, unless the inquiries which +have recently taken place in some of them should rectify the +SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, it is +not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full +PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional +DISCUSSIONS and inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only +safeguards; and a due degree of VIGILANCE should be exercised on +those who DISCOURAGE these principles. Of the Royal Society, I +shall speak in a succeeding page; and I regret to add, that I +might have said more. My object is to amend it; but, like all +deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone can +contribute to its cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of +remonstrance or reproof found utterance through other channels, I +had gladly been silent, content to support by my vote the +reasonings of the friend of science and of the Society. But this +has not been the case, and after frustrated efforts to introduce +improvements, I shall now endeavour, by the force of plain, but +perhaps painful truths, to direct public opinion in calling for +such a reform, as shall rescue the Royal Society from contempt in +our own country, from ridicule in others. + +On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. +Of the Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the +freshness, the vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of +a youthful science, and has succeeded in a most difficult +experiment, that of having an oral discussion on the subject of +each paper read at its meetings. To say of these discussions, +that they are very entertaining, is the least part of the praise +which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, and +sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, +though insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each +other, and ultimately lead to important conclusions. The +continuance of these discussions evidently depends on the taste, +the temper, and the good sense of the speakers. The things to be +avoided are chiefly verbal criticisms--praise of each other +beyond its reasonable limits, and contest for victory. This +latter is, perhaps, the most important of the three, both for the +interests of the Society and of truth. With regard to the +published volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, that +if members were in the habit of communicating their papers to the +Society in a more finished state, it would be attended with +several advantages; amongst others, with that of lightening the +heavy duties of the officers, which are perhaps more laborious in +this Society than in most others. To court publicity in their +accounts and proceedings, and to endeavour to represent all the +feelings of the Society in the Council, and to avoid permanent +Presidents, is a recommendation not peculiarly addressed to this +Society, but would contribute to the well-being of all. + +Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its +pursuits, could scarcely admit of the discussions similar to +those of the Geological, I shall merely observe, that I know of +no secret which has caused its great success, unless it be +attention to the maxims which have just been stated. + +On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement +to the public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness +of its income is a frightful consideration. It is too tempting +as the subject for jobs, and it is too fluctuating and uncertain +in its amount, not to render embarrassment in the affairs of the +Society a circumstance likely to occur, without the greatest +circumspection. It is most probable, from the very recent +formation of this Institution, that its Officers and Council are +at present all that its best friends could wish; but it is still +right to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially +necessary to have men of business on the Council, as well as +persons possessing extensive knowledge of its pursuits. It is +more dangerous in such a Society than in any other, to pay +compliments, by placing gentlemen on the Council who have not the +qualifications which are requisite; a frequent change in the +members of the Council is desirable, in order to find out who are +the most regular attendants, and most qualified to conduct its +business. Publicity in its accounts and proceedings is, from the +magnitude of its funds, more essential to the Zoological than to +any other society; and it is rather a fearful omen, that a check +was attempted to be given to such inquiries at the last +anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the +friends of science should not for an instant tolerate such +attempts. + +It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more +than one scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to +derive instruction as to their merits, by observing the success +of their measures in other societies. + +The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many +valuable works to be translated, which could not have otherwise +been published. + +The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is +now rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been +somewhat impaired. There are hopes of its purgation, and +ultimate restoration, notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which +the Committee of Inquiry have ascertained to exist. This, after +all, will not be without its advantage to science, if it puts a +stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO PERSONS,-- to making +COMPLIMENTARY councillors,--and to auditing the accounts WITHOUT +EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form altogether. + +The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of +the public; its pretensions were great--its assurance unbounded. +It speedily became distinguished, not by its publications or +discoveries, but by the number of princes it enrolled in its +list. It is needless now to expose the extent of its short-lived +quackery; but the evil deeds of that institution will long remain +in the impression they have contributed to confirm throughout +Europe, of the character of our scientific establishments. It +would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, if those +lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this +Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its +highest claim to public approbation, and by signing its +dissolution, offer the only atonement in their power to the +insulted science of their country. As with a singular inversion +of principle, the society contrived to render EXPULSION* the +highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains for it to +exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is +capable. [* They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom +it is but slight praise to say, that he is the first and most +philosophical botanist of our own country, and who is admired +abroad as he is respected at home. The circumstance which +surprised the world was not his exit from, but his previous +entrance into that Society.] + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + +As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps +say, of European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare +of which, in the opinions of many, the interests of British +science are materially involved, I may be permitted to feel +anxiously, and to speak more in detail. + + +SECTION 1. + +MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +I have no intention of stating what ought to be the +qualifications of a Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, +the practical mode of arriving at that honour, has been as +follows:-- + +A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that +he (A. B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a +useful and valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and +suspended in the meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. +has the good fortune to be perfectly unknown by any literary or +scientific achievement, however small, he is quite sure of being +elected as a matter of course. If, on the other hand, he has +unfortunately written on any subject connected with science, or +is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the members +begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; and, +unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being +black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the +Council, previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; +but I am not aware that this has in the slightest degree +diminished their number, which was, at the time of writing this +note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + +In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, +have all been known persons; but even in such cases a hope +remains;-- perseverance will do much, and a gentleman who values +so highly the distinction of admission to the Royal Society, may +try again; and even after being twice black-balled, if he will a +third time condescend to express his desire to become a member, +he may perhaps succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In such +circumstances, the odds are much in favour of the candidate +possessing great scientific claims; and the only objection that +could then reasonably be suggested, would arise from his +estimating rather too highly a distinction which had become +insignificant from its unlimited extension. + +It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and +that the sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, +to be ten pounds on entrance, and four pounds annually. The +amount of this subscription is so large, that it is calculated to +prevent many men of real science from entering the Society, and +is a very severe tax on those who do so; for very few indeed of +the cultivators of science rank amongst the wealthy classes. +Several times, whilst I have been consulting books or papers at +Somerset House, persons have called to ask the Assistant- +secretary the mode of becoming a member of the Royal Society. I +should conjecture, from some of these applications, that it is +not very unusual for gentlemen in the country to order their +agents in London to take measures for putting them up at the +Royal Society. + + +SECTION 2. + +OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + +Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I +cannot precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who +supported this resolution solve the enigma: + +"It was Resolved, + +"That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. +is by far the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at +the approaching anniversary as President, and that he be +recommended accordingly." + +To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently +flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard +upon the rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR +THE MOST FIT" was only consistent with that strain of compliment +in which his supporters indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means +unique in its kind, I believe, even at that very Council. + +That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be +instantly admitted by all who are, in the least degree, +acquainted with him: that he is fit for the chair of the Royal +Society, will be allowed by few, except those who have committed +themselves to the above-quoted resolution. + +Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for +it, he might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have +called round him, at the council board, those most actively +engaged in the pursuits of science, most anxious for the +improvement of the Royal Society. Instead of himself proposing +resolutions, he might have been, what a chairman ought to be, the +organ of the body over which he presides. By the firmness of his +own conduct he might have taught the subordinate officers of the +Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying +compliments to Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, +he might have maintained the dignity of his Council by the +dignity of knowledge. + +But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest +to allure, or of ambition to betray him, instead of making +himself respected as the powerful chief of a united republic,-- +that of science,--he has grasped at despotic power, and stands +the feeble occupant of its desolated kingdom, trembling at the +force of opinions he might have directed, and refused even the +patronage of their names by those whose energies he might have +commanded. + +Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a +year; and this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a +Treasurer: an office which he had long held, and to which he +wished to return. + +Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late +Board of Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT +of the Royal Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the +President and Council. Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the +higher situation, he became, EX OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of +Longitude; and a vacancy occurred, which ought to have been +filled up by the President and Council. But when this subject +was brought before them, in defiance of common sense, and the +plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had enacted that +the Board of Longitude should have the assistance of four persons +belonging to the Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow it +to be filled up, on the ground that he should not be President +next year, and had made no vacancy. + +Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other +year; but the Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we +might have had some LOCUM TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's +pleasure. + +These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but +they illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not +becoming the dignity of science or of the Society that its +officers should be so circumstanced as to have an apparent and +direct interest in supporting the existing President, in order to +retain their own places; and if such a system is once discovered, +doubt immediately arises as to the frequency of such +arrangements. + + +SECTION 3. + +OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + +Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in +reforming the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With +regard to the senior Secretary, the time of his holding office is +perhaps more unfortunate than the circumstance. If I might be +permitted to allude for a moment to his personal character, I +should say that the mild excellencies of his heart have prevented +the Royal Society from deriving the whole of that advantage from +his varied knowledge and liberal sentiments which some might +perhaps have anticipated; and many will agree with me in +regretting that his judgment has not directed a larger portion of +the past deeds of the Councils of the Royal Society. Of the +junior Secretary I shall only observe, that whilst I admit his +industry, his perseverance, and his talents, I regret to see such +valuable qualities exerted at a disadvantage, and that I +sincerely wish them all the success they merit in situations more +adapted for their developement. + +There are, however, some general principles which it may be +important to investigate, which relate to the future as well as +to the past state of the office of Secretary of the Royal +Society. Inconvenience has already arisen from having had at a +former period one of our Secretaries the conductor of a +scientific journal; and this is one of the points in which I can +agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. +[These observations were written previous to the late +appointment, to which I now devote Section 6. Experience seems +to be lost on the Council of the Royal Society.] Perhaps it +might be advantageous to extend the same understanding to the +other officers of the Society at least, if not to the members of +its Council. + +Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, +to consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to +have military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are +several peculiarities in the military character, which, though +they do not absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual +prosecution of science, may in some degree disqualify such +persons from holding offices in scientific institutions. The +habits both of obedience and command, which are essential in +military life, are little fitted for that perfect freedom which +should reign in the councils of science. If a military chief +commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to +retain the confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it +as much as possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his +only course to win the confidence of his fellow-labourers in +science, and to render his future observations of any use, is to +acknowledge it in the most full and explicit manner. The very +qualifications which contribute to the professional excellence of +the soldier, constitute his defects when he enters the paths of +science; and it is only in those rare cases where the force of +genius is able to control and surmount these habits, that his +admission to the offices of science can be attended with any +advantage to it. + +Another objection deserving notice, although not applying +exclusively to the military profession, is, that persons not +imbued with the feelings of men of science, when they have +published their observations, are too apt to view every criticism +upon them as a personal question, and to consider that it is as +offensive to doubt the accuracy of their observations as it is to +doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious to science than +that such an opinion should be tolerated. The most unreserved +criticism is necessary for truth; and those suspicions respecting +his own accuracy, which every philosophical experimenter will +entertain concerning his own researches, ought never to be +considered as a reproach, when they are kept in view in examining +the experiments of others. The minute circumstances and +apparently trivial causes which lend their influence towards +error, even in persons of the most candid judgment, are amongst +the most curious phenomena of the human mind. + +The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the +merits of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that +I shall conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface +to his Observations: + +"Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu +instrumenti sui, de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud +recte tractandum, deque mediis in errores ejus inquirendi +rationem reddere publice, ut aliis quoque copia sit judicandi, +quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex nostris observationibus +deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent precedentis +saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice +tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes +tot vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." +P. viii. + +There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own +character as well as to the public, which, having been on some +occasions apparently neglected, it may be here the proper place +to mention, since it is reasonable to suppose that attention to +them is within the province of its Secretaries. + +The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances +attending the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume +of Astronomical Observations which were made at the Observatory +of Paramatta (New South Wales), bearing the title of "The Third +Part of the Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1829." + +Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a +British officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; +two observers were brought from Europe, to be employed in making +use of those instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A +considerable portion of the observations so printed were made by +these astronomers during their employment in his service, and +some of them are personally his own. Yet has the Royal Society, +in adopting them as part of its Transactions, omitted all +mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any part of +the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable +observations to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General +Sir Thomas Brisbane; whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science +induced him to found, at his own private expense, an +establishment which it has been creditable to the British +Government to continue as a national institution. Had any +kindred feelings existed in the Council, instead of endeavouring +to shift the responsibility, they would have hastened to rectify +an omission, less unjust to the individual than it was injurious +to English science. + +Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and +integrity of the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. +It has been publicly stated that confidence cannot be placed in +the written minutes of the Society; and an instance has been +adduced, in which an entry has been asserted to have been made, +which could not have been the true statement of what actually +passed at the Council. + +The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult +to verify by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, +and shall state them before I enter on the reasoning which may be +founded upon them. In the minutes of the Council, 26th November, +1829, we find-- + +"Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put +upon the Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of +persons, amongst whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir +John Franklin was absent from London, and altogether unacquainted +with this transaction, until he saw it stated in the newspapers +some months after it had taken place. That his name was the one +substituted for that of Captain Beaufort I know, from other +evidence which need not be produced here, as the omission of the +latter name is the charge that has been made.], and that of +Captain Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy +himself that this is not a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, +in copying, by consulting the rough minutes of that meeting of +the Council, which it might perhaps be as well to write in a +rough minute-book, instead of upon loose sheets of paper; nor can +it be attributed to any error arising from accidentally mislaying +the real minutes, for in that case the error would have been +rectified immediately it was detected; and this has remained +uncorrected, although publicly spoken of for months. As there is +no erasure in the list, one is reluctantly compelled to +conjecture that the real minutes of that meeting have been +destroyed.]] + +Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the +Council on the morning of the 26th of November, because the +President himself, on the evening of that day, informed Capt. +Beaufort that he was placed on the house list; and that officer, +with the characteristic openness of his profession, wrote on the +next or the following day to the President, declining that +situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + +Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a +resolution of the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be +no doubt; but in order to understand the whole nature of the +transaction, other information is necessary. It has been the +wish of many members of the Society, that the President should +not absolutely name his own Council, but that the subject should +be discussed fairly at the meeting previous to the Anniversary-- +this has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and those who +support him. Now, it has been stated, that, at the meeting of the +Council on the 26th of November, the President took out of his +pocket a bit of paper, from which he read the names of several +persons as fit to be on the Council for the ensuing year;--that +it was not understood that any motion was made, and it is certain +that none was seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such an +important question; and it was a matter of considerable surprise +to some of those present, to discover afterwards that it was +entered on the minutes as a resolution. This statement I have +endeavoured to verify, and I believe it to be substantially +correct; if it was a resolution, it was dictated, not discussed. +It is also important to observe, that no similar resolution +stands on the council-books for any previous year. + +On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of +the letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why +was it omitted? If the first entry had been truly made, there +would have been no necessity for the omission; and after the +insertion of that letter, a resolution would naturally have +followed, recommending another name instead of the one withdrawn. +Such was the natural and open course; but this would have exposed +to the Society the weakness of those who manage it. If the rough +minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over before it +separated, and were copied previously to the next meeting, such a +substitution could hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this +is not the case, and the delay is in some cases considerable. +Thus, the minutes of the three Councils, held on February 4, on +February 11, and on March 11, were not entered on the minute- +books of the Council on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor was this the +fault of the Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the rough +minutes of no one of those Councils had been transmitted to him. + +Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an +occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that +resolution be ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of +1829 really discussed the persons to be recommended as their +successors, the detection of this suppression of one portion of +it, will furnish better means of estimating the confidence due to +the whole. + + +SECTION 4. + + +OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + +Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, +that its Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether +the Admiralty determined to render that body completely +subservient to them, or whether both these motives concurred, I +know not; but, low as has been for years its character for +independence, and fallen as the Royal Society is in public +estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for this last insult. +In order to inform the public and the Society, (for I believe the +fact is known to few of the members,) it will be necessary to +trace the history of those circumstances which led to the +institution of the offices of Scientific Advisers, from the time +of the existence of the late Board of Longitude. + +That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which +established it, of certain official members, who usually +possessed no knowledge of the subjects it was the duty of the +Board to discuss--of certain professors of the two universities, +and the Astronomer Royal, who had some knowledge, and who were +paid 100L. a year for their attendance;--of three honorary +members of the Royal Society, who combined the qualifications of +the two preceding classes; and, lastly, of "three other persons," +named Resident Commissioners, who were supposed to be "WELL +VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, OR NAVIGATION," +and who were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the Board. + +The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three +other persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were +renewable at the pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was +abolished by another act of parliament, on the ground that it was +useless. Shortly after, the Secretary of the Admiralty +communicated to the Council of the Royal Society, the copy of an +Order in Council: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, November 1, 1828. + +SIR, +I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to +send herewith, for the information of the President and Council +of the Royal Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of +the 27th of last month; explaining that the salaries heretofore +allowed to the Resident Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, +and to the Superintendents of the Nautical Almanac, and of +Chronometers, shall be continued to them, notwithstanding the +abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to acquaint you, +that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy Board for +the payment of the said salaries. + +I am, Sir, +Your most obedient humble servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + + +AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, +27th October, 1828. + +PRESENT, +The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + +Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the +Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated +4th of this instant, in the words following, viz.-- + +Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. +20, instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the +Longitude at sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern +passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach +the North Pole," three persons well versed in the sciences of +Mathematics, Astronomy, or Navigation, were appointed as a +Resident Committee of the Board of Commissioners for discovery +of the Longitude at sea, and a Superintendent of the Nautical +Almanac and of Chronometers was also appointed, with such +salaries for the execution of those services as his Majesty +might, by any Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, +whereas, your Majesty was in consequence, by your Order in +Council of the 27th of May, 1828, most graciously pleased to +direct, that the three said Resident Commissioners should be paid +at the rate of 100L. a year each; and by your further Order in +Council, of the 31st October, 1818, that the Superintendent of +the Nautical Almanac should be allowed a salary of 300L., and the +Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; and, whereas, the +act above mentioned has been repealed, and the Board of Longitude +abolished; and doubts have therefore arisen, whether the said +Orders in Council shall still continue in force; and whereas it +is expedient that the said appointments be continued; We beg +leave most humbly to submit to your Majesty, that your Majesty +may be graciously pleased, by your Order in Council, to direct +that the said offices of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, +and of Superintendent of Chronometers; and also the three persons +before-mentioned as a Resident Committee, to advise with the +Commissioners for executing the Office of Lord High Admiral, on +all questions of discoveries, inventions, calculations, and other +scientific subjects, be continued, with the same duties and +salaries, and under the same regulations as heretofore; and +further beg most humbly to propose, that such three persons to +form the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by the +Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from +among the Council of the Royal Society. + +His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, +was pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to +approve thereof and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners +of the Admiralty are to give the necessary directions herein +accordingly. + +(Signed) JAMES HILLER. + +Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons +from among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a +hundred a year each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + +Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not +escape the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild +remonstrance was made, in which the real ground of complaint was +omitted. + +MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. +December 18, 1823. + +RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords +Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal +Society, on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them +that inconvenience may arise from the plan therein specified, +from the circumstance of all the members of the Council being +annually elected by the Society at large; and that body being +consequently subject to continual changes from year to year. + +This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of +the Admiralty : + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + +SIR, +Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your +Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the +Minutes of the proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, +arising out of the communication made to them by their Lordships, +on the subject of his Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of +October last, I have their Lordships' command to acquaint you, +for the information of the President and Council, and with +reference to what they have stated as to the inconvenience which +may arise from the intended plan of limiting their Lordships' +choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific Advice +to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were +induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of +respect to the Society, and as a pledge to the public of the +qualification of the persons chosen. Nor did their Lordships +apprehend any inconvenience from the circumstance stated in the +Minute of the Council, of the Members being annually elected, as +the Resident Committee is also annually appointed; and, in point +of fact, no practical inconvenience has been felt during the ten +years that the Committee has been in existence, as four of the +distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have successively +appointed to this office, have continued during the whole period +to be members of the Council; and if any such difficulty or +inconvenience should hereafter arise, their Lordships will be +ready to take proper measures for remedying it. + +Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain +Kater and Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to +Dr.Young, who had resigned it, on receiving the appointment of +Secretary to the late Board of Longitude, to be appointed. + +I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, +JOHN BARROW. + +The representation made by the Council was not calculated to +produce much effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew +well the stuff of which Councils of the Royal Society are +composed, might have spared the bitter irony of making their +Lordships say, that they recommended this plan "AS A MARK OF +RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO THE PUBLIC OF THE +QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he delicately hints +to them their dependent situation, by observing, that the +"RESIDENT COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + +The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the +custom for years for the President of the Royal Society to +nominate the Council, and consequently he knew that every +scientific adviser must first be indebted to the President for +being qualified to advise, and then to the Admiralty for deriving +profit from his counsel. Thus then their Lordships, as a "MARK +OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the dependence of the Council +on the President, by making his nomination a qualification for +place, and establish a new dependence of the same Council on +themselves, by giving a hundred pounds each year to such three +members of that Council as they may select. "THE PLEDGE" they +offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS +CHOSEN," is, that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought they +would do for his Council. + +What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of +this mark of respect, or what value the public may put upon this +pledge, must be left to themselves to express. + +In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal +Society the weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was +ever made, a consolation arises from the possibility of some of +those who were placed there by way of compliment, occasionally +attending. In that contracted field Lord Melville's penetration +may not be uselessly employed; and the soldier who presides over +our colonies may judge whether the principles which pervade it +are open and liberal as his own. + +The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement +is, that the number out of which the advisers are selected must, +in any case, be very small; and may, from several circumstances, +be considerably reduced. In a council fairly selected, to judge +of the merits of the various subjects likely to be brought under +the consideration of the Society, anatomy, chemistry, and the +different branches of natural history, will share with the +numerous departments of physical science, in claiming to be +represented by persons competently skilled in those subjects. +These claims being satisfied, but few places will be left to fill +up with mathematicians, astronomers, and persons conversant with +nautical astronomy. + +Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single +mathematician amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose +deservedly high reputation rests chiefly on his physical and +experimental inquiries, and whom the President and the Admiralty +have clearly shown they do not look upon as a mathematician, by +not appointing him an adviser? + +Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are +conversant with the three subjects named in the Act of +Parliament, must usually be, it may be still further diminished. +The President, when he forms his Council, may decline naming +those members who are most fit for such situations. Or, on the +other hand, some of those members who are best qualified for +them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of being the +nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or +Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of +which they disapprove. + +Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best +explained by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The +refusals are, notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the +subject, better known than he is willing that they should be. + +Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with +reference both to the Society and to the public, and without the +slightest reference to the individuals who may have refused or +accepted those situations, I shall now examine the propriety of +the appointments that have been made. + +Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have +never considered the influence such a mode of selection would +have on the character of the Council; or, having considered it, +they must have arrived at a different conclusion from mine. +There may, however, be arguments which I have overlooked, and a +discussion of them must ultimately lead to truth: but I confess +that it appears to me the objections which have been stated rest +on principles of human nature, too deeply seated to be easily +removed. + +That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, +appears from several circumstances. A question was asked +respecting these appointments at the Anniversary before the last; +and, from the nature of the answer, many of the members of the +Society have been led to believe the objections have been +removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who knew these facts, +thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any gentleman on +the Council who had accepted these situations; and, having myself +the same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be +informed of the names of the present Scientific Advisers. But +although they remonstrated against the PRINCIPLE, they replied +that they had "NO COGNIZANCE" of the fact. + +The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain +Kater, who were so appointed, and who had previously been +Resident Commissioners under the Act, immediately refused the +situations. Dr. Young became one of the Advisers; and Captain +Sabine and Mr. Faraday were appointed by the Admiralty as the two +remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, who died shortly after, I shall +only observe that he possessed knowledge which qualified him for +the situation. + +Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to +belong to that class of persons which the Order in Council and +the Act of Parliament point out, is a matter on which doubt may +reasonably be entertained. The Order in Council speaks of these +three persons as being the same, and having the "SAME DUTIES" as +those mentioned in the Act; and it recites the words of the Act, +that they shall be persons "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF +MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of the fitness of the +gentlemen who now hold those situations to pronounce judgment on +mathematical questions, the public will be better able to form an +opinion when they shall have communicated to the world any of +their own mathematical inquiries. Although it is the practice to +consider that acceptance of office is alone necessary to qualify +a man for a statesman, a similar doctrine has not yet prevailed +in the world of science. One of these gentlemen, who has +established his reputation as a chemist, stands in the same +predicament with respect to the other two sciences. It remains +then to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which must rest on his +skill in "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"-- a claim which +can only be allowed when the scientific world are set at rest +respecting the extraordinary nature of those observations +contained in his work on the Pendulum. + +That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of +Longitude, excited at its appearance considerable attention. The +circumstance of the Government providing instruments and means of +transport for the purpose of these inquiries, placed at Captain +Sabine's disposal means superior to those which amateurs can +generally afford, whilst the industry with which he availed +himself of these opportunities, enabled him to bring home +multitudes of observations from situations rarely visited with +such instruments, and for such purposes. + +The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to +exist amongst each class of observations, was as unexpected by +those most conversant with the respective processes, as it was +creditable to one who had devoted but a few years to the subject, +and who, in the course of those voyages, used some of the +instruments for the first time in his life. + +This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers +of the greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take +such lunars; whilst other observers, long versed in the use of +the transit instrument, avowed their inability to take such +transits. Those who were conversant with pendulums, were at a +loss how to make, even under more favourable circumstances, +similarly concordant observations. The same opinion prevailed on +the continent as well as in England. On whatever subject Captain +Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by their +accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods of +using the instruments scarcely differed in any important point +from those before adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, +which I shall presently relate, the world must have concluded +that Captain Sabine possessed some keenness of vision, or +acuteness of touch, which it would be hopeless for any to expect +to rival. + +The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the +accuracy of these observations with their testimony. They seem +to have thrust Captain Sabine's name perpetually on their +minutes, and in a manner which must have been almost distressing: +they recommend him in a letter to the Admiralty, then in another +to the Ordnance; and several of the same persons, in their other +capacity, as members of the Board of Longitude, after voting him +a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, are said to have again +recommended him to the Master-General of the Ordnance. That an +officer, commencing his scientific career, should be misled by +such praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the +Council of the Royal Society should adopt their opinion so +heedlessly, and maintain it so pertinaciously, was as cruel to +the observer as it was injurious to the interests of science. + +It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the +Copley medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, +and the medal of Lalande, given to him by the Institute of +France, had arisen from such a complete investigation of his +observations, as should place them beyond the reach even of +criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may write, and nobody +will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; and even the +Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer +immortality. That learned body is in the habit of making most +interesting and profound reports on any memoirs communicated to +it; nothing escapes the penetration of their committees appointed +for such purposes. Surely, when they enter on the much more +important subject of the award of a medal, unusual pains must be +taken with the previous report, and it might, perhaps, be of some +advantage to science, and might furnish their admirers with +arguments in their defence, if they would publish that on which +the decree of their Lalande's medal to Captain Sabine was +founded. + +It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that +has been written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: +I shall confine myself merely to two points; one, the transit +observations, I shall allude to, because I may perhaps show the +kind of feeling that exists respecting them, and possibly enable +Captain Sabine to explain them. The other point, the error in +the estimation of the division of the level, I shall discuss, +because it is an admitted fact. + +Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the +difference of times of the passage of any star between the +several wires; supposing the distances of those wires equal, the +intervals of time occupied by the star in passing from one to the +other, ought to be precisely the same. As those times of passing +from one wire to another are usually given to seconds and tenths +of seconds, it rarely happens that the accordance is perfect. + +The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches +in length, and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of +about 370 transits, there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, +which have the intervals between all the wires agreeing to the +same, the tenth of a second. At Sierra Leone, nineteen out of +seventy-two have the same accordance; and of the moon +culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of twenty-four are equally +exact. With larger instruments, and in great observatories, this +is not always the case. + +Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, +p. 427, a series of transits, with a three and a half foot +transit, in which about one-eleventh part of them only have this +degree of accuracy; and it should be observed that not merely the +instrument, but the stars selected, have, in this instance, an +advantage over Captain Sabine's. + +The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by +Frauenhofer, and the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out +of some observations of his in January, 1826, only one-eleventh +have this degree of accordance. In thirty-three of the Greenwich +observations of January, 1828, fifteen have this agreement, or +five-elevenths; but this is with a ten-feet transit. Now in none +of these instances do the times agree within a tenth of a second +between all the wires; but I have accounted those as agreeing in +all the wires in which there is not more than four-tenths of a +second between the greatest and least. + +This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some +explanation. One which has been suggested is, that Captain +Sabine employs a chronometer to observe transits with; and that +since it beats five times in two seconds, each beat will give +four-tenths of a second; and this being the smallest quantity +registered, the agreement becomes more probable than if tenths +were the smallest quantities noticed. In general, the larger the +lowest unity employed the greater will be the apparent agreement +amongst the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of stars near +the pole, the times of passing the wires were only registered to +the nearest minute, the intervals would almost certainly be +equal. There is another circumstance, about which there is some +difficulty. It is understood that the same instrument,--the +thirty-inch transit, was employed by Lieutenant Foster; and it +has not been stated that the wires were changed, although this +has most probably been the case. Now, in the transits which the +later observer has given, he has found it necessary to correct +for a considerable inequality between the first and second wires +(See Phil. Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone +abroad on this subject, it is doing a service to science to +insure its correction, by drawing attention to it. + +Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it +would seem to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a +transit more exact, and therefore that it ought to be used in +observatories. + +Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating +circle of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of +Longitude, for the express purpose of ascertaining how far +repeating instruments might be diminished in size:--a most +important subject, on which the Board seem to have entertained a +very commendable degree of anxiety. + +The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is +important: + +"The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the +expense of the Board of Longitude, for the purpose of +exemplifying the principle of repetition when applied to a circle +of so small a diameter as six inches, carrying a telescope of +seven inches focal length, and one inch aperture; and of +practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which might be +retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be +increased, by a reduction in the size to half the amount which had +been previously regarded by the most eminent artists as the +extreme limit of diminution to which repeating circles, designed +for astronomical purposes, ought to be carried. + +"The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be +estimated, by comparing the differences of the partial results +from the mean at each station, with the correspondence of any +similar collection of observations made with a circle, on the +original construction, and of large dimensions; such, for +instance, as the latitudes of the stations of the French are, +recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if due allowance +be made for the extensive experience and great skill of the +distinguished persons who conducted the French observations, the +comparison will scarcely appear to the disadvantage of the +smaller circle, even if extended generally through all the +stations of the present volume; but if it be particularly +directed to Maranham and Spitzbergen,--at which stations the +partial results were more numerous than elsewhere, and obtained +with especial regard to every circumstance by which their +accuracy might be affected, the performance of the six-inch +circle will appear fully equal to that of circles of the larger +dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at which a more +than usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, +because it was essential to the purposes for which the latitudes +of the French stations were required, that the observations +should always be conducted with the utmost possible regard to +accuracy. + +"It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six +inches, the disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less +precise contact or bisection, and of an arch of less radius +admitting of a less minute subdivision, may be compensated by the +principle of repetition." + +Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places +most favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of +these places, and compare the observations made there with the +small repeating instrument of six inches diameter, with those +made by the French astronomers at Formentera, with a repeating +circle of forty-one centi-metres, or about sixteen inches in +diameter, made by Fortin. It is singular that this instrument +was directed, by the French Board of Longitude, to be made +expressly for this survey, and the French astronomers paid +particular attention to it, from the circumstance of some doubts +having been entertained respecting the value of the principle of +repetition. + +The following series of observations were made with the two +instruments. [I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of +Polaris, merely because the number of sets of observations are +rather fewer. The difference between the extremes of the +altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken above the pole by +the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a half.] + +Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches +diameter.--BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + +Number of Latitude Names of Observers. +Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot +100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot +120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot +100 56.5 Arago +102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + +Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. + +* + +Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at +Maranham. + +Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. +alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine +alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto +alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto +alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto +alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto +alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + +Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. + + +In comparing these results, although the French observations were +more than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the +deviations of the individual sets from the mean are greater. One +second and three-tenths is the greatest deviation from the mean +of the Maranham observations; whilst the greatest deviation of +those of Formentera, is two seconds and two-tenths. If this mode +of comparison should be thought unfair, on account of the greater +number of the sets in the French observations, let any six, in +succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with the six +English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is the +greatest deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations +less than in those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, +that by the latitude deduced by the mean of 1250 superior +culminations of Polaris by the same observers, the latitude of +Formentera was found to be 38deg. 39min 57.07sec., a result +differing by 2.14sec. from the mean of the 1318 inferior +culminations given above. [This difference cannot be accounted +for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as neither +the employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of +Groombridge, of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would +make a difference of two-tenths of a second.] + +These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain +Sabine, and of those who examined and officially pronounced on +the merits of his observations; for, supposing the skill of the +observers equal, it seems a necessary consequence that "the +performance of the six-inch circle is" not merely "fully equal to +that of circles of larger dimensions," but that it is decidedly +SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches in diameter. + +This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately +for astronomy, long after these observations were made, +published, and rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same +instrument, discovered that the divisions of its level, which +Captain Sabine had considered to be equal to one second each, +were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven seconds, each one +being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary a +recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: +a re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever +thought it necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of +observations with this instrument are given in the work alluded +to. It can never be esteemed satisfactory merely to state the +mean results of the corrections arising from this error: for the +confidence to be attached to that mean will depend on the nature +of the deviations from it.] + +This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of +considerable importance to navigation; and if it should have +caused any alteration in his opinion as to the comparative merits +of great and small instruments, it might have been expected from +a gentleman, who was expressly directed by the Board of +Longitude, to try the question with an instrument constructed for +that especial purpose. + +Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified +for the task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no +pretensions to familiarity with the instrument, may tend towards +elucidating this interesting question. + +The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the +error of level: + +Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. +Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + +Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + +Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + +Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + +Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + +Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + +New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + +Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + +Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + +Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + +Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 + + +This presents a very different view of the latitudes as +determined by the small repeating circle, from that in Captain +Sabine's book; and confining ourselves still to Maranham, where +the latitudes "WERE OBTAINED, WITH ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY +CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR ACCURACY MIGHT BE AFFECTED," and +where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION WAS BESTOWED," it appears, +that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, namely, "the +differences of the partial results from the mean at each +station," the deviations become nearly ten times as large as they +were before; a circumstance which might be expected to have some +influence in the decision of the question. + +There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to +avoid looking at this singular oversight. The second column of +the table of latitudes must now be considered the true one, as +that which really resulted from the observations. Now, on +examining the column of true latitudes, the differences between +the different sets of observations is so considerable as +naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more especially as +nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, +Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It +becomes interesting to every person engaged in making +astronomical observations, to know what is the probability of his +being exposed to an error so little to be guarded against, and so +calculated to lull the suspicions of the unfortunate astronomer +to whom it may happen. + +In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true +latitude of a place being determined by sets of observations as +in the first of the following columns-- + + Latitudes as +True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. +Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug. . . . 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 +Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug. . . . 31.8 43.8 +Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug. . . 44,0 44.5 +Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug. . . . 42.6 44.6 +Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug. . . . 39.2 42.0 +Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept. . . . 27.4 42.2 + +what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the +first column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they +are in the second column? The circumstance of the number of +divisions of the level being almost arbitrary within limits, +might perhaps be alleged as diminishing this extraordinary +improbability: but let any one consider, if he choose the error +of each set, as independent of the others, still he will find the +odds against it enormous. + +When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, +has thus had the effect of bringing discordant observations into +an almost unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not +merely so, but that at eight of the nine stations it has +uniformly tended to diminish the differences between the partial +results, and that at the ninth station it only increased it by a +small fraction of a second, I cannot help feeling that it is more +probable even that Captain Kater, with all his admitted skill, +and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both mistaken +in their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so +singular an effect should have been produced by one error; and I +cannot bring myself to believe that such an anticipation is +entirely without foundation. + +Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular +oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be +used for determining so important a question; more particularly +as, in the very work to which reference was made by Captain +Sabine for the purpose of comparing the observations, it was the +very first circumstance which occupied the French philosophers, +and several pages [See pages 265 to 275 of the RECUEIL +D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET ARAGO, which +forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] are +filled with the details relative to the determination of the +value of the divisions of the level. It would also have been +satisfactory, with such an important object in view, to have read +off some of the sets after each pair of observations, in order to +see how far the system of repetition made the results gradually +converge to a limit, and in order to know how many repetitions +were sufficient. Such a course would almost certainly have led +to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of the level; +for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a few +minutes of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great +to have arisen from the change of its altitude: and had these +been noticed, they must have been referred to some error in the +instrument, which could scarcely, in such circumstances, have +escaped detection. + +I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend +Captain Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am +far from saying are inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, +after so wonderful an instance of the effect of chance as I have +been just discussing, should venture to pronounce another such +accident impossible; but I think enough has been said to show, +that the feeling which so generally prevails relative to it, is +neither captious nor unreasonable. + +Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the +Admiralty in appointing that gentleman one of their scientific +advisers, was, under the peculiar circumstances, at least, +unadvised. They have thus lent, as far as they could, the weight +of their authority to support observations which are now found to +be erroneous. They have thus held up for imitation observations +which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers to throw aside +their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a standard +which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified +the doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever +even modified it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to +the largest. + +To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of +doubt. It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise +to crown it with official authority, and thus expose the officers +of their service to depend on means which may be quite +insufficient for their purpose. + +How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS +INSTRUMENT TO BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at +which they arrived, appears inexplicable. The known difference +of opinion amongst the best observers respecting the repeating +principle, ought to have rendered them peculiarly cautious, nor +ought the opinion of a Troughton, that instruments of less than +one foot in diameter may be considered, "FOR ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE +BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, +Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the most carefully +detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, persons who +must have examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. Captain +Kater must have felt those difficulties in the perusal of it +which other observers have experienced; and he who was placed in +the Board of Longitude especially for his knowledge of +instruments, might, in a few hours, have arrived at more decisive +facts. But perhaps I am unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge +rendered it impossible for him to have been ignorant of the +difficulties, and his candour would have prevented him from +concealing them: he must, therefore, after examining the +subject, have been outvoted by his lay-brethren who had dispensed +with that preliminary. + +It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention +with respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval +service of the errors into which he also fell from this same +level. Lieutenant Foster, aware of the many occasions on which +Captain Sabine had employed this instrument, and knowing that he +considered each division as equal to one second, never thought +that a doubt could exist on the subject, and made all his +calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him acquainted +with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated a +paper [The paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the +Philosophical Transactions, 1827, p.122, and is worth +consulting.] to the Royal Society, in which he states the +circumstance most fully, and recomputed all the observations in +which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, from the original +observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury at the time +of her loss, the transcripts of his results could not be +recomputed like the rest, and were consequently useless. + + +SECTION 5. + +OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + +Although the number of situations to which persons conversant +with science may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has +somewhat singularly happened, that instances of one individual, +holding more than one such appointment, are frequent. Not to +speak of those held by the late Dr. Young, we have at present:-- + +MR. POND--Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +CAPTAIN SABINE -- An officer of artillery on leave of absence +from his regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific +Adviser of the Admiralty. + +MR. BRANDE--Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of +Chemistry at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. +to the East-India Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, +Apothecaries' Hall; Superintending Chemical Operator at ditto; +Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; Editor of the Royal Institution +Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the Royal Society. + +One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific +offices, either that science is too little paid, and that +gentlemen cannot be found to execute the offices separately at +the salaries offered; or else, that it is too well paid, since +each requires such little attention, that almost any number can +be executed by one person. + +The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better +collection of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, +than any other astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, +would require the almost undivided attention of a man in the +vigour of youth. Nor would a superintendent of the Nautical +Almanac, if he made a point of being acquainted with every thing +connected with his subject, find his situation at all a sinecure. +Slight as are the duties of the Foreign Secretary of the Royal +Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. Brande would +scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found time +even for them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that +from the progress the Society is making, those duties must become +shortly, if they are not already, almost extinct. + +Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most +anxiously over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew +that the Academics of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of +Prussia, of Hanover, and of France, derived honour from the +discoveries of their Secretaries;--that they prided themselves in +the names of Berzelius, of Oersted, of Brewster, of Encke, of +Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the President must have been +ambitious that England should contribute to this galaxy of glory, +that the Royal Society should restore the lost Pleiad [Pleiades, +an assemblage of seven stars in the neck of the constellation +Taurus. There are now only six of them visible to the naked +eye.--HUTTON'S DICTIONARY--Art. Pleiades.] to the admiring +science of Europe. But he could discover no kindred name amongst +the ranks of his supporters, and forgot, for a moment, the +interest of the Society, in an amiable consideration for the +feelings of his surrounding friends. For had the President +chosen a brighter star, the lustre of his other officers might +have been overpowered by its splendour: but relieved from the +pain of such a contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, by +their united brightness, these suns of his little system shall +yet afford sufficient light to be together visible to distant +nations, as a faint NEBULA in the obscure horizon of English +science. + + +SECTION 6. + +OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + +Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it +may be useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution +of its money. + +EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.--The great +expense of the engravings which adorn the volumes of the +Philosophical Transactions, is not sufficiently known. That many +of those engravings are quite essential for the papers they +illustrate, and that those papers are fit for the Transactions, I +do not doubt; but, some inquiry is necessary, when such large +sums are expended. I shall endeavour, therefore, to approximate +to the sum these engravings have cost the Royal Society. + +Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers +of Sir E. Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely +separated, the workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding +ones. Since 1810, there have occurred 187 plates attached to +papers of the same author. Many of these have cost from twelve to +twenty guineas each plate; but I shall take five pounds as the +average cost of the first portion, and twelve as that of the +latter. This would produce, + 70 X 5 = 350 +187 X 12 = 2244 +...... ----- +...... L2594 + +As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit +the odd hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in +plates only on ONE branch of science, and for one person! +Without calling in question the importance of the discoveries +contained in those papers, it may be permitted to doubt whether +such a large sum might not have been expended in a manner more +beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with those +subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous +circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their +number, I should have expected to have heard amongst the learned +of other countries much more frequent mention of them than I have +done, and even the Council of the Royal Society would scarcely +have excluded from their Transactions one of those productions +which they had paid for as a lecture. + +It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the +Council so repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were +annually expending, during the last twenty years, about an +hundred pounds. On the other hand, when the Council lent Sir E. +Home the whole of those valuable plates to take off impressions +for his large work on Comparative Anatomy, of which they +constitute almost the whole, it might have been as well not to +have obliterated from each plate all indication of the source to +which he was indebted for them. + + +THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.--I shall mention this circumstance, +because it fell under my own observation. + +Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the +President's Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the +nature of this item. Happening to be on the Council the next +year, I took an opportunity, at an early meeting of that Council, +to ask publicly for an explanation of the following resolution, +which stands in the Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + +"Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about +to be printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the +usual trade price." + +The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD +AGREED TO PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO +INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + +I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite +unsatisfactory, as the following statement will prove. + +The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the +following prices are very liberal: + + L s. d. +To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet........... .... 60 0 0 +Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream ..... 60 0 0 +Corrections, alterations, &c. ......... 30 0 0 + +Total cost of 500 copies ...... 150 0 0 + +Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council +could not plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, +and in paying printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an +excuse; and several of the individual members must have known, +from their own private experience, that the cost of printing such +a volume was widely different from that they were about to pay, +as an inducement to a bookseller to print it on his own account. +Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred pounds beyond what was +necessary for the object, taken from the funds of the Royal +Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his +officers ever condescend to explain this transaction to the +Council; or were they expected, as a matter of course, to +sanction any thing proposed to them? Could they have been so +weak, or so obedient, as to order the payment of above three +hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a bookseller to do what they +might have done themselves for less than half the sum? Or did +they wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred pounds? If +so, he must have had powerful friends in the Council, and it is +fit the Society should know who they were; for they were not +friends, either to its interests or to its honour. + +The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold +to members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. +3d.) and out of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have +been sold: the remainder encumber our shelves. Thus, after four +years, the Society are still losers of three hundred and sixty +Pounds on this transaction. + + +ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO PASTEBOARD. +--Although the printing of these observations is not paid for out +of the funds of the Royal Society, yet as the Council of that +body are the visitors of the Royal Observatory, it may not be +misplaced to introduce the subject here. + +Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally +learned, that there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a +large quantity of the volumes of the Greenwich Observations on +sale as waste paper. On making inquiry, he ascertained that +there were two tons and a half to be disposed of, and that an +equal quantity had already been sold, for the purpose of +converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get +fourpence a pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol +board. The fact was mentioned by a member of the Council of the +Royal Society, and they thought it necessary to inquire into the +circumstances. + +Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed +with every regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on +thick paper, hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. +This magnificence is advocated by some who maintain, that the +volumes ought to be worthy of a great nation; whilst others, +seeing how little that nation spends on science, regret that the +sums allotted to it should not be applied with the strictest +economy. If the Astronomer Royal really has a right to these +volumes, printed by the government at a large expense, it is, +perhaps, the most extravagant mode which was ever yet invented of +paying a public servant. When that right was given to him,--let +us suppose somebody had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he +should sell the costly volumes for waste paper,--who would have +listened for one moment to such a supposition? He would have been +told that it was impossible to suppose a person in that high and +responsible situation, could be so indifferent to his own +reputation. + +A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the +Royal Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which +were necessary for an inquiry on which I was at that time +engaged. Being naturally anxious to economize the small funds I +can devote to science, the request appeared to me a reasonable +one. It was, however, refused; and I was at the same time +informed that the Observations could be purchased at the +bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies of +the Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that +practical astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my +pursuits, I feel disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the +propriety of the refusal. This excuse can, however, be of no +avail for similar refusals to other gentlemen, who applied nearly +at the same time with myself, and whose time had been +successfully devoted to the cultivation of that science. [M. +Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, projected a +plan for making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too vast +for any individual to attempt, it was proposed that a portion +should be executed by the astronomers of various countries, and +invitations to this effect were widely circulated. One only of +the divisions of this map was applied for by any English +astronomer; and, after completing the portion of the map assigned +to him, he undertook another, which had remained unprovided for. +This gentleman, the Rev. Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected +applicants for the Greenwich Observations.] + +There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly +anticipated a different result;--but those who occupy official +situations, rendered remarkable by the illustrious names of their +predecessors, are placed in no enviable station; and, if their +own acquirements are confessedly insufficient to keep up the high +authority of their office, they must submit to the mortifications +of their false position. I am sure, therefore, that the +President and officers of the Royal Society must have sympathized +MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to propose that +the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse so +trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he +once filled. + +In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be +allowed a copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed +that, "The number of copies placed by government at the disposal +of the Royal Society, was insufficient to supply the demands made +on them by various learned bodies in Europe; and, consequently, +they were unable, however great their inclination, to satisfy the +wishes of individual applicants." Now I have spent some time in +searching the numerous proceedings in the council-books of the +Royal Society, and I believe the following is the real state of +the case:-- + +In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries +of State, wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March +8, 1785, from which the following is extracted:-- + +"The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the +Astronomical Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, +(and paid for by the Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's +command, of July 21, 1767,) which may at any time remain in the +hands of the printer, shall, after you have reserved such copies +as you may think proper as presents, be given to the said Nevil +Maskelyne, in consideration of his trouble in the superintending +the printing thereof. I am to signify His Majesty's pleasure, +that you do, from time to time, give the necessary orders for +that purpose, until His Majesty's further commands shall be +communicated to you. + +Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:-- + +"Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last +published, be retained as presents, and that the rest be +delivered to the Astronomer Royal." + +It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching +many volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not +discovered any revocation of this order, and I believe none +exists. This is confirmed by the circumstance of the Council at +the present day receiving precisely the same number of copies as +their predecessors, and I believe that in fact they do not know +the authority on which the right to those sixty rests. + +Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left +to the discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be +reserved, "from time to time," as the demands of science might +require. When, therefore, they found that the number of sixty +copies was insufficient, they ought to have directed the printer +to send them a larger number; but when they found out the purpose +to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they ought +immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order +to prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other +hand, the above order is revoked, and we really have no right to +more than sixty copies; then, on discovering the Observations in +their progress towards pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council +of the Royal Society, as visitors of the Royal Observatory, +immediately to have represented to Government the evil of the +arrangement, and to have suggested, that if the Astronomer Royal +have the right, it would be expedient to commute it for a liberal +compensation. + +Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps +on the subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the +President and Council were induced to be thus negligent of the +interests of science, from the fear of interfering with the +perquisites of the Astronomer Royal. + +It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already +done to science, by the conversion of these Observations into +pasteboard, is not so great as the public might have feared. Mr. +Pond, than whom no one can be supposed better acquainted with +their value, and whose right to judge no man can question, has +shown his own opinion to be, that his reputation will be best +consulted by diminishing the extent of their circulation. + +Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much +might be said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of +the Royal Society that was made relative to it, some years since, +and which, it is imagined, is a subject by no means grateful to +the memory of any of the parties concerned in it. My object is +to ascertain, whether any amendments have taken place in +consequence. To one fact of considerable importance, I was +myself a witness, when I was present officially at a visitation. +At that time, no original observations made at the transit +instrument were ever preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of +the process of an observation, I should not have credited the +fact. + + +SECTION 7. + +OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + +At a period when the attention of Government to science had not +undergone any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took +place. His Majesty intimated to the Royal Society, through his +Secretary of State, his intention to found two gold medals, of +the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded annually by the +Council of the Royal Society, according to the rules they were +desired to frame for that purpose. + +The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's +letter:-- + +WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + +SIR, + +I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty +proposes to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas +each, to be awarded as honorary premiums, under the direction of +the President and Council of the Royal Society, in such a manner +as shall, by the excitement of competition among men of science, +seem best calculated to promote the object for which the Royal +Society was instituted. + +His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of +the Royal Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the +regulations which it may be convenient to establish with regard +to the appropriation of the medals; and I have, therefore, to +request that you will make the necessary communication to the +Council of the Royal Society, in order that His Majesty's wishes +may be carried into effect. + +I have the honour to be, &c. &c. +(Signed) R. PEEL. + +Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, +than this gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its +advancement. It was hailed by all who were made acquainted with +it, as the commencement of a new era, and the energies which it +might have awakened were immense. The unfettered nature of the +gift excited admiration, whilst the confidence reposed in the +Council was calculated to have insured the wavering faith of any +less-gifted body. Even those who, either from knowing the +MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted the +policy of establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and +spirit in which they were offered. + +The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully +accepting them: and it appears that the President communicated +that resolution, on the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is +found on the minutes of the Council-book of the 26th of January. + +At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals +were decided upon; they were as follow:-- + +26th January, 1826. + +RESOLVED, + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded +for the most important discoveries or series of investigations, +completed and made known to the Royal Society in the year +preceding the day of their award. + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of +the medals should not be limited to British subjects. And they +propose, if it should be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy +should form the obverse of the medal. + +That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each +foundation; one in gold, one in silver. + +If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, +yet they are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined +that even a councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office +by the education of a pleader, could not have mystified his +brethren so completely, as to have made them doubt on the point +of time. The rules fixed precisely, that the discoveries or +experiments rewarded, must be completed and made known to the +Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the award. + +Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this +communication, to have convened a special general meeting of the +Society, to have made known to the whole body the munificent +endowment of their Patron: and when his approbation of the laws +which were to govern the distribution of these medals had been +intimated to the Council, such a course would have been in +complete accordance with the wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, +"TO EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN OF SCIENCE" by making them +generally known. + +Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is +recorded in the following words:-- + +November 16, 1826. + +ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year +was awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical +and Literary Society, Manchester, for his development of the +Atomic Theory, and his other important labours and discoveries in +physical science. + +The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, +Esq. for his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the +Philosophical Transactions for the year 1823, and his other +valuable papers on mathematical subjects. + +The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his +observations of double stars, and his paper on the discordances +between the sun's observed and computed right ascensions, +published in the Transactions. + +It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in +January, formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, +should meet together in November, and in direct violation of +these laws, award them to two philosophers, one of whom had made, +and fully established, his great discovery almost twenty years +before; and the other of whom (to stultify themselves still more +effectually) they expressly rewarded for a paper made known to +them three years before. + +Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to +their decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to +register the edict of their President? Or were they mocked, as +they have been in other instances, with the semblance of a free +discussion? + +Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, +that although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet +the Society and the public will justly attribute a portion of the +merit or demerit of their award, to those to whom that trust was +confided? + +Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most +submissive deference, to suggest to the President, that the +public eye would watch with interest this first decision on the +Royal medals, and that it might perhaps be more discreet to +adjudge them, for the first time, in accordance with the laws +which had been made for their distribution? Or was public +opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I have +myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + +Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the +responsibility of dictating an award in direct violation of the +faith which had been pledged to the Society and to the public? +and, did the Council, intent on exercising a power so rarely +committed to them; and, perhaps, urged by the near approach of +their hour of dinner, dispense with the formality of reading the +laws on which they were about to act? + +Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous +to the Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, +with a strange neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make +known, either to the Society, or to the public, the rules they +had made for the adjudication of these medals. + +The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first +place, it was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such +neglect the rules which had been approved by our Royal Patron. +In the next place, the medals themselves became almost worthless +from this original taint: and they ceased to excite "competition +amongst men of science," because no man could feel the least +security that he should get them, even though his discoveries +should fulfil all the conditions on which they were offered, + +The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, +induced me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the +Council of the Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma +which rested on our character. Whether I took the best means to +remedy the evil is now a matter of comparatively little +consequence: had I found any serious disposition to set it +right, I should readily have aided in any plans for doing that +which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I should stand +alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. [It is +but justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to +state, that the circumstance of his having had the Copley medal +of the same year awarded to him, prevented him from taking any +part in the discussion.] + +The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind +will never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for +the distribution of the Royal medals, when approved by his +Majesty, as equally binding in honour and in justice, I viewed +the decision of the Council, which assigned those medals to Mr. +Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as void, IPSO FACTO, on the ground that it +was directly at variance with that part which CONFINES the medals +to discoveries made known to the Society within ONE YEAR PREVIOUS +TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore moved the following +resolutions: + +"1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of +November, 1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they +were offered, is invalid. + +"2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. +Dalton, Esq. and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; +and that letters be written to each of those gentlemen, +expressing the hope of the Council that this, the only method +which is open to them of honourably fulfilling their pledges, +will be received by those gentlemen as a mark of the high sense +entertained by the Council of the importance and value of their +discoveries, which require not the aid of medals to convey their +reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which +distinguished the age in which they lived." + +It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning +employed in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of +the Royal Society. It was contended, on the one hand, that +although the award was SOMEWHAT IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more +easy than to set it right. As the original rules for giving the +medals were merely an order of the Council,-- it would only be +necessary to alter them, and then the award would agree perfectly +with the laws. On the other hand, it was contended, that the +original rules were unknown to the public and to the Society; and +that, in fact, they were only known to the members of the Council +and a few of their friends; and therefore the award was no breach +of faith. + +All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions +could not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is +sufficient to show that the feelings of that body do not +harmonize with those of the age; and furnishes some explanation +why several of the most active members of the Royal Society have +declined connecting their names with the Council as long as the +present system of management is pursued. + +The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in +its peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and +the little communication which exists between them, is an evil. +Thus it happens that the deeds of the Council are rarely known to +the body of the Society, and, indeed, scarcely extend beyond that +small portion who frequent the weekly meetings. These pages will +perhaps afford the first notice to the great majority of the +Society of a breach of faith by their Council, which it is +impossible to suppose a body, consisting of more than six hundred +gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + + +SECTION 8. + +OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + +An important distinction exists between scientific +communications, which seems to have escaped the notice of the +Councils of the Royal Society. They may contain discoveries of +new principles,-- of laws of nature hitherto unobserved; or they +may consist of a register of observations of known phenomena, +made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar situations +on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to +our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are +very different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, +even with those trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in +our country (in the present day) to dignify with the name of +discoveries, requires merely inflexible candour in recording +precisely the facts which nature has presented, and a power of +fixing the attention on the instruments employed, or phenomena +examined,--a talent, which can be much improved by proper +Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of tolerable +abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to +detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another +and a higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a +very different order: the labour of the one is like that of the +computer of an almanac; the inquiries of the other resemble more +the researches of the accomplished analyst, who has invented the +formula: by which those computations are performed. + +[*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a +national observatory, does not require any very profound +acquirements, is not an opinion which I should have put forth +without authority. The Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best +judge. + +On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, +1826, with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two +mural circles, we find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, +from which the following passage is extracted: + +"But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, +hard-working, and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call +them, although they are drudges of a superior order), men who +will be contented to pass half their day in using their hands and +eyes in the mechanical act of observing, and the remainder of it +in the dull process of calculation."] + +Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, +some difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that +may be proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have +never marked this difference, and consequently those: honorary +medals which are given to observations, gain a value which is due +to those that are given for discoveries; whilst these latter are +diminished in their estimation by such an association. + +I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; +but the public would have little cause of complaint if this were +the only ground of objection to the mode of appropriating the +Society's medals. The first objection to be noticed, is the +indistinct manner in which the object for which the medals are +awarded is sometimes specified. A medal is given to A. B. "for +his various papers." + +There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may +be admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness +of those who judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, +"and for his various other communications," which comes in as the +frequent tail-piece to these awards. With a diffidence in their +own powers, which might be more admired if it were more +frequently expressed, the Council think to escape through this +loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment on the main +point be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which made +chemistry a science, has attached to it in their award this +feeble appendage. + +It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have +been too much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals +were added to their patronage, the past distribution of the +Copley medals, furnished grounds to some of the journals to +predict the future possessors of the new ones. I shall, +doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal Society are +persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to suppose +their decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I +may not have had sufficient opportunities, during the short time +I was a member of that Council, to enable me to form a fair +estimate, I shall avail myself of the judgment of one, from whom +no one will be inclined to appeal, who knew it long and +intimately, and who expressed his opinion deliberately and +solemnly. + +The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in +the distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of +2,000L. to the Royal Society, the following clause:--"And I +hereby empower the said President, Council, and Fellows, after my +decease, in furtherance of the above declared objects of the +trust, to apply the said dividends to aid or reward any +individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY THAT NO +PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL +RECEIVE OR PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + +Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is +generally inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which +contains the discovery is at least read to the Society; perhaps +even it might not be quite unreasonable to wish that it should +have been printed, and consequently have been perused by some few +of those who have to decide on its merits. These trifles have +not always been attended to; and even so lately as the last year, +they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. The +Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, +who declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one +additional charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication +was thus put a stop to, one of the members of the Council +inquired, whether, as a Copley medal must by the will he annually +given, some other person might not be found deserving of it. To +which the Secretary replied, "We do not intend to give any this +year." All further discussion was thus silenced.] + +Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be +oblivious, it might be convenient that the President should read, +previously to the award of any medals or to the decision of any +other important subjects, the statutes relating to them. He +might perhaps propitiate their attention to them, by stating, HOW +MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY OF THE COUNCIL TO BE +ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO DECIDE. + +If those who have been conversant with the internal management of +the Council, would communicate their information, something +curious might perhaps be learned respecting a few of these +medals. Concerning those of which I have had good means of +information, I shall merely state-- of three of them--that +whatever may have been the official reasons for their award, I +had ample reasons to convince me of the following being the true +causes:-- + +First.--A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate +time--BECAUSE HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + +Second.--Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY +THE IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE +PUBLIC THE PRECEDING YEAR. + +Third.--A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL +USED." + +I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which +was peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode +of rendering platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the +illustrious philosopher who invented the art, and who has left +many other claims to the gratitude of mankind, I esteem it no +disrespect to his memory to place that subject in its proper +light. + +An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as +possessing the rights of property in the highest degree. The +lands we inherit from our fathers, were cultivated ere they were +born, and yielded produce before they were cultivated. The +products of genius are the actual creations of the individual; +and, after yielding profit or honour to him, they remain the +permanent endowments of the human race. If the institutions of +our country, and the opinions of society, support us fully in the +absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by the laws of +nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly +restrict our discretion in the disposal of those richer +possessions, the products of intellectual exertion? + +Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed +with Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the +mysteries they have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge +to the production of some substance in demand in commerce, thus +minister to the wants or comforts of their species, whilst they +reap in pecuniary profit the legitimate reward of their +exertions. + +It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret +they have torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to +participate with them, to claim at once that splendid reputation +which is rarely refused to the inventors of valuable discoveries +in the arts of life. + +The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the +discoverer, having published his process, enters into equal +competition with other manufacturers. + +If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining +his secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to +complain. During his life, they profited by his knowledge, and +are better off than if the philosopher had not existed. + +Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to +assist and reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary +profit. Honorary rewards and medals have been the feeble +expressions of the sentiments of mankind towards those who have +preferred the other course. But these have been, and should +always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a condition with the +Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing for which a +patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + +Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was +discovered of rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance +of so large a quantity having been sent into the market, was a +positive benefit, of no ordinary magnitude, to many of the arts. +The discoverer of this valuable process selected that course for +which no reasonable man could blame him; and from some +circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no written +record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that +disorder, which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all +the knowledge he had acquired from the long attention he had +devoted to the subject, would have been lost to mankind. The +hand of a friend recorded the directions of the expiring +philosopher, whose anxiety to render useful even his unfinished +speculations, proves that the previous omission was most probably +accidental. + +Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. But what could induce that +body to bestow on it their medal? To talk of adding lustre to +the name of Wollaston by their medal, is to talk idly. They must +have done it then as an example, as a stimulus to urge future +inquiries in the career of discovery. But did they wish +discoveries to be so endangered? + +The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long +been considered, by a few members of the Society, as having +strong claims on one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties +had arisen, from so few members of the Council having any +knowledge of discoveries which had long been familiar to Europe. +The Council were just on the point of doing justice to the merits +of the Prussian philosopher, when it was suggested that its medal +should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they immediately altered +their intention, and thus enabled themselves to reserve their +medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at which +period, for aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the +additional merit of having been made prior to the limit allowed +by their regulations. That medal was, in fact, voted at a +meeting, at which no one member present was at all conversant +with the subjects rewarded. I shall, however, say no more on +this subject. They erred from feeling, an error so very rare +with them, that it might be pardoned even for its singularity. + +I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been +unjustly dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for +receiving pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + +Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of +science, or the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the +genius of Wollaston, was it too much to allow him to retain, +during his fleeting career, one out of the multitude, to furnish +that: pecuniary supply, without which, the man will want food +for his body, and the philosopher be destitute of tools for his +inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank he held in science, +he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich in the +honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward +in some measure commensurate with his deserts,--then, indeed, +there might have been reason for that reproach; but I am +convinced that, in such circumstances, the philosopher would have +balanced, with no "niggard" hand, the claims of his country, and +would have given to it, unreservedly, the produce of his powerful +mind. + + +SECTION 9. + +OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + +Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal +Society. This was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. +3 per cent. South Sea Annuities was purchased, the interest of +which was to be devoted annually to pay for a sermon to be +preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + +Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the +bequest or of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that +for five years, from 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to +Mr. Ascough; and that for twenty-six years past, it has been as +regularly given to the Rev. Mr. Ellis. + +The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any +extraordinary exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if +properly applied, be productive of much advantage to religion, +and of great honour to the Society. For this purpose, it would +be desirable that it should be delivered at some church or +chapel, more likely to he attended by members of the Royal +Society. Notice of it should be given at the place of worship +appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at the +two preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of +the gentleman nominated for that year, and the church at which +the sermon is to be preached, should be stated. + +With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of +the first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it +would soon be esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a +lecture, and the Society might always find in its numerous list +of members or aspirants, persons well qualified to fulfil a task +as beneficial for the promotion of true religion, as it ever must +be for the interest of science. I am tempted to believe that +such a course would call forth exertions of the most valuable +character, as well as give additional circulation to what is +already done on that subject. + +The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with +too much haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and +by others, as inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject +had been attentively considered, have been allowed to remain +until the fullest and freest inquiry had irrevocably fixed their +claim to the character of indisputable facts. But, I will not +press this subject further on my reader's attention, lest he +should think I am myself delivering the lecture. All that I +could have said on this point has been so much more ably stated +by one whose enlightened view of geological science has taken +away some difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed +a stumbling-block from many respectable individuals, that I +should only weaken by adding to the argument. [I allude to the +critique of Dr. Ure's Geology in the British Review, for July, +1829; an Essay, equally worthy of a philosopher and a Christian.] + + +SECTION 10. + +OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + +The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the +preceding, is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an +annual essay on the subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little +to be regretted, that it should have been so restricted; and +perhaps its founder, had he foreseen the routine into which it +has dwindled, might have endeavoured to preserve it, by affording +it a wider range. + +By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have +been created, and many young anatomists have been induced to +direct their attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of +the Lecture; but from causes which need not here be traced, this +has not been the custom--one individual has monopolized it year +after year, and it seems, like the Fairchild Lecture, rather to +have been regarded as a pension. There have, however, been some +intervals; and we are still under obligations to those who have +supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing Sir Everard Home to read +the Croonian Lecture twenty years in SUCCESSION. Had it been +otherwise, we might have heard of vested rights. + + +SECTION 11. + +OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst +they regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support +whatever exists, begin a little to doubt whether it might not +possibly be amended. + +The great and leading cause of the present state to which the +Royal Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to +which it has been submitted. In order to understand this, it +will be necessary to explain the nature of that misrule, and the +means employed in perpetuating it. + +It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have +the power of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and +Council; and it is also well known, that this is a merely nominal +power, and that printed lists are prepared and put into the hands +of the members on their entering the room, and thus passed into +the balloting box. If these lists were, as in other scientific +societies, openly discussed in the Council, and then offered by +them as recommendations to the Society, little inconvenience +would arise; but the fact is, that they are private nominations +by the President, usually without notice, to the Council, and all +the supporters of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour to +uphold the right of this nomination in the President, and prevent +or discourage any alteration. + +The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, +or by whatever other name may be most fit to designate a +combination of persons, united by no expressed compact or written +regulations, but who act together from a community of principles. +That each individual has invariably supported all the measures of +the party, is by no means the case; and whilst instances of +opposition amongst them have been very rare, a silent resignation +to circumstances has been the most usual mode of meeting measures +they disapproved. The great object of this, as of all other +parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, as +far as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has +usually consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have +had the prudence, whenever they could, to associate with +themselves other members of greater ability, provided these +latter would not oppose the system, and would thus lend to it the +sanction of their name. The party have always praised each other +most highly--have invariably opposed all improvements in the +Society, all change in the mode of management; and have +maintained, that all those who wished for any alteration were +factious; and, when they discovered any symptoms of independence +and inquiry breaking out in any member of the Council, they have +displaced him as soon as they decently could. + +Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF +MANAGEMENT by which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a +few samples: refutation is rendered quite unnecessary--juxta- +position is alone requisite. If any member, seeing an improper +appointment in contemplation, or any abuse in the management of +the affairs of the Society continued, raise a voice against it, +the ready answer is, Why should you interfere? it may not be +quite the thing you approve; but it is no affair of yours.--If, +on the other hand, it do relate to himself, the reply is equally +ready. It is immediately urged: The question is of a personal +nature; you are the last person who ought to bring it forward; +you are yourself interested. If any member of the Society, +feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the injuries or +insults of the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is +immediately suggested to him that he is irritated, and ought to +wait until his feelings subside, and he can judge more coolly on +the subject; whilst with becoming candour they admit the ill- +treatment, but urge forbearance. If, after an interval, when +reflection has had ample time to operate, the offence seems great +as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any +circumstances on which memory can dwell,--if it is then brought +forward, the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date--the +thing is gone by--it is too late to call in question a +transaction so long past. Thus, if a man is interested +personally, he is unfit to question an abuse; if he is not, is it +probable that he will question it? and if, notwithstanding +this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a meddler. If he is +insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is cool; and +when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his +remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never +referred to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told +that any alteration is useless; it is perfectly well known that +they are never adhered to. If it relate to the impolicy of any +regulations attaching to an office, he is immediately answered, +that that is a personal question, in which it is impossible to +interfere--the officer, it seems, is considered to have not +merely a vested right to the continuance of every abuse, but an +interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + +In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or +observation defended. If small errors occur, it is said that +they are too trifling to be of any importance. If larger errors +are pointed out, it is immediately contended that they can +deceive nobody, because of their magnitude. Perhaps it might be +of some use, if the Council would oblige the world with their +SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the most RECENT +and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with the +orthodox creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human +faculties to detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its +size. + +The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, +and their emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition +of them is, nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and +was so to the science of England. + +In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute +nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few +gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the +high opinion they must necessarily entertain of the penetration +of him who could discover their scientific merits. He might also +place in the list a few nobles or officials, just to gild it. +Neither of these classes would put any troublesome questions, and +one of them might be employed, from its station in society, to +check any that might be proposed by others. + +With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, +and a star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a +very manageable Council might be formed; and such has been its +frequent composition. + +The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, +although not in this respect equal to those of the same officers +who, in several societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their +labours are much lightened by the Assistant Secretary and his +clerk. The following are their salaries:-- + +The Senior Secretary . . . . . . . . . . . 105L. +The Junior Secretary, 105L. . . . . . . . ) + 5L. for making Indexto Phil. Trans. . . ) 110L. +The Foreign Secretary . . . . . . . . . . . 20L. + +Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these +offices are amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally +given by the President to some staunch supporters of the system. +They have frequently been bestowed, with very little +consideration for the interest, or even for the dignity of the +Society. To notice only one instance: the late Sir Joseph Banks +appointed a gentleman who remained for years in that situation, +although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject connected +with the pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice to +his memory, by saying that his respectability was preserved under +such circumstances, by the most candid admission of the fact, +accompanied by a store of other knowledge unfortunately quite +foreign to the pursuits of the Society; and I will add, that I +regretted to see him insulted by one President in a situation +improperly given to him by a former. + +Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the +President; and in this respect the present practice is not +inconvenient. + +The case, however, is widely different with the office of +Treasurer. The President ought not to usurp the power of his +appointment, which ought, after serious discussion by the +Council, to be made by the Society at large. + +Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, +and recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a, +Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to +the President. + +Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, +arising from offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX +OFFICIO, a Trustee of the British Museum; and it may seem harsh +to maintain that he is not a fit person to hold such a situation. +It is no theoretical view, but it is the EXPERIENCE of the past +which justifies the assertion; and I fear that unless he has the +sole responsibility for some specific appointments, and unless +his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public discussion, a +President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the British +Museum, is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his +public duty to the influence of power, or to private friendship. +With respect to the merits of that Institution, I have no +inclination at present to inquire: but when it is considered +that there is at this moment attached to it no one whose +observations or whose writings have placed him even in the second +rank amongst the naturalists of Europe, the President of the +Royal Society has given some grounds for the remark made by +several members of the Society, that he is a little too much +surrounded by the officers of a body who may reasonably be +supposed to entertain towards him feelings either of gratitude or +expectation. [It will be remembered that the name of Mr. Robert +Brown has been but recently attached to the British Museum, and +that it is to be attributed to his possessing a life interest in +the valuable collection of the late Sir Joseph Banks.] + +The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, +which, although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + +There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: +these were honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might +have been expected that this limited number of appointments would +have been given in all cases to persons qualified for them. But +no: it was convenient to pay compliments; and Lord Colchester, +whose talents and knowledge insured him respect as Speaker of the +House of Commons, or as a British nobleman, was placed for years +in the situation as one of the Commissioners of the Board of +Longitude, for which every competent judge knew him to be wholly +unfit. What was the return which he made for this indulgence? +Little informed respecting the feelings of the Society, and +probably misinformed by the party whose influence had placed him +there, he saved them in the day of their peril. + +When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many +of the more scientific members felt that some amendment was +absolutely necessary to its respectability, a committee was +formed to suggest to the Council such improvements as they might +consider it expedient to discuss. [Amongst the names of the +persons composing this Committee, which was proposed by Mr. +South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Herschel.] The +Council received their report at the close of the session; and in +recording it on the journals, they made an appeal to the Council +for the ensuing year to bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST +SERIOUS ATTENTION." + +Now when the party, to whose government some of these +improvements would have been a death-warrant, found that the +subject was likely to be taken up in the Council, they were in +dismay: but the learned and grateful peer came to their +assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting rid of these +improvements completely. + +It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal +Society should be represented in the Council, and consequently +that a peer or two should find a place amongst them. Those who +are most adverse to this doctrine would perhaps be the most +anxious to render this tribute to any one really employing his +time, his talents, or his rank in advancing the cause of science. +But when a nobleman, unversed in our pursuits, will condescend to +use the influence of his station in aiding a President to stifle, +WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended for consideration by +some of the most highly gifted members of the Society,--those who +doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably be pardoned +for the disgust they must necessarily entertain for the practical +abuse to which it leads. + +Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred +a-year, although the nomination was, in point of form, in the +Admiralty, yet it was well known that the President of the Royal +Society did, in fact, always name them. Of these I will only +mention one fact. The late Sir Joseph Banks assigned to me as a +reason why I need not expect to be appointed, (as he had held out +to me at a former period when I had spoken to him on the subject) +that I had taken a prominent part in the formation of the +ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take in +establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour +was assigned to me by the President. + +It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this +distance of time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the +Council of the Astronomical Society;--that I always talked of it +publicly and openly at the time;--that I purposely communicated +it to each succeeding President of the Royal Society; and that, +although some may have forgotten the communications I made at the +time, there are others who remember them well. + +The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and +200L. more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is +known to have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer +Royal; and it is to be observed, that he is kept in the Council +as much as possible, notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + +Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been +instituted since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the +President is supposed to have the control, thus making him quite +sure of the obedience of his Council. + +Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental +occasions on which Government apply to the Royal Society to +recommend proper persons to make particular experiments or +observations; and, although I am far from supposing that these +are in many instances given to persons the second or third best +qualified for them, yet they deserve to be mentioned. + + +SECTION 12. + +OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + +The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so +notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the +members began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. +This feeling, together with a conviction that other improvements +were necessary to re-establish the Society in public opinion, +induced several of the most active members to wish for some +reform in its laws and proceedings; and a Committee was appointed +to consider the subject. It was perfectly understood, that the +object of this Committee was to inquire,--First, as to the means +and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and then, +as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names +of the gentlemen composing this Committee were:-- + +Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, +Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, +Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, +Mr. South, Captain Kater. + +The importance of the various improvements suggested was +different in the eyes of different members. The idea of +rendering the Society so select as to make it an object of +ambition to men of science to be elected into it, was by no means +new, as the following extract from the Minutes of the Council +will prove:-- + +"MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 +Present, + +Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, +Sir John Lowther, +Sir John Cutler, +Sir Christopher Wren, +Mr. Oldenburgh, +Sir Paul Neile. + +"It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society +prosper, good experiments must be in the first place provided to +make the weekly meetings considerable, and that the expenses for +making these experiments must be secured by legal subscriptions +for paying the contributors; which done, the Council might then +with confidence proceed to the EJECTION OF USELESS FELLOWS." + +The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures +they recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the +limitation of the numbers of the Society to be the most essential +point, and 400 was suggested as a proper number to be +recommended, in case a limitation should be ultimately resolved +upon. I confess, such a limit did not appear to me to bring +great advantages, especially when I reflected how long a time +must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society could be +reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as long +as those who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by +their writings and discoveries should be admitted into it on +precisely the same terms, and on the payment of the same sum of +money as other gentlemen who contributed only with their purse, +it could never be an object of ambition to any man of science to +be enrolled on its list. + +With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a +limitation, I suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, +and which would become effective immediately. I proposed that, +in the printed list of the Royal Society, a star should be placed +against the name of each Fellow who had contributed two or more +papers which had been printed in the Transactions, or that such a +list should be printed separately at the end. + +At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed +papers to the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + +37 Contributors of . . 1 paper +21 . . . . . . . . . . 2 papers +19 . . . . . . . . . . 3 ditto +5 . . . . . . . . . . 4 ditto +3 . . . . . . . . . . 5 ditto +3 . . . . . . . . . . 6 ditto +]2 . . . . from 7 to 12 ditto +14 . . . of more than 12 papers. + +100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers +contributed by them. + +Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the +division of the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more +papers necessary for placing a Fellow in the first class, that +class would only consist of seventy-two members, which is nearly +the same as the number of those of the Institute of France. If +only those who had contributed three or more were admitted, then +this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In either of these +cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition to belong to +the first class; and a more minute investigation into the value +of each paper would naturally take place before it was admitted +into the Transactions. Or it might be established that such +papers only should be allowed to count, as the Committee, who +reported them as fit to be printed, should also certify. The +great objection made to such an arrangement was, that it would be +displeasing to the rest of the Society, and that they had a +vested right (having entered the Society when no distinction was +made in the lists) to have them always continued without one. + +Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, +I will only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very +ill compliment to the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; +since he does, in truth, maintain that those gentlemen who, from +their position, accidentally derive reputation which does not +belong to them, are unwilling, when the circumstance is pointed +out, to allow the world to assign it to those who have fairly won +it; or else that they are incapable of producing any thing worthy +of being printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society. +Lightly as the conduct of the Society, as a body, has compelled +me to think of it, I do not think so ill of the personal +character of its members as to believe that if the question were +fairly stated to them, many would object to it. + +Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the +renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the +expiring Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for +that of the ensuing year. + +The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is +impossible to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE +PERSON. Our statutes were framed with especial regard to securing +the fitness of the members elected to serve in the Council; and +the President is directed, by those statutes, at the two ordinary +meetings previous to the anniversary, to give notice of the +elections, and "to declare how much it importeth the good of the +Society that such persons may be chosen into the Council as are +most likely to attend the meetings and business of the Council, +and out of whom may be made the best choice of a President and +other officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery of the +wisdom of our ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket +the list of the future Council he has already fixed upon. + +In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from +the discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the +Society for the Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by +the Secretary, of the old Council, and against each name is +placed the number of times he has attended the meetings of the +Council. Those whose attendance has been least frequent are +presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence from London, or +engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, are known +to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council +the number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who +go out by their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, +more in number than can be spared; and the question is never, who +shall retire?--but, who, out of the rest of the Society, is most +likely to work, if placed on the Council? + +If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is +always of great importance to its prosperity to have both +opinions represented in the Council. In this age of discussion +it is impossible to stifle opinions; and if they are not +represented in the Council, there is some chance of their being +brought before the general body, or, at last, even before the +public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be +put, and even that debates should take place on the days +appropriated to the anniversaries of societies. This is the best +check to the commencement of irregularities; and a suspicion may +reasonably be entertained of those who endeavour to suppress +inquiry. + +On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society +should never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they +interrupt its business, and only a partial attendance can be +expected. That the conduct of those who have latterly managed +the Royal Society has not led to such discussions, is to be +attributed more to the forbearance of those who disapprove of the +line of conduct they have pursued, than to the discretion of the +party in not giving them cause. + +The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong +necessity should induce an appeal. There are, however, +advantages in it which may, in some cases, render it better than +a public discussion at the anniversary. When the cause of +complaint is a system rather than any one great grievance, it may +be necessary to enter more into detail than a speech will permit; +also the printed statement and arguments will probably come under +the consideration of a larger number of the members. Another and +a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger of any +expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments +employed. + +There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report +of the Committee:-- + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF +LIMITING THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS +TO MAKE SUCH SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM +CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE OF THE SOCIETY. + +Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the +Council under which they have been appointed; and having +satisfied themselves that the progressive increase of the Society +has been in a much higher ratio than the progressive increase of +population, or the general growth of knowledge, or the extension +of those sciences which it has been the great object of the +Society to promote, they have agreed to the following Report:-- + +Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the +utility of the Society is in direct proportion to its +respectability. That its respectability can only be secured by +its comprising men of high philosophical eminence; and that the +obvious means of associating persons of this eminence will be the +public conviction, that to belong to the Society is an honour. +Your Committee, therefore, think themselves fully borne out in +the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit the Society +to such a number as should be a fair representation of the talent +of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every +vacancy would become an object of competition among persons of +acknowledged merit. + +From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the +Fellows who have contributed papers, and from the best estimate +they can make of the persons without doors who are engaged in the +active pursuit of science, your Committee feel justified in +recommending that those limits should be fixed at four hundred, +exclusive of foreign members, and of such royal personages as it +may be thought proper to admit. + +As many years must elapse before the present number of seven +hundred and fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course +of nature, and as it would be prejudicial to the interests of the +Society and of science, that no fresh accessions should take +place during that long period, your Committee would further +recommend, that till that event takes place, four new members +should be annually admitted. + +With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of +opinion, that there are several inconveniences in the present +mode of proceeding to a single ballot upon each certificate, +according to its seniority. If the above limitation should be +adopted, it may be presumed, that for every vacancy there will be +many candidates; from amongst them, it must be the general wish +to select the most distinguished individuals; but to accomplish +this, if the present system were to be continued, it would be +necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were +of earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely +irritating, but probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. +Your Committee, therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one +general election should take place every year towards the end of +the session, and that this should be conducted on the same +principles as the present annual election of the Council and +officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of all the candidates +(whose certificates had been suspended for the usual time,) in +which lists each Fellow would mark the requisite number of +persons. + +As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds +of the Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the +choice has been determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in +the above manner, the successful candidates should be again +submitted to a general vote, in accordance with the enactments of +the said charter. + +In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave +to remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of +blackballing would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment +and mortification; as the result of such an open competition +could only be construed by the public into a fair preference of +the superior claims of the successful few, and not into a direct +and disgraceful rejection of the others. + +Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the +usual admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources +of the Society; but they are at the same time convinced, that by +a vigorous economy its present income might be rendered adequate +to all its real wants, and the aggregate expenditure might be +considerably diminished by many small but wholesome +retrenchments. + +It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. +was received for compositions, in addition to the standing +income, and usual contributions, &c., and although no money was +invested, yet there was a balance only of a few pounds at the end +of the year. It further appears, that 500L. was paid for the +paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly 340L. for printing; and +from those alarming facts, your Committee submit to your +consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially +controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + +In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your +Committee now proceed to offer some further suggestions for your +consideration. They conceive that it would afford a beneficial +stimulus to individual exertion, if the Fellows who have received +the medals of the Society, and those who have repeatedly enriched +its Transactions, were distinguished by being collected into a +separate and honourable list. It would also be found, perhaps, +not less a future incentive than an act of retrospective justice, +if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who have formerly +obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals who have +been large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end +of the list. It would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the +annual list, if all those Fellows who have died, or had been +admitted within the preceding year, were regularly noticed. And +your Committee think, that these lists should always form part of +the Transactions, and be stitched up with the last part of the +volume. + +It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the +Society mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its +Council; and as their selection is unquestionably of paramount +importance, your Committee hope that our excellent President will +not consider it any impeachment of his impartiality, or any doubt +of his zeal, if they venture to suggest, that the usual +recommendation to the Society of proper members for the future +Council should henceforth be considered as a fit subject for the +diligent and anxious deliberation of the expiring Council. + +There is another point of great moment to the character of the +Society, and to the dignified station it occupies among the +learned associations of Europe; for its character abroad can only +be appreciated by the nature and value of its Transactions. Your +Committee allude to the important task of deciding on what papers +should be published; and they are of opinion that it would be a +material improvement on the present mode, if each paper were +referred to a separate Committee, who should have sufficient time +given them to examine it carefully, who should be empowered to +communicate on any doubtful parts with the author; and who should +report, not only their opinion, but the grounds on which that +opinion is formed, for the ultimate decision of the Council. + +If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your +Committee have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to +move, that another Committee be appointed, with directions to +frame or to alter the necessary statutes, so that they may be in +strict accordance with the charters. + +In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise +the magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their +duty to propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the +fullest discussion of their expediency; but further, that if you +should even be unanimously disposed to confirm them, your +Committee would recommend, that the several statutes, when they +have been drawn up or modified, should be only entered on your +minutes, and not finally enacted. All innovations in the +constitution, or even the habits of the Royal Society, should be +scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. It is enough +for the present Council to have traced the plan; let the Council +of the ensuing sessions share the credit of carrying that plan +into effect. + +This Report was presented to the Council very ]ate in the session +of 1827, and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry +on the council-book:-- + +"The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of +limiting the number of members, and such other suggestions as +they may think conducive to the good of the Society, was received +and read, and ordered to be entered on the minutes; and the +Council, regarding the importance of the subject, and its +bearings on the essential interests of the Society, in conformity +with the concluding paragraph, and considering also the advanced +stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious and early +consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + +Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their +hasty adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious +for the fullest investigation before one of them should be tried. + +Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did +not coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had +determined to make their new President. That gentleman made such +arrangements for the Council of the succeeding year, that when +the question respecting the consideration of the Report of that +Committee was brought forward, it was thrown aside in the manner +I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned by the names of such a +committee, and recommended by one Council to "THE MOST SERIOUS +and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing year," was +by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of +discussing its merits. Was every individual recommendation it +contained, not merely unfit to be adopted, but so totally +deficient in plausibility as to be utterly unworthy of +discussion? Or did the President and his officers feel, that +their power rested on an insecure foundation, and that they did +not possess the confidence of the working members of the +Society? + + + +CHAPTER V. + +OF OBSERVATIONS. + +There are several reflections connected with the art of making +observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged +in this chapter. + + +SECTION 1. + +OF MINUTE PRECISION. + +No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable +accuracy is an object to be desired, and it is generally found +that the last advances towards precision require a greater +devotion of time, labour, and expense, than those which precede +them. The first steps in the path of discovery, and the first +approximate measures, are those which add most to the existing +knowledge of mankind. + +The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries +has, in some respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring +the opinion, that no experiments are valuable, unless the +measures are most minute, and the accordance amongst them most +perfect. It may, perhaps, be of some use to show, that even with +large instruments, and most practised observers, this is but +rarely the case. The following extract is taken from a +representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the +Council of the Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived +from the employment of two mural circles:-- + +"That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the +same time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate +how much of that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which +attends EVEN THE MOST CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be +attributed to irregularity of refraction, and how much to THE +IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + +In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. +Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it +contains relative to the necessity of publishing all the +observations which have been made. + +"Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on +doit tout publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il +importe de connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN +SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui +qui ne produiroit que des angles toujours parfaitment d'accord +auroit ete singulierement bien servi par les circonstances ou ne +seroit pas bien sincere."--BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, Discours +Preliminaire, p. 158. + +This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of +experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems +to have been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius +marks its tract, not by the observation of quantities +inappreciable to any but the acutest senses, but by placing +Nature in such circumstances, that she is forced to record her +minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that an observer, +possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly written. +He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of +his species, confers an obligation on them, by recording what he +sees; but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on +his judgment. He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms +visible to ordinary observers, communicates to mankind an +instrument of discovery, and stamps his own observations with a +character, alike independent of testimony or of judgment. + + +SECTION 2. + +ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + +The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance +of those who are already observers, but are intended to show to +persons not familiar with the subject, that in observations +demanding no unrivalled accuracy, the principles of common sense +may be safely trusted, and that any gentleman of liberal +education may, by perseverance and attention, ascertain the +limits within which he may trust both his instrument and himself. + +If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn +to read the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the +coincidence is frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the +learner to get some acquaintance who is skilled in the use of +instruments, and having set the instrument at hazard, to write +down the readings of the verniers, and then request his friend to +do the same; whenever there is any difference, he should +carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his friend to point +out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision. +This should be repeated frequently; and after some practice, he +should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from +his friend's, and also how many divisions they usually differ. + +The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the +learner can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. +This can be done without assistance. It is not necessary even to +adjust the instrument, but merely to point it to a distant +object. When it bisects any remarkable point, read off the +verniers, and write down the result; then displace the telescope +a little, and adjust it again. A series of such observations +will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in +bisecting an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the +first direction gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a +great measure, appreciate his skill in the former. He should +also, when he finds a deviation in the reading, return to the +telescope, and satisfy himself if he has made the bisection as +complete as he can. In general, the student should practise each +adjustment separately, and write down the results wherever he can +measure its deviations. + +Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make +an observation; but in order to try both himself and the +instrument, let him take the altitude of some fixed object, a +terrestrial one, and having registered the result, let him +derange the adjustment, and repeat the process fifty or a hundred +times. This will not merely afford him excellent practice, but +enable him to judge of his own skill. + +The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the +limits within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT +UNDER THE SAME CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of +this, that he can have confidence in his measures of the SAME +OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of +DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES. + +These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a +person is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain +barometer, let him begin by adjusting the instrument in his own +study; and having made the upper contact, let him write down the +reading of the vernier, and then let him derange the UPPER +adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the reading. When he is +satisfied about the limits within which he can make that +adjustment, let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but +let him not, until he knows his own errors in reading and +adjusting, pronounce upon those of the instrument. In the case +of a barometer, he must also be assured, that the temperature of +the mercury does not change during the interval. + +A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of +mechanism, for marking minute portions of time; the three- +hundredth parts of a second were indicated by it. It was a kind +of watch, with a pin for stopping one of the hands. I proposed +that we should each endeavour to stop it twenty times in +succession, at the same point. We were both equally unpractised, +and our first endeavours showed that we could not be confident of +the twentieth part of a second. In fact, both the time occupied +in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the volition, +as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before the +fingers acted on the stop, appeared to influence the accuracy of +our observations. From some few experiments I made, I thought I +perceived that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of +the will, depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body. +If any one were to make experiments on this subject, it might be +interesting, to compare the rapidity of the transmission of +volition in different persons, with the time occupied in +obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the same +persons. For example, by having a mechanism to make a piece of +ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity, some +persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others, +whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made +upon it. + + +SECTION 3. + +ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + +Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the +inroads of pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks +of all who really value truth, by stating some of the methods of +deceiving practised by unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst +the mere circumstance of their arts being known may deter future +offenders. + +There are several species of impositions that have been practised +in science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, +and which it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible +to ordinary understandings. These may be classed under the heads +of hoaxing, forging, trimming, and cooking. + +OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an +example. In the year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, +published at Naples an account of a new family of Testacea, of +which he described, with great minuteness, one species, the +specific name of which has been taken from its habitat, and the +generic he took from his own family, calling it Gioenia Sicula. +It consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by the body +of the animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures of +the animal, and of its parts; described its structure, its mode +of advancing along the sand, the figure of the tract it left, and +estimated the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an +inch per minute. He then described the structure of the shell, +which he treated with nitric acid, and found it approach nearer +to the nature of bone than any other shell. + +The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this +description, and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The +fact, however, is, that no such animal exists, but that the +knight of Malta, finding on the Sicilian shores the three +internal bones of one of the species of Bulla, of which some are +found on the south-western coast of England, [Bulla lignaria] +described and figured these bones most accurately, and drew the +whole of the rest of the description from the stores of his own +imagination. + +Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has +been made for them is, when they have been practised on +scientific academies which had reached the period of dotage. It +should however be remembered, that the productions of nature are +so various, that mere strangeness is very far from sufficient to +render doubtful the existence of any creature for which there is +evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the neck of the +plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, unless +the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to +outweigh the evidence of a single witness, [The kind of +contradiction which is here alluded to, is that which arises from +well ascertained final causes; for instance, the ruminating +stomach of the hoofed animals, is in no case combined with the +claw-shaped form of the extremities, frequent in many of the +carniverous animals, and necessary to some of them for the +purpose of seizing their prey] it can only be regarded as a +deception, without the accompaniment of wit. + +FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the +deceit is intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to +the ridicule of those who have credited it; whereas the forger is +one who, wishing to acquire a reputation for science, records +observations which he has never made. This is sometimes +accomplished in astronomical observations by calculating the time +and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. The observations +of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by the Chevalier +D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at length +proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The +pretended observations did not accord amongst each other in +giving any possible orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, +belonging to some of the observations, from which he found that +all the rest might be almost precisely deduced, provided a +mistake of a unity in the index of the logarithm of the radius +vector were supposed to have been made in all the rest of the +calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + +Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + +TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from +those observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and +in sticking them on to those which are too small; a species of +"equitable adjustment," as a radical would term it, which cannot +be admitted in science. + +This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character +of the trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, +The reason of this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations +of the trimmer is the same, whether they are trimmed or +untrimmed. His object is to gain a reputation for extreme +accuracy in making observations; but from respect for truth, or +from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position of the +fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect +him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + +OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which +is to give to ordinary observations the appearance and character +of those of the highest degree of accuracy. + +One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of +observations, and out of these to select those only which agree, +or very nearly agree. If a hundred observations are made, the +cook must be very unlucky if he cannot pick out fifteen or twenty +which will do for serving up. + +Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will +not come within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved +they shall possess, is to calculate them by two different +formulae. The difference in the constants employed in those +formulae has sometimes a most happy effect in promoting unanimity +amongst discordant measures. If still greater accuracy is +required, three or more formulae can be used. + +It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather +hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given +in different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific +gravities, specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. +As no catalogue contains all stars, the computer must have +recourse to several; and if he is obliged to use his judgment in +the selection, it would be cruel to deny him any little advantage +which might result from it. It may, however, be necessary to +guard against one mistake into which persons might fall. + +If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which +makes them accord precisely with the rest of his results, +whereas, had they been computed from other catalogues the +difference would have been considerable, it is very unfair to +accuse him of COOKING; for--those catalogues may have been +notoriously inaccurate; or--they may have been superseded by +others more recent, or made with better instruments; or--the +observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + +It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae +given by the highest authorities, although they differ amongst +themselves, yet they will not suit the materials. This is +precisely the point in which the skill of the artist is shown; +and an accomplished cook will carry himself triumphantly through +it, provided happily some mean value of such constants will fit +his observations. He will discuss the relative merits of +formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with admirable +candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to +Gauss, and to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the +constant used by three such philosophers, which will make his own +observations accord to a miracle. + +There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest +to those who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the +attention which, in my opinion, they deserve, from not coming +from the pen of an adept. + +In the first place, it must require much time to try different +formulae. In the next place it may happen that, in the progress +of human knowledge, more correct formula: may be discovered, and +constants may be determined with far greater precision. Or it +may be found that some physical circumstance influences the +results, (although unsuspected at the time) the measure of which +circumstance may perhaps be recovered from other contemporary +registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, the state of +the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of +observations has been made with the view of its agreeing +precisely with the latest determination, there is some little +danger that the average of the whole may differ from that of the +chosen ones, owing to some law of nature, dependent on the +interval between the two sets, which law some future philosopher +may discover, and thus the very best observations may have been +thrown aside. + +In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably +happen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for +unrivalled accuracy at the expense of his permanent fame. It +might also have the effect of rendering even all his crude +observations of no value; for that part of the scientific world +whose opinion is of most weight, is generally so unreasonable, as +to neglect altogether the observations of those in whom they +have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the artist. In fact, +the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted is +destroyed. + +The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, +even after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very +unexpected, and a few examples may not be without their use. The +thermometers employed by the philosophers who composed the +Academia Del Cimento, have been lost; and as they did not use the +two fixed points of freezing and boiling water, the results of a +great mass of observations have remained useless from our +ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. M. +Libri, of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by +comparing their registers of the temperature of the human body +and of that of some warm springs in Tuscany, which have preserved +their heat uniform during a century, as well as of other things +similarly circumstanced. + +Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the +Professor of Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important +suit in one of the legal courts of Tuscany depended on +ascertaining whether a certain word had been erased by some +chemical process from a deed then before the court. The party +who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed themselves of +the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those who +committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of +the colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some +colourless matter remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the +agency of the solvent having weakened the fabric of the paper +itself beneath the supposed letters) that the effect of the slow +application of heat would be to render some difference of texture +or of applied substance evident, by some variety in the shade of +colour which heat in such circumstances might be expected to +produce. Permission having been given to try the experiment, on +the application of heat the important word reappeared, to the +great satisfaction of the court. + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + + +SECTION 1. + +OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD EXPRESS +THEIR OPINIONS. + +One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the +PARTY, is to be found in the great reluctance with which many of +those whose names added lustre to the Society expressed their +opinions, and the little firmness with which they maintained +their objections. How many times have those whose activity was +additionally stimulated by their interest, proposed measures +which a few words might have checked; whilst the names of those +whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be matured, +were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, +as having sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a +job. + +Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such +forbearance, when the subject has been debated in the Council, +more than one, more than two instances are known, where +subsequent circumstances have occurred, which proved, with the +most irresistible moral evidence, that members have spoken on one +side of the question, and have voted on the contrary. + +This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too +extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the +Royal Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and +retiring disposition, which frequently marks the man of real +knowledge, as strongly as an officious interference and flippant +manner do the charlatan, or the trader in science. Some portion +of it is due to that improper deference which was long paid to +every dictum of the President, and much of it to that natural +indisposition to take trouble on any point in which a man's own +interest is not immediately concerned. It is to be hoped, for +the credit of that learned body, that no anticipation of the next +feast of St. Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their +disposition. [It may be necessary to inform those who are not +members of the Royal Society, that this is the day on which those +Fellows who choose, meet at Somerset House, to register the names +of the Council and Officers the President has been pleased to +appoint for the ensuing year; and who afterwards dine together, +for the purpose of praising each other over wine, which, until +within these few years, was PAID for out of the FUNDS of the +Society. This abuse was attacked by an enterprising reformer, +and of course defended by the coterie. It was, however, given up +as too bad. The public may form some idea of the feeling which +prevails in the Council, when they are informed that this +practice was defended by one of the officers of the Society, on +the ground that, if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE +HIS PERCENTAGE ON THE TAVERN BILLS.] + + +SECTION 2. + +OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + +The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in +science seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great +importance who conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual +Presidents have been tried until the Society has become disgusted +with dictators. If any reform should be attempted, it might +perhaps be deserving consideration whether the practice of +several of the younger institutions might not be worthy +imitation, and the office of President be continued only during +two sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this +arrangement; but the advantages are conspicuous, both in the +Astronomical and Geological Societies. Each President is +ambitious of rendering the period of his reign remarkable for +some improvement in the Society over which he presides; and the +sacrifice of time which is made by the officers of those +Societies, would become impossible if it were required to be +continued for a much longer period. Another circumstance of +considerable importance is, that the personal character of the +President is less impressed on the Society; and, supposing any +injudicious alterations to be made, it is much less difficult to +correct them. + + +SECTION 3. + +OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS IN +THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after +by medical men, as contributing to the success of their +professional efforts, and two consequences result from it. In +the first place, the pages of the Transactions of the Royal +Society occasionally contain medical papers of very moderate +merit; and, in the second, the preponderance of the medical +interest introduces into the Society some of the jealousies of +that profession. On the other hand, medicine is intimately +connected with many sciences, and its professors are usually too +much occupied in their practice to exert themselves, except upon +great occasions. + + +SECTION 4. + +OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more +popular and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has +risen, partly from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly +from the decline of the Royal Society, to a more prominent +station than it would otherwise have occupied in the science of +England. Its general effects in diffusing knowledge among the +more educated classes of the metropolis, have been, and continue +to be, valuable. Its influence, however, in the government of +the Royal Society, is by no means attended with similar +advantages, and has justly been viewed with considerable jealousy +by many of the Fellows of that body. It may be stated, without +disparagement to the Royal Institution, that the scientific +qualifications necessary for its officers, however respectable, +are not quite of that high order which ought to be required for +those of the Royal Society, if the latter body were in a state of +vigour. + +The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to +appoint one of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the +present moment they have appointed two. In a short time, unless +some effectual check is put to this, we shall find them +nominating the President and the rest of the officers. It is +certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal Society +thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of +services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way +to put a stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare +that no manager or officer of the Royal Institution should ever, +at the same time, hold office in the Royal Society. + +The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of +their power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified +in the minutes of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be +consulted with advantage by those who doubt. + + +SECTION 5. + +OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most +foreign academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the +Society. The volumes contain merely those papers communicated to +the Society in the preceding year which the Council have selected +for printing, a meteorological register, and a notice of the +award of the annual medals, without any list of the Council and +officers of the Society, by whom that selection and that award +have been made. + +Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will +mention one point on which I am glad to he able to bestow on the +Royal Society the highest praise. I refer to the extreme +regularity with which the volumes of the Transactions are +published. The appearance of the half-volumes at intervals of +six months, insures for any communication almost immediate +publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception +and publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of +the paper was really communicated at the time it bears date. To +this may also be added, the rarity of any alterations made +previously to the printing, a circumstance which ought to be +imitated, as well as admired, by other societies. There may, +indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which the task is +more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, +however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of +rarely allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers +that are placed in their hands, the better it will be for their +own reputation, and for the interests of science. + +It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that +the first scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, +should be thus negligent in the regularity of its publications; +and it is the more to be regretted, that it should be years in +arrear, from the circumstance, that the memoirs admitted into +their collection are usually of the highest merit. I know some +of their most active members have wished it were otherwise; I +would urge them to put a stop to a practice, which, whilst it has +no advantages to recommend it, is unjust to those who contribute, +and is only calculated to produce conflicting claims, equally +injurious to science, and to the reputation of that body, whose +negligence may have given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, speaking +of a paper of Fresnel's, observes--"This memoir was read to the +Institute, 7th of October, 1816; a supplement was received, 19th +of January, 1818; M. Arago's report on it was read, 4th of June, +1821: and while every optical philosopher in Europe has been +impatiently expecting its appearance for seven years, it lies as +yet unpublished, and is only known to us by meagre notices in a +periodical journal."MR HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533. +--ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.] + +One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical +portion in the volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the +public, but our own members are almost entirely ignorant of all +its affairs. With a means of giving considerable publicity (by +the circulation of above 800 copies of the Transactions) to +whatever we wish to have made known to our members or to the +world, will it be credited, that no notice was taken in our +volume for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, nor of +the conditions under which they were to be distributed. [That +the Council refrained from having their first award of those +medals thus communicated, is rather creditable to them, and +proves that they had a becoming feeling respecting their former +errors.] That in 1828, when a new fund, called the donation fund, +was established, and through the liberality of Dr. Wollaston and +Mr. Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by them with the respective +sums of 2,000L. and 1,000L. 3 per cents; no notice of such fact +appears in our Transactions for 1829. Other gentlemen have +contributed; and if it is desirable to possess such a fund, it is +surely of importance to inform the non-attending, which is by far +the largest part of the Society, that it exists; and that we are +grateful to those by whom it has been founded and augmented. +Neither did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent +members, that they could purchase the President's Discourses at +the trade-price. + +The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal +Society is printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with +the Philosophical Transactions, to which it is intended to be +attached? I never met with a single copy of that work so +completed, not even the one in our own library. It is extremely +desirable that the Society should know the names of their +Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute to +prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, +it would also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight +one, on the distribution of the medals. When I have urged the +expediency of the practice, I have been answered by excuses, that +the list could not be made up in time for the volume. If this is +true of the first part, they might appear with the second; and +even if this were impracticable, the plan of prefixing them to +the volume of the succeeding year, would be preferable to that of +omitting them altogether. The true reason, however, appeared at +last. It was objected to the plan, that by the present +arrangement, the porter of the Royal Society took round the list +to those members resident in London, and got from some of them a +remuneration, in the shape of a Christmas-box; and this would be +lost, if the time of printing were changed. [During the printing +of this chapter, a friend, on whom I had called, complained that +the porter of the Royal Society had demanded half-a-crown for +leaving the list.] Such are the paltry interests to which those +of the Royal Society are made to bow. + +Another point on which information ought to be given in each +volume, is the conditions on which the distribution of the +Society's medals are made. It is true that these are, or ought +to be, printed with the Statutes of the Society; but that volume +is only in the hands of members, and it is for the credit of the +medals themselves, that the laws which regulate their award +should be widely known, in order that persons, not members of the +Society, might enter into competition for them. + +Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the +Society would also be interesting; a list of the names of those +whom the Society had lost, and of those members who had been +added to its ranks each year, would find a proper place in the +historical pages which ought to be given with each volume of our +Transactions. + +The want of a distinction between the working members of the +Society, and those who merely honour it with their patronage, +renders many arrangements, which would be advantageous to +science, in some cases, injudicious, and in other instances, +almost impossible. + +Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to +the Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members +are interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing +above 800 copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline +printing them altogether; whereas, if they had any means of +discrimination for distributing them, they might be quite willing +to incur the expense of printing 250. Other cases may occur, in +which great advantage would accrue, if the principle were once +admitted. Government, the Universities, public bodies, and even +individuals might, in some cases, be disposed to present to the +Royal Society a limited number of copies of their works, if they +knew that they were likely to be placed in the hands of persons +who would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional copies might, +in some cases, not be objected to on the ground of expense, when +seven or eight hundred would be quite out of the question. + +Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new +chemical process to be placed at the disposal of the Royal +Society by any public body; it will not surely be contended that +they ought all to remain on the Society's shelves. Yet, with our +present rules, that would be the case. If, however, the list of +the Members of the Society were read over to the Council, and the +names of those gentlemen known to be conversant with chemical +science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of the work +were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had +contributed most to the Transactions of the Society, they would +in all probability be placed in the fittest hands. + +Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become +extremely bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, +whether the knowledge of the many valuable papers they contain +would not be much spread, by publishing the abstracts of them +which have been read at the ordinary meetings of the Society. +Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, would contain all that has +been done in this way during the last century. + +Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of +the proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list +made out of all the statutes and orders of the Council relating +to each particular subject. + +Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had +ever been decreed on the question under consideration, would be +much better able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save +the time of the Council from being wasted by unnecessary +discussions. + + +SECTION 6. + +ORDER OF MERIT. + +Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the +institution of an order of merit has been suggested. It is +somewhat singular, that whilst in most of the other kingdoms of +Europe, such orders exist for the purpose of rewarding, by +honorary distinctions, the improvers of the arts of life, or +successful discoverers in science, nothing of the kind has been +established in England. [At the great meeting of the +philosophers at Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in +the Appendix; the respect in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and +Humboldt were held in their respective countries was apparent in +the orders bestowed on them by the Sovereigns of Sweden, of +Denmark, of Hanover, and of Prussia; and there were present many +other philosophers, whose decorations sufficiently attested the +respect in which science was held in the countries from which +they came.] + +Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military +distinction. It has been urged, as an argument for such +institutions, that they are a cheap mode of rewarding science, +whilst, on the other hand, it has been objected, that they would +diminish the value of such honorary distinctions by making them +common. The latter objection is of little weight, because the +numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, will long +continue so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting the +number of the order or of the class, if it were to form a +peculiar class of another order. Another objection, however, +appears to me to possess far greater weight; and, however strong +the disposition of the Government might be (if such an order +existed) to fill it properly, I do not believe that, in the +present state of public opinion respecting science, it could be +done, and, in all probability, it would be filled up through the +channels of patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + +Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one +which it may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but +which would be considered so in no other country. It is, to +ennoble some of the greatest scientific benefactors of their +country. Not to mention political causes, the ranks of the +nobility are constantly recruited from the army, the navy, and +the bar; why should not the family of that man, whose name is +imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be enrolled amongst +the nobility of his country? In utility and profit, not merely +to that country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly +claim comparison even with the most splendid of those achieved by +classes so rich in glorious recollections. An objection, in most +cases fatal to such a course, arises from the impolicy of +conferring a title, unless a considerable fortune exists to +support it; a circumstance very rarely occurring to the +philosopher. It might in some measure be removed, by creating +such titles only for life. But here, again, until there existed +some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and a sound +state of public opinion relative to science, the execution of the +plan could only be injurious. + + +SECTION 7. + +OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + +This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to +considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific +societies could unite in the occupation of one large building, +considerable economy would result from the union. By properly +arranging their evenings of meeting, one meeting-room only need +be required. The libraries might either be united, or arranged +in adjoining rooms; and such a system would greatly facilitate +the inquiries of scientific persons. + +Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different +societies to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but +although, on some accounts, desirable, that event is not +necessary for the purpose of their having a common residence. + +The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be +the first to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper +interchange of diplomas, [A thing well understood by the +INITIATED, both at HOME and ABROAD.] the two societies might be +inoculated with each other. But even here some tact would be +required; the Medico-Botanical is a little particular about the +purity of its written documents, and lately attributed blame to +one of its officers for some slight tampering with them, a degree +of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society are far +from imitating. + +The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings +of resentment to the parent institution for their early +persecution; and though they have no inducement to seek, would +scarcely refuse any union which might be generally advantageous +to science. + + + +CONCLUSION. + +In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has +so recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly +be excused if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of +Wollaston and of Davy. Until the warm feelings of surviving +kindred and admiring friends shall be cold as the grave from +which remembrance vainly recalls their cherished forms, invested +with all the life and energy of recent existence, the volumes of +their biography must be sealed. Their contemporaries can expect +only to read their eloge. + +In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished +individuals, sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously +different structure of their minds, I was yet not on such terms +even with him I most esteemed, as to view his great qualities +through that medium which is rarely penetrated by the eyes of +long and very intimate friendship. + +Caution and precision were the predominant features of the +character of Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the +number of principles, would perhaps justly trace the precision +which adorned his philosophical, to the extreme caution which +pervaded his moral character. It may indeed be questioned whether +the latter quality will not in all persons of great abilities +produce the former. + +Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of +Davy, and with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the +remotest conclusions to which a theory led him. He seemed to +think invention a more common attribute than it really is, and +hastened, as soon as he was in possession of a new fact or a new +principle, to communicate it to the world, doubtful perhaps lest +he might not be anticipated; but, confident in his own powers, he +was content to give to others a chance of reaping some part of +that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must still +fall to his own share. + +Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the +rarity of the inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of +being anticipated, when he had contrived a new instrument, or +detected a new principle, he brought all the information that he +could collect from others, or which arose from his own +reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he delivered it to +the world. + +The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the +plain and distinct line which separated what he knew from what he +did not know; and this again, arising from his precision, might +be traced to caution. + +It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few +except himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from +vanity and affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a +peculiarity of manner in the mode in which he communicated +information to those who sought it from him, which was to many +extremely disagreeable. He usually, by a few questions, +ascertained precisely how much the inquirer knew upon the +subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance commenced, a +process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking up +the subject at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly +explain it. + +His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years +since, when I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship +of mathematics, I applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he +declined it, on the ground of its not being his pursuit. I told +him I asked it, because I thought it would have weight, to which +he replied, that it ought to have none whatever. There is no +doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the state of +ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several +times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians +of the age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] +But in this as in all other points, the precision with which he +comprehended and retained all he had ever learned, especially of +the elementary applications of mathematics to physics, was such, +that he possessed greater command over those subjects than many +of far more extensive knowledge. + +In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant +principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw +that it was the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston +never could have been a poet; Davy might have been a great one. + +A question which I put, successively, to each of these +distinguished philosophers, will show how very differently a +subject may be viewed by minds even of the highest order. + +About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the +compression of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means +he had brought to bear on the subject, and was speculating on +other applications of it, which I will presently mention. + +Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I +proposed this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of +oxygen are mixed together in a vessel, and if by mechanical +pressure they can be so condensed as to become of the same +specific gravity as water, will the gases under these +circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think they will +do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they +would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then +inquired whether he thought the experiment worth making. He +answered, that he did not, for that he should think it would +certainly not succeed. + +A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry +Davy. He at once said, "they will become water, of course;" and +on my inquiring whether he thought the experiment worth making, +he observed that it was a good experiment, but one which it was +hardly necessary to make, as it must succeed. + +These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly +fair to have recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent +talent: and it adds to the curiosity of the circumstance to +mention, that I believe Dr. Wollaston's reason for supposing no +union would take place, arose from the nature of the electrical +relations of the two gases remaining unchanged, an objection +which did not weigh with the philosopher whose discoveries had +given birth to it. + +[The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, +to be of the highest importance; and I will shortly state the +views with which it was connected. The next great discovery in +chemistry to definite proportions, will be to find means of +forming all the simple unions of one atom with one, with two, or +with more of say other substance: and it occurred to me that the +gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of success; and that +if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one substance +with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the +mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would +possess which resulted from their union, then either that such +union would actually take place, or the particles of the two +substances would be most favourably situated for the action of +caloric, electricity, or other causes, to produce the +combination. It would indeed seem to follow, that if combination +should take place under such circumstances, then the most +probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should be +that which furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but +until the experiments are made, it is by no means certain that +other combinations might not be produced.] + +The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by +Dr. Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of +all those who have had the good fortune to witness his +experiments; and the methods he employed deserve to be much more +widely known. + +It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It +has been adduced as one of those facts which prove the +extraordinary acuteness of the bodily senses of the individual, +--a circumstance which, if it were true, would add but little to +his philosophical character; I am, however, inclined to view it +in a far different light, and to see in it one of the natural +results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + +During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute +experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any +remarkable difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, +either of his hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from +those of other persons who possessed them in a good degree. +[This was at Mr. South's observatory, and the object was, the +dots on the declination circle of his equatorial; but, in this +instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to TEACH ME HOW TO SEE +THEM.] + +He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible +to his, and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful +experiments he made relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, +he never produced a tone which was unheard by mine, although +sensible to his ear; and I believe this will be found to have +been the case by most of those whose minds had been much +accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed their +faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + +It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such +inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he +could command, and the minute precision with which he examined +every object. A striking illustration of the fact that an object +is frequently not seen, FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather +than from any defect in the organ of vision, occurred to me some +years since, when on a visit at Slough. Conversing with Mr. +Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar spectrum by +Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my +replying in the negative, and expressing a great desire to see +them, he mentioned the extreme difficulty he had had, even with +Fraunhofer's description in his hand and the long time which it +had cost him in detecting them. My friend then added, "I will +prepare the apparatus, and put you in such a position that they +shall be visible, and yet you shall look for them and not find +them: after which, while you remain in the same position, I will +instruct you how to see them, and you shall see them, and not +merely wonder you did not see them before, but you shall find it +impossible to look at the spectrum without seeing them." + +On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous +warning, I did not see them; and after some time I inquired how +they might be seen, when the prediction of Mr. Herschel was +completely fulfilled. + +It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston +applied with such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary +cases of precipitation the cloudiness is visible in a single drop +as well as in a gallon of a solution; and in those cases where +the cloudiness is so slight, as to require a mass of fluid to +render it visible, previous evaporation, quickly performed on +slips of window glass, rendered the solution more concentrated. + +The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness +and the extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it +may, in hands like those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but +not for measure. I have thought it more necessary to place this +subject on what I consider its true grounds, for two reasons. In +the first place, I feel that injustice has been done to a +distinguished philosopher in attributing to some of his bodily +senses that excellence which I think is proved to have depended +on the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. And, in +the next place, if I have established the fact, whilst it affords +us better means of judging of such observations as lay claim to +an accuracy "MORE THAN HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient +inquirer into truth, a path by which he may acquire powers that +he would otherwise have thought were only the gift of nature to a +favoured few. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 1. + +In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of +science at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able +to state, that its influence has been most beneficial, and that +the annual meeting to be held in 1831, will take place at Vienna, +the Emperor of Austria having expressed a wish that every +facility which his capital affords should be given to promote its +objects. + +It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been +considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become +convinced of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that +every one of the numerous members of the Society will show, by +his conduct, that the paths of science are less likely than any +others to interfere with those of politics. + + +ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE +18TH OF SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, +APRIL, 1829. + +The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural +sciences meeting annually at some great capital, or some central +town of Europe, is a circumstance almost unknown to us, and +deserving of our attention, from the important advantages which +may arise from it. + +About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for +an annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of +medicine and botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, +took place at Leipsic, in 1822, and it was successively held at +Halle, Wurtzburg, Frankfort on the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and +Berlin. All those who had printed a certain number of sheets of +their inquiries on these subjects were considered members of this +academy. + +The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the +communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon +induced an extension of the plan, and other departments of +natural knowledge were admitted, until, at the last meeting, the +cultivators even of pure mathematics were found amongst the ranks +of this academy. + +Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution +of the academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the +last meeting, which took place at Berlin in the middle of +September of the last year. + +The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely +surpassed by any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its +savans. + +The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has +made knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of +the Prussians previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe +were freed, have impressed on them so strongly the lesson that +"knowledge is power," that its effects are visible in every +department of the government; and there is no country in Europe +in which talents and genius so surely open for their possessors +the road to wealth and distinction. + +Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the +numbers of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, +which is annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de +Humboldt. The universality of his acquirements, which have left +no branch within the wide range of science indifferent or +unexplored, has connected him by friendship with almost all the +most celebrated philosophers of the age; whilst the polished +amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of acquiring and +of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes his +mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for +them the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, +and the advantage of being made known to all those who are +interested or occupied in similar inquiries. + +Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as +secretary of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, +and most ably seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + +These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at +Berlin, undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary +for the accommodation of the meeting. + +On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin +377 members of the academy, whose names and residences (in +Berlin) were printed in a small pamphlet, and to each name was +attached a number, to indicate his seat in the great concert +room, in which the morning meetings took place. Each member was +also provided with an engraved card of the hall of meeting, on +which the numbers of the seats were printed in black ink, and his +own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every person +immediately found his own place, and knew where to look for any +friend whom he might wish to find. + +At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members +being assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by +an assemblage of a large part of the rank and beauty of the +capital, and the side-boxes being occupied by several branches of +the royal family, and by the foreign ambassadors, the session of +the academy was opened by the eloquent address of the president. + +SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists +and Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828. +- By ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + +Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am +permitted to open this meeting, the first duty which I have to +discharge is one of gratitude. The distinction which has been +conferred on him who has never yet been able to attend your +excellent society, is not the reward of scientific efforts, or of +feeble and persevering attempts to discover new phenomena, or to +draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored depths of nature. +A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to me. You have +assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, and in a +distant quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same cause +with yourselves, I was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have +likewise greeted my return home, that, by the sacred tie of +gratitude, you might bind me still longer and closer to our +common country. + +What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present +more agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive +to-day for the first time within our walls; from the banks of the +Neckar, the birth-place of Kepler and of Schiller, to the +remotest border of the Baltic plains; from hence to the mouths of +the Rhine, where, under the beneficent influence of commerce, the +treasuries of exotic nature have for centuries been collected and +investigated, the friends of nature, inspired with the same zeal, +and, urged by the same passion, flock together to this assembly. +Everywhere, where the German language is used, and its peculiar +structure affects the spirit and disposition of the people. From +the Great European Alps, to the other side of the Weichsel, +where, in the country of Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed +splendour; everywhere in the extensive dominions of the German +nation we attempt to discover the secret operations of nature, +whether in the heavens, or in the deepest problems of mechanics, +or in the interior of the earth, or in the finely woven tissues +of organic structure. + +Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased +in interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of +religion or form of government can occasion is here annulled. +Germany manifests itself as it were in its intellectual unity; +and since knowledge of truth and performance of duty are the +highest object of morality, that feeling of unity weakens none of +the bonds which the religion, constitution, and laws of our +country, have rendered dear to each of us. Even this emulation in +mental struggles has called forth (as the glorious history of our +country tells us,) the fairest blossoms of humanity, science, and +art. + +The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since +its last meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, +has, through the flattering interest of neighbouring states and +academies, shone with peculiar lustre. Allied nations have +renewed the ancient alliance between Germany and the ancient +Scandinavian North. + +Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it +unexpectedly increases the mass of facts and opinions which are +here brought into one common and useful union. It also recalls +lofty recollections into the mind of the naturalist. Scarcely +half a century has elapsed since Linne appears, in the boldness +of the undertakings which he has attempted and accomplished, as +one of the greatest men of the last century. His glory, however +bright, has not rendered Europe blind to the merits of Scheele +and Bergman. The catalogue of these great names is not completed; +but lest I shall offend noble modesty, I dare not speak of the +light which is still flowing in richest profusion from the North, +nor mention the discoveries in the chemical nature of substances, +in the numerical relation of their elements, or the eddying +streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The philosophers here +referred to are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those excellent +persons, who, deterred neither by perils of sea or land, have +hastened to our meeting from Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, +England, and Poland, point our the way to other strangers in +succeeding years, so that by turns every part of Germany may +enjoy the effects of scientific communication with the different +nations of Europe. + +But although I must restrain the expression of my personal +feelings in presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at +least to name the patriarchs of our national glory, who are +detained from us by a regard for those lives so dear to their +country;--Goethe, whom the great creations of poetical fancy have +not prevented from penetrating the ARCANA of nature, and who now +in rural solitude mourns for his princely friend, as Germany for +one of her greatest ornaments;--Olbers, who has discovered two +bodies where he had already predicted they were to be found;--the +greatest anatomists of our age--Soemmering, who, with equal zeal, +has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and the spots +and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the +photosphere;) Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, +who, by his works and his immortal eloquence, has inspired +everywhere a love of comparative anatomy, physiology, and the +general history of nature, and who has laboured diligently for +half a century. How could I resist the temptation to adorn my +discourse with names which posterity will repeat, as we are not +favoured with their presence? + +These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, +and the progressive developement of our institution, lead us +naturally to the obstructions which will arise from the +increasing number of our fellow-labourers, The chief object of +this assembly does not consist, as in other societies whose +sphere is more limited, in the mutual interchange of treatises, +or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be printed in some general +collection. The principal object of this Society is, to bring +those personally together who are engaged in the same field of +science. It is the immediate, and therefore more obvious +interchange of ideas, whether they present themselves as facts, +opinions, or doubts. It is the foundation of friendly connexion +which throws light on science, adds cheerfulness to life, and +gives patience and amenity to the manners. + +In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction +between words and writing first manifested itself most strongly +amongst a race, which had raised itself to the most splendid +intellectual superiority, and to whose latest descendants, as +preserved from the shipwreck of nations, we still consecrate our +most anxious wishes. It was not the difficulty of interchange of +ideas alone, nor the want of German science, which has spread +thought as on wings through the world, and insured it a long +continuance, that then induced the friends of philosophy and +natural history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander on long +journeys. That ancient race knew the inspiring influence of +conversation as it extemporaneously, freely, and prudently +penetrates the tissue of scientific opinions and doubts. The +discovery of the truth without difference of opinion is +unattainable, because the truth, in its greatest extent, can +never be recognized by all, and at the same time. Each step, +which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his object, +only carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of +doubt does not diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over +other and new fields; and whoever has called that a golden +period, when difference of opinions, or, as some are accustomed +to express it, the disputes of the learned, will be finished, has +as imperfect a conception of the wants of science, and of its +continued advancement, as a person who expects that the same +opinions in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, will be +maintained for several centuries. + +The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of +nature, have combined in the completest manner, all the branches +of physical knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and +experimental philosophy. The names of natural historian and +natural philosopher are here, therefore, nearly synonimous, +chained by a terrestrial link to the type of the lower animals. +Man completes the scale of higher organization. In his +physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to +us a distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this +exalted object of physical study, and has raised him to general +scientific investigation, belongs principally to this society. +Important as it is not to break that link which embraces equally +the investigation of organic and inorganic nature, still the +increasing ties and daily developement of this institution +renders it necessary, besides the general meeting which is +destined for these halls, to have specific meetings for single +branches of science. For it is only in such contracted circles, +--it is only among men whom reciprocity of studies has brought +together, that verbal discussions can take place. Without this +sort of communication, would the voluntary association of men in +search of truth be deprived of an inspiring principle. + +Among the preparations which are made in this city for the +advancement of the society, attention has been principally paid +to the possibility of such a subdivision into sections. The hope +that these preparations will meet with your approbation, imposes +upon me the duty of reminding you, that, although you had +entrusted to two travellers, equally, the duty of making these +arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble friend, M. +Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and +indefatigable activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific +spirit which animates the Society of German Naturalists and +Natural Philosophy, and in acknowledgment of the utility of their +efforts, government have seconded all our wishes with the +greatest cheerfulness. + +In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner +been prepared for our general and special labours, are situated +the museums dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and +geology. They exhibit to the naturalist a rich mine for +observation and critical discussion. The greater number of these +well-arranged collections have existed, like the University of +Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to which the +Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have +during this period not only been increased, but entirely +remodelled. The amusement and instruction derived from such +institutions, call to our minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, +that they are the work of that great monarch, who modestly and in +simple grandeur, adorns every year this royal city with new +treasures of nature and art; and what is of still greater value +than the treasures themselves,--what inspires every Prussian with +youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the ancient +reigning family,--that he graciously attaches to himself every +species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal +protection to the free cultivation of the understanding. + +This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; +and several other memoirs were then read. + +The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 +members were present,) rendered it convenient to have some +ordinary, at which those who chose might dine, and introduce +their friends or families. This had been foreseen, and his +Majesty had condescended to allow the immense building used for +the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this purpose. +One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were +arranged, at which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to +dinner. On the evening of the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a +large SOIREE in the concert rooms attached to the theatre. About +1200 persons assembled on this occasion, and his Majesty the King +of Prussia honoured with his presence the fete of his illustrious +chamberlain. The nobility of the country, foreign princes, and +foreign ambassadors, were present. It was gratifying to observe +the princes of the blood mingling with the cultivators of +science, and to see the heir-apparent to the throne, during the +course of the evening, engaged in conversation with those most +celebrated for their talents, of his own, or of other countries. + +Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the +consideration of the President. The words of the music selected +for the concert, were printed and distributed to the visitors. +The names of the most illustrious philosophers which Germany had +produced, were inscribed in letters of gold at the end of the +great concert room. + +In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, +enrolls amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and +proud, as well she may be, of having fostered and brought to +maturity the genius of the first Herschel, she has reaped an +ample reward in being able to claim as entirely her own, the +inheritor of his talents and his name. + +The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a +meeting of the academy, at which papers of general interest were +read. In the afternoon, through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt +and M. Lichtenstein, various rooms were appropriated for +different sections of the academy. In one, the chemical +philosophers attended to some chemical memoir, whilst the +botanists assembled in another room, the physiologists in a +third, and the natural philosophers in a fourth. Each attended to +the reading of papers connected with their several sciences. Thus +every member was at liberty to choose that section in which he +felt most interest at the moment, and he had at all times power +of access to the others. The evenings were generally spent at +some of the SOIREES of the savans, resident at Berlin, whose +hospitality and attentions to their learned brethren of other +countries were unbounded. During the unoccupied hours of the +morning, the collections of natural history, which are rapidly +rising into importance, were open to examination; and the various +professors and directors who assisted the stranger in his +inquiries, left him equally gratified by the knowledge and +urbanity of those who so kindly aided him. + +A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared +which had sent representatives to this scientific congress; and +the numbers sent by different kingdoms appeared by the following +table, which was attached to it;-- +Russia. . . . . . . . . 1 +Austria . . . . . . . . 0 +England . . . . . . . . 1 +Holland . . . . . . . . 2 +Denmark . . . . . . . . 7 +France . . . . . . . . 1 +Sardinia . . . . . . . 0 +Prussia . . . . . . . . 95 +Bavaria . . . . . . . . 12 +Hanover . . . . . . . . 5 +Saxony . . . . . . . . 21 +Wirtemburg . . . . . . 2 +Sweden . . . . . . . . 13 +Naples . . . . . . . . 1 +Poland . . . . . . . . 3 +German States . . . . . 43 + --- + 206 +Berlin . . . . . . . 172 + --- + 378 + +The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences +appeared, was not easy to ascertain, because there were few +amongst the more eminent who had not added to more than one +branch of human knowledge. The following table, though not +professing to be very accurate, will afford, perhaps, a tolerably +fair view:-- + +Geometers . . . . . . . 11 +Astronomers . . . . . . 5 +Natural Philosophers . 23 + -- 39 + +Mines . . . . . . . . . 5 +Mineralogy . . . . . . 16 +Geology . . . . . . . . 9 + -- 30 + +Chemistry . . . . . . . . . 18 +Geography . . . . . . . . . 8 +Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . 12 + +Zoology . . . . . . . . 14 +Natural History . . . . 8 +Botany . . . . . . . . . 35 + -- 57 + +Physicians . . . . . . . 175 +Amateurs . . . . . . . 9 +Various . . . . . . . . 35 + --- + 381 + +A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was +proposed that it should form the first of a series, which should +comprise all those persons most celebrated for their scientific +discoveries in the past and present age. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 2. + +An examination into some charges brought against one of the +twenty-four candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names +suspended in the meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, +has caused a printed pamphlet to be circulated amongst the +members of the Society. Of the charges themselves I shall offer +no opinion, but entreat every member to judge for himself. I +shall, however, make one extract, which tends to show how the +ranks of the Society are recruited. + +EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, +ESQ. DATED, 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + +"When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you +asked me why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; +and my answer was, that it was an honour to which I did not think +I could aspire; that my talents were too insignificant to warrant +such pretensions. Many days passed, and still you pressed me on +the subject, because your partiality made you think me deserving +of the honour; but I resisted, really through modesty, not that I +did not covet the distinction, until something was said of my +paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, which was published +some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal Society; when you +insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, because I +was and am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if I +can be supposed worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + +EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. +DATED, BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + +"All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for +admission into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I +pressed the subject upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, +were it necessary." + +Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of +the Royal Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its +Secretaries, pressing one of his friends to become, and actually +insisting on proposing him as, a Fellow of the Royal Society, He +must have been well aware of the feelings which prevail amongst +the Council as to the propriety of such a step, and by publishing +the fact, seems quite satisfied that such a course is +advantageous to the interests of the Society. That similar +applications were not unfrequently made in private, is well +known; but it remains for the Society to consider whether, now +they are publicly and officially announced to them, it will +sanction this mode of augmenting the already numerous list of its +fellows. + + +APPENDIX, No. 3, + +LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO +THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + + +N. B.--The Numbers are made up to the present year for the +Papers, but only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + +No. of No. of +Papers years on +printed Council. +in Phil. +Trans. +-------- ------- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. +109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. + +I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom +the Royal Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, +and the reasons for which they were given; but having applied to +the Council for permission to employ an amanuensis, to copy those +awards, either from the minutes, or from the volumes of the +Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised at receiving a +refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, those +adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety of +many individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had +a different opinion, and as I had made the application through +courtesy, I shall decline printing a list, every individual +portion of which has been already published in many ways, +although the whole has never been printed in a collected form. + + + + + +End of this Project Gutenberg Etext of Charles Babbage's +Reflections on the Decline of Science in England. + diff --git a/old/old/dosie10.zip b/old/old/dosie10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d55927 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old/dosie10.zip |