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diff --git a/1216-h/1216-h.htm b/1216-h/1216-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4379c94 --- /dev/null +++ b/1216-h/1216-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6274 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1216 ***</div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, <br /> AND ON SOME OF ITS + CAUSES. + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Charles Babbage + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DEDICATION. + </h2> + <p> + HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO A + NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE + SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE MIGHT + HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, PERHAPS TOO + SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING THE NAME OF ONE + WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND RESPECT. + </p> + <p> + C. BABBAGE. + </p> + <p> + DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little to + say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service to + science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so thankless + a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion in which I + concur with several of my friends, although I should hope that what I have + written will not give just reason for the permanence of such feelings. On + one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected in any degree with + the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; the causes which + have led to it have been long operating, and would have produced this + result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and whatever might + have been the fate of my speculations. + </p> + <p> + If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these + pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself, I + think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and + declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is shared + by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I shall + offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered position, + are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, when combined + with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will be admitted to + deserve considerable attention. The following extract from the article + Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from the pen of a + gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and from his + acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled to respect. + Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be permitted to cite him + as high authority for the fact. + </p> + <p> + "In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of + Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret, + which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the space + of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do, the + electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers, we + still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree of + neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this + period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; + and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical + discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are we + sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are amongst + our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius, Guy-Lussac, + Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the doctrine of + definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic Theory. Is it a + representation of the laws of nature, or is it not?"—-CHEMISTRY, + ENCYC. METROP. p.596. + </p> + <p> + When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were + informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the + same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the + language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be + allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the + writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some + of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may infer + his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his last + work:— + </p> + <p> + "—But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for philosophers."——"There + are very few persons who pursue science with true dignity; it is followed + more as connected with objects of profit than those of fame."—SIR H. + DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL. + </p> + <p> + The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the varied + acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into which he + enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and in our + article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this ONLY + opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most + admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific + matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and + quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS + pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has + sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which abound in + it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical collections; + and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long suppression of + those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future volumes of that of + the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts of them which from time + to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the hands of the authors, or + from the reports rendered by the committees appointed to examine them; + which latter, indeed, are universally models of their kind, and have + contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the high scientific tone of + the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but will write his best, when he + knows that his work, if it have merit, will immediately be reported on by + a committee, who will enter into all its meaning; understand it, however + profound: and, not content with MERELY understanding it, pursue the trains + of thought to which it leads; place its discoveries and principles in new + and unexpected lights; and bring the whole of their knowledge of + collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor ought we to omit our + acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of Poggendorff and + Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic compeer, they + present a picture of the actual progress of physical science throughout + Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to see with what celerity + every thing, even moderately valuable in the scientific publications of + this country, finds its way into their pages. This ought to encourage our + men of science. They have a larger audience, and a wider sympathy than + they are perhaps aware of; and however disheartening the general diffusion + of smatterings of a number of subjects, and the almost equally general + indifference to profound knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may + be, they may rest assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good + experiment they may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and + commented upon, in Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the + obligation were mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are + unstudied, and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to + conceal the melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics + we have long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In + chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the + Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who + among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated acids,—Oersted's + and Berzelius's on the radicals of the earths,—Balard's and + Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,—and a hundred other + splendid trains of research in that fascinating science? Nor need we stop + here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not furnish matter for + similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and deep-seated; but this + is not the place to discuss them."—MR. HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON SOUND, + printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA. + </p> + <p> + With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of + the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some of + its causes, must be left to others to decide. + </p> + <p> + Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific + bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished upon + some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and Pamphlets, + have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has been cast upon + some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be established by + testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it can be proved, by + evidence to which the public have access, it is of no consequence (for the + cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of opinion derives weight from + the name which is attached to it; but a chain of reasoning is equally + conclusive, whoever may be its author. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be + avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured, + and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of + frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the + lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue + that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who + fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those + whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest + scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the + philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he may + think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections, from + the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was the author + of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered amongst the + most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be credited, from + the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with one of those + subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. [I merely observed + that the agreement made with the British Museum for exchanging the Arundel + MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been stated by the President,) + was UNWISE;—because it was not to be expected that many duplicates + should be found in a library like that of the Museum, weak in the physical + and mathematical sciences: that it was IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;—because + it neither fixed the TIME when the difference was to be paid, in case + their duplicates should be insufficient; nor did it appear that there were + any FUNDS out of which the money could be procured: and I added, that it + would be more advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we + wanted with the produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world + of science, my character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being + the subject of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of + correcting it, I will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it + more candid to mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have + disapproved, or whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader + inferences which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I + hope, therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so + unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described + individuals. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set up + to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a few + words will suffice. + </p> + <p> + I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the + injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There + is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine. The + public character of every public servant is legitimate subject of + discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly + canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from + such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for they + know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid from + the public purse. + </p> + <p> + The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and + to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose + appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the + merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they + are paid to perform. + </p> + <p> + This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of + State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal + Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure different. + But the President of a society, although not recompensed by any pecuniary + remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which he presides + possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who will esteem + themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the office, by the + consequence attached to it in public estimation. He, therefore, is + answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + </p> + <p> + There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other officers, + have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a train of + clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them. Science is + much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious labours the + routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be unwise, as well as + ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies, or even of the + negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes should justify such + a course. + </p> + <p> + Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry in + its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our + scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope, + temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms + of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those from + whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together all the + causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different departments, + endeavour to convince them that some alteration is essentially necessary + for the promotion of that very object which we both by such different + roads pursue. + </p> + <p> + I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the + departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been wholly + the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with justice, + in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the famous + maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of female + weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of those who + are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion. But, whoever + would claim the admiration of mankind for their good actions, must prove + his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil deeds. Adopt the + maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from its universality; + and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto deemed. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the + Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that + attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services, and + partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to science + in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited to take + steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having published + extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the permission of its + Council. To have asked permission of the present Council would have been + useless. I might, however, have given the substance of what I have + extracted without the words, and no one could then have reproached me with + any infringement of our rules: but there were two objections to that + course. In the first place, it is impossible, even for the most candid, in + all cases, to convey precisely the same sentiment in different language; + and I thought it therefore more fair towards those from whom I differed, + as well as to the public, to give the precise words. Again: had it been + possible to make so accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the + risk of incurring the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to + escaping their censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own + head; and I shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + </p> + <p> + If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse me + of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which + governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the + justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted with + the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their approbation, + appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need scarcely add I have + not the slightest anticipation. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> DEDICATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <b>REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN + ENGLAND</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF + SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS + TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT"> SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT2"> SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT3"> SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned + Societies. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES + IN ENGLAND. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN + PARTICULAR. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT4"> SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE + ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT5"> SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND + VICE-PRESIDENCIES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT6"> SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT7"> SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT8"> SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN + ONE PERSON. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT9"> SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT10"> SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT11"> SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT12"> SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT13"> SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT14"> SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE + OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT15"> SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE + SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT16"> SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT17"> SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT18"> SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF + SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT19"> SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE + ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT20"> SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT21"> SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF + PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT22"> SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL + INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT23"> SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL + SOCIETY. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT24"> SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_SECT25"> SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_CONC"> CONCLUSION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> APPENDIX, No. 1. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE2"> APPENDIX, No. 2. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE3"> APPENDIX, No. 3, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_LIST"> LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, <br /> AND ON SOME OF ITS + CAUSES. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + </h2> + <p> + It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable + them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of + science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect to + the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other nations, + not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior power. That a + country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical and manufacturing + ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of inquiries which form + the highest departments of that knowledge on whose more elementary truths + its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is well deserving the + attention of those who shall inquire into the causes that influence the + progress of nations. + </p> + <p> + To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest + departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present, + must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who, + having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see and + regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see through + and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these remarks, + with the hope that they may excite discussion,—with the conviction + that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,—and with the + confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can + remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of the + science of England. + </p> + <p> + The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have + resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed, that + it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall, + therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination, but + rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant + circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of it, + shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for the + advancement of British science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + </h2> + <p> + That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive + influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a + principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally certain + that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them the traces + of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore not + unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science in + England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A young + man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant almost of + the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these latter + establishments, formed originally for instructing those who are intended + for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical pursuits are + nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition. + </p> + <p> + Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen + years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there is no + one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to believe + that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted by the + warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of its + institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of no + ordinary kind. + </p> + <p> + Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought + to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I am + inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose would + not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they would + contribute materially to that important object. + </p> + <p> + It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university, + ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a + certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered + knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet + this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for + instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must + attend, other sources of information from whence the students may acquire + sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on chemistry, geology, + botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of option with the + student, which, and how many of these courses he shall attend, and such it + should still remain. All that it would be necessary to add would be, that + previously to taking his degree, each person should be examined by those + Professors, whose lectures he had attended. The pupils should then be + arranged in two classes, according to their merits, and the names included + in these classes should be printed. I would then propose that no young + man, except his name was found amongst the "List of Honours," should be + allowed to take his degree, unless he had been placed in the first class + of some one at least of the courses given by the professors. But it should + still be imperative upon the student to possess such mathematical + knowledge as we usually require. If he had attained the first rank in + several of these examinations, it is obvious that we should run no hazard + in a little relaxing the strictness of his mathematical trial. + </p> + <p> + If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and the + following subjects be taken together:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Modern History. + Laws of England. + Civil Law. + + Political Economy. + Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + + Chemistry. + Mineralogy. + Geology. + + Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. + Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. +</pre> + <p> + One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young + person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most + frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics + and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of + his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect + every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should + be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits + in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of + examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It + might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations to + the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of them + in the first or second year, if he should prefer it. + </p> + <p> + By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with our + other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to keep + pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power and our + right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the church, as + well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected with our + academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open a field of + honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive nature of our + present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition to their stock + of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of the + country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open it + for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so much for + the improvement of our system of instruction, that public opinion will not + reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our first duty to be + well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations ought only to be the + result of a most mature consideration, and of a free interchange of + sentiments on the subject, in order that we may condense upon the question + the accumulated judgment of many minds. + </p> + <p> + It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of + education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the higher + classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of Commons, + which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with science, + sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the extremely + limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps, have doubted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + </h2> + <p> + Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this + matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in + each of the respective cases to be examined. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + </h2> + <p> + A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to + advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which + they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there + are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of + society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the + jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous + situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the + other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or + resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps + of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned + professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public opinion + is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress conduct that + is injurious either to the profession or to the public. Again, the mutual + jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body is so considerable, + that although the rank and estimation which an individual holds in the + profession may be most unfairly appreciated, by taking the opinion of his + rival; yet few estimations will be found generally more correct than the + opinion of a whole profession on the merits of any one of its body. This + test is of great value to the public, and becomes the more so, in + proportion to the difficulty of the study to which the profession is + devoted. It is by availing themselves of it that men of sense and + judgment, who have occasion for the services of professional persons, are, + in a great measure, guided in their choice. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct + profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on that + ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach to + professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this + circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so difficult, + and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who have not spent + years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge of those who + pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and even that men of + sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means to distinguish + between the possessors of knowledge, in the present day, merely + elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest order. This + remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult applications + of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the energies of those + who only look to reputation in England. + </p> + <p> + As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to science, + it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the proper + fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is vacant, + it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather from among + persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other subjects, and to + whom science has been only an occasional pursuit. A certain quantity of + scientific knowledge is of course possessed by individuals in many + professions; and when added to the professional acquirements of the army, + the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, is highly meritorious: but + it is obvious that this may become, when separated from the profession, + quite insignificant as the basis of a scientific reputation. + </p> + <p> + To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of + chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of + several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of + the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have + been connected with this profession. + </p> + <p> + The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are not + often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of + considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members + hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation, + nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our + church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of + science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments. + </p> + <p> + In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out the + strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it ability, + coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot fail of + obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction to public + life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a qualification + for many situations more or less remotely connected with it, as well as + from the circumstance that several of the highest officers of the state + must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + </p> + <p> + A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and + of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which is + less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science. This is + one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in public + situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches of + scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of such + persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + </p> + <p> + But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional + avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the + overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with success + by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be well + acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task; but to + add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be the lot of + but few English philosophers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT2" id="link2H_SECT2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + </h2> + <p> + The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded + by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of new + and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds: + </p> + <p> + 1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new + invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can be. + </p> + <p> + 2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually much + larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing; and it + is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want which the + public feel for the new article. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct: there + are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very reasoning + from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into these + exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth is + entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the + application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded. A few + instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The principle of + the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth in the time of + Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to raising heavy + weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on natural + philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it may + fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr. + Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted it + into a most valuable and powerful engine.—The principle of the + convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the + pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago, + remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant + proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly pointed + out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the foundation of + a most convenient practical method of determining the length of the + pendulum.—The interval which separated the discovery, by Dr. Black, + of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application of it to the + steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the efforts of two + minds; and both were of the highest order.—The influence of + electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable value as + an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be said to + have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the same + powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by a singular + felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the copper-sheathing of + vessels. That admirably connected chain of reasoning, the truth of which + is confirmed by its very failure as a remedy, will probably at some future + day supply, by its successful application, a new proof of the position we + are endeavouring to establish. + </p> + <p> + [I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the + greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing + the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,—the preventing the corrosion of + the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an + OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the + surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine + animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the + progress of the vessel.] + </p> + <p> + Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long + intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles in + science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to surprise + us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new principles + or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those which are + necessary for their practical application. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, it + required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the mathematical + science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries by new + creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a quick + perception of the details, and of the practical applications of the + principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of mankind that + minds of this high order should lavish their powers on subjects unsuited + to their grasp. + </p> + <p> + In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths + which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most remote + from all useful application, become in the next age the bases of profound + physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by proper + simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and daily aid + to the artist and the sailor. + </p> + <p> + It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles, + the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application + likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle + of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the + expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his name + received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has deservedly + brought it into such general use. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of + invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying + principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will + always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail. + </p> + <p> + If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles + should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also important + that encouragement should be held out to the few who are capable of adding + to the number of those truths on which such applications are founded. + Unless there exist peculiar institutions for the support of such + inquirers, or unless the Government directly interfere, the contriver of a + thaumatrope may derive profit from his ingenuity, whilst he who unravels + the laws of light and vision, on which multitudes of phenomena depend, + shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already afforded + to abstract science in our different universities, by the professorships + established at them. It is not however in the power of such institutions + to create; they may foster and aid the development of genius; and, when + rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair and honourable + rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and when otherwise, + the lectures which are required from the professor are not perhaps in all + cases the best mode of employing the energies of those who are capable of + inventing. + </p> + <p> + I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the + authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of + expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece of + scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the return + of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks, "But, + because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great hinderance and + interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely exempt from the + former, and in great measure from the latter."—LIFE OF GALILEO, + p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with gratitude of Cosmo, + the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me to attach myself to him + with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with the title of Philosopher + and principal Mathematician to his Highness, without the duties of any + office to perform, but with most complete leisure; so that I can complete + my treatise on Mechanics, &c."—p.31. [Life of Galileo, published + by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a country + far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's, to be + employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these + sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable + philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose + modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend + by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in + that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal + Society of England;—had he taken part with those who vote to each + other medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make + to each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant + to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been + represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his + claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes with + the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in the + mantle of his glory.—But the philosopher may find consolation for + the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If he + was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name + connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military + renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental power, + its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his life in + drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns? + </p> + <p> + If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the age + are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The doctrines + of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of electricity,"—principles + of a high order, which have immortalized the names of their discoverers,—were + not produced by the meditations of the cloister: nor is it in the least a + reproach to those valuable institutions to mention truths like these. + Fortunate circumstances must concur, even to the greatest, to render them + eminently successful. It is not permitted to all to be born, like + Archimedes, when a science was to be created; nor, like Newton, to find + the system of the world "without form and void;" and, by disclosing + gravitation, to shed throughout that system the same irresistible radiance + as that with which the Almighty Creator had illumined its material + substance. It can happen to but few philosophers, and but at distant + intervals, to snatch a science, like Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite + combination, and binding it in the chains of number, to exalt it to rank + amongst the exact. Triumphs like these are necessarily "few and far + between;" nor can it be expected that that portion of encouragement, which + a country may think fit to bestow on science, should be adapted to meet + such instances. Too extraordinary to be frequent, they must be left, if + they are to be encouraged at all, to some direct interference of the + government. + </p> + <p> + The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would + arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:—That + class of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess + sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose + judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to science, + might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the expression of + public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it might not enjoy, + in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high character for + independence. Should these causes concur in any country, it might become + highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science to any department + of the government. This reasoning does not appear to have escaped the + penetration of those who advised the abolition of the late Board of + Longitude. + </p> + <p> + The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country to + encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not perhaps + the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto pursued + science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of complaint; they + knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for it, that it led + to little honour, and to less profit. + </p> + <p> + That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering the + science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past + administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the present + ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion, it is not + necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain long insensible + to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing science were + thought of some importance by any administration, it would be difficult in + the present state of things to do much in its favour; because, on the one + hand, the higher classes in general have not a profound knowledge of + science, and, on the other, those persons whom they have usually + consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to deserve the confidence + of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the money allotted by + government to purposes of science ought to be expended with the same + regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money in the affairs + of private life. + </p> + <p> + [Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the expense + of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical + Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the Philosophical + Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at the Royal + Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only are printed? + </p> + <p> + Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be + distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they + will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country + incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see on + what principle a similar destination could be refused for the observations + made at the Cape of Good Hope.] + </p> + <p> + To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of science + by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state a fact, + which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves + attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the + terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and new + tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the time + that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of between two + and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of those annuities being + a losing concern was long known to many; and the government appear to have + been the last to be informed on the subject. Half the interest of half + that loss, judiciously applied to the encouragement of mathematical + science, would, in a few years, have rendered utterly impossible such + expensive errors. + </p> + <p> + To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have its + weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first translation + of this celebrated work into our own language, has just arrived in England + from—America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES PROBABILITES, were + both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the reign of that + extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent in Science as + they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which trained and + rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they have conferred + upon mankind! + </p> + <p> + In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge of + science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man does + not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory, or has + added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of animated + nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have begun their + career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples are perhaps + more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful to mention a + few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who now hold, high + official stations in the governments of their respective countries. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + (5) of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador. + + (1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. + (2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. + (3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE—RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS + FOSSILES &c. &c. + (4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, + and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. + (5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the + Transactions of the Academy of Forty. + (6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809—TABULAE VENERIS, + NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810—INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A + MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other + works. +</pre> + <p> + M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the + Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of the + Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at the + German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau was + invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of + Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the King + of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in our own + country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true, more than a + century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any person suggest an + appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and he will gather from + the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the highest knowledge + conduces nothing to success, and that political power is almost the only + recommendation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT3" id="link2H_SECT3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + </h2> + <p> + There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons pursuing + science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In former + times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art of + making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary. More + recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to science, it + has been found that those who are most capable of extending human + knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of printing + their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some means should + be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the volumes of the + transactions of academies have accomplished the desired end. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. When + they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their knowledge, + it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their list. Thus a + stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science, which urges on + their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for distinction. It is + clear that this envied position will be valued in proportion to the + difficulty of its attainment, and also to the celebrity of those who enjoy + it; and whenever the standard of scientific knowledge which qualifies for + its ranks is lowered, the value of the distinction itself will be + diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of persons having no sort of + knowledge of science are admitted, it must cease to be sought after as an + object of ambition by men of science, and the class of persons to whom it + will become an object of desire will be less intellectual. + </p> + <p> + Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies of + Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the Italian + Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst the most + distinguished. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Name Number of Number + Population. Members of + Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + + 1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 + 2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. + 8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16 + 4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8 +</pre> + <p> + It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member of + the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000 persons + is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000 inhabitants + produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at these + proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin, must be + more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in England; and a + member of the Institute of France will be more than thirteen times more + rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal Society is in England. + </p> + <p> + Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other + countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking + difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the + station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several + of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps, + at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that + which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement on + science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of this + support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose + enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered. + </p> + <p> + The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended by + those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the + circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia having + acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may attribute the + great force with which that maxim is appreciated. + </p> + <p> + In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as + profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few who + do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks of + royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I shall + mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to the English + reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the Institute, + printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for 1823.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class + Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. + to the Legion of Honour. + + GrandCroix......... 3 80 + GrandOfficier..... 3 160 + Commandeur........ 4 400 + Officier.......... 17 2,000 + Chevalier......... 40 Not limited. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of Members of the Institute Total Number + decorated with of + the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + + Grand Croix....... 2 + 100 + Chevalier......... 27 + + Amongst the members of the Institute there + are,— + + Dukes................... 2 + Marquis................. 1 + Counts.................. 4 + Viscounts................ 2 + Barons.................. 14 + —23 + + Of these there are + Peers of France.......... 5 +</pre> + <p> + We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal + Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute of + France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to inquire how + many titled members there are amongst those who have contributed to its + Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and nine members who had + contributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society; amongst these were + found:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Peer........................ 1 + Baronets.................... 5 + Knights..................... 5 +</pre> + <p> + It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of + members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy, + could be attributed exclusively to science. + </p> + <p> + It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list, + were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to + have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to + mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal. + </p> + <p> + The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and + England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the + translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His + Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette + de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, + "CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to + particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term + WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality most + esteemed amongst his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France, we + shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much that I + have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which I made + several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will not be + found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing no + inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years since, + to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time in + London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me that he + had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement of science. + </p> + <p> + Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison between + the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet of paper + before him, and requested him to write down the names of six Englishmen, + in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific reputation. + Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of six Frenchmen, + best known in England for their scientific discoveries. We exchanged these + lists, and I then requested him to place against each name (as far as he + knew) the annual income of the different appointments held by that person. + In the mean time, I performed the same operation on his list, against some + names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The result of the comparison + was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for the six French SAVANS whom I + had named. Of the average amount of the sums received by the English, I + only remember that it was very much smaller. When we consider what a + command over the necessaries and luxuries of life 1200L. will give in + France, it is underrating it to say it is equal to 2000L. in this country. + </p> + <p> + Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into life, + who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself to the + abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful power, + feels that the career of science is that in which his mental faculties are + most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants. What are his + prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add colour to the + blank before him? There are no situations in the state; there is no + position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him in his laborious + path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, there are some few + chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some distant day pretend; + but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries attached are seldom + sufficient for the sole support of the individual, they are very rarely + enough for that of a family. What then can he reply to the entreaties of + his friends, to betake himself to some business in which perhaps they have + power to assist him, or to choose some profession in which his talents may + produce for him their fair reward? If he have no fortune, the choice is + taken away: he MUST give up that line of life in which his habits of + thought and his ambition qualify him to succeed eminently, and he MUST + choose the bar, or some other profession, in which, amongst so many + competitors, in spite of his great talents, he can be but moderately + successful. The loss to him is great, but to the country it is greater. We + thus, by a destructive misapplication of talent which our institutions + create, exchange a profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer. + </p> + <p> + If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and, + intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the + state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration a + sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;—if, + so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he might + have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall have won a + station high in the ranks of European science, he may a little augment his + resources by some of those few employments to which science leads;—if + he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of Longitude, for + example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may be permitted to + exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry remuneration of a + clerk, he will find that other qualifications than knowledge and a love of + science are necessary for its attainment. He will also find that the high + and independent spirit, which usually dwells in the breast of those who + are deeply versed in these pursuits, is ill adapted for such appointments; + and that even if successful, he must hear many things he disapproves, and + raise no voice AGAINST them. + </p> + <p> + Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue + abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he can + resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus + situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if they + do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for them to + deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the greatest + delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to the public? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the + division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as it + had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The want of + competition in science produced effects similar to those which the same + cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany were the first + to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal Society was too + comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their favourite subject, + and they established the Linnean Society. After many years, a new science + arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At an another and more + recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the wants of their + science, united to establish the Astronomical Society. Each of these + bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science by the parent + establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each in succession + experienced from the Royal Society the most determined opposition. + </p> + <p> + Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the promotion + of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived that nothing + could be more likely to render these young institutions permanently + successful, than discouragement and opposition at their commencement. + Finding their first attempts so eminently successful, they redoubled the + severity of their persecution, and the result was commensurate with their + exertions, and surpassed even their wildest anticipations. The + Astronomical Society became in six years known and respected throughout + Europe, not from the halo of reputation which the glory of its vigourous + youth had thrown around the weakness of its declining years; but from the + sterling merit of "its unpretending deeds, from the sympathy it claimed + and received from every practical astronomer, whose labours it relieved, + and whose calculations it lightened." + </p> + <p> + But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological and + Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition: perhaps, + indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best proof of the + wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present, the various + societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, each pursuing + its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with filial regret, the + second childhood of their common parent, and the evil councils by which + that sad event has been anticipated. + </p> + <p> + It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who + belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by many + considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The + following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives + the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. + Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. + Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. + Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. + Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. + Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. + Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. + Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. + Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. + Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. + Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. + Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. + Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. + Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. +</pre> + <p> + [* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu of + annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the + member.] + </p> + <p> + Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according to + their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a tail of + upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. per letter. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a + country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is + indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are + maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless + the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should + rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, it + is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full + PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS and + inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due degree + of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these principles. + Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page; and I regret to + add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend it; but, like all + deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone can contribute to its + cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of remonstrance or reproof + found utterance through other channels, I had gladly been silent, content + to support by my vote the reasonings of the friend of science and of the + Society. But this has not been the case, and after frustrated efforts to + introduce improvements, I shall now endeavour, by the force of plain, but + perhaps painful truths, to direct public opinion in calling for such a + reform, as shall rescue the Royal Society from contempt in our own + country, from ridicule in others. + </p> + <p> + On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the + Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the + vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science, and + has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral + discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of + these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part of + the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, and + sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, though + insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other, and + ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these + discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good sense + of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal criticisms—praise + of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and contest for victory. This + latter is, perhaps, the most important of the three, both for the + interests of the Society and of truth. With regard to the published + volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, that if members were in + the habit of communicating their papers to the Society in a more finished + state, it would be attended with several advantages; amongst others, with + that of lightening the heavy duties of the officers, which are perhaps + more laborious in this Society than in most others. To court publicity in + their accounts and proceedings, and to endeavour to represent all the + feelings of the Society in the Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, + is a recommendation not peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would + contribute to the well-being of all. + </p> + <p> + Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits, could + scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the Geological, I + shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has caused its great + success, unless it be attention to the maxims which have just been stated. + </p> + <p> + On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the + public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income is + a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for jobs, and + it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to render + embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely to + occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from the + very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and Council + are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it is still right + to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially necessary to have + men of business on the Council, as well as persons possessing extensive + knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous in such a Society than in + any other, to pay compliments, by placing gentlemen on the Council who + have not the qualifications which are requisite; a frequent change in the + members of the Council is desirable, in order to find out who are the most + regular attendants, and most qualified to conduct its business. Publicity + in its accounts and proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more + essential to the Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a + fearful omen, that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at + the last anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the + friends of science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts. + </p> + <p> + It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more than one + scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive instruction + as to their merits, by observing the success of their measures in other + societies. + </p> + <p> + The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable + works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published. + </p> + <p> + The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is now + rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat impaired. + There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration, + notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have + ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage + to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO PERSONS,—to + making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,—and to auditing the accounts + WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form altogether. + </p> + <p> + The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the public; + its pretensions were great—its assurance unbounded. It speedily + became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the + number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose + the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that + institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed to + confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific + establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, if + those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this + Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest + claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the + only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country. As + with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to render + EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains for it to + exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is capable. [* + They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is but slight + praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical botanist of our + own country, and who is admired abroad as he is respected at home. The + circumstance which surprised the world was not his exit from, but his + previous entrance into that Society.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + </h2> + <p> + As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of + European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in the + opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially + involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in + detail. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT4" id="link2H_SECT4"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of a + Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of + arriving at that honour, has been as follows:— + </p> + <p> + A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he (A. + B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and + valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the + meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to be + perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however + small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on the + other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected with + science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the + members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; and, + unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being + black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the Council, + previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am not aware + that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number, which was, + at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + </p> + <p> + In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, have all + been known persons; but even in such cases a hope remains;—perseverance + will do much, and a gentleman who values so highly the distinction of + admission to the Royal Society, may try again; and even after being twice + black-balled, if he will a third time condescend to express his desire to + become a member, he may perhaps succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In + such circumstances, the odds are much in favour of the candidate + possessing great scientific claims; and the only objection that could then + reasonably be suggested, would arise from his estimating rather too highly + a distinction which had become insignificant from its unlimited extension. + </p> + <p> + It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that the + sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be ten pounds + on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this subscription is + so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men of real science from + entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on those who do so; for + very few indeed of the cultivators of science rank amongst the wealthy + classes. Several times, whilst I have been consulting books or papers at + Somerset House, persons have called to ask the Assistant-secretary the + mode of becoming a member of the Royal Society. I should conjecture, from + some of these applications, that it is not very unusual for gentlemen in + the country to order their agents in London to take measures for putting + them up at the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT5" id="link2H_SECT5"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + </h2> + <p> + Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot + precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this resolution + solve the enigma: + </p> + <p> + "It was Resolved, + </p> + <p> + "That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by far + the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching + anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly." + </p> + <p> + To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently + flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon the + rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST FIT" was + only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his supporters + indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I believe, even + at that very Council. + </p> + <p> + That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be instantly + admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with him: that he + is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed by few, except + those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted resolution. + </p> + <p> + Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he + might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round + him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits of + science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society. Instead of + himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a chairman ought + to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By the firmness of + his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate officers of the + Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying compliments to + Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he might have + maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest to allure, + or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself respected as the + powerful chief of a united republic,—that of science,—he has + grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble occupant of its desolated + kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions he might have directed, and + refused even the patronage of their names by those whose energies he might + have commanded. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and + this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office + which he had long held, and to which he wished to return. + </p> + <p> + Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board of + Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal + Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and Council. + Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he became, EX + OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy occurred, which + ought to have been filled up by the President and Council. But when this + subject was brought before them, in defiance of common sense, and the + plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had enacted that the Board + of Longitude should have the assistance of four persons belonging to the + Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow it to be filled up, on the + ground that he should not be President next year, and had made no vacancy. + </p> + <p> + Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but the + Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some LOCUM + TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure. + </p> + <p> + These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they + illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming the + dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so + circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting the + existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if such a + system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the frequency of + such arrangements. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT6" id="link2H_SECT6"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + </h2> + <p> + Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in reforming + the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard to the senior + Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more unfortunate than + the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude for a moment to his + personal character, I should say that the mild excellencies of his heart + have prevented the Royal Society from deriving the whole of that advantage + from his varied knowledge and liberal sentiments which some might perhaps + have anticipated; and many will agree with me in regretting that his + judgment has not directed a larger portion of the past deeds of the + Councils of the Royal Society. Of the junior Secretary I shall only + observe, that whilst I admit his industry, his perseverance, and his + talents, I regret to see such valuable qualities exerted at a + disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them all the success they merit in + situations more adapted for their developement. + </p> + <p> + There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to + investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of + the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already + arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the + conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in which + I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. [These + observations were written previous to the late appointment, to which I now + devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council of the Royal + Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the same + understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not to the + members of its Council. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to + consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have + military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several + peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not + absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of + science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices + in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command, + which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect + freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military chief + commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to retain the + confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as much as + possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course to win the + confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render his future + observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most full and + explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to the + professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when he + enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where the + force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits, that his + admission to the offices of science can be attended with any advantage to + it. + </p> + <p> + Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to + the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings of + men of science, when they have published their observations, are too apt + to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and to consider + that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their observations as it + is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious to science than that + such an opinion should be tolerated. The most unreserved criticism is + necessary for truth; and those suspicions respecting his own accuracy, + which every philosophical experimenter will entertain concerning his own + researches, ought never to be considered as a reproach, when they are kept + in view in examining the experiments of others. The minute circumstances + and apparently trivial causes which lend their influence towards error, + even in persons of the most candid judgment, are amongst the most curious + phenomena of the human mind. + </p> + <p> + The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits + of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall + conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his + Observations: + </p> + <p> + "Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti sui, + de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum, deque + mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut aliis + quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex nostris + observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent + precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice + tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot + vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii. + </p> + <p> + There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own character + as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions apparently + neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention, since it is + reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the province of its + Secretaries. + </p> + <p> + The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances attending + the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume of Astronomical + Observations which were made at the Observatory of Paramatta (New South + Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the Philosophical + Transactions for the Year 1829." + </p> + <p> + Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British + officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers + were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those + instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of the + observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their + employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet + has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions, + omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any part + of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable observations + to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Brisbane; + whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him to found, at his + own private expense, an establishment which it has been creditable to the + British Government to continue as a national institution. Had any kindred + feelings existed in the Council, instead of endeavouring to shift the + responsibility, they would have hastened to rectify an omission, less + unjust to the individual than it was injurious to English science. + </p> + <p> + Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity of + the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been publicly + stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes of the + Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry has been + asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true statement + of what actually passed at the Council. + </p> + <p> + The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to verify + by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall state + them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon them. In + the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find— + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon the + Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons, amongst + whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was absent + from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction, until he + saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had taken place. That + his name was the one substituted for that of Captain Beaufort I know, from + other evidence which need not be produced here, as the omission of the + latter name is the charge that has been made.], and that of Captain + Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy himself that this is not + a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in copying, by consulting the + rough minutes of that meeting of the Council, which it might perhaps be as + well to write in a rough minute-book, instead of upon loose sheets of + paper; nor can it be attributed to any error arising from accidentally + mislaying the real minutes, for in that case the error would have been + rectified immediately it was detected; and this has remained uncorrected, + although publicly spoken of for months. As there is no erasure in the + list, one is reluctantly compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of + that meeting have been destroyed.]] + </p> + <p> + Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on the + morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on the + evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on the + house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of his + profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President, + declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + </p> + <p> + Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution of + the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but in order + to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other information is + necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the Society, that the + President should not absolutely name his own Council, but that the subject + should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous to the Anniversary—this + has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and those who support him. Now, it + has been stated, that, at the meeting of the Council on the 26th of + November, the President took out of his pocket a bit of paper, from which + he read the names of several persons as fit to be on the Council for the + ensuing year;—that it was not understood that any motion was made, + and it is certain that none was seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such + an important question; and it was a matter of considerable surprise to + some of those present, to discover afterwards that it was entered on the + minutes as a resolution. This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and + I believe it to be substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was + dictated, not discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar + resolution stands on the council-books for any previous year. + </p> + <p> + On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of the + letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it omitted? + If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been no necessity + for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter, a resolution + would naturally have followed, recommending another name instead of the + one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but this would have + exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage it. If the rough + minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over before it separated, + and were copied previously to the next meeting, such a substitution could + hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this is not the case, and the + delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the minutes of the three + Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and on March 11, were not + entered on the minute-books of the Council on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor + was this the fault of the Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the + rough minutes of no one of those Councils had been transmitted to him. + </p> + <p> + Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an + occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be + ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed + the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of this + suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of estimating + the confidence due to the whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT7" id="link2H_SECT7"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + </h2> + <p> + Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, that its + Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the Admiralty + determined to render that body completely subservient to them, or whether + both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has been for years + its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal Society is in + public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for this last insult. In + order to inform the public and the Society, (for I believe the fact is + known to few of the members,) it will be necessary to trace the history of + those circumstances which led to the institution of the offices of + Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of the late Board of + Longitude. + </p> + <p> + That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which established + it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no knowledge of the + subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss—of certain + professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal, who had some + knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their attendance;—of + three honorary members of the Royal Society, who combined the + qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly, of "three other + persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were supposed to be "WELL + VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, OR NAVIGATION," and who + were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the Board. + </p> + <p> + The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other + persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at the + pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act of + parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the + Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal + Society, the copy of an Order in Council: + </p> + <p> + ADMIRALTY OFFICE, + </p> + <p> + November 1, 1828. + </p> + <p> + SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send + herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal + Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last + month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident + Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of the + Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them, + notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to + acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy Board + for the payment of the said salaries. + </p> + <p> + I am, Sir, + </p> + <p> + Your most obedient humble servant, + </p> + <p> + JOHN BARROW. AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, + </p> + <p> + 27th October, 1828. + </p> + <p> + PRESENT, + </p> + <p> + The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + </p> + <p> + Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right + Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this + instant, in the words following, viz.— + </p> + <p> + Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20, + instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude at + sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between the + Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole," three + persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, or + Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board of + Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a Superintendent + of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also appointed, with such + salaries for the execution of those services as his Majesty might, by any + Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, whereas, your Majesty was in + consequence, by your Order in Council of the 27th of May, 1828, most + graciously pleased to direct, that the three said Resident Commissioners + should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year each; and by your further Order + in Council, of the 31st October, 1818, that the Superintendent of the + Nautical Almanac should be allowed a salary of 300L., and the + Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; and, whereas, the act above + mentioned has been repealed, and the Board of Longitude abolished; and + doubts have therefore arisen, whether the said Orders in Council shall + still continue in force; and whereas it is expedient that the said + appointments be continued; We beg leave most humbly to submit to your + Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously pleased, by your Order in + Council, to direct that the said offices of Superintendent of the Nautical + Almanac, and of Superintendent of Chronometers; and also the three persons + before-mentioned as a Resident Committee, to advise with the Commissioners + for executing the Office of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of + discoveries, inventions, calculations, and other scientific subjects, be + continued, with the same duties and salaries, and under the same + regulations as heretofore; and further beg most humbly to propose, that + such three persons to form the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by + the Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from + among the Council of the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was + pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof + and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to + give the necessary directions herein accordingly. + </p> + <p> + (Signed) JAMES HILLER. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from + among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a year + each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape + the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was + made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted. + </p> + <p> + MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823. + </p> + <p> + RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords + Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal Society, + on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that inconvenience + may arise from the plan therein specified, from the circumstance of all + the members of the Council being annually elected by the Society at large; + and that body being consequently subject to continual changes from year to + year. + </p> + <p> + This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the + Admiralty: + </p> + <p> + ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + </p> + <p> + SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your + Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of the + proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the + communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his + Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their + Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President + and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the + inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their + Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific + Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were + induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to the + Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the persons + chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from the + circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members being + annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually appointed; + and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been felt during the + ten years that the Committee has been in existence, as four of the + distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have successively appointed + to this office, have continued during the whole period to be members of + the Council; and if any such difficulty or inconvenience should hereafter + arise, their Lordships will be ready to take proper measures for remedying + it. + </p> + <p> + Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and + Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had + resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board + of Longitude, to be appointed. + </p> + <p> + I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, + </p> + <p> + JOHN BARROW. + </p> + <p> + The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce much + effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff of + which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared the + bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended this + plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO THE PUBLIC + OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he delicately hints + to them their dependent situation, by observing, that the "RESIDENT + COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + </p> + <p> + The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom for + years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the Council, and + consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must first be indebted + to the President for being qualified to advise, and then to the Admiralty + for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then their Lordships, as a + "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the dependence of the Council on + the President, by making his nomination a qualification for place, and + establish a new dependence of the same Council on themselves, by giving a + hundred pounds each year to such three members of that Council as they may + select. "THE PLEDGE" they offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF + THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is, that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought + they would do for his Council. + </p> + <p> + What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this mark + of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must be + left to themselves to express. + </p> + <p> + In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society the + weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a + consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed + there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted + field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the + soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles + which pervade it are open and liberal as his own. + </p> + <p> + The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is, that + the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in any case, be + very small; and may, from several circumstances, be considerably reduced. + In a council fairly selected, to judge of the merits of the various + subjects likely to be brought under the consideration of the Society, + anatomy, chemistry, and the different branches of natural history, will + share with the numerous departments of physical science, in claiming to be + represented by persons competently skilled in those subjects. These claims + being satisfied, but few places will be left to fill up with + mathematicians, astronomers, and persons conversant with nautical + astronomy. + </p> + <p> + Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician + amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation + rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the + President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as a + mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser? + </p> + <p> + Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant + with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually be, + it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms his + Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such + situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best + qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of being + the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or + Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which + they disapprove. + </p> + <p> + Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best explained + by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals are, + notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better known + than he is willing that they should be. + </p> + <p> + Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both to + the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference to the + individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I shall now + examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never + considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the + character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have arrived + at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however, be arguments + which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must ultimately lead to + truth: but I confess that it appears to me the objections which have been + stated rest on principles of human nature, too deeply seated to be easily + removed. + </p> + <p> + That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears + from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these + appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of + the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe + the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who knew + these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any gentleman + on the Council who had accepted these situations; and, having myself the + same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be informed of the + names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although they remonstrated + against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO COGNIZANCE" of the + fact. + </p> + <p> + The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain Kater, who + were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident Commissioners + under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr. Young became one of + the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday were appointed by the + Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, who died shortly after, + I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge which qualified him for + the situation. + </p> + <p> + Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong to + that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of Parliament + point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be entertained. The + Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being the same, and + having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act; and it recites the + words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES + OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of the fitness of the gentlemen + who now hold those situations to pronounce judgment on mathematical + questions, the public will be better able to form an opinion when they + shall have communicated to the world any of their own mathematical + inquiries. Although it is the practice to consider that acceptance of + office is alone necessary to qualify a man for a statesman, a similar + doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world of science. One of these + gentlemen, who has established his reputation as a chemist, stands in the + same predicament with respect to the other two sciences. It remains then + to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which must rest on his skill in + "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"—a claim which can only be + allowed when the scientific world are set at rest respecting the + extraordinary nature of those observations contained in his work on the + Pendulum. + </p> + <p> + That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude, + excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of the + Government providing instruments and means of transport for the purpose of + these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means superior to + those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the industry with which + he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled him to bring home + multitudes of observations from situations rarely visited with such + instruments, and for such purposes. + </p> + <p> + The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist amongst + each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most conversant + with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one who had devoted + but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course of those voyages, + used some of the instruments for the first time in his life. + </p> + <p> + This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the + greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such lunars; + whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit instrument, + avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were conversant + with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more favourable + circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same opinion + prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever subject + Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by their + accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods of using the + instruments scarcely differed in any important point from those before + adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall presently + relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine possessed some + keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would be hopeless for + any to expect to rival. + </p> + <p> + The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy of + these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust Captain + Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner which must + have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter to the + Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of the same + persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of Longitude, + after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, are said to + have again recommended him to the Master-General of the Ordnance. That an + officer, commencing his scientific career, should be misled by such + praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the Council of the + Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly, and maintain it so + pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it was injurious to the + interests of science. + </p> + <p> + It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley + medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal of + Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from such a + complete investigation of his observations, as should place them beyond + the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may write, and + nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; and even the + Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer immortality. That + learned body is in the habit of making most interesting and profound + reports on any memoirs communicated to it; nothing escapes the penetration + of their committees appointed for such purposes. Surely, when they enter + on the much more important subject of the award of a medal, unusual pains + must be taken with the previous report, and it might, perhaps, be of some + advantage to science, and might furnish their admirers with arguments in + their defence, if they would publish that on which the decree of their + Lalande's medal to Captain Sabine was founded. + </p> + <p> + It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has been + written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall confine + myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I shall allude + to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that exists respecting + them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain them. The other point, + the error in the estimation of the division of the level, I shall discuss, + because it is an admitted fact. + </p> + <p> + Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the + difference of times of the passage of any star between the several wires; + supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of time + occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be + precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another are + usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens that the + accordance is perfect. + </p> + <p> + The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in length, + and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370 transits, + there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the intervals + between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of a second. At + Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same accordance; and of + the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of twenty-four are equally + exact. With larger instruments, and in great observatories, this is not + always the case. + </p> + <p> + Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. 427, + a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in which about + one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy; and it should + be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars selected, have, + in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's. + </p> + <p> + The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer, and + the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations of his + in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of accordance. In + thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January, 1828, fifteen have + this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with a ten-feet transit. + Now in none of these instances do the times agree within a tenth of a + second between all the wires; but I have accounted those as agreeing in + all the wires in which there is not more than four-tenths of a second + between the greatest and least. + </p> + <p> + This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some explanation. + One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine employs a chronometer + to observe transits with; and that since it beats five times in two + seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second; and this being the + smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes more probable than if + tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In general, the larger the + lowest unity employed the greater will be the apparent agreement amongst + the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of stars near the pole, the + times of passing the wires were only registered to the nearest minute, the + intervals would almost certainly be equal. There is another circumstance, + about which there is some difficulty. It is understood that the same + instrument,—the thirty-inch transit, was employed by Lieutenant + Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires were changed, although + this has most probably been the case. Now, in the transits which the later + observer has given, he has found it necessary to correct for a + considerable inequality between the first and second wires (See Phil. + Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone abroad on this subject, + it is doing a service to science to insure its correction, by drawing + attention to it. + </p> + <p> + Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem + to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact, and + therefore that it ought to be used in observatories. + </p> + <p> + Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle + of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the + express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be + diminished in size:—a most important subject, on which the Board + seem to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety. + </p> + <p> + The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important: + </p> + <p> + "The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of the + Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle of + repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six inches, + carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch aperture; + and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which might be + retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be increased, by + a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been previously + regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit of diminution to + which repeating circles, designed for astronomical purposes, ought to be + carried. + </p> + <p> + "The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated, by + comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at each + station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of observations + made with a circle, on the original construction, and of large dimensions; + such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations of the French are, + recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if due allowance be made + for the extensive experience and great skill of the distinguished persons + who conducted the French observations, the comparison will scarcely appear + to the disadvantage of the smaller circle, even if extended generally + through all the stations of the present volume; but if it be particularly + directed to Maranham and Spitzbergen,—at which stations the partial + results were more numerous than elsewhere, and obtained with especial + regard to every circumstance by which their accuracy might be affected, + the performance of the six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of + circles of the larger dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at + which a more than usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, + because it was essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the + French stations were required, that the observations should always be + conducted with the utmost possible regard to accuracy. + </p> + <p> + "It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches, the + disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact or + bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute + subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition." + </p> + <p> + Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most + favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places, and + compare the observations made there with the small repeating instrument of + six inches diameter, with those made by the French astronomers at + Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one centi-metres, or about + sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It is singular that this + instrument was directed, by the French Board of Longitude, to be made + expressly for this survey, and the French astronomers paid particular + attention to it, from the circumstance of some doubts having been + entertained respecting the value of the principle of repetition. + </p> + <p> + The following series of observations were made with the two instruments. + [I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because + the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference + between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken + above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a + half.] + </p> + <p> + Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches + diameter.—BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Number of Latitude Names of Observers. + Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot + 100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot + 120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot + 100 56.5 Arago + 102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + + Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. +</pre> + <p> + Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. + alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine + alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto + alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto + alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto + alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto + alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + + Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. +</pre> + <p> + In comparing these results, although the French observations were more + than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the + individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths is + the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations; whilst + the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds and + two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on + account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations, let + any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with the six + English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is the greatest + deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations less than in + those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that by the latitude + deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of Polaris by the same + observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to be 38deg. 39min + 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean of the 1318 + inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot be accounted + for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as neither the + employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of Groombridge, + of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a difference of + two-tenths of a second.] + </p> + <p> + These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain Sabine, + and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the merits of his + observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers equal, it seems a + necessary consequence that "the performance of the six-inch circle is" not + merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger dimensions," but that it + is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches in diameter. + </p> + <p> + This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for + astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and + rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered + that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to be + equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven + seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary a + recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a + re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it + necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this + instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed + satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising + from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will + depend on the nature of the deviations from it.] + </p> + <p> + This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of considerable + importance to navigation; and if it should have caused any alteration in + his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and small instruments, + it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was expressly directed + by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with an instrument + constructed for that especial purpose. + </p> + <p> + Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for the + task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to familiarity + with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this interesting + question. + </p> + <p> + The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of + level: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. + + Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + + Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + + Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + + Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + + Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + + Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + + New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + + Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + + Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + + Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + + Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 +</pre> + <p> + This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by the + small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and confining + ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE OBTAINED, WITH + ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR ACCURACY MIGHT BE + AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION WAS BESTOWED," it + appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, namely, "the + differences of the partial results from the mean at each station," the + deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were before; a + circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in the + decision of the question. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid + looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of + latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really + resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true + latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is + so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more + especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, + Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes + interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations, + to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so little + to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions of the + unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen. + </p> + <p> + In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of a + place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the + following columns— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Latitudes as + True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. + Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 + Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8 + Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5 + Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6 + Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0 + Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2 +</pre> + <p> + what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first + column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the + second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the level + being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as + diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider, if + he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still he + will find the odds against it enormous. + </p> + <p> + When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has thus + had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost + unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that at + eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the + differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station it + only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help feeling + that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his admitted + skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both mistaken in + their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so singular an + effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot bring myself + to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without foundation. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular + oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used for + determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the very + work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose of + comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which + occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265 to 275 + of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET ARAGO, + which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] are filled + with the details relative to the determination of the value of the + divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory, with such an + important object in view, to have read off some of the sets after each + pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of repetition + made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order to know how + many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost certainly + have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of the level; + for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a few minutes + of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to have arisen + from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed, they must + have been referred to some error in the instrument, which could scarcely, + in such circumstances, have escaped detection. + </p> + <p> + I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain + Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying are + inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an instance + of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should venture to + pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think enough has been + said to show, that the feeling which so generally prevails relative to it, + is neither captious nor unreasonable. + </p> + <p> + Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in + appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under the + peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as far + as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations which + are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for imitation + observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers to throw + aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a standard + which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified the + doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever even modified + it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the largest. + </p> + <p> + To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt. + It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with + official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to + depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose. + </p> + <p> + How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT TO + BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived, + appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best + observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered them + peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that + instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered, "FOR + ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the Astronomical + Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the most carefully + detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, persons who must have + examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. Captain Kater must have felt + those difficulties in the perusal of it which other observers have + experienced; and he who was placed in the Board of Longitude especially + for his knowledge of instruments, might, in a few hours, have arrived at + more decisive facts. But perhaps I am unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge + rendered it impossible for him to have been ignorant of the difficulties, + and his candour would have prevented him from concealing them: he must, + therefore, after examining the subject, have been outvoted by his + lay-brethren who had dispensed with that preliminary. + </p> + <p> + It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with + respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of the + errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant Foster, + aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed this + instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal to one + second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject, and made + all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him acquainted + with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated a paper [The + paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical Transactions, + 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal Society, in which he + states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed all the observations in + which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, from the original + observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury at the time of her + loss, the transcripts of his results could not be recomputed like the + rest, and were consequently useless. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT8" id="link2H_SECT8"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + </h2> + <p> + Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with science + may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat singularly + happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than one such + appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the late Dr. + Young, we have at present:— + </p> + <p> + MR. POND—Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and + Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + </p> + <p> + CAPTAIN SABINE—An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his + regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the + Admiralty. + </p> + <p> + MR. BRANDE—Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of + Chemistry at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to + the East-India Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; + Superintending Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; + Editor of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the + Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices, + either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be found + to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered; or else, that + it is too well paid, since each requires such little attention, that + almost any number can be executed by one person. + </p> + <p> + The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection + of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other + astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the almost + undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would a + superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being + acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his situation + at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign Secretary of + the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. Brande would + scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found time even for + them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that from the progress + the Society is making, those duties must become shortly, if they are not + already, almost extinct. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most anxiously + over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the Academics + of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of Hanover, and of France, + derived honour from the discoveries of their Secretaries;—that they + prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of Oersted, of Brewster, of + Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the President must have been + ambitious that England should contribute to this galaxy of glory, that the + Royal Society should restore the lost Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of + seven stars in the neck of the constellation Taurus. There are now only + six of them visible to the naked eye.—HUTTON'S DICTIONARY—Art. + Pleiades.] to the admiring science of Europe. But he could discover no + kindred name amongst the ranks of his supporters, and forgot, for a + moment, the interest of the Society, in an amiable consideration for the + feelings of his surrounding friends. For had the President chosen a + brighter star, the lustre of his other officers might have been + overpowered by its splendour: but relieved from the pain of such a + contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, by their united brightness, + these suns of his little system shall yet afford sufficient light to be + together visible to distant nations, as a faint NEBULA in the obscure + horizon of English science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT9" id="link2H_SECT9"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be + useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money. + </p> + <p> + EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.—The great expense of + the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, + is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings are quite + essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those papers are fit + for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry is necessary, when + such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour, therefore, to approximate + to the sum these engravings have cost the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of Sir E. + Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the + workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810, there + have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author. Many of + these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but I shall take + five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and twelve as that + of the latter. This would produce, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 70 X 5 = 350 + 187 X 12 = 2244 + ...... ——-...... L2594 +</pre> + <p> + As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd + hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE + branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question the + importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be + permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended + in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with + those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous + circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number, I + should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other countries + much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even the Council + of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from their Transactions + one of those productions which they had paid for as a lecture. + </p> + <p> + It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council so + repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually expending, + during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On the other hand, + when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of those valuable plates to + take off impressions for his large work on Comparative Anatomy, of which + they constitute almost the whole, it might have been as well not to have + obliterated from each plate all indication of the source to which he was + indebted for them. + </p> + <p> + THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.—I shall mention this circumstance, + because it fell under my own observation. + </p> + <p> + Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the President's + Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature of this item. + Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an opportunity, at an + early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for an explanation of the + following resolution, which stands in the Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + </p> + <p> + "Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be + printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade + price." + </p> + <p> + The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO + PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO + PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + </p> + <p> + I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as + the following statement will prove. + </p> + <p> + The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following + prices are very liberal: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + L s. d. + To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0 + Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0 + Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0 + + Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0 +</pre> + <p> + Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not + plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying + printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several of + the individual members must have known, from their own private experience, + that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different from that + they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to print it on + his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred pounds beyond + what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds of the Royal + Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his officers ever + condescend to explain this transaction to the Council; or were they + expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing proposed to them? + Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to order the payment of + above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a bookseller to do what + they might have done themselves for less than half the sum? Or did they + wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred pounds? If so, he must + have had powerful friends in the Council, and it is fit the Society should + know who they were; for they were not friends, either to its interests or + to its honour. + </p> + <p> + The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to + members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and out + of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the remainder + encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are still losers + of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction. + </p> + <p> + ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO PASTEBOARD.—Although + the printing of these observations is not paid for out of the funds of the + Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body are the visitors of the + Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to introduce the subject here. + </p> + <p> + Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned, that + there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity of the + volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On making + inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be disposed + of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the purpose of + converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get fourpence a + pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board. The fact was + mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society, and they + thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with every + regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick paper, + hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This magnificence is + advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought to be worthy of a + great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that nation spends on + science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not be applied with + the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really has a right to these + volumes, printed by the government at a large expense, it is, perhaps, the + most extravagant mode which was ever yet invented of paying a public + servant. When that right was given to him,—let us suppose somebody + had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he should sell the costly volumes + for waste paper,—who would have listened for one moment to such a + supposition? He would have been told that it was impossible to suppose a + person in that high and responsible situation, could be so indifferent to + his own reputation. + </p> + <p> + A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal + Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary + for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally + anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the request + appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and I was at + the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased at the + bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies of the + Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that practical + astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my pursuits, I feel + disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety of the refusal. + This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar refusals to other + gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with myself, and whose time + had been successfully devoted to the cultivation of that science. [M. + Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, projected a plan for + making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too vast for any individual to + attempt, it was proposed that a portion should be executed by the + astronomers of various countries, and invitations to this effect were + widely circulated. One only of the divisions of this map was applied for + by any English astronomer; and, after completing the portion of the map + assigned to him, he undertook another, which had remained unprovided for. + This gentleman, the Rev. Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants + for the Greenwich Observations.] + </p> + <p> + There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a + different result;—but those who occupy official situations, rendered + remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed in + no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly + insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they must + submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure, + therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must have + sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to propose + that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse so + trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once + filled. + </p> + <p> + In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a + copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of + copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was + insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned bodies + in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great their + inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants." Now I have + spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the council-books + of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the real state of the + case:— + </p> + <p> + In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, + wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785, from which + the following is extracted:— + </p> + <p> + "The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the Astronomical + Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and paid for by the + Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command, of July 21, 1767,) + which may at any time remain in the hands of the printer, shall, after you + have reserved such copies as you may think proper as presents, be given to + the said Nevil Maskelyne, in consideration of his trouble in the + superintending the printing thereof. I am to signify His Majesty's + pleasure, that you do, from time to time, give the necessary orders for + that purpose, until His Majesty's further commands shall be communicated + to you. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:— + </p> + <p> + "Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last published, + be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to the Astronomer + Royal." + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many + volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any + revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed by + the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving precisely the + same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe that in fact + they do not know the authority on which the right to those sixty rests. + </p> + <p> + Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the + discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from + time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore, + they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought to + have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they + found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they + ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order to + prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand, the + above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than sixty + copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress towards + pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society, as + visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to + Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if the + Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it for a + liberal compensation. + </p> + <p> + Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the + subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and + Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science, + from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer Royal. + </p> + <p> + It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to + science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not + so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can + be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to judge + no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his reputation + will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their circulation. + </p> + <p> + Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might be + said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal Society + that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is imagined, + is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of the parties + concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any amendments have + taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable importance, I was + myself a witness, when I was present officially at a visitation. At that + time, no original observations made at the transit instrument were ever + preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the process of an observation, + I should not have credited the fact. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT10" id="link2H_SECT10"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + </h2> + <p> + At a period when the attention of Government to science had not undergone + any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place. His Majesty + intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of State, his + intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to + be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal Society, according to the + rules they were desired to frame for that purpose. + </p> + <p> + The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:— + </p> + <p> + WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + </p> + <p> + SIR, + </p> + <p> + I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to + found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded + as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council of + the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of + competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the + object for which the Royal Society was instituted. + </p> + <p> + His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of the Royal + Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the regulations which + it may be convenient to establish with regard to the appropriation of the + medals; and I have, therefore, to request that you will make the necessary + communication to the Council of the Royal Society, in order that His + Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect. + </p> + <p> + I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this + gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It + was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement of + a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were immense. The + unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst the confidence + reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured the wavering faith + of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from knowing the + MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted the policy of + establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and spirit in which + they were offered. + </p> + <p> + The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting + them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on + the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the + Council-book of the 26th of January. + </p> + <p> + At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were + decided upon; they were as follow:— + </p> + <p> + 26th January, 1826. + </p> + <p> + RESOLVED, + </p> + <p> + That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for the + most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed and made + known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of their award. + </p> + <p> + That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the medals + should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if it should + be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the obverse of the + medal. + </p> + <p> + That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation; + one in gold, one in silver. + </p> + <p> + If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet they + are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a + councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education of a + pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as to have + made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely, that the + discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made known to + the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the award. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this communication, + to have convened a special general meeting of the Society, to have made + known to the whole body the munificent endowment of their Patron: and when + his approbation of the laws which were to govern the distribution of these + medals had been intimated to the Council, such a course would have been in + complete accordance with the wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO + EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known. + </p> + <p> + Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in the + following words:— + </p> + <p> + November 16, 1826. + </p> + <p> + ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was + awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary + Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his + other important labours and discoveries in physical science. + </p> + <p> + The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, Esq. for + his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the Philosophical + Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable papers on + mathematical subjects. + </p> + <p> + The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations of + double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's observed + and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January, + formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet together + in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them to two + philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his great + discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to stultify + themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for a paper + made known to them three years before. + </p> + <p> + Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their + decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict of + their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other + instances, with the semblance of a free discussion? + </p> + <p> + Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that + although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society + and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit of + their award, to those to whom that trust was confided? + </p> + <p> + Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive + deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch + with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it might + perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in + accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or + was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I + have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + </p> + <p> + Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility of + dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been pledged + to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent on + exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps, urged by the + near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the formality of + reading the laws on which they were about to act? + </p> + <p> + Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the + Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange + neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the + Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication of + these medals. + </p> + <p> + The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it + was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules + which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the medals + themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and they + ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no man + could feel the least security that he should get them, even though his + discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were offered, + </p> + <p> + The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced + me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of the + Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on our + character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now a + matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious + disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans for + doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I should + stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. [It is but + justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to state, that the + circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the same year awarded + to him, prevented him from taking any part in the discussion.] + </p> + <p> + The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind will + never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the distribution + of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as equally binding in + honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the Council, which + assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as void, IPSO FACTO, on + the ground that it was directly at variance with that part which CONFINES + the medals to discoveries made known to the Society within ONE YEAR + PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore moved the following + resolutions: + </p> + <p> + "1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November, + 1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is + invalid. + </p> + <p> + "2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton, Esq. + and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that letters be + written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope of the Council + that this, the only method which is open to them of honourably fulfilling + their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen as a mark of the high + sense entertained by the Council of the importance and value of their + discoveries, which require not the aid of medals to convey their + reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which distinguished the + age in which they lived." + </p> + <p> + It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning employed + in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal Society. + It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was SOMEWHAT + IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As the original + rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the Council,—it + would only be necessary to alter them, and then the award would agree + perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was contended, that the + original rules were unknown to the public and to the Society; and that, in + fact, they were only known to the members of the Council and a few of + their friends; and therefore the award was no breach of faith. + </p> + <p> + All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could + not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show + that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age; and + furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of the + Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council as + long as the present system of management is pursued. + </p> + <p> + The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its + peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little + communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens that + the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the Society, and, + indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who frequent the weekly + meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first notice to the great + majority of the Society of a breach of faith by their Council, which it is + impossible to suppose a body, consisting of more than six hundred + gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT11" id="link2H_SECT11"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + </h2> + <p> + An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which + seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society. + They may contain discoveries of new principles,—of laws of nature + hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations of + known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar + situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to + our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very + different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those + trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the + present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely + inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has + presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments + employed, or phenomena examined,—a talent, which can be much + improved by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of + tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to + detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and a + higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very different + order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of an almanac; + the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of the + accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those + computations are performed. + </p> + <p> + [*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national + observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not an + opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The + Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge. + </p> + <p> + On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826, + with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles, we + find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following + passage is extracted: + </p> + <p> + "But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, hard-working, + and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call them, although they + are drudges of a superior order), men who will be contented to pass half + their day in using their hands and eyes in the mechanical act of + observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process of calculation."] + </p> + <p> + Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some + difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be + proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked this + difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given to + observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for + discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by + such an association. + </p> + <p> + I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the + public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground + of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The first + objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the object for + which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal is given to + A. B. "for his various papers." + </p> + <p> + There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be + admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those who + judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his various + other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece to these + awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be more admired + if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to escape through + this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment on the main point + be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which made chemistry a + science, has attached to it in their award this feeble appendage. + </p> + <p> + It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been too + much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to their + patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished grounds + to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of the new ones. + I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal Society are + persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to suppose their + decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I may not have + had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was a member of that + Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall avail myself of the + judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined to appeal, who knew it + long and intimately, and who expressed his opinion deliberately and + solemnly. + </p> + <p> + The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the + distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the + Royal Society, the following clause:—"And I hereby empower the said + President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the + above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid or + reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY THAT NO + PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL RECEIVE OR + PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + </p> + <p> + Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally + inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery + is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite + unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently + have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits. + These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as the + last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. The + Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who + declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional + charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put a stop + to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a Copley medal + must by the will be annually given, some other person might not be found + deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do not intend to give + any this year." All further discussion was thus silenced.] + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious, + it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the + award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects, + the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their attention + to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY OF THE + COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO DECIDE. + </p> + <p> + If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the + Council, would communicate their information, something curious might + perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those of + which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state—of + three of them—that whatever may have been the official reasons for + their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being the + true causes:— + </p> + <p> + First.—A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate time—BECAUSE + HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + </p> + <p> + Second.—Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE + IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE + PRECEDING YEAR. + </p> + <p> + Third.—A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL + USED." + </p> + <p> + I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which was + peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of rendering + platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious philosopher who + invented the art, and who has left many other claims to the gratitude of + mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to place that subject in + its proper light. + </p> + <p> + An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as possessing + the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands we inherit from + our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and yielded produce + before they were cultivated. The products of genius are the actual + creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or honour to him, + they remain the permanent endowments of the human race. If the + institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support us fully + in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by the laws of + nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly restrict our + discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the products of + intellectual exertion? + </p> + <p> + Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with + Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they + have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of some + substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or comforts of + their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the legitimate reward + of their exertions. + </p> + <p> + It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have + torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to + claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the + inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life. + </p> + <p> + The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer, + having published his process, enters into equal competition with other + manufacturers. + </p> + <p> + If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his + secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During + his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the + philosopher had not existed. + </p> + <p> + Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and + reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary + rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments of + mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these have + been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a condition + with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing for which a + patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + </p> + <p> + Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of + rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity + having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary + magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process + selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him; and from + some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no written + record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that disorder, + which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the knowledge he + had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the subject, would + have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded the directions of + the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render useful even his + unfinished speculations, proves that the previous omission was most + probably accidental. + </p> + <p> + Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the Transactions + of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body to bestow on it + their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of Wollaston by their + medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then as an example, as a + stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of discovery. But did they + wish discoveries to be so endangered? + </p> + <p> + The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been + considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on + one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few + members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had long + been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of doing + justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was suggested + that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they immediately + altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to reserve their + medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at which period, for + aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the additional merit of + having been made prior to the limit allowed by their regulations. That + medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no one member present was + at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I shall, however, say no + more on this subject. They erred from feeling, an error so very rare with + them, that it might be pardoned even for its singularity. + </p> + <p> + I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly + dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving + pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science, or + the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of Wollaston, + was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting career, one + out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply, without which, + the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher be destitute of + tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank he held in + science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich in the + honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward in some + measure commensurate with his deserts,—then, indeed, there might + have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that, in such + circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no "niggard" + hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it, unreservedly, + the produce of his powerful mind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT12" id="link2H_SECT12"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + </h2> + <p> + Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This + was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South Sea + Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted annually + to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + </p> + <p> + Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or + of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years, from + 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for + twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr. + Ellis. + </p> + <p> + The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary + exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be + productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the + Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be + delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by members + of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place of worship + appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at the two + preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the gentleman + nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is to be + preached, should be stated. + </p> + <p> + With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the + first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon be + esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the + Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants, + persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion of + true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am + tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the + most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what is + already done on that subject. + </p> + <p> + The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too much + haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by others, as + inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been attentively + considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest and freest + inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character of indisputable + facts. But, I will not press this subject further on my reader's + attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the lecture. All + that I could have said on this point has been so much more ably stated by + one whose enlightened view of geological science has taken away some + difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed a stumbling-block + from many respectable individuals, that I should only weaken by adding to + the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's Geology in the + British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy of a philosopher + and a Christian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT13" id="link2H_SECT13"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + </h2> + <p> + The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the preceding, + is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual essay on the + subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted, that it should + have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he foreseen the + routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured to preserve it, + by affording it a wider range. + </p> + <p> + By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been + created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their + attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture; but from + causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the custom—one + individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems, like the + Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension. There have, + however, been some intervals; and we are still under obligations to those + who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing Sir Everard Home to read + the Croonian Lecture twenty years in SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we + might have heard of vested rights. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT14" id="link2H_SECT14"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they + regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever exists, + begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be amended. + </p> + <p> + The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal + Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has been + submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary to explain + the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in perpetuating it. + </p> + <p> + It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the power + of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council; and it is + also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and that printed + lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members on their entering + the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If these lists were, as + in other scientific societies, openly discussed in the Council, and then + offered by them as recommendations to the Society, little inconvenience + would arise; but the fact is, that they are private nominations by the + President, usually without notice, to the Council, and all the supporters + of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour to uphold the right of + this nomination in the President, and prevent or discourage any + alteration. + </p> + <p> + The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or by + whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of persons, + united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who act + together from a community of principles. That each individual has + invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the + case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very rare, + a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode of + meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of all + other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, as far + as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has usually + consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had the prudence, + whenever they could, to associate with themselves other members of greater + ability, provided these latter would not oppose the system, and would thus + lend to it the sanction of their name. The party have always praised each + other most highly—have invariably opposed all improvements in the + Society, all change in the mode of management; and have maintained, that + all those who wished for any alteration were factious; and, when they + discovered any symptoms of independence and inquiry breaking out in any + member of the Council, they have displaced him as soon as they decently + could. + </p> + <p> + Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by + which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples: + refutation is rendered quite unnecessary—juxta-position is alone + requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in contemplation, + or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the Society continued, + raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why should you interfere? + it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it is no affair of yours.—If, + on the other hand, it do relate to himself, the reply is equally ready. It + is immediately urged: The question is of a personal nature; you are the + last person who ought to bring it forward; you are yourself interested. If + any member of the Society, feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the + injuries or insults of the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is + immediately suggested to him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until + his feelings subside, and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst + with becoming candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. + If, after an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the + offence seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any + circumstances on which memory can dwell,—if it is then brought + forward, the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date—the + thing is gone by—it is too late to call in question a transaction so + long past. Thus, if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to + question an abuse; if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? + and if, notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a + meddler. If he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is + cool; and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his + remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred + to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any alteration + is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never adhered to. If + it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to an office, he is + immediately answered, that that is a personal question, in which it is + impossible to interfere—the officer, it seems, is considered to have + not merely a vested right to the continuance of every abuse, but an + interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + </p> + <p> + In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation + defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling to + be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is immediately + contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their magnitude. + Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige the world + with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the most RECENT + and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with the orthodox + creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human faculties to + detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size. + </p> + <p> + The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and their + emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them is, + nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the + science of England. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute + nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few + gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high opinion + they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who could + discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list a few + nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes would put + any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed, from its + station in society, to check any that might be proposed by others. + </p> + <p> + With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a + star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable + Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition. + </p> + <p> + The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, although + not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in several + societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much lightened + by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are their + salaries:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Senior Secretary ........... 105L. + The Junior Secretary, 105L........ ) + 5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L. + The Foreign Secretary........... 20L. +</pre> + <p> + Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices are + amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the President + to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently been + bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even for the + dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late Sir Joseph + Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in that situation, + although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject connected with the + pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice to his memory, by + saying that his respectability was preserved under such circumstances, by + the most candid admission of the fact, accompanied by a store of other + knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to the pursuits of the Society; and + I will add, that I regretted to see him insulted by one President in a + situation improperly given to him by a former. + </p> + <p> + Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the + President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient. + </p> + <p> + The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The + President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought, + after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at + large. + </p> + <p> + Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, and + recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a, + Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the + President. + </p> + <p> + Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising from + offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee of the + British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not a fit + person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it is the + EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I fear that + unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific appointments, and + unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public discussion, a + President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the British Museum, + is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his public duty to the + influence of power, or to private friendship. With respect to the merits + of that Institution, I have no inclination at present to inquire: but when + it is considered that there is at this moment attached to it no one whose + observations or whose writings have placed him even in the second rank + amongst the naturalists of Europe, the President of the Royal Society has + given some grounds for the remark made by several members of the Society, + that he is a little too much surrounded by the officers of a body who may + reasonably be supposed to entertain towards him feelings either of + gratitude or expectation. [It will be remembered that the name of Mr. + Robert Brown has been but recently attached to the British Museum, and + that it is to be attributed to his possessing a life interest in the + valuable collection of the late Sir Joseph Banks.] + </p> + <p> + The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which, + although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + </p> + <p> + There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these were + honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been expected that + this limited number of appointments would have been given in all cases to + persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient to pay compliments; + and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge insured him respect as + Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a British nobleman, was placed for + years in the situation as one of the Commissioners of the Board of + Longitude, for which every competent judge knew him to be wholly unfit. + What was the return which he made for this indulgence? Little informed + respecting the feelings of the Society, and probably misinformed by the + party whose influence had placed him there, he saved them in the day of + their peril. + </p> + <p> + When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of the + more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely necessary + to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to the Council + such improvements as they might consider it expedient to discuss. [Amongst + the names of the persons composing this Committee, which was proposed by + Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Herschel.] The Council + received their report at the close of the session; and in recording it on + the journals, they made an appeal to the Council for the ensuing year to + bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST SERIOUS ATTENTION." + </p> + <p> + Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would + have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken + up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful peer + came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting rid of + these improvements completely. + </p> + <p> + It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal Society + should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a peer or two + should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse to this + doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this tribute to any + one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank in advancing the + cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our pursuits, will + condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding a President to + stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended for consideration by + some of the most highly gifted members of the Society,—those who + doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably be pardoned for the + disgust they must necessarily entertain for the practical abuse to which + it leads. + </p> + <p> + Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year, + although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet it + was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact, + always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir + Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be + appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had spoken + to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the formation + of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take in + establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was + assigned to me by the President. + </p> + <p> + It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance of + time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the + Astronomical Society;—that I always talked of it publicly and openly + at the time;—that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding + President of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten + the communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them + well. + </p> + <p> + The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L. + more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + </p> + <p> + Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to + have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is to be + observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible, + notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + </p> + <p> + Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been instituted + since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President is supposed + to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the obedience of his + Council. + </p> + <p> + Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions + on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper persons + to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I am far + from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons the + second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT15" id="link2H_SECT15"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so + notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members + began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling, + together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to + re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most + active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings; and a + Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly + understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,—First, + as to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and + then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names of + the gentlemen composing this Committee were:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, + Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, + Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, + Mr. South, Captain Kater. +</pre> + <p> + The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in the + eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so select as + to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be elected into it, + was by no means new, as the following extract from the Minutes of the + Council will prove:— + </p> + <p> + "MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, + Sir John Lowther, + Sir John Cutler, + Sir Christopher Wren, + Mr. Oldenburgh, + Sir Paul Neile. +</pre> + <p> + "It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper, good + experiments must be in the first place provided to make the weekly + meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these experiments + must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the contributors; which + done, the Council might then with confidence proceed to the EJECTION OF + USELESS FELLOWS." + </p> + <p> + The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they + recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of the + numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was + suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation + should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not appear + to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected how long a + time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society could be + reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as long as those + who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their writings and + discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely the same terms, and on + the payment of the same sum of money as other gentlemen who contributed + only with their purse, it could never be an object of ambition to any man + of science to be enrolled on its list. + </p> + <p> + With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I + suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become + effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal + Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who had + contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the Transactions, + or that such a list should be printed separately at the end. + </p> + <p> + At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers to + the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 37 Contributors of.. 1 paper + 21.......... 2 papers + 19.......... 3 ditto + 5 .......... 4 ditto + 3 .......... 5 ditto + 3 .......... 6 ditto + 12.... from 7 to 12 ditto + 14... of more than 12 papers. +</pre> + <p> + 100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by + them. + </p> + <p> + Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division of + the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary for + placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist of + seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those of + the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or more + were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In either of + these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition to belong to + the first class; and a more minute investigation into the value of each + paper would naturally take place before it was admitted into the + Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only should be + allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit to be + printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such an + arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the Society, + and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society when no + distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued without + one. + </p> + <p> + Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will + only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment to + the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does, in truth, + maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position, accidentally + derive reputation which does not belong to them, are unwilling, when the + circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world to assign it to those who + have fairly won it; or else that they are incapable of producing any thing + worthy of being printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly + as the conduct of the Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, + I do not think so ill of the personal character of its members as to + believe that if the question were fairly stated to them, many would object + to it. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the + renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring + Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the ensuing + year. + </p> + <p> + The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is impossible + to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON. Our statutes + were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness of the members + elected to serve in the Council; and the President is directed, by those + statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to the anniversary, to + give notice of the elections, and "to declare how much it importeth the + good of the Society that such persons may be chosen into the Council as + are most likely to attend the meetings and business of the Council, and + out of whom may be made the best choice of a President and other + officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery of the wisdom of our + ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket the list of the future + Council he has already fixed upon. + </p> + <p> + In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the + discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for the + Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of the old + Council, and against each name is placed the number of times he has + attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has been + least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence from + London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, are + known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council the + number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out by + their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number than + can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?—but, + who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed on + the Council? + </p> + <p> + If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of + great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented in + the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle + opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some + chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even + before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be + put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated to + the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the commencement + of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be entertained of those + who endeavour to suppress inquiry. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should + never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its + business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the conduct + of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not led to such + discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of those who + disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to the + discretion of the party in not giving them cause. + </p> + <p> + The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong necessity + should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it which may, + in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at the + anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any one + great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than a + speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will probably + come under the consideration of a larger number of the members. Another + and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger of any + expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments employed. + </p> + <p> + There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the + Committee:— + </p> + <p> + REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING + THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH + SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE + OF THE SOCIETY. + </p> + <p> + Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council + under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves that + the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher ratio + than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth of + knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been the great + object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the following + Report:— + </p> + <p> + Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility of + the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That its + respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high + philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating persons + of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong to the + Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves fully + borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit the + Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the talent + of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every vacancy would + become an object of competition among persons of acknowledged merit. + </p> + <p> + From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who + have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the + persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science, + your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should be + fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such royal + personages as it may be thought proper to admit. + </p> + <p> + As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and + fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as it + would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science, that + no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your + Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place, four + new members should be annually admitted. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion, + that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding to + a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority. If the + above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for every + vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must be the + general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to + accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would be + necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of + earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating, but + probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee, + therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should take + place every year towards the end of the session, and that this should be + conducted on the same principles as the present annual election of the + Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of all the candidates + (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual time,) in which lists + each Fellow would mark the requisite number of persons. + </p> + <p> + As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the + Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been + determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the + successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in + accordance with the enactments of the said charter. + </p> + <p> + In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave to + remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of blackballing + would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and mortification; as + the result of such an open competition could only be construed by the + public into a fair preference of the superior claims of the successful + few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of the others. + </p> + <p> + Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual + admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the Society; + but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous economy its + present income might be rendered adequate to all its real wants, and the + aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by many small but + wholesome retrenchments. + </p> + <p> + It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was + received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual + contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was + a balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears, + that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly 340L. + for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit to your + consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially + controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + </p> + <p> + In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now + proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration. They + conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual + exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society, and + those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were distinguished by + being collected into a separate and honourable list. It would also be + found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of retrospective + justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who have formerly + obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals who have been + large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end of the list. It + would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual list, if all those + Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within the preceding year, + were regularly noticed. And your Committee think, that these lists should + always form part of the Transactions, and be stitched up with the last + part of the volume. + </p> + <p> + It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the Society + mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council; and as their + selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your Committee hope + that our excellent President will not consider it any impeachment of his + impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they venture to suggest, that + the usual recommendation to the Society of proper members for the future + Council should henceforth be considered as a fit subject for the diligent + and anxious deliberation of the expiring Council. + </p> + <p> + There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society, + and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations of + Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the nature and + value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the important task of + deciding on what papers should be published; and they are of opinion that + it would be a material improvement on the present mode, if each paper were + referred to a separate Committee, who should have sufficient time given + them to examine it carefully, who should be empowered to communicate on + any doubtful parts with the author; and who should report, not only their + opinion, but the grounds on which that opinion is formed, for the ultimate + decision of the Council. + </p> + <p> + If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your Committee + have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move, that another + Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to alter the necessary + statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance with the charters. + </p> + <p> + In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the + magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty to + propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest discussion + of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be unanimously + disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend, that the several + statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified, should be only entered + on your minutes, and not finally enacted. All innovations in the + constitution, or even the habits of the Royal Society, should be + scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. It is enough for the + present Council to have traced the plan; let the Council of the ensuing + sessions share the credit of carrying that plan into effect. + </p> + <p> + This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of 1827, + and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the + council-book:— + </p> + <p> + "The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting + the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think + conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered + to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance of + the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the Society, + in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering also the + advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious and early + consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + </p> + <p> + Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their hasty + adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the fullest + investigation before one of them should be tried. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not + coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to + make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the + Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the + consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it was + thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned by the + names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to "THE MOST + SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing year," was + by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of discussing its + merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained, not merely unfit + to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility as to be utterly + unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his officers feel, that + their power rested on an insecure foundation, and that they did not + possess the confidence of the working members of the Society? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. + </h2> + <p> + There are several reflections connected with the art of making + observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this + chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT16" id="link2H_SECT16"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. + </h2> + <p> + No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an + object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances + towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and expense, + than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of discovery, + and the first approximate measures, are those which add most to the + existing knowledge of mankind. + </p> + <p> + The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in some + respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion, that no + experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute, and the + accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of some use to + show, that even with large instruments, and most practised observers, this + is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken from a + representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the Council of the + Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the employment of two + mural circles:— + </p> + <p> + "That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same + time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of + that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE MOST + CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of + refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + </p> + <p> + In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. + Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains + relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have + been made. + </p> + <p> + "Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit tout + publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de + connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES + OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles + toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi par les + circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."—BASE DU SYSTEME + METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158. + </p> + <p> + This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of + experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to have + been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its tract, + not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the acutest + senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is forced to + record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that an observer, + possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly written. He who can + see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of his species, confers + an obligation on them, by recording what he sees; but their knowledge + depends both on his testimony and on his judgment. He who contrives a + method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary observers, communicates + to mankind an instrument of discovery, and stamps his own observations + with a character, alike independent of testimony or of judgment. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT17" id="link2H_SECT17"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + </h2> + <p> + The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of those + who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not + familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled + accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that + any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention, + ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and + himself. + </p> + <p> + If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to read + the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is + frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some + acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set the + instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, and then + request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any difference, he + should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his friend to point out + the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision. This should be + repeated frequently; and after some practice, he should note how many + times in a hundred his reading differs from his friend's, and also how + many divisions they usually differ. + </p> + <p> + The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner can + bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done without + assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument, but merely + to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any remarkable point, + read off the verniers, and write down the result; then displace the + telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such observations + will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in bisecting + an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the first direction + gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great measure, + appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he finds a + deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy himself if + he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, the student + should practise each adjustment separately, and write down the results + wherever he can measure its deviations. + </p> + <p> + Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an + observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let him + take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and having + registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat the + process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him + excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill. + </p> + <p> + The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits + within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME + CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can have + confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT + CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT + CIRCUMSTANCES. + </p> + <p> + These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person is + desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him begin by + adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the upper + contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then let him + derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the reading. When + he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make that adjustment, + let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but let him not, until he + knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, pronounce upon those of the + instrument. In the case of a barometer, he must also be assured, that the + temperature of the mercury does not change during the interval. + </p> + <p> + A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of mechanism, + for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth parts of a second + were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with a pin for stopping one + of the hands. I proposed that we should each endeavour to stop it twenty + times in succession, at the same point. We were both equally unpractised, + and our first endeavours showed that we could not be confident of the + twentieth part of a second. In fact, both the time occupied in causing the + extremities of the fingers to obey the volition, as well as the time + employed in compressing the flesh before the fingers acted on the stop, + appeared to influence the accuracy of our observations. From some few + experiments I made, I thought I perceived that the rapidity of the + transmission of the effects of the will, depended on the state of fatigue + or health of the body. If any one were to make experiments on this + subject, it might be interesting, to compare the rapidity of the + transmission of volition in different persons, with the time occupied in + obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the same persons. + For example, by having a mechanism to make a piece of ignited charcoal + revolve with different degrees of velocity, some persons will perceive a + continuous circle of light before others, whose retina does not retain so + long impressions that are made upon it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT18" id="link2H_SECT18"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + </h2> + <p> + Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of + pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really + value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by + unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of their + arts being known may deter future offenders. + </p> + <p> + There are several species of impositions that have been practised in + science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which it + may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary + understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, forging, + trimming, and cooking. + </p> + <p> + OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In the + year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an account of + a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great minuteness, + one species, the specific name of which has been taken from its habitat, + and the generic he took from his own family, calling it Gioenia Sicula. It + consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by the body of the + animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures of the animal, and of + its parts; described its structure, its mode of advancing along the sand, + the figure of the tract it left, and estimated the velocity of its course + at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He then described the structure + of the shell, which he treated with nitric acid, and found it approach + nearer to the nature of bone than any other shell. + </p> + <p> + The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this description, + and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact, however, is, that + no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, finding on the + Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the species of Bulla, + of which some are found on the south-western coast of England, [Bulla + lignaria] described and figured these bones most accurately, and drew the + whole of the rest of the description from the stores of his own + imagination. + </p> + <p> + Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been made + for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies which + had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered, that + the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness is very + far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any creature for + which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the neck of the + plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, unless the + memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to outweigh the + evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction which is here + alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained final causes; for + instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed animals, is in no case + combined with the claw-shaped form of the extremities, frequent in many of + the carniverous animals, and necessary to some of them for the purpose of + seizing their prey] it can only be regarded as a deception, without the + accompaniment of wit. + </p> + <p> + FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is + intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of + those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to + acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has never + made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations by + calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. The + observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by the + Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at length + proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The pretended + observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any possible + orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of the + observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost + precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the + logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all the + rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + </p> + <p> + TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those + observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in sticking + them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable adjustment," + as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in science. + </p> + <p> + This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the + trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of + this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is the + same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a + reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect + for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position + of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect + him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + </p> + <p> + OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to + give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of the + highest degree of accuracy. + </p> + <p> + One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and + out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree. If a + hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he cannot + pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up. + </p> + <p> + Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not come + within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall + possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference in + the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy effect + in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still greater + accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used. + </p> + <p> + It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather + hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in + different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, + specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no + catalogue contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; + and if he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be + cruel to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, + however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons + might fall. + </p> + <p> + If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes + them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they been + computed from other catalogues the difference would have been + considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for—those + catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or—they may have + been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments; or—the + observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + </p> + <p> + It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by the + highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet they + will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which the + skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry himself + triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of such + constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative merits + of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with admirable + candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to Gauss, and + to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used by three + such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord to a + miracle. + </p> + <p> + There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those + who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in my + opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, it must require much time to try different formulae. + In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human knowledge, + more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may be determined + with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some physical + circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at the time) + the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered from other + contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, the state of + the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of observations has + been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with the latest + determination, there is some little danger that the average of the whole + may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law of nature, + dependent on the interval between the two sets, which law some future + philosopher may discover, and thus the very best observations may have + been thrown aside. + </p> + <p> + In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably happen + that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled accuracy + at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the effect of + rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for that part of + the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is generally so + unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations of those in whom + they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the artist. In fact, the + character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted is destroyed. + </p> + <p> + The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even + after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and a + few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed by + the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been lost; + and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and boiling + water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained useless + from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. M. Libri, + of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing their + registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some warm + springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during a + century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced. + </p> + <p> + Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor of + Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of the + legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain word + had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before the + court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed + themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those who + committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the + colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless matter + remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the solvent having + weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the supposed letters) that + the effect of the slow application of heat would be to render some + difference of texture or of applied substance evident, by some variety in + the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances might be expected to + produce. Permission having been given to try the experiment, on the + application of heat the important word reappeared, to the great + satisfaction of the court. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT19" id="link2H_SECT19"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS. + </h2> + + <p> + One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is to + be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names + added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little + firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times have + those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest, + proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the names + of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be matured, + were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, as having + sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job. + </p> + <p> + Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance, + when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more than + two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have occurred, + which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that members have + spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the contrary. + </p> + <p> + This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too + extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal + Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring + disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as strongly + as an officious interference and flippant manner do the charlatan, or the + trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that improper deference + which was long paid to every dictum of the President, and much of it to + that natural indisposition to take trouble on any point in which a man's + own interest is not immediately concerned. It is to be hoped, for the + credit of that learned body, that no anticipation of the next feast of St. + Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their disposition. [It may be + necessary to inform those who are not members of the Royal Society, that + this is the day on which those Fellows who choose, meet at Somerset House, + to register the names of the Council and Officers the President has been + pleased to appoint for the ensuing year; and who afterwards dine together, + for the purpose of praising each other over wine, which, until within + these few years, was PAID for out of the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse + was attacked by an enterprising reformer, and of course defended by the + coterie. It was, however, given up as too bad. The public may form some + idea of the feeling which prevails in the Council, when they are informed + that this practice was defended by one of the officers of the Society, on + the ground that, if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS + PERCENTAGE ON THE TAVERN BILLS.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT20" id="link2H_SECT20"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + </h2> + <p> + The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science + seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who + conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried until + the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform should be + attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether the + practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy + imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two + sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement; but + the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and Geological + Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the period of his + reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society over which he + presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the officers of those + Societies, would become impossible if it were required to be continued for + a much longer period. Another circumstance of considerable importance is, + that the personal character of the President is less impressed on the + Society; and, supposing any injudicious alterations to be made, it is much + less difficult to correct them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT21" id="link2H_SECT21"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS + </h2> + <p> + IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </p> + <p> + The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after by + medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional efforts, + and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the pages of the + Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain medical papers of + very moderate merit; and, in the second, the preponderance of the medical + interest introduces into the Society some of the jealousies of that + profession. On the other hand, medicine is intimately connected with many + sciences, and its professors are usually too much occupied in their + practice to exert themselves, except upon great occasions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT22" id="link2H_SECT22"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more popular + and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen, partly + from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the decline of the + Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would otherwise have + occupied in the science of England. Its general effects in diffusing + knowledge among the more educated classes of the metropolis, have been, + and continue to be, valuable. Its influence, however, in the government of + the Royal Society, is by no means attended with similar advantages, and + has justly been viewed with considerable jealousy by many of the Fellows + of that body. It may be stated, without disparagement to the Royal + Institution, that the scientific qualifications necessary for its + officers, however respectable, are not quite of that high order which + ought to be required for those of the Royal Society, if the latter body + were in a state of vigour. + </p> + <p> + The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one + of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they + have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put to + this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the + officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal + Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of + services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a + stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager or + officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold + office in the Royal Society. + </p> + <p> + The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their + power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes + of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage by + those who doubt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT23" id="link2H_SECT23"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + </h2> + <p> + The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign + academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The + volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in the + preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a + meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals, + without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom that + selection and that award have been made. + </p> + <p> + Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one + point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the + highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes + of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at + intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate + publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and + publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper was + really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be added, + the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing, a + circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other + societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which + the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, + however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely + allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are placed + in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation, and for + the interests of science. + </p> + <p> + It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the first + scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be thus + negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the more to be + regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the circumstance, that + the memoirs admitted into their collection are usually of the highest + merit. I know some of their most active members have wished it were + otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a practice, which, whilst it + has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust to those who contribute, and + is only calculated to produce conflicting claims, equally injurious to + science, and to the reputation of that body, whose negligence may have + given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, + observes—"This memoir was read to the Institute, 7th of October, + 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of January, 1818; M. Arago's report + on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and while every optical philosopher in + Europe has been impatiently expecting its appearance for seven years, it + lies as yet unpublished, and is only known to us by meagre notices in a + periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.—ENCYCLOPAEDIA + METROPOLITANA.] + </p> + <p> + One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in the + volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our own + members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a means of + giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800 copies of + the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to our members or + to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was taken in our volume + for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, nor of the conditions + under which they were to be distributed. [That the Council refrained from + having their first award of those medals thus communicated, is rather + creditable to them, and proves that they had a becoming feeling respecting + their former errors.] That in 1828, when a new fund, called the donation + fund, was established, and through the liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. + Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by them with the respective sums of 2,000L. + and 1,000L. 3 per cents; no notice of such fact appears in our + Transactions for 1829. Other gentlemen have contributed; and if it is + desirable to possess such a fund, it is surely of importance to inform the + non-attending, which is by far the largest part of the Society, that it + exists; and that we are grateful to those by whom it has been founded and + augmented. Neither did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent + members, that they could purchase the President's Discourses at the + trade-price. + </p> + <p> + The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is + printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical + Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with a + single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own + library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the names + of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute to + prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it would + also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on the + distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the + practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be made + up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they might + appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the plan of + prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would be preferable + to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason, however, appeared at + last. It was objected to the plan, that by the present arrangement, the + porter of the Royal Society took round the list to those members resident + in London, and got from some of them a remuneration, in the shape of a + Christmas-box; and this would be lost, if the time of printing were + changed. [During the printing of this chapter, a friend, on whom I had + called, complained that the porter of the Royal Society had demanded + half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such are the paltry interests to which + those of the Royal Society are made to bow. + </p> + <p> + Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume, is + the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals are made. + It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with the Statutes of + the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of members, and it is + for the credit of the medals themselves, that the laws which regulate + their award should be widely known, in order that persons, not members of + the Society, might enter into competition for them. + </p> + <p> + Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society + would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society + had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each year, + would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to be given + with each volume of our Transactions. + </p> + <p> + The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society, and + those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many + arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases, + injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible. + </p> + <p> + Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the + Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are + interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800 + copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them + altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for + distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense of + printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage would + accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the Universities, + public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases, be disposed to + present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies of their works, if + they knew that they were likely to be placed in the hands of persons who + would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional copies might, in some cases, + not be objected to on the ground of expense, when seven or eight hundred + would be quite out of the question. + </p> + <p> + Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical process + to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public body; it + will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on the + Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the case. + If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over to the + Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant with + chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of the work + were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had contributed + most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all probability be + placed in the fittest hands. + </p> + <p> + Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become extremely + bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the knowledge of + the many valuable papers they contain would not be much spread, by + publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the ordinary + meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, would + contain all that has been done in this way during the last century. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the + proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of + all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular + subject. + </p> + <p> + Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever + been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better + able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the + Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT24" id="link2H_SECT24"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. + </h2> + <p> + Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution of + an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that whilst + in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for the purpose + of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the arts of life, + or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the kind has been + established in England. [At the great meeting of the philosophers at + Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the Appendix; the respect + in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt were held in their + respective countries was apparent in the orders bestowed on them by the + Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover, and of Prussia; and there + were present many other philosophers, whose decorations sufficiently + attested the respect in which science was held in the countries from which + they came.] + </p> + <p> + Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction. It + has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a + cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has been + objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary distinctions + by making them common. The latter objection is of little weight, because + the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, will long continue + so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting the number of the + order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar class of another + order. Another objection, however, appears to me to possess far greater + weight; and, however strong the disposition of the Government might be (if + such an order existed) to fill it properly, I do not believe that, in the + present state of public opinion respecting science, it could be done, and, + in all probability, it would be filled up through the channels of + patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + </p> + <p> + Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which it + may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would be + considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the greatest + scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention political causes, + the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited from the army, the + navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that man, whose name is + imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be enrolled amongst the + nobility of his country? In utility and profit, not merely to that + country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly claim comparison + even with the most splendid of those achieved by classes so rich in + glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases fatal to such a + course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title, unless a + considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance very rarely + occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be removed, by + creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until there existed + some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and a sound state of + public opinion relative to science, the execution of the plan could only + be injurious. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT25" id="link2H_SECT25"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + </h2> + <p> + This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to + considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies + could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable economy + would result from the union. By properly arranging their evenings of + meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The libraries might + either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and such a system would + greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific persons. + </p> + <p> + Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different societies + to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but although, on some + accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for the purpose of their + having a common residence. + </p> + <p> + The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first + to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of + diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and + ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But even + here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a little + particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately + attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with + them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society are + far from imitating. + </p> + <p> + The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of + resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and + though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union + which might be generally advantageous to science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_CONC" id="link2H_CONC"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CONCLUSION. + </h2> + <p> + In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so + recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused + if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of Davy. + Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends shall be + cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls their cherished + forms, invested with all the life and energy of recent existence, the + volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their contemporaries can expect + only to read their eloge. + </p> + <p> + In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals, + sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their + minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to + view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated by + the eyes of long and very intimate friendship. + </p> + <p> + Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character of + Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of principles, + would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned his philosophical, + to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral character. It may indeed + be questioned whether the latter quality will not in all persons of great + abilities produce the former. + </p> + <p> + Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of Davy, and + with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest conclusions to + which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a more common + attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was in possession + of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the world, doubtful + perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident in his own + powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping some part of + that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must still fall to his + own share. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of the + inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated, when + he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he brought + all the information that he could collect from others, or which arose from + his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he delivered it to + the world. + </p> + <p> + The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and + distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know; and + this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution. + </p> + <p> + It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except + himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and + affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of + manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those who + sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He usually, + by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer knew upon + the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance commenced, a + process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking up the subject + at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly explain it. + </p> + <p> + His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since, when + I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics, I + applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground of + its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought it + would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none + whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the + state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several + times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the + age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this as + in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended and retained + all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary applications of + mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed greater command over + those subjects than many of far more extensive knowledge. + </p> + <p> + In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant + principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it was + the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have been a + poet; Davy might have been a great one. + </p> + <p> + A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished + philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by + minds even of the highest order. + </p> + <p> + About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression + of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to + bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it, + which I will presently mention. + </p> + <p> + Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I proposed + this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are mixed + together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so + condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the + gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think + they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they + would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired + whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did + not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed. + </p> + <p> + A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He at + once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring + whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was a + good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it must + succeed. + </p> + <p> + These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to have + recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it adds to + the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr. + Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose from the + nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining unchanged, + an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose discoveries + had given birth to it. + </p> + <p> + [The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be of + the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which it + was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite + proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of one + atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it + occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of + success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one + substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the + mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess + which resulted from their union, then either that such union would + actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be most + favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or other + causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to follow, that + if combination should take place under such circumstances, then the most + probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should be that which + furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but until the experiments + are made, it is by no means certain that other combinations might not be + produced.] + </p> + <p> + The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr. + Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all those + who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the methods + he employed deserve to be much more widely known. + </p> + <p> + It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been + adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of + the bodily senses of the individual,—a circumstance which, if it + were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am, + however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it + one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + </p> + <p> + During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute + experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any remarkable + difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either of his + hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other persons + who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's observatory, + and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of his equatorial; + but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to TEACH ME HOW TO + SEE THEM.] + </p> + <p> + He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his, + and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made + relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone + which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe + this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds had + been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed their + faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + </p> + <p> + It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such + inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could + command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A + striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen, + FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ + of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough. + Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar spectrum + by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my replying in + the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them, he mentioned the + extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's description in his + hand and the long time which it had cost him in detecting them. My friend + then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and put you in such a position + that they shall be visible, and yet you shall look for them and not find + them: after which, while you remain in the same position, I will instruct + you how to see them, and you shall see them, and not merely wonder you did + not see them before, but you shall find it impossible to look at the + spectrum without seeing them." + </p> + <p> + On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I did + not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen, when + the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied with + such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of precipitation + the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in a gallon of a + solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so slight, as to + require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous evaporation, + quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the solution more + concentrated. + </p> + <p> + The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and the + extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands like + those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I have + thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider its + true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that injustice + has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing to some of his + bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to have depended on + the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. And, in the next + place, if I have established the fact, whilst it affords us better means + of judging of such observations as lay claim to an accuracy "MORE THAN + HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer into truth, a path by which + he may acquire powers that he would otherwise have thought were only the + gift of nature to a favoured few. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 1. + </h2> + <p> + In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science + at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that its + influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting to be held + in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria having + expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords should be + given to promote its objects. + </p> + <p> + It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been + considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced + of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the + numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the paths + of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those of + politics. + </p> + <p> + ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF + SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829. + </p> + <p> + The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences + meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe, is + a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention, from + the important advantages which may arise from it. + </p> + <p> + About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an + annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine and + botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at Leipsic, + in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg, Frankfort on + the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had printed a + certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects were + considered members of this academy. + </p> + <p> + The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the + communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced + an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge were + admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure + mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy. + </p> + <p> + Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the + academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting, which + took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year. + </p> + <p> + The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed by + any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans. + </p> + <p> + The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made + knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians + previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have + impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that + its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there + is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for + their possessors the road to wealth and distinction. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the numbers + of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which is + annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The + universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the + wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by + friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age; + whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of + acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes + his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them + the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the + advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or occupied + in similar inquiries. + </p> + <p> + Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as secretary + of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most ably + seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + </p> + <p> + These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin, + undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the + accommodation of the meeting. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377 members + of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were printed in a + small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number, to indicate his + seat in the great concert room, in which the morning meetings took place. + Each member was also provided with an engraved card of the hall of + meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed in black ink, and + his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every person immediately + found his own place, and knew where to look for any friend whom he might + wish to find. + </p> + <p> + At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being + assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage + of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the side-boxes + being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and by the foreign + ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the eloquent address + of the president. + </p> + <p> + SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and + Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.—By + ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + </p> + <p> + Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted to + open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of + gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never + yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of + scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover new + phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored depths of + nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to me. You have + assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, and in a distant + quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same cause with yourselves, I + was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have likewise greeted my return + home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude, you might bind me still longer + and closer to our common country. + </p> + <p> + What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more + agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for the + first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the birth-place + of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the Baltic plains; + from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the beneficent + influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have for centuries + been collected and investigated, the friends of nature, inspired with the + same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock together to this + assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is used, and its peculiar + structure affects the spirit and disposition of the people. From the Great + European Alps, to the other side of the Weichsel, where, in the country of + Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed splendour; everywhere in the + extensive dominions of the German nation we attempt to discover the secret + operations of nature, whether in the heavens, or in the deepest problems + of mechanics, or in the interior of the earth, or in the finely woven + tissues of organic structure. + </p> + <p> + Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in + interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion or + form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests itself + as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of truth and + performance of duty are the highest object of morality, that feeling of + unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion, constitution, and laws + of our country, have rendered dear to each of us. Even this emulation in + mental struggles has called forth (as the glorious history of our country + tells us,) the fairest blossoms of humanity, science, and art. + </p> + <p> + The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its last + meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through the + flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone with + peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance between + Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North. + </p> + <p> + Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it unexpectedly + increases the mass of facts and opinions which are here brought into one + common and useful union. It also recalls lofty recollections into the mind + of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century has elapsed since Linne + appears, in the boldness of the undertakings which he has attempted and + accomplished, as one of the greatest men of the last century. His glory, + however bright, has not rendered Europe blind to the merits of Scheele and + Bergman. The catalogue of these great names is not completed; but lest I + shall offend noble modesty, I dare not speak of the light which is still + flowing in richest profusion from the North, nor mention the discoveries + in the chemical nature of substances, in the numerical relation of their + elements, or the eddying streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The + philosophers here referred to are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those + excellent persons, who, deterred neither by perils of sea or land, have + hastened to our meeting from Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, + and Poland, point our the way to other strangers in succeeding years, so + that by turns every part of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific + communication with the different nations of Europe. + </p> + <p> + But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings in + presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the + patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard for + those lives so dear to their country;—Goethe, whom the great + creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the ARCANA + of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely friend, + as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;—Olbers, who has + discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be + found;—the greatest anatomists of our age—Soemmering, who, + with equal zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and + the spots and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the + photosphere;) Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his + works and his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of + comparative anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and + who has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the + temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat, + as we are not favoured with their presence? + </p> + <p> + These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the + progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to the + obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our + fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist, as + in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual interchange + of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be printed in some + general collection. The principal object of this Society is, to bring + those personally together who are engaged in the same field of science. It + is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange of ideas, whether + they present themselves as facts, opinions, or doubts. It is the + foundation of friendly connexion which throws light on science, adds + cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to the manners. + </p> + <p> + In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction between + words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst a race, + which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual superiority, and + to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the shipwreck of nations, + we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It was not the difficulty of + interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of German science, which has + spread thought as on wings through the world, and insured it a long + continuance, that then induced the friends of philosophy and natural + history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander on long journeys. That + ancient race knew the inspiring influence of conversation as it + extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates the tissue of + scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth without + difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its greatest + extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time. Each step, + which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his object, only + carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of doubt does not + diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and new fields; and + whoever has called that a golden period, when difference of opinions, or, + as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes of the learned, will be + finished, has as imperfect a conception of the wants of science, and of + its continued advancement, as a person who expects that the same opinions + in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, will be maintained for several + centuries. + </p> + <p> + The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature, + have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical + knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy. + The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here, + therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type of + the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In his + physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us a + distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted + object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific + investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it is not + to break that link which embraces equally the investigation of organic and + inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily developement of this + institution renders it necessary, besides the general meeting which is + destined for these halls, to have specific meetings for single branches of + science. For it is only in such contracted circles,—it is only among + men whom reciprocity of studies has brought together, that verbal + discussions can take place. Without this sort of communication, would the + voluntary association of men in search of truth be deprived of an + inspiring principle. + </p> + <p> + Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement of + the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility of + such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations will + meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding you, + that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the duty of + making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble friend, M. + Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and indefatigable + activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit which animates + the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy, and in + acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have seconded + all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness. + </p> + <p> + In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been + prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums + dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to + the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The + greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like the + University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to which + the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have during + this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The + amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our + minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that + great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year this + royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of still + greater value than the treasures themselves,—what inspires every + Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the + ancient reigning family,—that he graciously attaches to himself + every species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection + to the free cultivation of the understanding. + </p> + <p> + This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and + several other memoirs were then read. + </p> + <p> + The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were + present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those who + chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had been + foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense building + used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this purpose. + One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were arranged, at + which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On the evening of + the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the concert rooms + attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on this occasion, + and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his presence the fete of + his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the country, foreign princes, + and foreign ambassadors, were present. It was gratifying to observe the + princes of the blood mingling with the cultivators of science, and to see + the heir-apparent to the throne, during the course of the evening, engaged + in conversation with those most celebrated for their talents, of his own, + or of other countries. + </p> + <p> + Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration + of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert, were + printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most illustrious + philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in letters of gold + at the end of the great concert room. + </p> + <p> + In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, enrolls + amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as well she may + be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius of the first + Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to claim as + entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name. + </p> + <p> + The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting of the + academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In the afternoon, + through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M. Lichtenstein, various + rooms were appropriated for different sections of the academy. In one, the + chemical philosophers attended to some chemical memoir, whilst the + botanists assembled in another room, the physiologists in a third, and the + natural philosophers in a fourth. Each attended to the reading of papers + connected with their several sciences. Thus every member was at liberty to + choose that section in which he felt most interest at the moment, and he + had at all times power of access to the others. The evenings were + generally spent at some of the SOIREES of the savans, resident at Berlin, + whose hospitality and attentions to their learned brethren of other + countries were unbounded. During the unoccupied hours of the morning, the + collections of natural history, which are rapidly rising into importance, + were open to examination; and the various professors and directors who + assisted the stranger in his inquiries, left him equally gratified by the + knowledge and urbanity of those who so kindly aided him. + </p> + <p> + A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which had + sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers sent by + different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was attached to + it;— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Russia......... 1 + Austria........ 0 + England........ 1 + Holland........ 2 + Denmark........ 7 + France ........ 1 + Sardinia ....... 0 + Prussia........ 95 + Bavaria........ 12 + Hanover........ 5 + Saxony ........ 21 + Wirtemburg ...... 2 + Sweden ........ 13 + Naples ........ 1 + Poland ........ 3 + German States..... 43 + —- 206 + Berlin ....... 172 + —- 378 +</pre> + <p> + The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared, + was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more eminent + who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge. The + following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will afford, + perhaps, a tolerably fair view:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Geometers............. 11 + Astronomers........... 5 + Natural Philosophers . 23 + — 39 + + Mines............ 5 + Mineralogy ...... 16 + Geology.......... 9 + — 30 + + Chemistry........... 18 + Geography........... 8 + Anatomy............. 12 + + Zoology............ 14 + Natural History.... 8 + Botany.............. 35 + — 57 + + Physicians....... 175 + Amateurs ....... 9 + Various ......... 35 + —-381 +</pre> + <p> + A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed + that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all those + persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the past and + present age. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE2" id="link2H_APPE2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 2. + </h2> + <p> + An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four + candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the + meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed + pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the + charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member to + judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to show + how the ranks of the Society are recruited. + </p> + <p> + EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. DATED, + 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + </p> + <p> + "When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me + why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer + was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that + my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days + passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality + made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really through + modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until something was + said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, which was + published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal Society; when + you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, because I was and + am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if I can be supposed + worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + </p> + <p> + EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED, + BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + </p> + <p> + "All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission + into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject + upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary." + </p> + <p> + Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the Royal + Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries, pressing + one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on proposing him as, + a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been well aware of the + feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to the propriety of such a + step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite satisfied that such a course + is advantageous to the interests of the Society. That similar applications + were not unfrequently made in private, is well known; but it remains for + the Society to consider whether, now they are publicly and officially + announced to them, it will sanction this mode of augmenting the already + numerous list of its fellows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE3" id="link2H_APPE3"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX, No. 3, + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE + </h2> + <p> + PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + </p> + <p> + N. B.—The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, + but only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + No. of No. of + Papers years on + printed Council. + in Phil. + Trans.———— ———- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. + 109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. +</pre> + <p> + I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal + Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for + which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission to + employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes, or + from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised at + receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, those + adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety of many + individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a different + opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy, I shall + decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has been + already published in many ways, although the whole has never been printed + in a collected form. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1216 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |