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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1176 ***
+
+ON HORSEMANSHIP
+
+By Xenophon
+
+Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+
+
+
+     Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
+     pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
+     and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
+     and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
+     years before having to move once more, to settle
+     in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
+
+     On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy
+     a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a
+     war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some
+     words on military equipment for a cavalryman.
+
+
+
+
+PREPARER'S NOTE
+
+This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a
+four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is
+doubt about some of these) is:
+
+     Work                                   Number of books
+
+     The Anabasis                                         7
+     The Hellenica                                        7
+     The Cyropaedia                                       8
+     The Memorabilia                                      4
+     The Symposium                                        1
+     The Economist                                        1
+     On Horsemanship                                      1
+     The Sportsman                                        1
+     The Cavalry General                                  1
+     The Apology                                          1
+     On Revenues                                          1
+     The Hiero                                            1
+     The Agesilaus                                        1
+     The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians   2
+
+     Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
+     English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
+     diacritical marks have been lost.
+
+
+
+
+ON HORSEMANSHIP
+
+
+I
+
+Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1)
+ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to
+explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be
+the most correct method of dealing with horses.
+
+ (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time
+    'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in
+    horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we
+    conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing
+    with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a
+    {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more
+    particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of
+    cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is
+    commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.
+    14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.
+
+There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
+same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens
+(2) with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the
+pedestal. (3) But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise
+any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author; on the
+contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to our
+friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from the
+fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to our
+own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we shall
+endeavour to supply them.
+
+ (2) L. Dind.  (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this
+    sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.
+    296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.
+    230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,
+    "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of
+    the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The
+    MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that
+    one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.
+    "Knights," 242.
+
+{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate
+pros to dexion keras};
+
+bears the name.
+
+ (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own
+    performances."
+
+As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
+avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.
+
+Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
+must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted
+can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
+therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be
+the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its
+upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought
+to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in
+particular a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent
+his other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good
+account. (5)
+
+ (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see
+    "Mem." III. i. 7.
+
+ (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:
+
+regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si
+facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
+quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.
+
+and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.
+
+In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion
+of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a
+thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both
+before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the
+"frog," (6) as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof
+treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike,
+the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good
+foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof
+rings like a cymbal against the solid earth. (9)
+
+ (6) Lit. "the swallow."
+
+ (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.
+    1892), pp. 3, 9.
+
+ (8) Or, "and he is right."
+
+ (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.
+
+And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point
+to the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the
+fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not
+being properly elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and
+are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must
+not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when
+the horse is galloped over clods and stones.
+
+ (10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be
+    'sloping.'"
+
+ (11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch
+    like anvil to hammer."
+
+The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the
+columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not
+puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they
+will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set
+up, (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and
+with this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start
+and render the horse lame.
+
+ (12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."
+
+ (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell
+    whilst the skin recedes from the bone."
+
+ (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,
+    and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part
+    in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be
+    termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.
+
+If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
+conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
+since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15)
+Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as
+they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than
+those of stiffer build.
+
+ (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."
+
+Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if
+thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just
+as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is
+better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the
+legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one
+another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the
+chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should
+shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature;
+whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the
+neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will command what
+lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, however
+spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, (18) since
+it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and head that a
+horse endeavours to assert his power. (19)
+
+ (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished
+    from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to
+    our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically
+    speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.
+
+ (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).
+
+ (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."
+
+ (19) Or, "to display violence or run away."
+
+It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one
+or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable
+to become hard-mouthed on one side.
+
+ (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."
+
+Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness,
+and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.
+
+And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a
+contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect.
+Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or
+when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become
+dilated.
+
+ (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he
+    distends his nostrils."
+
+A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
+horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the
+rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the
+body. (22)
+
+ (22) Or if with L. D.  ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the
+    horse's shoulders."
+
+A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single,
+and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat
+rounded towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to
+sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food.
+(25)
+
+ (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.
+    87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in
+    good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like
+    a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a
+    full back," as we say.
+
+ (24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la
+    Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits
+    par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.
+
+ (25) i.e. "and keep in good condition."
+
+The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise
+his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these
+points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion
+of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to
+make the horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26)
+
+ (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."
+
+The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides
+and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be
+all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every
+way more fleet.
+
+To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these
+separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant
+his hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing
+will assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more
+firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.
+
+ (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."
+
+ (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.
+    Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me
+    diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."
+
+ (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.
+
+ (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the
+    horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.
+    cit. p. 126).
+
+The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a
+man wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by
+bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together.
+
+A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to
+be determined in the colt.
+
+And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and
+fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
+about those of the fore-legs.
+
+ (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)
+    knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the
+    os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.
+
+I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable
+size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment
+of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being--and it
+holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)--that with advance of time the
+legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows uniformly
+up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry.
+
+ (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.
+    H." xi. 108.
+
+Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with
+every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal
+fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop
+during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our tests in
+confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will
+turn out serviceable, (34) than that a foal of the above description
+will turn out ugly or defective.
+
+ (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us
+    the purchaser will get," etc.
+
+ (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"
+    i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.
+    Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.
+    {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."
+
+
+
+II
+
+The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands.
+(1) As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually
+devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a
+considerable share in the government; (3) and it seems far better for
+a young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship,
+or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres,
+than that he should set up as a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has
+his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of
+state or of war, on which to employ his time and energies rather than on
+horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one holding my views (5) on
+the subject will put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing he
+ought to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices his
+son to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of knowledge the
+young creature is to be sent back possessed of. These will serve as
+indications (6) to the trainer what points he must pay special heed to
+if he is to earn his fee. At the same time pains should be taken on
+the owner's part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, and
+affectionate, (7) when delivered to the professional trainer. That is a
+condition of things which for the most part may be brought about at home
+and by the groom--if he knows how to let the animal connect (8) hunger
+and thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associating
+food and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presence
+of man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse
+will acquire--not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for human
+beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting those
+parts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. These
+are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, the
+horse can least of all apply relief himself.
+
+ (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,
+    may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service
+    in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,
+    "Notes," p. 84.
+
+ (2) "Organisation in the several states."
+
+ (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the
+    state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that
+    are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.
+
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.
+
+ (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which
+    he started.
+
+ (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft
+    in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."
+
+ (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."
+
+ (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,
+    should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,
+    etc., come through help of man."
+
+The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds,
+and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the
+colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him--not by
+cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really formidable.
+
+ (9) Or, "is disposed to shy."
+
+On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I
+think, suffice for any private individual.
+
+ (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will
+    perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an
+    amateur."
+
+
+
+III
+
+To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit
+for riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied
+intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.
+
+ (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to
+    be cheated."
+
+First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse
+has lost his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be
+blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain.
+(3)
+
+ (2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See
+    Morgan, p. 126.
+
+ (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to
+    gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed
+    of."
+
+Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no
+mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth
+and the headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity
+on this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again
+removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse
+stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the
+approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them
+enforced exertion.
+
+ (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.
+
+Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
+induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of
+horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some
+horses again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the
+exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected
+by the exercise called the {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by
+varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses will
+not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth along
+with an avenue of escape home. (6)
+
+ (5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage
+    below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.
+
+ (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home
+    combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the
+    exit from the manege or riding school."
+
+Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at
+full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel
+round in obedience to the rein.
+
+ (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For
+    {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."
+
+It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
+purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one
+knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will
+not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play
+the part of an arrant traitor.
+
+And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
+war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
+bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
+scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
+galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
+slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the
+endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.
+
+I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform
+all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since
+many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want
+of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will
+come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and
+free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a
+nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the
+rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but
+is as likely as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into
+the worst of straits.
+
+We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other
+horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such
+defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.
+
+ (8) Or, "very ticklish."
+
+As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,
+dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact
+idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try
+and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began
+your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to
+undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and
+endurance.
+
+ (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and
+    twirlings about."
+
+To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
+gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all
+things (10) obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will
+give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
+circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
+sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing
+and manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands
+and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.
+
+ (10) Al. "thoroughly."
+
+
+
+IV
+
+We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires;
+(1) the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how is he to
+be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter
+of the establishment where the master will see the horse as often as
+possible. (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that
+there will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the
+manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect
+a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of
+danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb,
+to the safe keeping of his horse.
+
+ (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire
+    and have brought him home."
+
+ (2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the
+    master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.
+
+Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
+horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse
+takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any
+one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom
+either of too much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of
+over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of
+indigestion (4) or some other malady is coming on. And just as with
+human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at their
+commencement (5) than after they have become chronic, or been wrongly
+treated. (6)
+
+ (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood."
+
+ (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.
+    "H. A." viii. 24. 4.
+
+ (5) i.e. "in the early acute stages."
+
+ (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread."
+
+But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body
+are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay
+attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil
+the best hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being
+damp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved
+with cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size
+to the horse's hoofs. (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated
+to strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part in
+standing. In the next place it will be the groom's business to lead out
+the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and after his morning's feed
+to unhalter him from the manger, (9) so that he may come to his evening
+meal with greater relish. To secure the best type of stable-yard, and
+with a view to strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to take
+and throw down loosely (10) four or five waggon loads of pebbles, each
+as large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in weight; the
+whole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron to prevent scattering.
+The mere standing on these will come to precisely the same thing as if
+for a certain portion of the day the horse were, off and on, stepping
+along a stony road; whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he
+will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor
+is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend to
+harden the frog of the foot also.
+
+ (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good
+    hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their
+    horses.
+
+ (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself
+    at Bari.
+
+ (9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16.
+
+ (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface."
+
+But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be
+taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances
+which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and
+supple a horse's mouth. (11)
+
+ (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e.
+    bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201.
+
+
+
+V
+
+It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained
+thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first
+place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter
+(1) at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By
+constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not
+sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring
+himself; (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should
+show peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.
+
+ (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie."
+
+ (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to
+    one will make a sore."
+
+It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung
+and litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will
+discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same
+time be doing the horse a kindness.
+
+ (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way."
+
+The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's
+mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground.
+(4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere
+without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration,
+prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of
+opportunity for vice. (5)
+
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.
+
+ (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs."
+
+Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above
+his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of
+anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this
+upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of
+snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the
+head and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse
+the lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the
+hair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then
+beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on the
+spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrument
+whatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the
+direction of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury that part
+of the horse's back on which the rider sits.
+
+The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you
+try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused.
+So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which
+it is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare
+away from the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must
+suppose, (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large
+ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the
+eyes. (7) The tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being
+to help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to allow the creature
+the greatest reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and
+those of the neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as
+possible.
+
+ (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..."
+
+ (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks."
+
+ (8) Insects, etc.
+
+Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the
+horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a
+brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily
+suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take
+care to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10)
+
+ (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310.
+
+ (10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii.
+    42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan
+    aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de
+    penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A).
+
+Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is done
+but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive
+cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is
+most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the
+thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly.
+Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is
+no sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had
+not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for
+the legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient.
+
+
+
+VI
+
+We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with
+least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom
+attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the
+horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's
+knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite
+direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his
+leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He
+will then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by
+folding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way.
+
+The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this
+and all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little
+as possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse
+attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by
+approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse
+with the least risk of injury to himself.
+
+When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in
+front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself
+of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to
+do what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the
+plan of training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead
+the way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of
+mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the
+power also to turn right about and face his driver. How can a troop
+of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this fashion from
+behind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the side will have
+least power of mischief to horse or man, and at the same time be in the
+best position to be mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were it
+necessary.
+
+ (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage
+    ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti
+    abolos estin}.
+
+In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first
+place, approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing
+the reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the
+headstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the
+horse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of
+the headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold
+the bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3)
+of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their
+mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must
+press the lip against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit,
+when that is done to them. (5)
+
+ (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side."
+
+ (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8.
+
+ (4) i.e. "canine tooth."
+
+ (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth
+    under the circumstances."
+
+The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if
+any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse
+should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will
+not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only
+when he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and
+when he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he
+learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him.
+
+ (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade...
+    paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc.,
+    {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse
+    must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but
+    {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either
+    case at this point.
+
+It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the
+Persian fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age
+the master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without
+trouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to
+mount him. (8)
+
+ (7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38.
+
+ (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7.
+
+The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is never
+to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it will
+often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret.
+(9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it,
+you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly
+if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the formidable
+object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The opposite
+plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies its
+fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a
+moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its
+cause.
+
+ (9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim.
+
+ (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal."
+
+If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows
+how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no
+fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and
+be able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since
+on another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot,
+(13) nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14)
+
+ (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad
+    loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era
+    began."
+
+ (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part."
+
+ (13) As a member of the cavalry.
+
+ (14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same
+    horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in
+    another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse.
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to
+mount. (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the
+interests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides.
+First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the
+chin-strap or nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack
+so as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by
+hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or
+to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right hand
+he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside the
+shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any way wrench the horse's
+mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring off
+the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his body by help of the
+left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward movement
+(5) (a position in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle also
+from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg well bent, and taking
+care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass his leg
+clean over to the off side; and so having brought his foot well round,
+plant himself firmly on his seat. (7)
+
+ (1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or,
+    reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws
+    anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for
+    mounting."
+
+ (2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather
+    strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as
+    {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies.
+    "Curb" would be misleading.
+
+ (3) "Near the withers."
+
+ (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to
+    mounting."
+
+ (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if
+    {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff."
+
+ (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude
+    behind."
+
+ (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back."
+
+To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his
+horse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would
+be good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat
+from the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except
+to do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left,
+and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mounting
+is (8) that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to
+get astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points,
+supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden.
+
+ (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of
+    mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the
+    soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a
+    sudden, if occasion need."
+
+But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a
+saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but
+rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this
+way he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs;
+and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike
+a blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect.
+The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the
+leg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some
+obstacle; whereas a flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at
+the same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider should
+also accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple as
+possible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of
+a tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider is
+seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet,
+until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be, (10) and got
+the reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest fashion;
+and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to his side.
+This position will give the rider absolute ease and freedom, (11) and
+his hand the firmest hold.
+
+ (9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf."
+
+ (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle).
+
+ (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment."
+
+As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being
+weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds
+them can also grasp a spear.
+
+As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he
+should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement.
+If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held
+pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high.
+This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently,
+as he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs
+without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the
+gallop. (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left
+foot, it will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still
+trotting, the signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making
+a step with his right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting
+his left foot he will start upon it, and while turning left will
+simultaneously make the first bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a
+matter of instinct, a horse, on being turned to the right, leads off
+with his right limbs, and to the left with his left.
+
+ (12) "Forwards!"
+
+ (13) Or, "the true trot."
+
+ (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the
+    whip."
+
+ (15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I.
+    Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter."
+
+ (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the
+    gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc.
+
+As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it
+habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the
+order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of
+the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18)
+But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the
+circular; for the horse, being already sated with the straight course,
+will be all the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in
+the straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held
+up, (19) because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is
+at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or
+slippery.
+
+ (17) {pede}, figure of eight.
+
+ (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege."
+
+ (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi.
+    22, of a dog.
+
+ (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground."
+
+But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the
+horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own
+body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and
+his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes
+fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge
+him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings
+are with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise
+quickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems
+to have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight
+pause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his
+fellows first, (21) and now towards them; and then again to quiet him
+down in mid-career as short as possible; (22) and from halt once more
+to turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is easy to
+predict that the day will come when there will be need of each of these
+manoeuvres.
+
+ (21) {mentoi}, "of course."
+
+ (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible."
+
+When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among
+other horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the
+exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his
+compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24)
+
+ (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21.
+
+ (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed."
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race
+downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will
+need to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank;
+(1) or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself
+and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a
+chance of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their
+usefulness.
+
+ (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap
+    over ditches, and upon high places and down from them."
+
+And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on
+the ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same
+topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case,
+we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his
+bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)
+what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own
+horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done.
+
+ (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled."
+
+ (3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase.
+
+With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him
+by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench
+yourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce
+him to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should
+apply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a
+bound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite;
+and for the future there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere
+sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As
+soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put
+him first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the
+spring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap
+up and leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the critical
+instant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with the whole
+body, the horse will certainly perform them with more safety to himself
+and to his rider than he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a
+ditch or fence, or in making an upward spring or downward jump. (4)
+
+ (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or
+    down."
+
+To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and
+finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward
+to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which
+some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in
+galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the
+Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and
+their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6)
+
+ (5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day
+    (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1).
+
+ (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes."
+
+Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself
+to these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a
+gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less
+likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in
+pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a
+shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad
+plan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal
+may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground.
+In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back
+and hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled
+headforemost down the slope himself if not his horse.
+
+ (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences."
+
+ (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see
+    Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten,
+    pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade."
+
+It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone
+through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should
+sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will
+take much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and
+one routine.
+
+Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his
+seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the
+same time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing
+could be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals,
+than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when
+these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined
+efforts of two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive,
+retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed
+and plying the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins
+and his lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin
+range he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or
+whenever within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow.
+In coming to close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman
+towards oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a
+device to bring him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so
+dragged is to press his horse forward: by which action the man who is
+being dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought
+to the ground himself.
+
+ (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers."
+
+ (10) Or, "manipulated."
+
+ (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will
+    unhorse him if anything."
+
+If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry
+skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy
+right up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat),
+under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the
+skirmisher is close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike
+dictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he
+finds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well
+in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do the greatest
+mischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his hands.
+
+ (12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23.
+
+The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty
+by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not
+open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse
+learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does
+as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is
+disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of being
+stated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of
+horsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit,
+if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will
+leap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other feats
+incumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word of
+command with relaxation. (13)
+
+ (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to
+    expect some relaxation."
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the
+chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;
+secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your
+purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a
+horse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for
+the purposes of war.
+
+The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider
+should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or
+again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,
+that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in
+a man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by
+avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a
+spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the
+act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance;
+and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary
+time, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next,
+beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker
+step, but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed without
+noticing it. (1) Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just
+as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or other experience.
+(I say one should be aware that any unexpected shock will produce
+disturbance in a horse.) (2)
+
+ (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop."
+
+ (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious.
+
+So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a
+quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but
+quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather
+than compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather
+than the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace
+sustained for a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the
+reverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast and
+oft-repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and
+so to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; for
+under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the
+day by main force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man,
+may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief.
+
+ (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter
+    turns," {apostrophai}.
+
+ (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind.
+
+ (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by
+    sheer force."
+
+A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off
+at full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain
+from setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your
+fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6)
+
+ (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai
+    th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more
+    mettlesome he will tend to become."
+
+Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit
+be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as
+possible by lightness of hand.
+
+It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a
+quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to
+touch him as little as possible with anything except that part of the
+body necessary to secure a firm seat.
+
+Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet
+and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training
+school; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft
+soothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions
+with the "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the
+"chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle,
+at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should
+avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed,
+bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal. As far
+as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and, if
+circumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But the
+best advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the purposes
+of war.
+
+ (7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound
+    from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek.
+
+As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything
+the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal
+of high spirit.
+
+
+
+X
+
+But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You
+want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur
+of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the
+bit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted by people
+with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they thereby
+achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say,
+by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive
+to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they
+distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.
+(1) Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being
+ridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary,
+let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold
+his head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him
+perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and
+the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let
+loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will
+see him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with
+nervous vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his
+tail on high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he
+naturally assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what
+you are aiming at--a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and
+showy animal, the joy of all beholders.
+
+ (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are
+    thrown into disorder."
+
+ (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of
+    "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse.
+
+ (3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad
+    Merc."
+
+How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will
+now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have
+at least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good
+size; the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp
+spikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he
+will drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted
+with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough,
+he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out
+of contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase
+on it, and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the
+effect of which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece.
+It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by
+keeping it slack or taut.
+
+ (4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll.
+
+But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible.
+If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up
+bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a
+man takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other
+flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point
+at which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while
+perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the
+mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in
+the middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with
+his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws.
+
+ (5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit."
+
+ (6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223.
+
+ (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small
+    chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,'
+    with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it
+    about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it
+    may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from
+    writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses
+    forces.'"
+
+To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we
+will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have
+their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and
+where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture
+and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the
+several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each
+other, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may
+be, the rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as
+follows, if he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described.
+The horse's mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make
+him toss his head aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the
+pressure. But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give
+him the bit at once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at
+every response to your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs
+his service well, (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider
+perceives that the horse takes a pleasure in the high arching and
+supple play of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severe
+exertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and coax
+him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In this way the horse will be
+encouraged and fall into a rapid pace.
+
+ (8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work
+    into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the
+    join."
+
+ (9) "Behaves compliantly."
+
+That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown
+conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a
+trot or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a
+pleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to perform
+it to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing is
+pleasant if carried to excess. (10)
+
+ (10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}.
+
+But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we have
+accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into
+a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well
+by heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously
+giving him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one
+hand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the
+signal "off," will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with
+fiery spirit; though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play
+of the limbs ceases as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now,
+supposing when his fire is thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein,
+the effect is instantaneous. Under the pleasurable sense of freedom,
+thanks to the relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legs
+pliantly moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respect
+imitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other horses.
+Listen to the epithets with which spectators will describe the type of
+horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to work, what paces, (12)
+what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears himself (13)--a joy
+at once, and yet a terror to behold.
+
+ (11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life."
+
+ (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse."
+
+ (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon
+    idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor
+    Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148.
+
+Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special
+need.
+
+
+
+XI
+
+If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state
+processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities
+not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal
+must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a
+horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What
+we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and
+strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the
+region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be
+able to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so
+planting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his
+hind-legs on his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that
+any one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the
+sheath. (3) At the moment the horse does this, the rider should give
+him the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can
+perform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators.
+
+ (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys.
+    xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist.").
+
+ (2) See Berenger, ii. 68.
+
+ (3) Lit. "testicles."
+
+There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so
+by touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an
+attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the
+gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)
+as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does
+in obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and
+relaxation.
+
+ (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in
+    various ways--some by... others by bidding..."
+
+ (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf.
+    Herod. v. 58.
+
+To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does
+blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of
+a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or
+man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than
+of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own
+accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing,
+when he is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is
+bathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine
+effect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon
+it he will of his own accord another time break into the same
+prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes ride,
+as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is best
+discovered in the graceful handling of such animals. (8) A horse so
+prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel; riveting
+the gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They will never
+turn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so long
+as he continues to display his splendid action.
+
+ (6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say.
+
+ (7) Or, "exercising-ground."
+
+ (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature
+    gracefully himself at once appears magnificent."
+
+If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in
+the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must
+not confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour,
+but should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid
+spectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon
+the type of animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with
+his high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement
+forward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walking
+pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in the
+spectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of the
+procession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither too
+fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities in
+all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe
+for action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the
+collective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses
+will combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole company
+(10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.
+
+ (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}.
+    L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss.
+
+ (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An.
+    Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343.
+
+One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his
+horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing
+further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training
+for war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the
+stress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making
+every horse he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought
+it, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher than human
+interpose, (11) he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and
+himself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship.
+
+ (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man."
+    For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and
+    for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10.
+
+
+
+XII
+
+We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the
+risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place,
+then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person;
+since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole
+body; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to
+bear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm,
+but a "strait jacket." (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2)
+ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and
+close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought
+to be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to the nose.
+
+ (1) Cf. "Mem." III. x.
+
+ (2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326:
+
+{... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion
+estin.}
+
+"Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the
+most deadly spot" (W. Leaf).
+
+As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian
+pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts
+exposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point:
+the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its
+wearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals
+and parts surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in
+thickness sufficient to protect (5) that region.
+
+ (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149.
+
+ (4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj.
+    {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt."
+
+ (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to
+    protect the limbs."
+
+Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would
+recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which
+protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding
+the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition
+to which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The
+case is different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs
+raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any
+part of the corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in
+place of which the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the
+joints, which as the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm
+descends close tight again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will
+better be protected by a piece like a greave stretched over it than
+bound up with the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right hand
+is raised should be covered close to the corselet either with calfskin
+or with metal; or else there will be a want of protection just at the
+most vital point.
+
+ (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. & S. cf.
+    Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket
+    joints."
+
+ (7) i.e. "forearm."
+
+Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in
+extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet,
+breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time
+serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's
+belly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected.
+It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself
+should be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat,
+and yet not gall the horse's back.
+
+ (8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2.
+
+As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon
+as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which
+of course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed
+by the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making
+sandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins
+and stockings for the feet.
+
+The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of
+defence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather
+than the straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the
+horse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force than
+the ordinary weapon.
+
+ (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the
+    {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13.
+
+Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and
+awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10)
+the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one
+reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add
+to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but
+far more manageable.
+
+ (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences
+    perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I.
+    ii. 9.
+
+ (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl.
+
+As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the
+longest possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the
+second javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the
+most effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw
+forward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily
+from the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly
+upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and
+to the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at
+the moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object
+aimed at. (13)
+
+ (12) Al. "to turn right-about."
+
+ (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of
+    discharge."
+
+This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and
+exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the
+theory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be
+found developed in the companion treatise. (14)
+
+ (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Horsemanship, by Xenophon
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1176 ***
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+      On Horsemanship, by Xenophon
+    </title>
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+  <body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1176 ***</div>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br />
+    </p>
+    <h1>
+      ON HORSEMANSHIP
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By Xenophon
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+           Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
+           pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
+           and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
+           and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
+           years before having to move once more, to settle
+           in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
+
+           On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy
+           a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a
+           war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some
+           words on military equipment for a cavalryman.
+      </pre>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      Contents
+    </h2>
+    <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto">
+      <tr>
+        <td>
+          <p class="toc">
+            <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> PREPARER'S NOTE </a>
+          </p>
+          <p class="toc">
+            <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> ON HORSEMANSHIP </a>
+          </p>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+    </table>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      PREPARER'S NOTE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a four-volume
+      set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is doubt about
+      some of these) is:
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Work                                   Number of books
+
+     The Anabasis                                         7
+     The Hellenica                                        7
+     The Cyropaedia                                       8
+     The Memorabilia                                      4
+     The Symposium                                        1
+     The Economist                                        1
+     On Horsemanship                                      1
+     The Sportsman                                        1
+     The Cavalry General                                  1
+     The Apology                                          1
+     On Revenues                                          1
+     The Hiero                                            1
+     The Agesilaus                                        1
+     The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians   2
+
+     Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
+     English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
+     diacritical marks have been lost.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      ON HORSEMANSHIP
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      I
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1) ourselves,
+      as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to explain, for
+      the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be the most
+      correct method of dealing with horses.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time
+    'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in
+    horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we
+    conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing
+    with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a
+    {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more
+    particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of
+    cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is
+    commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.
+    14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
+      same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens (2) with
+      a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the pedestal. (3)
+      But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise any conclusions
+      in which we happen to agree with that author; on the contrary we shall
+      hand them on with still greater pleasure to our friends, in the belief
+      that we shall only gain in authority from the fact that so great an expert
+      in horsemanship held similar views to our own; whilst with regard to
+      matters omitted in his treatise, we shall endeavour to supply them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) L. Dind.  (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this
+    sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.
+    296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.
+    230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,
+    "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of
+    the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The
+    MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that
+    one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.
+    "Knights," 242.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      {andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate
+      pros to dexion keras};
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      bears the name.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own
+    performances."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
+      avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
+      must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted can
+      but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
+      therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be
+      the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its
+      upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought to
+      be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in particular
+      a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent his other
+      points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good account. (5)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see
+    "Mem." III. i. 7.
+
+ (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si
+      facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
+      quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion
+      of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a thin.
+      Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both before and
+      behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the "frog," (6) as it
+      is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof treads equally with the
+      stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, the gait resembling that of a
+      bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good foot clearly by the ring," says
+      Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the
+      solid earth. (9)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Lit. "the swallow."
+
+ (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.
+    1892), pp. 3, 9.
+
+ (8) Or, "and he is right."
+
+ (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point to
+      the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the fetlock
+      must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not being properly
+      elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and are more liable to
+      become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must not be too low, or
+      else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when the horse is galloped
+      over clods and stones.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be
+    'sloping.'"
+
+ (11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch
+    like anvil to hammer."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the
+      columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not puffed
+      out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they will
+      inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set up,
+      (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and with
+      this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start and
+      render the horse lame.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."
+
+ (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell
+    whilst the skin recedes from the bone."
+
+ (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,
+    and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part
+    in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be
+    termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
+      conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
+      since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15) Supple
+      knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as they do the
+      horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than those of
+      stiffer build.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if
+      thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just as in
+      the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is better
+      alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the legs well
+      asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one another.
+      Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the chest, like
+      a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should shoot upwards to
+      the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature; whilst the head should
+      be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the neck will be well in front
+      of the rider, and the eye will command what lies before the horse's feet.
+      A horse, moreover, of this build, however spirited, will be least capable
+      of overmastering the rider, (18) since it is not by arching but by
+      stretching out his neck and head that a horse endeavours to assert his
+      power. (19)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished
+    from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to
+    our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically
+    speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.
+
+ (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).
+
+ (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."
+
+ (19) Or, "to display violence or run away."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one
+      or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable to
+      become hard-mouthed on one side.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness,
+      and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a
+      contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect.
+      Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or
+      when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become
+      dilated.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he
+    distends his nostrils."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
+      horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the
+      rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the
+      body. (22)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (22) Or if with L. D.  ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the
+    horse's shoulders."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single,
+      and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat rounded
+      towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to sit and
+      stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food. (25)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.
+    87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in
+    good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like
+    a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a
+    full back," as we say.
+
+ (24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la
+    Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits
+    par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.
+
+ (25) i.e. "and keep in good condition."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise his
+      forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these points,
+      moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion of the
+      body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to make the
+      horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides
+      and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be all
+      the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every way
+      more fleet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these
+      separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant his
+      hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing will
+      assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more firmly
+      balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."
+
+ (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.
+    Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me
+    diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."
+
+ (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.
+
+ (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the
+    horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.
+    cit. p. 126).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a man wants
+      to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by bringing the
+      legs apart and not by bringing them together.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to
+      be determined in the colt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and
+      fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
+      about those of the fore-legs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)
+    knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the
+    os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable
+      size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment
+      of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being&mdash;and
+      it holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)&mdash;that with advance of
+      time the legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows
+      uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.
+    H." xi. 108.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with every
+      prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal fine of form
+      and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop during growth,
+      that need not prevent us from applying our tests in confidence. It far
+      more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will turn out serviceable,
+      (34) than that a foal of the above description will turn out ugly or
+      defective.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us
+    the purchaser will get," etc.
+
+ (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"
+    i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. &amp; S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.
+    Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.
+    {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      II
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands. (1)
+      As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually devolve upon
+      those who are not stinted in means, and who have a considerable share in
+      the government; (3) and it seems far better for a young man to give heed
+      to his own health of body and to horsemanship, or, if he already knows how
+      to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres, than that he should set up as
+      a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has his town property and his
+      friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of state or of war, on which to
+      employ his time and energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is plain
+      then that any one holding my views (5) on the subject will put a young
+      horse out to be broken. But in so doing he ought to draw up articles, just
+      as a father does when he apprentices his son to some art or handicraft,
+      stating what sort of knowledge the young creature is to be sent back
+      possessed of. These will serve as indications (6) to the trainer what
+      points he must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the same
+      time pains should be taken on the owner's part to see that the colt is
+      gentle, tractable, and affectionate, (7) when delivered to the
+      professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most
+      part may be brought about at home and by the groom&mdash;if he knows how
+      to let the animal connect (8) hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies
+      with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from sources
+      of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this treatment,
+      necessarily the young horse will acquire&mdash;not fondness merely, but an
+      absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be done by touching,
+      stroking, patting those parts of the body which the creature likes to have
+      so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything
+      annoying him, the horse can least of all apply relief himself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,
+    may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service
+    in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,
+    "Notes," p. 84.
+
+ (2) "Organisation in the several states."
+
+ (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the
+    state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that
+    are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.
+
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.
+
+ (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which
+    he started.
+
+ (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft
+    in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."
+
+ (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."
+
+ (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,
+    should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,
+    etc., come through help of man."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds,
+      and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the
+      colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him&mdash;not
+      by cruel, but by gentle handling&mdash;that they are not really
+      formidable.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Or, "is disposed to shy."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I think,
+      suffice for any private individual.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will
+    perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an
+    amateur."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      III
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit for
+      riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied
+      intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to
+    be cheated."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse has lost
+      his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be blighted, but
+      he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain. (3)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See
+    Morgan, p. 126.
+
+ (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to
+    gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed
+    of."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no mistake
+      about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth and the
+      headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity on this score,
+      if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again removed, under his
+      eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse stands being mounted.
+      Many horses are extremely loath to admit the approach of anything which,
+      if once accepted, clearly means to them enforced exertion.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
+      induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of horses
+      standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some horses again, as the
+      result of bad training, will run away from the exercising-ground and make
+      for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected by the exercise called the
+      {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by varying the direction of the
+      volte to right or left. Many horses will not attempt to run away except
+      for the concurrence of a bad mouth along with an avenue of escape home.
+      (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage
+    below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.
+
+ (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home
+    combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the
+    exit from the manege or riding school."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at
+      full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel
+      round in obedience to the rein.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For
+    {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
+      purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one knows
+      what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will not
+      obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play the
+      part of an arrant traitor.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
+      war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
+      bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
+      scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
+      galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
+      slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the
+      endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform all
+      these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since many a
+      horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want of
+      experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will come
+      to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and free from
+      vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a nervous
+      temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the rider from
+      using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but is as likely
+      as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into the worst of
+      straits.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other
+      horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such
+      defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) Or, "very ticklish."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,
+      dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact
+      idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try
+      and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began
+      your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to
+      undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and
+      endurance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and
+    twirlings about."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
+      gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all
+      things (10) obedient&mdash;such an animal, we venture to predict, will
+      give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
+      circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
+      sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing and
+      manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands and
+      a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) Al. "thoroughly."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      IV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires; (1)
+      the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home&mdash;how is he to
+      be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter of the
+      establishment where the master will see the horse as often as possible.
+      (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that there will
+      be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the manger, as of
+      the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect a detail of this
+      kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of danger, it is
+      certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb, to the safe
+      keeping of his horse.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire
+    and have brought him home."
+
+ (2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the
+    master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
+      horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse takes
+      to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any one who
+      observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom either of too
+      much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of over-fatigue, for
+      which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of indigestion (4) or some
+      other malady is coming on. And just as with human beings, so with the
+      horse, all diseases are more curable at their commencement (5) than after
+      they have become chronic, or been wrongly treated. (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood."
+
+ (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.
+    "H. A." viii. 24. 4.
+
+ (5) i.e. "in the early acute stages."
+
+ (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body are
+      matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay attention
+      to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil the best
+      hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being damp, it should
+      be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved with cobble stones
+      sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size to the horse's hoofs.
+      (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated to strengthen the horse's
+      feet by the mere pressure on the part in standing. In the next place it
+      will be the groom's business to lead out the horse somewhere to comb and
+      curry him; and after his morning's feed to unhalter him from the manger,
+      (9) so that he may come to his evening meal with greater relish. To secure
+      the best type of stable-yard, and with a view to strengthening the horse's
+      feet, I would suggest to take and throw down loosely (10) four or five
+      waggon loads of pebbles, each as large as can be grasped in the hand, and
+      about a pound in weight; the whole to be fenced round with a skirting of
+      iron to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these will come to
+      precisely the same thing as if for a certain portion of the day the horse
+      were, off and on, stepping along a stony road; whilst being curried or
+      when fidgeted by flies he will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as
+      if he were walking. Nor is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn
+      with stones will tend to harden the frog of the foot also.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good
+    hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their
+    horses.
+
+ (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself
+    at Bari.
+
+ (9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16.
+
+ (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be
+      taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances
+      which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and
+      supple a horse's mouth. (11)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e.
+    bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      V
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained
+      thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first
+      place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter (1)
+      at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By
+      constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not sit
+      quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring himself;
+      (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should show
+      peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie."
+
+ (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to
+    one will make a sore."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung and
+      litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will
+      discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same time
+      be doing the horse a kindness.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's
+      mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground.
+      (4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere
+      without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration,
+      prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of
+      opportunity for vice. (5)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.
+
+ (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above his
+      head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of anything
+      that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this upward
+      movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of snapping it.
+      In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the head and mane;
+      as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse the lower; then,
+      as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the hair, by help of all
+      the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then beat out the dust,
+      following the lie of the hair. The hair on the spine (and dorsal region)
+      ought not to be touched with any instrument whatever; the hand alone
+      should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the direction of its natural
+      growth, so as to preserve from injury that part of the horse's back on
+      which the rider sits.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you try
+      to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused. So,
+      too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which it is
+      composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare away from
+      the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must suppose,
+      (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large ears which
+      are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the eyes. (7) The
+      tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being to help the hairs
+      to grow&mdash;those in the tail so as to allow the creature the greatest
+      reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and those of the
+      neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as possible.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..."
+
+ (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks."
+
+ (8) Insects, etc.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the
+      horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a
+      brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily
+      suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take care
+      to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310.
+
+ (10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii.
+    42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan
+    aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de
+    penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with&mdash;no good is done
+      but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive
+      cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is
+      most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the
+      thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly.
+      Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is no
+      sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had not
+      been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for the
+      legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with
+      least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom
+      attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the
+      horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's
+      knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite
+      direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his
+      leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He will
+      then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by folding
+      back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this and
+      all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little as
+      possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse
+      attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by
+      approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse
+      with the least risk of injury to himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in
+      front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself
+      of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to do
+      what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the plan of
+      training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead the way, and
+      for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of mischief, in
+      whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the power also to turn
+      right about and face his driver. How can a troop of horses be kept free of
+      one another, if driven in this fashion from behind?&mdash;whereas a horse
+      accustomed to be led from the side will have least power of mischief to
+      horse or man, and at the same time be in the best position to be mounted
+      by the rider at a moment's notice, were it necessary.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage
+    ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti
+    abolos estin}.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first place,
+      approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing the reins
+      over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the headstall
+      in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the horse will
+      take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of the
+      headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold the
+      bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3) of his
+      left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their mouths to
+      that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must press the lip
+      against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit, when that is
+      done to them. (5)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side."
+
+ (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8.
+
+ (4) i.e. "canine tooth."
+
+ (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth
+    under the circumstances."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if
+      any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse
+      should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will
+      not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only when
+      he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and when he
+      is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he learnt to
+      take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade...
+    paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc.,
+    {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse
+    must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but
+    {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either
+    case at this point.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the Persian
+      fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age the master
+      himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without trouble, or, if
+      he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to mount him. (8)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38.
+
+ (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The one best precept&mdash;the golden rule&mdash;in dealing with a horse
+      is never to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that
+      it will often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will
+      regret. (9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to
+      approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at,
+      particularly if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the
+      formidable object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The
+      opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies
+      its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a
+      moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its
+      cause.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim.
+
+ (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows
+      how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no
+      fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and be
+      able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since on
+      another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot, (13)
+      nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad
+    loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era
+    began."
+
+ (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part."
+
+ (13) As a member of the cavalry.
+
+ (14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same
+    horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in
+    another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      VII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to mount.
+      (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the interests
+      not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides. First,
+      then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the chin-strap or
+      nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack so as not to jerk
+      the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by hoisting himself up,
+      catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or to vault on to horseback by
+      help of his spear. With the right hand he should grip the reins along with
+      a tuft of hair beside the shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any
+      way wrench the horse's mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of
+      taking the spring off the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his
+      body by help of the left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist
+      the upward movement (5) (a position in mounting which will present a
+      graceful spectacle also from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg
+      well bent, and taking care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he
+      must pass his leg clean over to the off side; and so having brought his
+      foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat. (7)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or,
+    reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws
+    anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for
+    mounting."
+
+ (2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather
+    strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as
+    {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies.
+    "Curb" would be misleading.
+
+ (3) "Near the withers."
+
+ (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to
+    mounting."
+
+ (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if
+    {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff."
+
+ (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude
+    behind."
+
+ (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his horse
+      with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would be good,
+      we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat from the right
+      side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except to do with his
+      right limbs what he has previously done with the left, and vice versa. And
+      the reason we approve of this method of mounting is (8) that it enables
+      the soldier at one and the same instant to get astride of his horse and to
+      find himself prepared at all points, supposing he should have to enter the
+      lists of battle on a sudden.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of
+    mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the
+    soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a
+    sudden, if occasion need."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a
+      saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but
+      rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this way
+      he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs; and
+      this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike a blow
+      from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect. The leg and
+      foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the leg stiff, the
+      rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some obstacle; whereas a
+      flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at the same time not shift
+      the thigh from its position. The rider should also accustom the whole of
+      his body above the hips to be as supple as possible; for thus he will
+      enlarge his scope of action, and in case of a tug or shove be less liable
+      to be unseated. Next, when the rider is seated, he must, in the first
+      place, teach his horse to stand quiet, until he has drawn his skirts from
+      under him, if need be, (10) and got the reins an equal length and grasped
+      his spear in the handiest fashion; and, in the next place, he should keep
+      his left arm close to his side. This position will give the rider absolute
+      ease and freedom, (11) and his hand the firmest hold.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf."
+
+ (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle).
+
+ (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being
+      weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds
+      them can also grasp a spear.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he
+      should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement.
+      If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held
+      pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high.
+      This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently, as
+      he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs
+      without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the gallop.
+      (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left foot, it
+      will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still trotting, the
+      signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making a step with his
+      right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting his left foot he will
+      start upon it, and while turning left will simultaneously make the first
+      bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a matter of instinct, a horse, on
+      being turned to the right, leads off with his right limbs, and to the left
+      with his left.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) "Forwards!"
+
+ (13) Or, "the true trot."
+
+ (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the
+    whip."
+
+ (15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I.
+    Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter."
+
+ (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the
+    gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it
+      habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the
+      order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of
+      the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18) But
+      of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the circular;
+      for the horse, being already sated with the straight course, will be all
+      the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in the straight
+      course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held up, (19) because
+      it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is at full speed to turn
+      sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or slippery.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (17) {pede}, figure of eight.
+
+ (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege."
+
+ (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi.
+    22, of a dog.
+
+ (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the
+      horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own
+      body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and
+      his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes
+      fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge him
+      to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings are with a
+      view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise quickening the
+      pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems to have had enough
+      of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight pause, and then
+      suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his fellows first, (21) and
+      now towards them; and then again to quiet him down in mid-career as short
+      as possible; (22) and from halt once more to turn him right-about and off
+      again full charge. It is easy to predict that the day will come when there
+      will be need of each of these manoeuvres.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (21) {mentoi}, "of course."
+
+ (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among other
+      horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the
+      exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his
+      compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21.
+
+ (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      VIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race
+      downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will need
+      to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank; (1)
+      or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself and
+      his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a chance
+      of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their
+      usefulness.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap
+    over ditches, and upon high places and down from them."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on the
+      ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same
+      topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case,
+      we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his
+      bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)
+      what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own
+      horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled."
+
+ (3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him by
+      the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench yourself
+      first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce him to leap
+      across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should apply it
+      smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a bound, not the
+      distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite; and for the future
+      there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere sight of some one
+      coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As soon as he is
+      accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put him first at
+      smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the spring be ready
+      to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap up and leap down,
+      you should touch him with the spur at the critical instant. In the effort
+      to perform any of these actions with the whole body, the horse will
+      certainly perform them with more safety to himself and to his rider than
+      he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a ditch or fence, or in
+      making an upward spring or downward jump. (4)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or
+    down."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and
+      finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward
+      to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which
+      some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in
+      galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the
+      Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and
+      their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day
+    (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1).
+
+ (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself to
+      these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a
+      gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less
+      likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in
+      pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a
+      shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad plan
+      to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal may not
+      feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground. In going
+      down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back and hold in
+      the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled headforemost down
+      the slope himself if not his horse.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences."
+
+ (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see
+    Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten,
+    pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone
+      through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should
+      sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will take
+      much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and one
+      routine.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his
+      seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the same
+      time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing could be
+      better, where the country suits and there are wild animals, than to
+      practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when these
+      resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined efforts of
+      two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive, retreating
+      helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed and plying
+      the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins and his
+      lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin range he
+      lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or whenever
+      within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to
+      close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman towards
+      oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a device to bring
+      him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so dragged is to
+      press his horse forward: by which action the man who is being dragged is
+      more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought to the ground
+      himself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers."
+
+ (10) Or, "manipulated."
+
+ (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will
+    unhorse him if anything."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry
+      skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy right
+      up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat), under these
+      circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the skirmisher is
+      close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike dictate to wheel
+      and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he finds himself in
+      close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well in hand. This, in
+      all probability, will enable him to do the greatest mischief to the enemy,
+      and to receive least damage at his hands.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty
+      by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not
+      open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse
+      learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does as you
+      wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is disobedient to
+      chastise him. This principle, though capable of being stated in a few
+      words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of horsemanship. As,
+      for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit, if each time he
+      accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will leap ditches and
+      spring up embankments and perform all the other feats incumbent on him, if
+      he be led to associate obedience to the word of command with relaxation.
+      (13)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to
+    expect some relaxation."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      IX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the
+      chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;
+      secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your
+      purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a horse
+      possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for the
+      purposes of war.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider
+      should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or
+      again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,
+      that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in a
+      man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by
+      avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a
+      spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the
+      act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance; and
+      once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary time,
+      and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next, beginning at
+      the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker step, but so gradually
+      that he will find himself at full speed without noticing it. (1) Any
+      sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just as a man is bewildered
+      by any sudden sight or sound or other experience. (I say one should be
+      aware that any unexpected shock will produce disturbance in a horse.) (2)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop."
+
+ (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a
+      quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but quietly
+      and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather than
+      compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather than the
+      frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace sustained for
+      a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the reverse of exciting.
+      If any one proposes by a series of fast and oft-repeated gallops to
+      produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and so to tame him, his
+      expectation will not be justified by the result; for under such
+      circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the day by main
+      force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man, may contrive
+      to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter
+    turns," {apostrophai}.
+
+ (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind.
+
+ (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by
+    sheer force."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off at
+      full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain from
+      setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your
+      fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai
+    th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more
+    mettlesome he will tend to become."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit be
+      inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as
+      possible by lightness of hand.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a quiet
+      seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to touch him
+      as little as possible with anything except that part of the body necessary
+      to secure a firm seat.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet and
+      "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training school; and
+      supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft soothing
+      actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions with the
+      "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the "chirrup" and
+      to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle, at the sound of
+      the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should avoid coming up to his
+      charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed, bringing any disturbing
+      influence to bear on the animal. As far as possible, at such a crisis he
+      should halt and rest him; and, if circumstances permit, give him his
+      morning or his evening meal. But the best advice of all is not to get an
+      over-spirited horse for the purposes of war.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound
+    from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything
+      the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal of
+      high spirit.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      X
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You
+      want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur
+      of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the
+      bit, or applying the spur and whip&mdash;methods commonly adopted by
+      people with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they
+      thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to
+      say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive
+      to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they
+      distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.
+      (1) Feats indeed!&mdash;the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being
+      ridden&mdash;up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary,
+      let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold his
+      head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him
+      perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and
+      the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let
+      loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will see
+      him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with nervous
+      vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his tail on
+      high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he naturally
+      assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what you are
+      aiming at&mdash;a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and
+      showy animal, the joy of all beholders.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are
+    thrown into disorder."
+
+ (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of
+    "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse.
+
+ (3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad
+    Merc."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will
+      now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have at
+      least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good size;
+      the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp spikes,
+      so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he will drop
+      it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted with its
+      smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough, he will
+      perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out of
+      contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase on it,
+      and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the effect of
+      which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece. It is
+      possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by keeping it
+      slack or taut.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible. If
+      it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up
+      bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a man
+      takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other
+      flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point at
+      which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while
+      perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the
+      mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in the
+      middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with his
+      tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit."
+
+ (6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223.
+
+ (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small
+    chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,'
+    with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it
+    about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it
+    may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from
+    writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses
+    forces.'"
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we
+      will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have
+      their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and
+      where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture
+      and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the
+      several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each other,
+      that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may be, the
+      rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as follows, if
+      he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described. The horse's
+      mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make him toss his head
+      aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the pressure. But the
+      instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give him the bit at
+      once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at every response to
+      your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs his service well,
+      (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider perceives that the horse
+      takes a pleasure in the high arching and supple play of his neck, let him
+      seize the instant not to impose severe exertion on him, like a taskmaster,
+      but rather to caress and coax him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In
+      this way the horse will be encouraged and fall into a rapid pace.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work
+    into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the
+    join."
+
+ (9) "Behaves compliantly."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown conclusively.
+      As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a trot or gallop, never
+      at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a pleasure does this action
+      afford him, if he is not forced to perform it to excess; since it is true
+      of horse and man alike that nothing is pleasant if carried to excess. (10)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden&mdash;we
+      have accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into
+      a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well by
+      heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously giving
+      him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one hand by the
+      bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the signal "off,"
+      will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with fiery spirit;
+      though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play of the limbs ceases
+      as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is
+      thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous.
+      Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the relaxation of the
+      bit, with stately bearing and legs pliantly moving he dashes forward in
+      his pride, in every respect imitating the airs and graces of a horse
+      approaching other horses. Listen to the epithets with which spectators
+      will describe the type of horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to
+      work, what paces, (12) what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears
+      himself (13)&mdash;a joy at once, and yet a terror to behold.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life."
+
+ (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse."
+
+ (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon
+    idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor
+    Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special
+      need.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state
+      processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities
+      not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal
+      must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a
+      horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What
+      we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and
+      strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the
+      region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be able to
+      plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so planting his
+      hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his hind-legs on
+      his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that any one in
+      front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the sheath. (3) At
+      the moment the horse does this, the rider should give him the rein, so
+      that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can perform of his own
+      free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys.
+    xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist.").
+
+ (2) See Berenger, ii. 68.
+
+ (3) Lit. "testicles."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so by
+      touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an
+      attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the
+      gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)
+      as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does in
+      obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and
+      relaxation.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in
+    various ways&mdash;some by... others by bidding..."
+
+ (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf.
+    Herod. v. 58.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does
+      blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of a
+      ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so
+      treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than of grace
+      and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own accord
+      exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing, when he
+      is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is bathed in
+      sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine effect, you
+      promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon it he will of
+      his own accord another time break into the same prancing action. Such are
+      the horses on which gods and heroes ride, as represented by the artist.
+      The majesty of men themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling
+      of such animals. (8) A horse so prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a
+      wonder and a marvel; riveting the gaze of all who see him, young alike and
+      graybeards. They will never turn their backs, I venture to predict, or
+      weary of their gazing so long as he continues to display his splendid
+      action.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say.
+
+ (7) Or, "exercising-ground."
+
+ (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature
+    gracefully himself at once appears magnificent."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in
+      the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must not
+      confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, but should
+      study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid spectacle.
+      Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon the type of
+      animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with his high airs and
+      frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement forward&mdash;obviously
+      the rest of the troop must follow at a walking pace, and one may fairly
+      ask where is the element of splendour in the spectacle? But now suppose
+      that you, sir, being at the head of the procession, rouse your horse and
+      take the lead at a pace neither too fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to
+      bring out the best qualities in all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace
+      of mien and bearing ripe for action&mdash;I say, if you take the lead of
+      them in this style, the collective thud, the general neighing and the
+      snorting of the horses will combine to render not only you at the head,
+      but your whole company (10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}.
+    L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss.
+
+ (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An.
+    Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his
+      horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing
+      further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training for
+      war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the stress of
+      actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making every horse
+      he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought it, with the
+      further outlook that, unless some power higher than human interpose, (11)
+      he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and himself as celebrated
+      for his skill in horsemanship.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man."
+    For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and
+    for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      XII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the
+      risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place, then,
+      we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person; since, if it
+      fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole body; whereas, if
+      too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to bear, while, if too
+      tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, but a "strait jacket."
+      (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2) ought to have, as we
+      maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and close-fitting. This
+      will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought to be, will conceal the
+      rider's face&mdash;if so he chooses&mdash;up to the nose.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Cf. "Mem." III. x.
+
+ (2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      {... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion estin.}
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the most
+      deadly spot" (W. Leaf).
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian
+      pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts exposed
+      above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point: the
+      corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its wearer
+      sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals and parts
+      surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in thickness
+      sufficient to protect (5) that region.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149.
+
+ (4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj.
+    {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt."
+
+ (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to
+    protect the limbs."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would
+      recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which
+      protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding
+      the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition to
+      which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The case is
+      different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs raise to
+      discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any part of the
+      corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in place of which
+      the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the joints, which as
+      the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm descends close tight
+      again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will better be protected by a
+      piece like a greave stretched over it than bound up with the corselet.
+      Again, the part exposed when the right hand is raised should be covered
+      close to the corselet either with calfskin or with metal; or else there
+      will be a want of protection just at the most vital point.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. &amp; S. cf.
+    Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket
+    joints."
+
+ (7) i.e. "forearm."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in
+      extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour&mdash;frontlet,
+      breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time serve
+      as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's belly, being
+      the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected. It is possible
+      to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself should be of such
+      sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, and yet not gall
+      the horse's back.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon
+      as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which of
+      course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed by the
+      addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making sandals. And
+      thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins and stockings
+      for the feet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of defence.
+      To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather than the
+      straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the horse's position
+      the curved blade will descend with greater force than the ordinary weapon.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the
+    {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and
+      awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10) the
+      one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one
+      reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add
+      to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but
+      far more manageable.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences
+    perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I.
+    ii. 9.
+
+ (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the longest
+      possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the second
+      javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the most
+      effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw forward
+      his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily from the
+      thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly upwards. The
+      dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and to the farthest
+      distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at the moment of
+      discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object aimed at. (13)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) Al. "to turn right-about."
+
+ (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of
+    discharge."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and exercises
+      suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the theory and
+      practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be found
+      developed in the companion treatise. (14)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </p>
+  <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1176 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #1176 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1176)
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+   PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" >
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <title>
+      On Horsemanship, by Xenophon
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify}
+    P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; }
+    hr  { width: 50%; text-align: center;}
+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
+    blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .mynote    {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;}
+    .toc       { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .toc2      { margin-left: 20%;}
+    div.fig    { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; }
+    div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; }
+    .figleft   {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;}
+    .figright  {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;}
+    .pagenum   {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal;
+               margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%;
+               text-align: right;}
+    pre        { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;}
+
+</style>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On Horsemanship, by Xenophon
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On Horsemanship
+
+Author: Xenophon
+
+Translator: H. G. Dakyns
+
+Release Date: August 21, 2008 [EBook #1176]
+Last Updated: January 15, 2013
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON HORSEMANSHIP ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br />
+    </p>
+    <h1>
+      ON HORSEMANSHIP
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By Xenophon
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+           Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
+           pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
+           and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
+           and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
+           years before having to move once more, to settle
+           in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
+
+           On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy
+           a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a
+           war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some
+           words on military equipment for a cavalryman.
+      </pre>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      Contents
+    </h2>
+    <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto">
+      <tr>
+        <td>
+          <p class="toc">
+            <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> PREPARER'S NOTE </a>
+          </p>
+          <p class="toc">
+            <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> ON HORSEMANSHIP </a>
+          </p>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+    </table>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      PREPARER'S NOTE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a four-volume
+      set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is doubt about
+      some of these) is:
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Work                                   Number of books
+
+     The Anabasis                                         7
+     The Hellenica                                        7
+     The Cyropaedia                                       8
+     The Memorabilia                                      4
+     The Symposium                                        1
+     The Economist                                        1
+     On Horsemanship                                      1
+     The Sportsman                                        1
+     The Cavalry General                                  1
+     The Apology                                          1
+     On Revenues                                          1
+     The Hiero                                            1
+     The Agesilaus                                        1
+     The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians   2
+
+     Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
+     English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
+     diacritical marks have been lost.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div style="height: 4em;">
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      ON HORSEMANSHIP
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      I
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1) ourselves,
+      as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to explain, for
+      the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be the most
+      correct method of dealing with horses.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time
+    'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in
+    horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we
+    conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing
+    with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a
+    {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more
+    particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of
+    cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is
+    commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.
+    14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
+      same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens (2) with
+      a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the pedestal. (3)
+      But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise any conclusions
+      in which we happen to agree with that author; on the contrary we shall
+      hand them on with still greater pleasure to our friends, in the belief
+      that we shall only gain in authority from the fact that so great an expert
+      in horsemanship held similar views to our own; whilst with regard to
+      matters omitted in his treatise, we shall endeavour to supply them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) L. Dind.  (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this
+    sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.
+    296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.
+    230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,
+    "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of
+    the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The
+    MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that
+    one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.
+    "Knights," 242.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      {andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate
+      pros to dexion keras};
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      bears the name.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own
+    performances."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
+      avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
+      must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted can
+      but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
+      therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be
+      the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its
+      upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought to
+      be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in particular
+      a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent his other
+      points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good account. (5)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see
+    "Mem." III. i. 7.
+
+ (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si
+      facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
+      quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion
+      of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a thin.
+      Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both before and
+      behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the "frog," (6) as it
+      is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof treads equally with the
+      stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, the gait resembling that of a
+      bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good foot clearly by the ring," says
+      Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the
+      solid earth. (9)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Lit. "the swallow."
+
+ (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.
+    1892), pp. 3, 9.
+
+ (8) Or, "and he is right."
+
+ (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point to
+      the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the fetlock
+      must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not being properly
+      elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and are more liable to
+      become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must not be too low, or
+      else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when the horse is galloped
+      over clods and stones.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be
+    'sloping.'"
+
+ (11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch
+    like anvil to hammer."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the
+      columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not puffed
+      out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they will
+      inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set up,
+      (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and with
+      this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start and
+      render the horse lame.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."
+
+ (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell
+    whilst the skin recedes from the bone."
+
+ (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,
+    and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part
+    in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be
+    termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
+      conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
+      since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15) Supple
+      knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as they do the
+      horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than those of
+      stiffer build.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if
+      thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just as in
+      the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is better
+      alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the legs well
+      asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one another.
+      Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the chest, like
+      a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should shoot upwards to
+      the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature; whilst the head should
+      be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the neck will be well in front
+      of the rider, and the eye will command what lies before the horse's feet.
+      A horse, moreover, of this build, however spirited, will be least capable
+      of overmastering the rider, (18) since it is not by arching but by
+      stretching out his neck and head that a horse endeavours to assert his
+      power. (19)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished
+    from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to
+    our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically
+    speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.
+
+ (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).
+
+ (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."
+
+ (19) Or, "to display violence or run away."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one
+      or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable to
+      become hard-mouthed on one side.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness,
+      and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a
+      contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect.
+      Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or
+      when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become
+      dilated.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he
+    distends his nostrils."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
+      horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the
+      rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the
+      body. (22)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (22) Or if with L. D.  ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the
+    horse's shoulders."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single,
+      and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat rounded
+      towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to sit and
+      stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food. (25)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.
+    87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in
+    good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like
+    a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a
+    full back," as we say.
+
+ (24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la
+    Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits
+    par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.
+
+ (25) i.e. "and keep in good condition."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise his
+      forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these points,
+      moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion of the
+      body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to make the
+      horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides
+      and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be all
+      the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every way
+      more fleet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these
+      separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant his
+      hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing will
+      assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more firmly
+      balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."
+
+ (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.
+    Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me
+    diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."
+
+ (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.
+
+ (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the
+    horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.
+    cit. p. 126).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a man wants
+      to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by bringing the
+      legs apart and not by bringing them together.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to
+      be determined in the colt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and
+      fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
+      about those of the fore-legs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)
+    knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the
+    os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable
+      size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment
+      of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being&mdash;and
+      it holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)&mdash;that with advance of
+      time the legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows
+      uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.
+    H." xi. 108.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with every
+      prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal fine of form
+      and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop during growth,
+      that need not prevent us from applying our tests in confidence. It far
+      more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will turn out serviceable,
+      (34) than that a foal of the above description will turn out ugly or
+      defective.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us
+    the purchaser will get," etc.
+
+ (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"
+    i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. &amp; S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.
+    Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.
+    {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      II
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands. (1)
+      As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually devolve upon
+      those who are not stinted in means, and who have a considerable share in
+      the government; (3) and it seems far better for a young man to give heed
+      to his own health of body and to horsemanship, or, if he already knows how
+      to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres, than that he should set up as
+      a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has his town property and his
+      friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of state or of war, on which to
+      employ his time and energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is plain
+      then that any one holding my views (5) on the subject will put a young
+      horse out to be broken. But in so doing he ought to draw up articles, just
+      as a father does when he apprentices his son to some art or handicraft,
+      stating what sort of knowledge the young creature is to be sent back
+      possessed of. These will serve as indications (6) to the trainer what
+      points he must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the same
+      time pains should be taken on the owner's part to see that the colt is
+      gentle, tractable, and affectionate, (7) when delivered to the
+      professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most
+      part may be brought about at home and by the groom&mdash;if he knows how
+      to let the animal connect (8) hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies
+      with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from sources
+      of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this treatment,
+      necessarily the young horse will acquire&mdash;not fondness merely, but an
+      absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be done by touching,
+      stroking, patting those parts of the body which the creature likes to have
+      so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything
+      annoying him, the horse can least of all apply relief himself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,
+    may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service
+    in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,
+    "Notes," p. 84.
+
+ (2) "Organisation in the several states."
+
+ (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the
+    state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that
+    are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.
+
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.
+
+ (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which
+    he started.
+
+ (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft
+    in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."
+
+ (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."
+
+ (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,
+    should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,
+    etc., come through help of man."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds,
+      and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the
+      colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him&mdash;not
+      by cruel, but by gentle handling&mdash;that they are not really
+      formidable.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Or, "is disposed to shy."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I think,
+      suffice for any private individual.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will
+    perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an
+    amateur."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      III
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit for
+      riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied
+      intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to
+    be cheated."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse has lost
+      his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be blighted, but
+      he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain. (3)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See
+    Morgan, p. 126.
+
+ (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to
+    gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed
+    of."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no mistake
+      about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth and the
+      headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity on this score,
+      if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again removed, under his
+      eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse stands being mounted.
+      Many horses are extremely loath to admit the approach of anything which,
+      if once accepted, clearly means to them enforced exertion.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
+      induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of horses
+      standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some horses again, as the
+      result of bad training, will run away from the exercising-ground and make
+      for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected by the exercise called the
+      {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by varying the direction of the
+      volte to right or left. Many horses will not attempt to run away except
+      for the concurrence of a bad mouth along with an avenue of escape home.
+      (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage
+    below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.
+
+ (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home
+    combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the
+    exit from the manege or riding school."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at
+      full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel
+      round in obedience to the rein.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For
+    {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
+      purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one knows
+      what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will not
+      obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play the
+      part of an arrant traitor.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
+      war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
+      bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
+      scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
+      galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
+      slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the
+      endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform all
+      these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since many a
+      horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want of
+      experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will come
+      to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and free from
+      vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a nervous
+      temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the rider from
+      using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but is as likely
+      as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into the worst of
+      straits.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other
+      horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such
+      defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) Or, "very ticklish."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,
+      dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact
+      idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try
+      and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began
+      your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to
+      undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and
+      endurance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and
+    twirlings about."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
+      gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all
+      things (10) obedient&mdash;such an animal, we venture to predict, will
+      give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
+      circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
+      sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing and
+      manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands and
+      a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) Al. "thoroughly."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      IV
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires; (1)
+      the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home&mdash;how is he to
+      be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter of the
+      establishment where the master will see the horse as often as possible.
+      (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that there will
+      be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the manger, as of
+      the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect a detail of this
+      kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of danger, it is
+      certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb, to the safe
+      keeping of his horse.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire
+    and have brought him home."
+
+ (2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the
+    master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
+      horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse takes
+      to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any one who
+      observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom either of too
+      much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of over-fatigue, for
+      which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of indigestion (4) or some
+      other malady is coming on. And just as with human beings, so with the
+      horse, all diseases are more curable at their commencement (5) than after
+      they have become chronic, or been wrongly treated. (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood."
+
+ (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.
+    "H. A." viii. 24. 4.
+
+ (5) i.e. "in the early acute stages."
+
+ (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body are
+      matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay attention
+      to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil the best
+      hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being damp, it should
+      be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved with cobble stones
+      sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size to the horse's hoofs.
+      (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated to strengthen the horse's
+      feet by the mere pressure on the part in standing. In the next place it
+      will be the groom's business to lead out the horse somewhere to comb and
+      curry him; and after his morning's feed to unhalter him from the manger,
+      (9) so that he may come to his evening meal with greater relish. To secure
+      the best type of stable-yard, and with a view to strengthening the horse's
+      feet, I would suggest to take and throw down loosely (10) four or five
+      waggon loads of pebbles, each as large as can be grasped in the hand, and
+      about a pound in weight; the whole to be fenced round with a skirting of
+      iron to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these will come to
+      precisely the same thing as if for a certain portion of the day the horse
+      were, off and on, stepping along a stony road; whilst being curried or
+      when fidgeted by flies he will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as
+      if he were walking. Nor is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn
+      with stones will tend to harden the frog of the foot also.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good
+    hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their
+    horses.
+
+ (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself
+    at Bari.
+
+ (9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16.
+
+ (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be
+      taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances
+      which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and
+      supple a horse's mouth. (11)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e.
+    bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      V
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained
+      thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first
+      place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter (1)
+      at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By
+      constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not sit
+      quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring himself;
+      (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should show
+      peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie."
+
+ (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to
+    one will make a sore."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung and
+      litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will
+      discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same time
+      be doing the horse a kindness.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's
+      mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground.
+      (4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere
+      without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration,
+      prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of
+      opportunity for vice. (5)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.
+
+ (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above his
+      head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of anything
+      that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this upward
+      movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of snapping it.
+      In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the head and mane;
+      as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse the lower; then,
+      as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the hair, by help of all
+      the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then beat out the dust,
+      following the lie of the hair. The hair on the spine (and dorsal region)
+      ought not to be touched with any instrument whatever; the hand alone
+      should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the direction of its natural
+      growth, so as to preserve from injury that part of the horse's back on
+      which the rider sits.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you try
+      to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused. So,
+      too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which it is
+      composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare away from
+      the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must suppose,
+      (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large ears which
+      are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the eyes. (7) The
+      tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being to help the hairs
+      to grow&mdash;those in the tail so as to allow the creature the greatest
+      reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and those of the
+      neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as possible.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..."
+
+ (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks."
+
+ (8) Insects, etc.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the
+      horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a
+      brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily
+      suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take care
+      to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310.
+
+ (10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii.
+    42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan
+    aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de
+    penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A).
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with&mdash;no good is done
+      but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive
+      cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is
+      most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the
+      thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly.
+      Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is no
+      sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had not
+      been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for the
+      legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with
+      least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom
+      attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the
+      horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's
+      knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite
+      direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his
+      leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He will
+      then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by folding
+      back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this and
+      all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little as
+      possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse
+      attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by
+      approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse
+      with the least risk of injury to himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in
+      front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself
+      of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to do
+      what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the plan of
+      training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead the way, and
+      for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of mischief, in
+      whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the power also to turn
+      right about and face his driver. How can a troop of horses be kept free of
+      one another, if driven in this fashion from behind?&mdash;whereas a horse
+      accustomed to be led from the side will have least power of mischief to
+      horse or man, and at the same time be in the best position to be mounted
+      by the rider at a moment's notice, were it necessary.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage
+    ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti
+    abolos estin}.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first place,
+      approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing the reins
+      over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the headstall
+      in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the horse will
+      take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of the
+      headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold the
+      bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3) of his
+      left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their mouths to
+      that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must press the lip
+      against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit, when that is
+      done to them. (5)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side."
+
+ (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8.
+
+ (4) i.e. "canine tooth."
+
+ (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth
+    under the circumstances."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if
+      any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse
+      should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will
+      not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only when
+      he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and when he
+      is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he learnt to
+      take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade...
+    paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc.,
+    {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse
+    must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but
+    {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either
+    case at this point.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the Persian
+      fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age the master
+      himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without trouble, or, if
+      he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to mount him. (8)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38.
+
+ (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The one best precept&mdash;the golden rule&mdash;in dealing with a horse
+      is never to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that
+      it will often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will
+      regret. (9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to
+      approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at,
+      particularly if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the
+      formidable object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The
+      opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies
+      its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a
+      moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its
+      cause.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim.
+
+ (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows
+      how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no
+      fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and be
+      able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since on
+      another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot, (13)
+      nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad
+    loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era
+    began."
+
+ (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part."
+
+ (13) As a member of the cavalry.
+
+ (14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same
+    horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in
+    another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      VII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to mount.
+      (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the interests
+      not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides. First,
+      then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the chin-strap or
+      nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack so as not to jerk
+      the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by hoisting himself up,
+      catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or to vault on to horseback by
+      help of his spear. With the right hand he should grip the reins along with
+      a tuft of hair beside the shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any
+      way wrench the horse's mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of
+      taking the spring off the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his
+      body by help of the left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist
+      the upward movement (5) (a position in mounting which will present a
+      graceful spectacle also from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg
+      well bent, and taking care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he
+      must pass his leg clean over to the off side; and so having brought his
+      foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat. (7)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or,
+    reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws
+    anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for
+    mounting."
+
+ (2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather
+    strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as
+    {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies.
+    "Curb" would be misleading.
+
+ (3) "Near the withers."
+
+ (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to
+    mounting."
+
+ (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if
+    {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff."
+
+ (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude
+    behind."
+
+ (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his horse
+      with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would be good,
+      we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat from the right
+      side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except to do with his
+      right limbs what he has previously done with the left, and vice versa. And
+      the reason we approve of this method of mounting is (8) that it enables
+      the soldier at one and the same instant to get astride of his horse and to
+      find himself prepared at all points, supposing he should have to enter the
+      lists of battle on a sudden.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of
+    mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the
+    soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a
+    sudden, if occasion need."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a
+      saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but
+      rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this way
+      he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs; and
+      this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike a blow
+      from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect. The leg and
+      foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the leg stiff, the
+      rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some obstacle; whereas a
+      flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at the same time not shift
+      the thigh from its position. The rider should also accustom the whole of
+      his body above the hips to be as supple as possible; for thus he will
+      enlarge his scope of action, and in case of a tug or shove be less liable
+      to be unseated. Next, when the rider is seated, he must, in the first
+      place, teach his horse to stand quiet, until he has drawn his skirts from
+      under him, if need be, (10) and got the reins an equal length and grasped
+      his spear in the handiest fashion; and, in the next place, he should keep
+      his left arm close to his side. This position will give the rider absolute
+      ease and freedom, (11) and his hand the firmest hold.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf."
+
+ (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle).
+
+ (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being
+      weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds
+      them can also grasp a spear.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he
+      should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement.
+      If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held
+      pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high.
+      This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently, as
+      he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs
+      without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the gallop.
+      (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left foot, it
+      will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still trotting, the
+      signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making a step with his
+      right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting his left foot he will
+      start upon it, and while turning left will simultaneously make the first
+      bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a matter of instinct, a horse, on
+      being turned to the right, leads off with his right limbs, and to the left
+      with his left.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) "Forwards!"
+
+ (13) Or, "the true trot."
+
+ (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the
+    whip."
+
+ (15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I.
+    Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter."
+
+ (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the
+    gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it
+      habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the
+      order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of
+      the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18) But
+      of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the circular;
+      for the horse, being already sated with the straight course, will be all
+      the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in the straight
+      course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held up, (19) because
+      it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is at full speed to turn
+      sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or slippery.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (17) {pede}, figure of eight.
+
+ (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege."
+
+ (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi.
+    22, of a dog.
+
+ (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the
+      horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own
+      body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and
+      his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes
+      fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge him
+      to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings are with a
+      view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise quickening the
+      pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems to have had enough
+      of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight pause, and then
+      suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his fellows first, (21) and
+      now towards them; and then again to quiet him down in mid-career as short
+      as possible; (22) and from halt once more to turn him right-about and off
+      again full charge. It is easy to predict that the day will come when there
+      will be need of each of these manoeuvres.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (21) {mentoi}, "of course."
+
+ (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among other
+      horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the
+      exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his
+      compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21.
+
+ (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      VIII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race
+      downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will need
+      to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank; (1)
+      or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself and
+      his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a chance
+      of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their
+      usefulness.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap
+    over ditches, and upon high places and down from them."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on the
+      ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same
+      topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case,
+      we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his
+      bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)
+      what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own
+      horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled."
+
+ (3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him by
+      the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench yourself
+      first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce him to leap
+      across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should apply it
+      smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a bound, not the
+      distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite; and for the future
+      there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere sight of some one
+      coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As soon as he is
+      accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put him first at
+      smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the spring be ready
+      to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap up and leap down,
+      you should touch him with the spur at the critical instant. In the effort
+      to perform any of these actions with the whole body, the horse will
+      certainly perform them with more safety to himself and to his rider than
+      he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a ditch or fence, or in
+      making an upward spring or downward jump. (4)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or
+    down."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and
+      finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward
+      to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which
+      some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in
+      galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the
+      Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and
+      their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day
+    (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1).
+
+ (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself to
+      these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a
+      gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less
+      likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in
+      pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a
+      shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad plan
+      to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal may not
+      feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground. In going
+      down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back and hold in
+      the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled headforemost down
+      the slope himself if not his horse.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences."
+
+ (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see
+    Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten,
+    pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone
+      through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should
+      sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will take
+      much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and one
+      routine.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his
+      seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the same
+      time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing could be
+      better, where the country suits and there are wild animals, than to
+      practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when these
+      resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined efforts of
+      two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive, retreating
+      helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed and plying
+      the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins and his
+      lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin range he
+      lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or whenever
+      within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to
+      close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman towards
+      oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a device to bring
+      him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so dragged is to
+      press his horse forward: by which action the man who is being dragged is
+      more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought to the ground
+      himself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers."
+
+ (10) Or, "manipulated."
+
+ (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will
+    unhorse him if anything."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry
+      skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy right
+      up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat), under these
+      circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the skirmisher is
+      close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike dictate to wheel
+      and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he finds himself in
+      close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well in hand. This, in
+      all probability, will enable him to do the greatest mischief to the enemy,
+      and to receive least damage at his hands.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty
+      by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not
+      open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse
+      learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does as you
+      wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is disobedient to
+      chastise him. This principle, though capable of being stated in a few
+      words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of horsemanship. As,
+      for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit, if each time he
+      accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will leap ditches and
+      spring up embankments and perform all the other feats incumbent on him, if
+      he be led to associate obedience to the word of command with relaxation.
+      (13)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to
+    expect some relaxation."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      IX
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the
+      chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;
+      secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your
+      purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a horse
+      possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for the
+      purposes of war.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider
+      should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or
+      again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,
+      that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in a
+      man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by
+      avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a
+      spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the
+      act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance; and
+      once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary time,
+      and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next, beginning at
+      the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker step, but so gradually
+      that he will find himself at full speed without noticing it. (1) Any
+      sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just as a man is bewildered
+      by any sudden sight or sound or other experience. (I say one should be
+      aware that any unexpected shock will produce disturbance in a horse.) (2)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop."
+
+ (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a
+      quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but quietly
+      and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather than
+      compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather than the
+      frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace sustained for
+      a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the reverse of exciting.
+      If any one proposes by a series of fast and oft-repeated gallops to
+      produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and so to tame him, his
+      expectation will not be justified by the result; for under such
+      circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the day by main
+      force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man, may contrive
+      to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter
+    turns," {apostrophai}.
+
+ (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind.
+
+ (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by
+    sheer force."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off at
+      full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain from
+      setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your
+      fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai
+    th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more
+    mettlesome he will tend to become."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit be
+      inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as
+      possible by lightness of hand.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a quiet
+      seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to touch him
+      as little as possible with anything except that part of the body necessary
+      to secure a firm seat.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet and
+      "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training school; and
+      supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft soothing
+      actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions with the
+      "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the "chirrup" and
+      to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle, at the sound of
+      the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should avoid coming up to his
+      charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed, bringing any disturbing
+      influence to bear on the animal. As far as possible, at such a crisis he
+      should halt and rest him; and, if circumstances permit, give him his
+      morning or his evening meal. But the best advice of all is not to get an
+      over-spirited horse for the purposes of war.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound
+    from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything
+      the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal of
+      high spirit.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      X
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You
+      want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur
+      of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the
+      bit, or applying the spur and whip&mdash;methods commonly adopted by
+      people with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they
+      thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to
+      say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive
+      to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they
+      distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.
+      (1) Feats indeed!&mdash;the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being
+      ridden&mdash;up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary,
+      let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold his
+      head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him
+      perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and
+      the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let
+      loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will see
+      him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with nervous
+      vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his tail on
+      high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he naturally
+      assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what you are
+      aiming at&mdash;a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and
+      showy animal, the joy of all beholders.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are
+    thrown into disorder."
+
+ (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of
+    "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse.
+
+ (3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad
+    Merc."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will
+      now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have at
+      least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good size;
+      the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp spikes,
+      so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he will drop
+      it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted with its
+      smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough, he will
+      perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out of
+      contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase on it,
+      and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the effect of
+      which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece. It is
+      possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by keeping it
+      slack or taut.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible. If
+      it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up
+      bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a man
+      takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other
+      flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point at
+      which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while
+      perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the
+      mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in the
+      middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with his
+      tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit."
+
+ (6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223.
+
+ (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small
+    chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,'
+    with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it
+    about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it
+    may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from
+    writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses
+    forces.'"
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we
+      will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have
+      their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and
+      where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture
+      and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the
+      several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each other,
+      that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may be, the
+      rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as follows, if
+      he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described. The horse's
+      mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make him toss his head
+      aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the pressure. But the
+      instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give him the bit at
+      once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at every response to
+      your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs his service well,
+      (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider perceives that the horse
+      takes a pleasure in the high arching and supple play of his neck, let him
+      seize the instant not to impose severe exertion on him, like a taskmaster,
+      but rather to caress and coax him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In
+      this way the horse will be encouraged and fall into a rapid pace.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work
+    into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the
+    join."
+
+ (9) "Behaves compliantly."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown conclusively.
+      As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a trot or gallop, never
+      at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a pleasure does this action
+      afford him, if he is not forced to perform it to excess; since it is true
+      of horse and man alike that nothing is pleasant if carried to excess. (10)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden&mdash;we
+      have accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into
+      a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well by
+      heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously giving
+      him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one hand by the
+      bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the signal "off,"
+      will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with fiery spirit;
+      though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play of the limbs ceases
+      as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is
+      thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous.
+      Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the relaxation of the
+      bit, with stately bearing and legs pliantly moving he dashes forward in
+      his pride, in every respect imitating the airs and graces of a horse
+      approaching other horses. Listen to the epithets with which spectators
+      will describe the type of horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to
+      work, what paces, (12) what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears
+      himself (13)&mdash;a joy at once, and yet a terror to behold.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life."
+
+ (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse."
+
+ (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon
+    idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor
+    Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special
+      need.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      XI
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state
+      processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities
+      not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal
+      must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a
+      horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What
+      we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and
+      strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the
+      region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be able to
+      plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so planting his
+      hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his hind-legs on
+      his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that any one in
+      front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the sheath. (3) At
+      the moment the horse does this, the rider should give him the rein, so
+      that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can perform of his own
+      free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys.
+    xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist.").
+
+ (2) See Berenger, ii. 68.
+
+ (3) Lit. "testicles."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so by
+      touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an
+      attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the
+      gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)
+      as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does in
+      obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and
+      relaxation.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in
+    various ways&mdash;some by... others by bidding..."
+
+ (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf.
+    Herod. v. 58.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does
+      blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of a
+      ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so
+      treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than of grace
+      and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own accord
+      exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing, when he
+      is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is bathed in
+      sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine effect, you
+      promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon it he will of
+      his own accord another time break into the same prancing action. Such are
+      the horses on which gods and heroes ride, as represented by the artist.
+      The majesty of men themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling
+      of such animals. (8) A horse so prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a
+      wonder and a marvel; riveting the gaze of all who see him, young alike and
+      graybeards. They will never turn their backs, I venture to predict, or
+      weary of their gazing so long as he continues to display his splendid
+      action.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say.
+
+ (7) Or, "exercising-ground."
+
+ (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature
+    gracefully himself at once appears magnificent."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in
+      the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must not
+      confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, but should
+      study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid spectacle.
+      Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon the type of
+      animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with his high airs and
+      frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement forward&mdash;obviously
+      the rest of the troop must follow at a walking pace, and one may fairly
+      ask where is the element of splendour in the spectacle? But now suppose
+      that you, sir, being at the head of the procession, rouse your horse and
+      take the lead at a pace neither too fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to
+      bring out the best qualities in all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace
+      of mien and bearing ripe for action&mdash;I say, if you take the lead of
+      them in this style, the collective thud, the general neighing and the
+      snorting of the horses will combine to render not only you at the head,
+      but your whole company (10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}.
+    L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss.
+
+ (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An.
+    Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his
+      horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing
+      further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training for
+      war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the stress of
+      actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making every horse
+      he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought it, with the
+      further outlook that, unless some power higher than human interpose, (11)
+      he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and himself as celebrated
+      for his skill in horsemanship.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man."
+    For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and
+    for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      XII
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the
+      risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place, then,
+      we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person; since, if it
+      fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole body; whereas, if
+      too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to bear, while, if too
+      tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, but a "strait jacket."
+      (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2) ought to have, as we
+      maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and close-fitting. This
+      will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought to be, will conceal the
+      rider's face&mdash;if so he chooses&mdash;up to the nose.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (1) Cf. "Mem." III. x.
+
+ (2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      {... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion estin.}
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the most
+      deadly spot" (W. Leaf).
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian
+      pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts exposed
+      above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point: the
+      corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its wearer
+      sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals and parts
+      surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in thickness
+      sufficient to protect (5) that region.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149.
+
+ (4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj.
+    {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt."
+
+ (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to
+    protect the limbs."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would
+      recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which
+      protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding
+      the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition to
+      which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The case is
+      different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs raise to
+      discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any part of the
+      corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in place of which
+      the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the joints, which as
+      the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm descends close tight
+      again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will better be protected by a
+      piece like a greave stretched over it than bound up with the corselet.
+      Again, the part exposed when the right hand is raised should be covered
+      close to the corselet either with calfskin or with metal; or else there
+      will be a want of protection just at the most vital point.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. &amp; S. cf.
+    Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket
+    joints."
+
+ (7) i.e. "forearm."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in
+      extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour&mdash;frontlet,
+      breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time serve
+      as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's belly, being
+      the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected. It is possible
+      to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself should be of such
+      sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, and yet not gall
+      the horse's back.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon
+      as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which of
+      course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed by the
+      addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making sandals. And
+      thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins and stockings
+      for the feet.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of defence.
+      To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather than the
+      straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the horse's position
+      the curved blade will descend with greater force than the ordinary weapon.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the
+    {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and
+      awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10) the
+      one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one
+      reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add
+      to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but
+      far more manageable.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences
+    perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I.
+    ii. 9.
+
+ (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the longest
+      possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the second
+      javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the most
+      effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw forward
+      his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily from the
+      thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly upwards. The
+      dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and to the farthest
+      distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at the moment of
+      discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object aimed at. (13)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (12) Al. "to turn right-about."
+
+ (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of
+    discharge."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and exercises
+      suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the theory and
+      practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be found
+      developed in the companion treatise. (14)
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+ (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch."
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <br /><br /><br /><br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
+
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diff --git a/old/1176.txt b/old/1176.txt
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1176.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1977 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On Horsemanship, by Xenophon
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On Horsemanship
+
+Author: Xenophon
+
+Translator: H. G. Dakyns
+
+Posting Date: August 21, 2008 [EBook #1176]
+Release Date: January, 1998
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON HORSEMANSHIP ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by John Bickers
+
+
+
+
+
+ON HORSEMANSHIP
+
+By Xenophon
+
+Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+
+
+
+     Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
+     pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
+     and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
+     and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
+     years before having to move once more, to settle
+     in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
+
+     On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy
+     a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a
+     war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some
+     words on military equipment for a cavalryman.
+
+
+
+
+PREPARER'S NOTE
+
+This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a
+four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is
+doubt about some of these) is:
+
+     Work                                   Number of books
+
+     The Anabasis                                         7
+     The Hellenica                                        7
+     The Cyropaedia                                       8
+     The Memorabilia                                      4
+     The Symposium                                        1
+     The Economist                                        1
+     On Horsemanship                                      1
+     The Sportsman                                        1
+     The Cavalry General                                  1
+     The Apology                                          1
+     On Revenues                                          1
+     The Hiero                                            1
+     The Agesilaus                                        1
+     The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians   2
+
+     Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
+     English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
+     diacritical marks have been lost.
+
+
+
+
+ON HORSEMANSHIP
+
+
+I
+
+Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1)
+ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to
+explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be
+the most correct method of dealing with horses.
+
+ (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time
+    'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in
+    horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we
+    conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing
+    with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a
+    {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more
+    particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of
+    cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is
+    commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.
+    14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.
+
+There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
+same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens
+(2) with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the
+pedestal. (3) But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise
+any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author; on the
+contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to our
+friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from the
+fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to our
+own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we shall
+endeavour to supply them.
+
+ (2) L. Dind.  (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this
+    sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.
+    296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.
+    230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,
+    "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of
+    the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The
+    MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that
+    one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.
+    "Knights," 242.
+
+{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate
+pros to dexion keras};
+
+bears the name.
+
+ (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own
+    performances."
+
+As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
+avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.
+
+Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
+must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted
+can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
+therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be
+the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its
+upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought
+to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in
+particular a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent
+his other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good
+account. (5)
+
+ (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see
+    "Mem." III. i. 7.
+
+ (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:
+
+regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si
+facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
+quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.
+
+and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.
+
+In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion
+of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a
+thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both
+before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the
+"frog," (6) as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof
+treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike,
+the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good
+foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof
+rings like a cymbal against the solid earth. (9)
+
+ (6) Lit. "the swallow."
+
+ (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.
+    1892), pp. 3, 9.
+
+ (8) Or, "and he is right."
+
+ (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.
+
+And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point
+to the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the
+fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not
+being properly elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and
+are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must
+not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when
+the horse is galloped over clods and stones.
+
+ (10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be
+    'sloping.'"
+
+ (11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch
+    like anvil to hammer."
+
+The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the
+columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not
+puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they
+will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set
+up, (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and
+with this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start
+and render the horse lame.
+
+ (12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."
+
+ (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell
+    whilst the skin recedes from the bone."
+
+ (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,
+    and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part
+    in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be
+    termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.
+
+If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
+conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
+since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15)
+Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as
+they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than
+those of stiffer build.
+
+ (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."
+
+Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if
+thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just
+as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is
+better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the
+legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one
+another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the
+chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should
+shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature;
+whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the
+neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will command what
+lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, however
+spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, (18) since
+it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and head that a
+horse endeavours to assert his power. (19)
+
+ (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished
+    from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to
+    our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically
+    speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.
+
+ (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).
+
+ (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."
+
+ (19) Or, "to display violence or run away."
+
+It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one
+or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable
+to become hard-mouthed on one side.
+
+ (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."
+
+Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness,
+and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.
+
+And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a
+contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect.
+Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or
+when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become
+dilated.
+
+ (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he
+    distends his nostrils."
+
+A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
+horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the
+rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the
+body. (22)
+
+ (22) Or if with L. D.  ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the
+    horse's shoulders."
+
+A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single,
+and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat
+rounded towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to
+sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food.
+(25)
+
+ (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.
+    87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in
+    good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like
+    a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a
+    full back," as we say.
+
+ (24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la
+    Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits
+    par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.
+
+ (25) i.e. "and keep in good condition."
+
+The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise
+his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these
+points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion
+of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to
+make the horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26)
+
+ (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."
+
+The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides
+and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be
+all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every
+way more fleet.
+
+To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these
+separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant
+his hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing
+will assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more
+firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.
+
+ (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."
+
+ (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.
+    Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me
+    diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."
+
+ (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.
+
+ (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the
+    horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.
+    cit. p. 126).
+
+The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a
+man wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by
+bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together.
+
+A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to
+be determined in the colt.
+
+And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and
+fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
+about those of the fore-legs.
+
+ (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)
+    knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the
+    os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.
+
+I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable
+size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment
+of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being--and it
+holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)--that with advance of time the
+legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows uniformly
+up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry.
+
+ (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.
+    H." xi. 108.
+
+Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with
+every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal
+fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop
+during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our tests in
+confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will
+turn out serviceable, (34) than that a foal of the above description
+will turn out ugly or defective.
+
+ (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us
+    the purchaser will get," etc.
+
+ (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"
+    i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.
+    Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.
+    {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."
+
+
+
+II
+
+The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands.
+(1) As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually
+devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a
+considerable share in the government; (3) and it seems far better for
+a young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship,
+or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres,
+than that he should set up as a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has
+his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of
+state or of war, on which to employ his time and energies rather than on
+horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one holding my views (5) on
+the subject will put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing he
+ought to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices his
+son to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of knowledge the
+young creature is to be sent back possessed of. These will serve as
+indications (6) to the trainer what points he must pay special heed to
+if he is to earn his fee. At the same time pains should be taken on
+the owner's part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, and
+affectionate, (7) when delivered to the professional trainer. That is a
+condition of things which for the most part may be brought about at home
+and by the groom--if he knows how to let the animal connect (8) hunger
+and thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associating
+food and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presence
+of man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse
+will acquire--not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for human
+beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting those
+parts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. These
+are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, the
+horse can least of all apply relief himself.
+
+ (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,
+    may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service
+    in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,
+    "Notes," p. 84.
+
+ (2) "Organisation in the several states."
+
+ (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the
+    state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that
+    are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.
+
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.
+
+ (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which
+    he started.
+
+ (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft
+    in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."
+
+ (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."
+
+ (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,
+    should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,
+    etc., come through help of man."
+
+The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds,
+and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the
+colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him--not by
+cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really formidable.
+
+ (9) Or, "is disposed to shy."
+
+On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I
+think, suffice for any private individual.
+
+ (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will
+    perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an
+    amateur."
+
+
+
+III
+
+To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit
+for riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied
+intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.
+
+ (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to
+    be cheated."
+
+First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse
+has lost his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be
+blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain.
+(3)
+
+ (2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See
+    Morgan, p. 126.
+
+ (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to
+    gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed
+    of."
+
+Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no
+mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth
+and the headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity
+on this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again
+removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse
+stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the
+approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them
+enforced exertion.
+
+ (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.
+
+Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
+induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of
+horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some
+horses again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the
+exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected
+by the exercise called the {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by
+varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses will
+not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth along
+with an avenue of escape home. (6)
+
+ (5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage
+    below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.
+
+ (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home
+    combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the
+    exit from the manege or riding school."
+
+Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at
+full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel
+round in obedience to the rein.
+
+ (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For
+    {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."
+
+It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
+purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one
+knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will
+not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play
+the part of an arrant traitor.
+
+And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
+war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
+bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
+scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
+galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
+slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the
+endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.
+
+I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform
+all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since
+many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want
+of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will
+come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and
+free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a
+nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the
+rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but
+is as likely as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into
+the worst of straits.
+
+We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other
+horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such
+defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.
+
+ (8) Or, "very ticklish."
+
+As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,
+dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact
+idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try
+and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began
+your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to
+undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and
+endurance.
+
+ (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and
+    twirlings about."
+
+To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
+gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all
+things (10) obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will
+give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
+circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
+sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing
+and manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands
+and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.
+
+ (10) Al. "thoroughly."
+
+
+
+IV
+
+We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires;
+(1) the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how is he to
+be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter
+of the establishment where the master will see the horse as often as
+possible. (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that
+there will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the
+manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect
+a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of
+danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb,
+to the safe keeping of his horse.
+
+ (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire
+    and have brought him home."
+
+ (2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the
+    master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.
+
+Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
+horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse
+takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any
+one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom
+either of too much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of
+over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of
+indigestion (4) or some other malady is coming on. And just as with
+human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at their
+commencement (5) than after they have become chronic, or been wrongly
+treated. (6)
+
+ (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood."
+
+ (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.
+    "H. A." viii. 24. 4.
+
+ (5) i.e. "in the early acute stages."
+
+ (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread."
+
+But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body
+are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay
+attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil
+the best hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being
+damp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved
+with cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size
+to the horse's hoofs. (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated
+to strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part in
+standing. In the next place it will be the groom's business to lead out
+the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and after his morning's feed
+to unhalter him from the manger, (9) so that he may come to his evening
+meal with greater relish. To secure the best type of stable-yard, and
+with a view to strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to take
+and throw down loosely (10) four or five waggon loads of pebbles, each
+as large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in weight; the
+whole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron to prevent scattering.
+The mere standing on these will come to precisely the same thing as if
+for a certain portion of the day the horse were, off and on, stepping
+along a stony road; whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he
+will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor
+is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend to
+harden the frog of the foot also.
+
+ (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good
+    hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their
+    horses.
+
+ (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself
+    at Bari.
+
+ (9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16.
+
+ (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface."
+
+But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be
+taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances
+which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and
+supple a horse's mouth. (11)
+
+ (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e.
+    bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201.
+
+
+
+V
+
+It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained
+thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first
+place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter
+(1) at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By
+constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not
+sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring
+himself; (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should
+show peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.
+
+ (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie."
+
+ (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to
+    one will make a sore."
+
+It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung
+and litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will
+discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same
+time be doing the horse a kindness.
+
+ (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way."
+
+The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's
+mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground.
+(4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere
+without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration,
+prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of
+opportunity for vice. (5)
+
+ (4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.
+
+ (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs."
+
+Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above
+his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of
+anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this
+upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of
+snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the
+head and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse
+the lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the
+hair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then
+beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on the
+spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrument
+whatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the
+direction of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury that part
+of the horse's back on which the rider sits.
+
+The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you
+try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused.
+So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which
+it is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare
+away from the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must
+suppose, (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large
+ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the
+eyes. (7) The tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being
+to help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to allow the creature
+the greatest reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and
+those of the neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as
+possible.
+
+ (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..."
+
+ (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks."
+
+ (8) Insects, etc.
+
+Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the
+horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a
+brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily
+suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take
+care to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10)
+
+ (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310.
+
+ (10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii.
+    42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan
+    aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de
+    penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A).
+
+Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is done
+but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive
+cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is
+most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the
+thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly.
+Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is
+no sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had
+not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for
+the legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient.
+
+
+
+VI
+
+We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with
+least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom
+attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the
+horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's
+knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite
+direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his
+leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He
+will then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by
+folding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way.
+
+The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this
+and all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little
+as possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse
+attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by
+approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse
+with the least risk of injury to himself.
+
+When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in
+front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself
+of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to
+do what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the
+plan of training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead
+the way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of
+mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the
+power also to turn right about and face his driver. How can a troop
+of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this fashion from
+behind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the side will have
+least power of mischief to horse or man, and at the same time be in the
+best position to be mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were it
+necessary.
+
+ (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage
+    ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti
+    abolos estin}.
+
+In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first
+place, approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing
+the reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the
+headstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the
+horse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of
+the headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold
+the bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3)
+of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their
+mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must
+press the lip against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit,
+when that is done to them. (5)
+
+ (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side."
+
+ (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8.
+
+ (4) i.e. "canine tooth."
+
+ (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth
+    under the circumstances."
+
+The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if
+any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse
+should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will
+not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only
+when he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and
+when he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he
+learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him.
+
+ (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade...
+    paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc.,
+    {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse
+    must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but
+    {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either
+    case at this point.
+
+It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the
+Persian fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age
+the master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without
+trouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to
+mount him. (8)
+
+ (7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38.
+
+ (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7.
+
+The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is never
+to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it will
+often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret.
+(9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it,
+you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly
+if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the formidable
+object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The opposite
+plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies its
+fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a
+moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its
+cause.
+
+ (9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim.
+
+ (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal."
+
+If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows
+how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no
+fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and
+be able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since
+on another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot,
+(13) nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14)
+
+ (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad
+    loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era
+    began."
+
+ (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part."
+
+ (13) As a member of the cavalry.
+
+ (14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same
+    horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in
+    another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse.
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to
+mount. (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the
+interests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides.
+First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the
+chin-strap or nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack
+so as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by
+hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or
+to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right hand
+he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside the
+shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any way wrench the horse's
+mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring off
+the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his body by help of the
+left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward movement
+(5) (a position in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle also
+from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg well bent, and taking
+care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass his leg
+clean over to the off side; and so having brought his foot well round,
+plant himself firmly on his seat. (7)
+
+ (1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or,
+    reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws
+    anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for
+    mounting."
+
+ (2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather
+    strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as
+    {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies.
+    "Curb" would be misleading.
+
+ (3) "Near the withers."
+
+ (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to
+    mounting."
+
+ (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if
+    {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff."
+
+ (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude
+    behind."
+
+ (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back."
+
+To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his
+horse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would
+be good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat
+from the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except
+to do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left,
+and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mounting
+is (8) that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to
+get astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points,
+supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden.
+
+ (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of
+    mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the
+    soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a
+    sudden, if occasion need."
+
+But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a
+saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but
+rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this
+way he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs;
+and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike
+a blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect.
+The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the
+leg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some
+obstacle; whereas a flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at
+the same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider should
+also accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple as
+possible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of
+a tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider is
+seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet,
+until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be, (10) and got
+the reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest fashion;
+and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to his side.
+This position will give the rider absolute ease and freedom, (11) and
+his hand the firmest hold.
+
+ (9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf."
+
+ (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle).
+
+ (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment."
+
+As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being
+weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds
+them can also grasp a spear.
+
+As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he
+should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement.
+If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held
+pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high.
+This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently,
+as he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs
+without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the
+gallop. (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left
+foot, it will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still
+trotting, the signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making
+a step with his right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting
+his left foot he will start upon it, and while turning left will
+simultaneously make the first bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a
+matter of instinct, a horse, on being turned to the right, leads off
+with his right limbs, and to the left with his left.
+
+ (12) "Forwards!"
+
+ (13) Or, "the true trot."
+
+ (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the
+    whip."
+
+ (15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I.
+    Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter."
+
+ (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the
+    gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc.
+
+As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it
+habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the
+order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of
+the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18)
+But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the
+circular; for the horse, being already sated with the straight course,
+will be all the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in
+the straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held
+up, (19) because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is
+at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or
+slippery.
+
+ (17) {pede}, figure of eight.
+
+ (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege."
+
+ (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi.
+    22, of a dog.
+
+ (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground."
+
+But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the
+horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own
+body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and
+his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes
+fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge
+him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings
+are with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise
+quickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems
+to have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight
+pause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his
+fellows first, (21) and now towards them; and then again to quiet him
+down in mid-career as short as possible; (22) and from halt once more
+to turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is easy to
+predict that the day will come when there will be need of each of these
+manoeuvres.
+
+ (21) {mentoi}, "of course."
+
+ (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible."
+
+When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among
+other horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the
+exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his
+compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24)
+
+ (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21.
+
+ (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed."
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race
+downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will
+need to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank;
+(1) or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself
+and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a
+chance of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their
+usefulness.
+
+ (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap
+    over ditches, and upon high places and down from them."
+
+And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on
+the ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same
+topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case,
+we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his
+bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)
+what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own
+horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done.
+
+ (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled."
+
+ (3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase.
+
+With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him
+by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench
+yourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce
+him to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should
+apply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a
+bound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite;
+and for the future there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere
+sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As
+soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put
+him first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the
+spring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap
+up and leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the critical
+instant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with the whole
+body, the horse will certainly perform them with more safety to himself
+and to his rider than he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a
+ditch or fence, or in making an upward spring or downward jump. (4)
+
+ (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or
+    down."
+
+To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and
+finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward
+to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which
+some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in
+galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the
+Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and
+their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6)
+
+ (5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day
+    (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1).
+
+ (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes."
+
+Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself
+to these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a
+gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less
+likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in
+pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a
+shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad
+plan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal
+may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground.
+In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back
+and hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled
+headforemost down the slope himself if not his horse.
+
+ (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences."
+
+ (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see
+    Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten,
+    pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade."
+
+It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone
+through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should
+sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will
+take much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and
+one routine.
+
+Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his
+seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the
+same time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing
+could be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals,
+than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when
+these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined
+efforts of two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive,
+retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed
+and plying the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins
+and his lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin
+range he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or
+whenever within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow.
+In coming to close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman
+towards oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a
+device to bring him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so
+dragged is to press his horse forward: by which action the man who is
+being dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought
+to the ground himself.
+
+ (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers."
+
+ (10) Or, "manipulated."
+
+ (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will
+    unhorse him if anything."
+
+If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry
+skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy
+right up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat),
+under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the
+skirmisher is close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike
+dictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he
+finds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well
+in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do the greatest
+mischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his hands.
+
+ (12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23.
+
+The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty
+by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not
+open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse
+learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does
+as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is
+disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of being
+stated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of
+horsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit,
+if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will
+leap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other feats
+incumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word of
+command with relaxation. (13)
+
+ (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to
+    expect some relaxation."
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the
+chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;
+secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your
+purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a
+horse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for
+the purposes of war.
+
+The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider
+should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or
+again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,
+that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in
+a man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by
+avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a
+spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the
+act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance;
+and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary
+time, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next,
+beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker
+step, but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed without
+noticing it. (1) Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just
+as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or other experience.
+(I say one should be aware that any unexpected shock will produce
+disturbance in a horse.) (2)
+
+ (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop."
+
+ (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious.
+
+So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a
+quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but
+quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather
+than compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather
+than the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace
+sustained for a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the
+reverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast and
+oft-repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and
+so to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; for
+under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the
+day by main force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man,
+may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief.
+
+ (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter
+    turns," {apostrophai}.
+
+ (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind.
+
+ (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by
+    sheer force."
+
+A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off
+at full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain
+from setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your
+fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6)
+
+ (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai
+    th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more
+    mettlesome he will tend to become."
+
+Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit
+be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as
+possible by lightness of hand.
+
+It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a
+quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to
+touch him as little as possible with anything except that part of the
+body necessary to secure a firm seat.
+
+Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet
+and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training
+school; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft
+soothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions
+with the "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the
+"chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle,
+at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should
+avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed,
+bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal. As far
+as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and, if
+circumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But the
+best advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the purposes
+of war.
+
+ (7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound
+    from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek.
+
+As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything
+the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal
+of high spirit.
+
+
+
+X
+
+But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You
+want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur
+of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the
+bit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted by people
+with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they thereby
+achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say,
+by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive
+to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they
+distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.
+(1) Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being
+ridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary,
+let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold
+his head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him
+perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and
+the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let
+loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will
+see him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with
+nervous vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his
+tail on high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he
+naturally assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what
+you are aiming at--a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and
+showy animal, the joy of all beholders.
+
+ (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are
+    thrown into disorder."
+
+ (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of
+    "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse.
+
+ (3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad
+    Merc."
+
+How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will
+now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have
+at least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good
+size; the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp
+spikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he
+will drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted
+with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough,
+he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out
+of contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase
+on it, and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the
+effect of which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece.
+It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by
+keeping it slack or taut.
+
+ (4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll.
+
+But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible.
+If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up
+bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a
+man takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other
+flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point
+at which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while
+perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the
+mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in
+the middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with
+his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws.
+
+ (5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit."
+
+ (6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223.
+
+ (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small
+    chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,'
+    with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it
+    about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it
+    may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from
+    writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses
+    forces.'"
+
+To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we
+will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have
+their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and
+where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture
+and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the
+several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each
+other, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may
+be, the rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as
+follows, if he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described.
+The horse's mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make
+him toss his head aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the
+pressure. But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give
+him the bit at once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at
+every response to your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs
+his service well, (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider
+perceives that the horse takes a pleasure in the high arching and
+supple play of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severe
+exertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and coax
+him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In this way the horse will be
+encouraged and fall into a rapid pace.
+
+ (8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work
+    into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the
+    join."
+
+ (9) "Behaves compliantly."
+
+That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown
+conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a
+trot or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a
+pleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to perform
+it to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing is
+pleasant if carried to excess. (10)
+
+ (10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}.
+
+But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we have
+accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into
+a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well
+by heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously
+giving him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one
+hand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the
+signal "off," will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with
+fiery spirit; though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play
+of the limbs ceases as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now,
+supposing when his fire is thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein,
+the effect is instantaneous. Under the pleasurable sense of freedom,
+thanks to the relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legs
+pliantly moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respect
+imitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other horses.
+Listen to the epithets with which spectators will describe the type of
+horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to work, what paces, (12)
+what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears himself (13)--a joy
+at once, and yet a terror to behold.
+
+ (11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life."
+
+ (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse."
+
+ (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon
+    idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor
+    Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148.
+
+Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special
+need.
+
+
+
+XI
+
+If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state
+processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities
+not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal
+must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a
+horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What
+we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and
+strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the
+region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be
+able to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so
+planting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his
+hind-legs on his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that
+any one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the
+sheath. (3) At the moment the horse does this, the rider should give
+him the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can
+perform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators.
+
+ (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys.
+    xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist.").
+
+ (2) See Berenger, ii. 68.
+
+ (3) Lit. "testicles."
+
+There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so
+by touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an
+attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the
+gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)
+as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does
+in obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and
+relaxation.
+
+ (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in
+    various ways--some by... others by bidding..."
+
+ (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf.
+    Herod. v. 58.
+
+To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does
+blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of
+a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or
+man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than
+of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own
+accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing,
+when he is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is
+bathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine
+effect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon
+it he will of his own accord another time break into the same
+prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes ride,
+as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is best
+discovered in the graceful handling of such animals. (8) A horse so
+prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel; riveting
+the gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They will never
+turn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so long
+as he continues to display his splendid action.
+
+ (6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say.
+
+ (7) Or, "exercising-ground."
+
+ (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature
+    gracefully himself at once appears magnificent."
+
+If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in
+the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must
+not confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour,
+but should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid
+spectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon
+the type of animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with
+his high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement
+forward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walking
+pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in the
+spectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of the
+procession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither too
+fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities in
+all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe
+for action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the
+collective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses
+will combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole company
+(10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.
+
+ (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}.
+    L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss.
+
+ (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An.
+    Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343.
+
+One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his
+horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing
+further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training
+for war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the
+stress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making
+every horse he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought
+it, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher than human
+interpose, (11) he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and
+himself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship.
+
+ (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man."
+    For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and
+    for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10.
+
+
+
+XII
+
+We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the
+risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place,
+then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person;
+since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole
+body; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to
+bear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm,
+but a "strait jacket." (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2)
+ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and
+close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought
+to be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to the nose.
+
+ (1) Cf. "Mem." III. x.
+
+ (2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326:
+
+{... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion
+estin.}
+
+"Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the
+most deadly spot" (W. Leaf).
+
+As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian
+pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts
+exposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point:
+the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its
+wearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals
+and parts surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in
+thickness sufficient to protect (5) that region.
+
+ (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149.
+
+ (4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj.
+    {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt."
+
+ (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to
+    protect the limbs."
+
+Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would
+recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which
+protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding
+the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition
+to which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The
+case is different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs
+raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any
+part of the corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in
+place of which the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the
+joints, which as the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm
+descends close tight again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will
+better be protected by a piece like a greave stretched over it than
+bound up with the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right hand
+is raised should be covered close to the corselet either with calfskin
+or with metal; or else there will be a want of protection just at the
+most vital point.
+
+ (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. & S. cf.
+    Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket
+    joints."
+
+ (7) i.e. "forearm."
+
+Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in
+extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet,
+breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time
+serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's
+belly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected.
+It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself
+should be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat,
+and yet not gall the horse's back.
+
+ (8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2.
+
+As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon
+as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which
+of course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed
+by the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making
+sandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins
+and stockings for the feet.
+
+The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of
+defence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather
+than the straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the
+horse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force than
+the ordinary weapon.
+
+ (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the
+    {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13.
+
+Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and
+awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10)
+the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one
+reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add
+to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but
+far more manageable.
+
+ (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences
+    perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I.
+    ii. 9.
+
+ (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl.
+
+As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the
+longest possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the
+second javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the
+most effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw
+forward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily
+from the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly
+upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and
+to the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at
+the moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object
+aimed at. (13)
+
+ (12) Al. "to turn right-about."
+
+ (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of
+    discharge."
+
+This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and
+exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the
+theory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be
+found developed in the companion treatise. (14)
+
+ (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch."
+
+
+
+
+
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+***The Project Gutenberg Etext of On Horsemanship by Xenophon***
+Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+#8 in our series of Xenophon translations by Dakyns
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+On Horsemanship
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+by Xenophon
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+Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+
+January, 1998  [Etext #1176]
+
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+Etext prepared by John Bickers, jbickers@templar.actrix.gen.nz.
+
+
+
+
+
+On Horsemanship
+
+By Xenophon
+
+Translation by H. G. Dakyns
+
+
+
+
+Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a
+pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans,
+and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land
+and property in Scillus, where he lived for many
+years before having to move once more, to settle
+in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C.
+
+On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy
+a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a
+war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some
+words on military equipment for a cavalryman.
+
+
+
+
+PREPARER'S NOTE
+
+This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a
+four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though
+there is doubt about some of these) is:
+
+Work                                   Number of books
+
+The Anabasis                                         7
+The Hellenica                                        7
+The Cyropaedia                                       8
+The Memorabilia                                      4
+The Symposium                                        1
+The Economist                                        1
+On Horsemanship                                      1
+The Sportsman                                        1
+The Cavalry General                                  1
+The Apology                                          1
+On Revenues                                          1
+The Hiero                                            1
+The Agesilaus                                        1
+The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians   2
+
+Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into
+English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The
+diacritical marks have been lost.
+
+
+
+
+ON HORSEMANSHIP
+
+
+
+I
+
+Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship[1]
+ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is
+to explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive
+to be the most correct method of dealing with horses.
+
+[1] Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time
+    'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in
+    horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we
+    conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing
+    with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a
+    {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more
+    particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of
+    cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is
+    commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv.
+    14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C.
+
+There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
+same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens[2]
+with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the
+pedestal.[3] But we shall not on that account expunge from our
+treatise any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author;
+on the contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to
+our friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from
+the fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to
+our own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we
+shall endeavour to supply them.
+
+[2] L. Dind. [in Athens]. The Eleusinion. For the position of this
+    sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p.
+    296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p.
+    230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan,
+    "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of
+    the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The
+    MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that
+    one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist.
+    "Knights," 242,
+
+{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon,
+o Panaiti, ouk elate pros to dexion keras};
+
+bears the name.
+
+[3] Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own
+    performances."
+
+As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
+avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.
+
+Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
+must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted
+can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
+therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will
+be the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful
+its upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they
+ought to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and
+in particular a war-horse,[4] if unsound in his feet, however
+excellent his other points; since he could not turn a single one of
+them to good account.[5]
+
+[4] Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see
+    "Mem." III. i. 7.
+
+[5] Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86:
+
+regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos
+inspiciunt, ne, si facies, ut saepe, decora
+molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
+quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.
+
+and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll.
+
+In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny
+portion of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better
+than a thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are
+high both before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof
+keeps the "frog,"[6] as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a
+low hoof treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot
+alike, the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man.[7] "You may
+tell a good foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily;[8] for the
+hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the solid earth.[9]
+
+[6] Lit. "the swallow."
+
+[7] Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed.
+    1892), pp. 3, 9.
+
+[8] Or, "and he is right."
+
+[9] Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12.
+
+And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this
+point to the rest of the body. The bones[10] above the hoof and below
+the fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through
+not being properly elastic,[11] legs of this type will jar the rider,
+and are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones
+must not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated
+when the horse is galloped over clods and stones.
+
+[10] i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be
+    'sloping.'"
+
+[11] Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch
+    like anvil to hammer."
+
+The bones of the shanks[12] ought to be thick, being as they are the
+columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not
+puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground
+they will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions
+be set up,[13] the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin
+recedes; and with this loosening of the skin the back sinew[14] is
+very apt to start and render the horse lame.
+
+[12] i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals."
+
+[13] Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell
+    whilst the skin recedes from the bone."
+
+[14] Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong,
+    and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part
+    in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be
+    termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order.
+
+If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
+conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
+since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age.[15]
+Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as
+they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue
+than those of stiffer build.
+
+[15] Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances."
+
+Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades,[16] or arms, these if
+thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just
+as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is
+better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the
+legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with
+one another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward
+from the chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather,
+it should shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack[17] along the
+curvature; whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In
+this way the neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will
+command what lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this
+build, however spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the
+rider,[18] since it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck
+and head that a horse endeavours to assert his power.[19]
+
+[16] Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished
+    from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to
+    our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically
+    speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia.
+
+[17] "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge).
+
+[18] Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting."
+
+[19] Or, "to display violence or run away."
+
+It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on
+one or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws[20] is
+liable to become hard-mouthed on one side.
+
+[20] Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive."
+
+Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of
+alertness, and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.
+
+And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than
+a contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer
+aspect. Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against
+another, or when his spirit chafes in being ridden,[21] the nostrils
+at once become dilated.
+
+[21] Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he
+    distends his nostrils."
+
+A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
+horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow
+the rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders
+and the body.[22]
+
+[22] Or if with L. D. [{kai to somati}], transl. "adhesion to the
+    horse's shoulders."
+
+A "double spine,"[23] again, is at once softer to sit on than a
+single, and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side
+somewhat rounded towards the belly[24] will render the animal at once
+easier to sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to
+digest his food.[25]
+
+[23] Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii.
+    87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in
+    good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like
+    a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a
+    full back," as we say.
+
+[24] Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la
+    Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits
+    par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83.
+
+[25] i.e. "and keep in good condition."
+
+The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise
+his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these
+points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a
+portion of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and
+partly tends to make the horse less strong and capable of carrying
+weight.[26]
+
+[26] Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait."
+
+The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the
+sides and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they
+will be all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse
+in every way more fleet.
+
+To come to the thighs (and buttocks):[27] if the horse have these
+separated by a broad line of demarcation[28] he will be able to plant
+his hind-legs under him with a good gap between;[29] and in so doing
+will assume a posture[30] and a gait in action at once prouder and
+more firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.
+
+[27] Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail."
+
+[28] Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum.
+    Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me
+    diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards."
+
+[29] Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc.
+
+[30] {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the
+    horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op.
+    cit. p. 126).
+
+The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a man
+wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by
+bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together.
+
+A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point
+to be determined in the colt.
+
+And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks,[31] or shanks and
+fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
+about those of the fore-legs.
+
+[31] {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?)
+    knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the
+    os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small.
+
+I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the
+probable size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at
+the moment of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact
+being--and it holds of all the domestic quadrupeds[32]--that with
+advance of time the legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the
+body grows uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper
+symmetry.
+
+[32] Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N.
+    H." xi. 108.
+
+Such is the type[33] of colt and such the tests to be applied, with
+every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal
+fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances
+develop during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our
+tests in confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking
+colt will turn out serviceable,[34] than that a foal of the above
+description will turn out ugly or defective.
+
+[33] Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us
+    the purchaser will get," etc.
+
+[34] For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured,"
+    i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol.
+    Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid.
+    {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable."
+
+
+
+II
+
+The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our
+hands.[1] As a matter of state organisation,[2] cavalry duties usually
+devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a
+considerable share in the government;[3] and it seems far better for a
+young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship,
+or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising
+manouvres, than that he should set up as a trainer of horses.[4] The
+older man has his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-
+one concerns of state or of war, on which to employ his time and
+energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one
+holding my views[5] on the subject will put a young horse out to be
+broken. But in so doing he ought to draw up articles, just as a father
+does when he apprentices his son to some art or handicraft, stating
+what sort of knowledge the young creature is to be sent back possessed
+of. These will serve as indications[6] to the trainer what points he
+must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the same time
+pains should be taken on the owner's part to see that the colt is
+gentle, tractable, and affectionate,[7] when delivered to the
+professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most
+part may be brought about at home and by the groom--if he knows how to
+let the animal connect[8] hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies
+with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from
+sources of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this
+treatment, necessarily the young horse will acquire--not fondness
+merely, but an absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be
+done by touching, stroking, patting those parts of the body which the
+creature likes to have so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or
+where, if there is anything annoying him, the horse can least of all
+apply relief himself.
+
+[1] Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us,
+    may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service
+    in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier,
+    "Notes," p. 84.
+
+[2] "Organisation in the several states."
+
+[3] Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the
+    state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that
+    are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9.
+
+[4] Cf. "Econ." iii. 10.
+
+[5] {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which
+    he started.
+
+[6] Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft
+    in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda."
+
+[7] "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man."
+
+[8] Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc.,
+    should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink,
+    etc., come through help of man."
+
+The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through
+crowds, and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises;
+and if the colt shows sign of apprehension at them,[9] he must teach
+him--not by cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really
+formidable.
+
+[9] Or, "is disposed to shy."
+
+On this topic, then, of training,[10] the rules here given will, I
+think, suffice for any private individual.
+
+[10] Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will
+    perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an
+    amateur."
+
+
+
+III
+
+To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit for
+riding, we will set down certain memoranda,[1] which, if applied
+intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.
+
+[1] "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to
+    be cheated."
+
+First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse has
+lost his mark teeth,[2] not only will the purchaser's hopes be
+blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry
+bargain.[3]
+
+[2] Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See
+    Morgan, p. 126.
+
+[3] Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to
+    gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed
+    of."
+
+Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no
+mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth
+and the headstall[4] over his ears? There need be little ambiguity on
+this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again
+removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse
+stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the
+approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them
+enforced exertion.
+
+[4] {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear.
+
+Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
+induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of
+horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some horses
+again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the
+exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be
+detected by the exercise called the {pede} or volte,[5] and still more
+so by varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses
+will not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth
+along with an avenue of escape home.[6]
+
+[5] See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage
+    below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte.
+
+[6] Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home
+    combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e . . . ekphora} = "the
+    exit from the manege or riding school."
+
+Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go
+at full speed the horse can be pulled up[7] sharp and is willing to
+wheel round in obedience to the rein.
+
+[7] {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For
+    {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole."
+
+It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
+purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one
+knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that
+will not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily
+play the part of an arrant traitor.
+
+And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
+war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
+bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
+scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
+galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
+slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge
+the endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.
+
+I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform
+all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since
+many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from
+want of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any
+horse will come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be
+sound and free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is
+naturally of a nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not
+only prevent the rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to
+strike an enemy, but is as likely as not to bring him to earth
+himself and plunge him into the worst of straits.
+
+We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards
+other horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish;[8]
+such defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.
+
+[8] Or, "very ticklish."
+
+As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted,
+dancing and twisting about and the rest,[9] you will get a more exact
+idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will
+try and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you
+began your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness
+to undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit
+and endurance.
+
+[9] Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and
+    twirlings about."
+
+To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
+gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above
+all things[10] obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will
+give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
+circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
+sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing
+and manouvring, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his
+hands and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.
+
+[10] Al. "thoroughly."
+
+
+
+IV
+
+We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he
+admires;[1] the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how
+is he to be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a
+quarter of the establishment where the master will see the horse as
+often as possible.[2] It is a good thing also to have his stall so
+arranged that there will be as little risk of the horse's food being
+stolen from the manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-
+closet. To neglect a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself;
+since in the hour of danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign
+himself, life and limb, to the safe keeping of his horse.
+
+[1] Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire
+    and have brought him home."
+
+[2] i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the
+    master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20.
+
+Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
+horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse
+takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any
+one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom
+either of too much blood,[3] which calls for veterinary aid, or of
+over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of
+indigestion[4] or some other malady is coming on. And just as with
+human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at
+their commencement[5] than after they have become chronic, or been
+wrongly treated.[6]
+
+[3] "A plethoric condition of the blood."
+
+[4] {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot.
+    "H. A." viii. 24. 4.
+
+[5] i.e. "in the early acute stages."
+
+[6] Al. "and the mischief has spread."
+
+But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body
+are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay
+attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will
+spoil the best hoof which nature can give.[7] To prevent the floor
+being damp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid
+smoothness, paved with cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground
+and similar in size to the horse's hoofs.[8] A stable floor of this
+sort is calculated to strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure
+on the part in standing. In the next place it will be the groom's
+business to lead out the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and
+after his morning's feed to unhalter him from the manger,[9] so that
+he may come to his evening meal with greater relish. To secure the
+best type of stable-yard, and with a view to strengthening the horse's
+feet, I would suggest to take and throw down loosely[10] four or five
+waggon loads of pebbles, each as large as can be grasped in the hand,
+and about a pound in weight; the whole to be fenced round with a
+skirting of iron to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these
+will come to precisely the same thing as if for a certain portion of
+the day the horse were, off and on, stepping along a stony road;
+whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he will be forced to
+use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor is it the hoofs
+merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend to harden the
+frog of the foot also.
+
+[7] Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good
+    hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their
+    horses.
+
+[8] See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself
+    at Bari.
+
+[9] Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16.
+
+[10] Or, "spread so as to form a surface."
+
+But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be
+taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and
+appliances which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve
+to soften and supple a horse's mouth.[11]
+
+[11] Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e.
+    bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201.
+
+
+
+V
+
+It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained
+thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the
+first place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the
+halter[1] at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's
+head. By constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter
+does not sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly
+injuring himself;[2] and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that
+he should show peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.
+
+[1] Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie."
+
+[2] Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head . . . and ten to
+    one will make a sore."
+
+It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung
+and litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he
+will discharge the duty with least trouble to himself,[3] and at the
+same time be doing the horse a kindness.
+
+[3] Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way."
+
+The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the
+horse's mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the
+rolling-ground.[4] In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he
+takes him anywhere without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no
+hindrance to respiration, prevents biting; and when attached it serves
+to rob the horse of opportunity for vice.[5]
+
+[4] Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32.
+
+[5] Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs."
+
+Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above
+his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of
+anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this
+upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of
+snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with
+the head and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to
+cleanse the lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush
+up the hair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and
+then beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on the
+spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrument
+whatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in
+the direction of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury
+that part of the horse's back on which the rider sits.
+
+The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you
+try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be
+caused. So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs
+of which it is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve
+to scare away from the eyes anything that might trouble them.
+Providence, we must suppose,[6] bestowed these hairs upon the horse,
+instead of the large ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a
+protection to the eyes.[7] The tail, again, and mane should be washed,
+the object being to help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to
+allow the creature the greatest reach possible in brushing away
+molesting objects,[8] and those of the neck in order that the rider
+may have as free a grip as possible.
+
+[6] Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave . . ."
+
+[7] Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks."
+
+[8] Insects, etc.
+
+Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon
+the horse for the sake of pride and ornament,[9] and here is the
+proof: a brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not
+readily suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of
+mules take care to clip the mane of the mare with a view to
+covering.[10]
+
+[9] {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310.
+
+[10] For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii.
+    42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan
+    aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de
+    penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A).
+
+Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is done
+but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive
+cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is
+most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the
+thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the
+belly. Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the
+horse is no sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as
+if he had not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and
+similarly for the legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite
+sufficient.
+
+
+
+VI
+
+We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed
+with least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the
+groom attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as
+the horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the
+animal's knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in
+the opposite direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of
+the way of his leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub
+him down. He will then escape all mischief, and he will be able to
+clean the frog by folding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs
+in the same way.
+
+The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this
+and all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as
+little as possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if
+the horse attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and
+rear. But by approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold
+over the horse with the least risk of injury to himself.
+
+When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in
+front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs
+himself of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse
+freedom to do what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like
+exception to the plan of training the horse to go forward on a long
+rein[1] and lead the way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the
+opportunity of mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either
+flank, and the power also to turn right about and face his driver. How
+can a troop of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this
+fashion from behind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the
+side will have least power of mischief to horse or man, and at the
+same time be in the best position to be mounted by the rider at a
+moment's notice, were it necessary.
+
+[1] See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage
+    ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti
+    abolos estin}.
+
+In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first
+place, approach on the near[2] side of the horse, and then throwing
+the reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise
+the headstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If
+the horse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the
+strap of the headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom
+must hold the bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the
+thumb[3] of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will
+open their mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the
+groom must press the lip against the tush[4]; very few horses will
+refuse the bit, when that is done to them.[5]
+
+[2] Lit. "on the left-hand side."
+
+[3] {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8.
+
+[4] i.e. "canine tooth."
+
+[5] Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth
+    under the circumstances."
+
+The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * *
+if any work is to be done:[6] in fact, so important is it that the
+horse should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse
+that will not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted
+not only when he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to
+his food and when he is being led home from a ride, it would be no
+great marvel if he learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when
+first presented to him.
+
+[6] Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade . . .
+    paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc.,
+    {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse
+    must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but
+    {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either
+    case at this point.
+
+It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the
+Persian fashion,[7] so that in case of illness or infirmity of age the
+master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without
+trouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to
+mount him.[8]
+
+[7] Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38.
+
+[8] An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7.
+
+The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is
+never to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that
+it will often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will
+regret.[9] Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to
+approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed
+at, particularly if he be a plucky animal;[10] or, failing that, touch
+the formidable object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to
+it. The opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only
+intensifies its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he
+suffers at such a moment with the object of suspicion, which he
+naturally regards as its cause.
+
+[9] Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim.
+
+[10] Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal."
+
+If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he
+knows how to make him lower his back,[11] to facilitate mounting, we
+have no fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should
+practise and be able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend
+himself;[12] since on another occasion another type of horse may fall
+to the rider's lot,[13] nor can the same rider be always served by the
+same equerry.[14]
+
+[11] {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad
+    loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era
+    began."
+
+[12] Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part."
+
+[13] As a member of the cavalry.
+
+[14] Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same
+    horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in
+    another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse.
+
+
+
+VII
+
+The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to
+mount.[1] We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the
+interests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he
+bestrides. First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs
+from the chin-strap or nose-band,[2] conveniently in his left hand,
+held slack so as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to
+mount by hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the
+ears, or to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right
+hand he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside the
+shoulder-joint,[3] so that he may not in any way wrench the horse's
+mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring off
+the ground for mounting,[4] he should hoist his body by help of the
+left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward
+movement[5] (a position in mounting which will present a graceful
+spectacle also from behind);[6] at the same time with the leg well
+bent, and taking care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he
+must pass his leg clean over to the off side; and so having brought
+his foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat.[7]
+
+[1] Reading {otan . . . paradexetai . . . os anabesomenos}. Or,
+    reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws
+    anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for
+    mounting."
+
+[2] So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather
+    strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as
+    {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies.
+    "Curb" would be misleading.
+
+[3] "Near the withers."
+
+[4] Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to
+    mounting."
+
+[5] "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if
+    {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff."
+
+[6] Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude
+    behind."
+
+[7] Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back."
+
+To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his
+horse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would
+be good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat
+from the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except
+to do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left,
+and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mounting
+is[8] that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to get
+astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points,
+supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden.
+
+[8] Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of
+    mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the
+    soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a
+    sudden, if occasion need."
+
+But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a
+saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but
+rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this
+way he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs;
+and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike
+a blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect.
+The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the leg
+stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some
+obstacle; whereas a flexible leg[9] will yield to the impact, and at
+the same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider should
+also accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple as
+possible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of
+a tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider is
+seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet,
+until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be,[10] and got
+the reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest
+fashion; and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to
+his side. This position will give the rider absolute ease and
+freedom,[11] and his hand the firmest hold.
+
+[9] i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf."
+
+[10] Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle).
+
+[11] {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment."
+
+As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being
+weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which
+holds them can also grasp a spear.
+
+As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start,[12] he
+should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his
+excitement. If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins
+should be held pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to
+carry his head high. This will set off the horse's bearing to the best
+advantage. Presently, as he falls into a natural trot,[13] he will
+gradually relax his limbs without the slightest suffering, and so come
+more agreeably to the gallop.[14] Since, too, the preference is given
+to starting on the left foot, it will best conduce to that lead if,
+while the horse is still trotting, the signal to gallop should be
+given at the instant of making a step with his right foot.[15] As he
+is on the point of lifting his left foot he will start upon it, and
+while turning left will simultaneously make the first bound of the
+gallop;[16] since, as a matter of instinct, a horse, on being turned
+to the right, leads off with his right limbs, and to the left with his
+left.
+
+[12] "Forwards!"
+
+[13] Or, "the true trot."
+
+[14] {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the
+    whip."
+
+[15] See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I.
+    Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter."
+
+[16] {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the
+    gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc.
+
+As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte,[17] since it
+habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the
+order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides
+of the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the
+exercise.[18] But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte
+rather than the circular; for the horse, being already sated with the
+straight course, will be all the more ready to turn, and will be
+practised at once in the straight course and in wheeling. At the
+curve, he should be held up,[19] because it is neither easy nor indeed
+safe when the horse is at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the
+ground is broken[20] or slippery.
+
+[17] {pede}, figure of eight.
+
+[18] Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege."
+
+[19] {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi.
+    22, of a dog.
+
+[20] {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground."
+
+But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the
+horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his
+own body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch
+him and his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse
+has his eyes fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the
+time to urge him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and
+wheelings are with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to
+practise quickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the
+horse seems to have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give
+him a slight pause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away
+from his fellows first,[21] and now towards them; and then again to
+quiet him down in mid-career as short as possible;[22] and from halt
+once more to turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is
+easy to predict that the day will come when there will be need of each
+of these manouvres.
+
+[21] {mentoi}, "of course."
+
+[22] Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible."
+
+When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among
+other horses, nor near a group of people,[23] nor outside the
+exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his
+compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation.[24]
+
+[23] Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21.
+
+[24] Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed."
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race
+downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will
+need to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a
+bank;[1] or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train
+himself and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two
+will have a chance of saving each the other, and may be expected to
+increase their usefulness.
+
+[1] {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap
+    over ditches, and upon high places and down from them."
+
+And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on
+the ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the
+same topics,[2] we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former
+case, we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he
+concluded his bargain to test whether the horse could do those
+particular things;[3] what we are now maintaining is that the owner
+ought to teach his own horse, and we will explain how this teaching is
+to be done.
+
+[2] Or, "treating of a topic already handled."
+
+[3] i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase.
+
+With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him
+by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench
+yourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce
+him to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch
+should apply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear
+at a bound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than
+requisite; and for the future there will be no need for an actual
+blow, the mere sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make
+him leap. As soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may
+mount him and put him first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At
+the moment of the spring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when
+training him to leap up and leap down, you should touch him with the
+spur at the critical instant. In the effort to perform any of these
+actions with the whole body, the horse will certainly perform them
+with more safety to himself and to his rider than he will, if his
+hind-quarters lag, in taking a ditch or fence, or in making an upward
+spring or downward jump.[4]
+
+[4] Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or
+    down."
+
+To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and
+finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the
+downward to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the
+apprehension, which some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate
+the shoulder in galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to
+learn that the Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous
+slopes;[5] and their horses are every bit as sound as our own.[6]
+
+[5] Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day
+    (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1).
+
+[6] Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes."
+
+Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accomodate himself
+to these several movements.[7] Thus, when the horse breaks off into a
+gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less
+likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in
+pulling him up short[8] the rider should lean back; and thus escape a
+shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad
+plan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal
+may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground.
+In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back
+and hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled
+headforemost down the slope himself if not his horse.
+
+[7] Or, "to each set of occurrences."
+
+[8] Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see
+    Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten,
+    pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade."
+
+It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be
+gone through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and
+should sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The
+horse will take much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to
+one place and one routine.
+
+Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his
+seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the
+same time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing
+could be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals,
+than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when
+these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined
+efforts of two horsemen.[9] One of them will play the part of
+fugitive, retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with
+lance reversed and plying the butt end. The other pursues, with
+buttons on his javelins and his lance similarly handled.[10] Whenever
+he comes within javelin range he lets fly at the retreating foeman
+with his blunted missiles; or whenever within spear thrust he deals
+the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to close quarters, it is a
+good plan first to drag the foeman towards oneself, and then on a
+sudden to thrust him off; that is a device to bring him to the
+ground.[11] The correct plan for the man so dragged is to press his
+horse forward: by which action the man who is being dragged is more
+likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought to the ground
+himself.
+
+[9] {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers."
+
+[10] Or, "manipulated."
+
+[11] Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will
+    unhorse him if anything."
+
+If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry
+skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy
+right up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat),
+under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as
+the skirmisher is close to his own party,[12] valour and discretion
+alike dictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but
+when he finds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his
+horse well in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do
+the greatest mischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his
+hands.
+
+[12] See "Hipparch," viii. 23.
+
+The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his
+duty by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious,
+is not open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have
+a horse learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he
+does as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is
+disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of being
+stated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of
+horsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the
+bit, if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he
+will leap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other
+feats incumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the
+word of command with relaxation.[13]
+
+[13] Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to
+    expect some relaxation."
+
+
+
+IX
+
+The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the
+chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;
+secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your
+purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a
+horse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier
+for the purposes of war.
+
+The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider
+should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or
+again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,
+that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger
+in a man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper
+by avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid
+enraging a spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first
+instant, in the act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise
+the annoyance; and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer
+than the ordinary time, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs
+possible; next, beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into
+a quicker step, but so gradually that he will find himself at full
+speed without noticing it.[1] Any sudden signal will bewilder a
+spirited horse, just as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or
+sound or other experience. [I say one should be aware that any
+unexpected shock will produce disturbance in a horse.][2]
+
+[1] Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop."
+
+[2] L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious.
+
+So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a
+quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but
+quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather
+than compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather
+than the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse.[3] A quiet pace
+sustained for a long time has a caressing,[4] soothing effect, the
+reverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast and oft-
+repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and so
+to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; for
+under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry
+the day by main force,[5] and with a show of temper, like a passionate
+man, may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable
+mischief.
+
+[3] Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter
+    turns," {apostrophai}.
+
+[4] Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind.
+
+[5] {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by
+    sheer force."
+
+A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off
+at full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely
+abstain from setting him to race against another; as a general rule,
+your fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention.[6]
+
+[6] Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {. . . oi thil kai
+    th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more
+    mettlesome he will tend to become."
+
+Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit
+be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much
+as possible by lightness of hand.
+
+It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a
+quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to
+touch him as little as possible with anything except that part of the
+body necessary to secure a firm seat.
+
+Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup"[7] to quiet
+and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training
+school; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate
+soft soothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing
+actions with the "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself
+at the "chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this
+principle, at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the
+rider should avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement,
+or, indeed, bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal.
+As far as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and,
+if circumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But
+the best advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the
+purposes of war.
+
+[7] Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound
+    from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek.
+
+As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do
+everything the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing
+with an animal of high spirit.
+
+
+
+X
+
+But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You
+want to find him him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain
+grandeur of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth
+with the bit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted
+by people with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact,
+they thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at.
+That is to say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind
+instead of alive to what is in front of him; and what with spurring
+and whipping they distract the creature to the point of absolute
+bewilderment and danger.[1] Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a
+strong dislike to being ridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly
+tricks. On the contrary, let the horse be taught to be ridden on a
+loose bridle, and to hold his head high and arch his neck, and you
+will practically be making him perform the very acts which he himself
+delights or rather exults in; and the best proof of the pleasure which
+he takes is, that when he is let loose with other horses, and more
+particularly with mares, you will see him rear his head aloft to the
+full height, and arch his neck with nervous vigour,[2] pawing the air
+with pliant legs[3] and waving his tail on high. By training him to
+adopt the very airs and graces which he naturally assumes when showing
+off to best advantage, you have got what you are aiming at--a horse
+that delights in being ridden, a splendid and showy animal, the joy of
+all beholders.
+
+[1] Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are
+    thrown into disorder."
+
+[2] {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of
+    "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse.
+
+[3] "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad
+    Merc."
+
+How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we
+will now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to
+have at least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a
+good size; the other should have heavy and flat discs[4] studded with
+sharp spikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the
+roughness he will drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead,
+he is delighted with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before
+upon the rough, he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He
+may certainly, out of contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually
+try to get a purchase on it, and that is why we attach large discs to
+the smooth bit, the effect of which is to make him open his mouth, and
+drop the mouthpiece. It is possible to make the rough bit of every
+degree of roughness by keeping it slack or taut.
+
+[4] See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll.
+
+But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible.
+If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it
+up bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a
+man takes hold of a bar of iron,[5] he lifts it as a whole. The other
+flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point at
+which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while
+perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the
+mouthpiece go from his bars.[6] For this reason the rings are hung in
+the middle from the two axles,[7] so that while feeling for them with
+his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his
+jaws.
+
+[5] Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit."
+
+[6] Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223.
+
+[7] See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small
+    chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,'
+    with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it
+    about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it
+    may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from
+    writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses
+    forces.'"
+
+To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we
+will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles
+have their points of junction broad and smooth,[8] so as to bend
+easily; and where the several parts fitting round the axles, being
+large of aperture and not too closely packed, have greater
+flexibility; whereas, if the several parts do not slide to and fro
+with ease, and play into each other, that is what we call a stiff bit.
+Whatever the kind of bit may be, the rider must carry out precisely
+the same rules in using it, as follows, if he wishes to turn out a
+horse with the qualities described. The horse's mouth is not to be
+pulled back too harshly so as to make him toss his head aside, nor yet
+so gently that he will not feel the pressure. But the instant he
+raises his neck in answer to the pull, give him the bit at once; and
+so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at every response to your
+wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs his service well,[9]
+reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider perceives that the horse
+takes a pleasure in the high arching and supple play of his neck, let
+him seize the instant not to impose severe exertion on him, like a
+taskmaster, but rather to caress and coax him, as if anxious to give
+him a rest. In this way the horse will be encouraged and fall into a
+rapid pace.
+
+[8] i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work
+    into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the
+    join."
+
+[9] "Behaves compliantly."
+
+That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown
+conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a trot
+or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a
+pleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to perform
+it to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing is
+pleasant if carried to excess.[10]
+
+[10] L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}.
+
+But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we
+have accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall
+into a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson
+well by heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while
+simultaneously giving him one of the signals to be off, the horse,
+galled on the one hand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself
+in obedience to the signal "off," will throw forward his chest and
+raise his legs aloft with fiery spirit; though not indeed with
+suppleness, for the supple play of the limbs ceases as soon as the
+horse feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is thus
+enkindled[11] you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous.
+Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the relaxation of
+the bit, with stately bearing and legs pliantly moving he dashes
+forward in his pride, in every respect imitating the airs and graces
+of a horse approaching other horses. Listen to the epithets with which
+spectators will describe the type of horse: the noble animal! and what
+willingness to work, what paces,[12] what a spirit and what mettle;
+how proudly he bears himself[13]--a joy at once, and yet a terror to
+behold.
+
+[11] Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life."
+
+[12] {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse."
+
+[13] {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon
+    idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor
+    Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148.
+
+Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a
+special need.
+
+
+
+XI
+
+If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state
+processions, a high stepper and a showy[1] animal, these are qualities
+not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal
+must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a
+horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body.
+What we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but
+short and strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the
+belly the region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who
+will be able to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while
+he is so planting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he
+lowers his hind-legs on his hocks[2] and raises the forepart of his
+body, so that any one in front of him will see the whole length of his
+belly to the sheath.[3] At the moment the horse does this, the rider
+should give him the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats
+which a horse can perform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of
+the spectators.
+
+[1] {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys.
+    xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist.").
+
+[2] See Berenger, ii. 68.
+
+[3] Lit. "testicles."
+
+There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts.[4] Some do so
+by touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an
+attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the
+gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of
+instruction,[5] as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that
+whatever he does in obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed
+by some rest and relaxation.
+
+[4] Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in
+    varous ways--some by . . . others by bidding . . ."
+
+[5] Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf.
+    Herod. v. 58.
+
+To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does
+blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that
+of a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse
+or man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather
+than of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his
+own accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals.[6]
+Supposing, when he is in the riding-field,[7] you push him to a gallop
+until he is bathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his
+airs to fine effect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you
+may rely upon it he will of his own accord another time break into the
+same prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes
+ride, as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is
+best discovered in the graceful handling of such animals.[8] A horse
+so prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel;
+riveting the gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They
+will never turn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their
+gazing so long as he continues to display his splendid action.
+
+[6] Or, "by aids and signs," as we say.
+
+[7] Or, "exercising-ground."
+
+[8] Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature
+    gracefully himself at once appears magnificent."
+
+If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance
+in the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must
+not confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, but
+should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid
+spectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon
+the type of animal)[9] the leader is mounted on a horse which with his
+high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement
+forward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walking
+pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in the
+spectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of the
+procession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither too
+fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities in
+all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe
+for action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the
+collective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses
+will combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole
+company[10] down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.
+
+[9] Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}.
+    L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss.
+
+[10] Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An.
+    Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343.
+
+One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his
+horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals,
+supposing further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the
+training for war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly,
+in the stress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man
+from making every horse he owns of far more value in the end than when
+he bought it, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher
+than human interpose,[11] he will become the owner of a celebrated
+stable, and himself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship.
+
+[11] Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man."
+    For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and
+    for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10.
+
+
+
+XII
+
+We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the
+risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place,
+then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person;
+since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole
+body; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to
+bear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm,
+but a "strait jacket."[1] Again, the neck, as being a vital part,[2]
+ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet
+and close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it
+ought to be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to
+the nose.
+
+[1] Cf. "Mem." III. x.
+
+[2] L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326:
+
+{. . . othi kleis apoergei
+aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion estin.}
+
+"Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is
+the most deadly spot" (W. Leaf).
+
+As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the
+Boeotian pattern,[3] on the principle again, that it covers all the
+parts exposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another
+point: the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent
+its wearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the
+genitals and parts surrounding[4] flaps should be attached in texture
+and in thickness sufficient to protect[5] that region.
+
+[3] Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149.
+
+[4] Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj.
+    {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt."
+
+[5] Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to
+    protect the limbs."
+
+Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we
+would recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the
+gauntlet, which protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand
+engaged in holding the reins, being so constructed as to extend and
+contract; in addition to which it covers the gap left by the corselet
+under the armpit. The case is different with the right hand, which the
+horseman must needs raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow.
+Here, accordingly, any part of the corselet which would hinder action
+out to be removed; in place of which the corselet ought to have some
+extra flaps[6] at the joints, which as the outstretched arm is raised
+unfold, and as the arm descends close tight again. The arm itself,[7]
+it seems to us, will better be protected by a piece like a greave
+stretched over it than bound up with the corselet. Again, the part
+exposed when the right hand is raised should be covered close to the
+corselet either with calfskin or with metal; or else there will be a
+want of protection just at the most vital point.
+
+[6] {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. & S. cf.
+    Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket
+    joints."
+
+[7] i.e. "forearm."
+
+Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in
+extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet,
+breastplate, and thigh-pieces;[8] which latter may at the same time
+serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's
+belly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected.
+It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself
+should be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm
+seat, and yet not gall the horse's back.
+
+[8] Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2.
+
+As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked
+upon as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet,
+which of course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be
+armed by the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for
+making sandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for
+the shins and stockings for the feet.
+
+The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of
+defence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather
+than the straight sword,[9] since from the vantage-ground of the
+horse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force than
+the ordinary weapon.
+
+[9] The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the
+    {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13.
+
+Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and
+awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood;[10]
+the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the
+one reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards,[11] and
+obliquely; add to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger
+than the spear but far more manageable.
+
+[10] For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences
+    perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I.
+    ii. 9.
+
+[11] Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl.
+
+As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the
+longest possible, as giving more time to rally[12] and transfer the
+second javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the
+most effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should
+throw forward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising
+bodily from the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point
+slightly upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest
+force and to the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest
+aim, if at the moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on
+the object aimed at.[13]
+
+[12] Al. "to turn right-about."
+
+[13] "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of
+    discharge."
+
+This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and
+exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion;
+the theory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander
+will be found developed in the companion treatise.[14]
+
+[14] In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of On Horsemanship by Xenophon
+
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