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diff --git a/1176-0.txt b/1176-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2692e52 --- /dev/null +++ b/1176-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1589 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1176 *** + +ON HORSEMANSHIP + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy + a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a + war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some + words on military equipment for a cavalryman. + + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + +This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a +four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is +doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +ON HORSEMANSHIP + + +I + +Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1) +ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to +explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be +the most correct method of dealing with horses. + + (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time + 'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in + horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we + conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing + with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a + {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more + particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of + cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is + commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv. + 14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C. + +There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the +same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens +(2) with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the +pedestal. (3) But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise +any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author; on the +contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to our +friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from the +fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to our +own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we shall +endeavour to supply them. + + (2) L. Dind. (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this + sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p. + 296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p. + 230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan, + "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of + the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The + MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that + one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist. + "Knights," 242. + +{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate +pros to dexion keras}; + +bears the name. + + (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own + performances." + +As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best +avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse. + +Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny +must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted +can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves +therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be +the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its +upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought +to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in +particular a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent +his other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good +account. (5) + + (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see + "Mem." III. i. 7. + + (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86: + +regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si +facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem, +quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix. + +and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll. + +In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion +of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a +thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both +before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the +"frog," (6) as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof +treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, +the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good +foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof +rings like a cymbal against the solid earth. (9) + + (6) Lit. "the swallow." + + (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed. + 1892), pp. 3, 9. + + (8) Or, "and he is right." + + (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12. + +And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point +to the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the +fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not +being properly elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and +are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must +not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when +the horse is galloped over clods and stones. + + (10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be + 'sloping.'" + + (11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch + like anvil to hammer." + +The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the +columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not +puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they +will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set +up, (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and +with this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start +and render the horse lame. + + (12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals." + + (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell + whilst the skin recedes from the bone." + + (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong, + and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part + in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be + termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order. + +If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely +conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs, +since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15) +Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as +they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than +those of stiffer build. + + (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances." + +Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if +thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just +as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is +better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the +legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one +another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the +chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should +shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature; +whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the +neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will command what +lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, however +spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, (18) since +it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and head that a +horse endeavours to assert his power. (19) + + (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished + from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to + our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically + speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia. + + (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge). + + (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting." + + (19) Or, "to display violence or run away." + +It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one +or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable +to become hard-mouthed on one side. + + (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive." + +Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness, +and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision. + +And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a +contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect. +Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or +when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become +dilated. + + (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he + distends his nostrils." + +A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and +horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the +rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the +body. (22) + + (22) Or if with L. D. ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the + horse's shoulders." + +A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single, +and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat +rounded towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to +sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food. +(25) + + (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii. + 87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in + good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like + a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a + full back," as we say. + + (24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la + Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits + par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83. + + (25) i.e. "and keep in good condition." + +The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise +his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these +points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion +of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to +make the horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26) + + (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait." + +The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides +and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be +all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every +way more fleet. + +To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these +separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant +his hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing +will assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more +firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage. + + (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail." + + (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum. + Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me + diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards." + + (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc. + + (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the + horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op. + cit. p. 126). + +The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a +man wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by +bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together. + +A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to +be determined in the colt. + +And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and +fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already +about those of the fore-legs. + + (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?) + knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the + os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small. + +I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable +size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment +of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being--and it +holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)--that with advance of time the +legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows uniformly +up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry. + + (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N. + H." xi. 108. + +Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with +every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal +fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop +during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our tests in +confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will +turn out serviceable, (34) than that a foal of the above description +will turn out ugly or defective. + + (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us + the purchaser will get," etc. + + (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured," + i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol. + Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid. + {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable." + + + +II + +The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands. +(1) As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually +devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a +considerable share in the government; (3) and it seems far better for +a young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship, +or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres, +than that he should set up as a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has +his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of +state or of war, on which to employ his time and energies rather than on +horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one holding my views (5) on +the subject will put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing he +ought to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices his +son to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of knowledge the +young creature is to be sent back possessed of. These will serve as +indications (6) to the trainer what points he must pay special heed to +if he is to earn his fee. At the same time pains should be taken on +the owner's part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, and +affectionate, (7) when delivered to the professional trainer. That is a +condition of things which for the most part may be brought about at home +and by the groom--if he knows how to let the animal connect (8) hunger +and thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associating +food and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presence +of man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse +will acquire--not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for human +beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting those +parts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. These +are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, the +horse can least of all apply relief himself. + + (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us, + may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service + in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier, + "Notes," p. 84. + + (2) "Organisation in the several states." + + (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the + state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that + are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9. + + (4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10. + + (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which + he started. + + (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft + in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda." + + (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man." + + (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc., + should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink, + etc., come through help of man." + +The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds, +and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the +colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him--not by +cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really formidable. + + (9) Or, "is disposed to shy." + +On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I +think, suffice for any private individual. + + (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will + perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an + amateur." + + + +III + +To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit +for riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied +intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated. + + (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to + be cheated." + +First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse +has lost his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be +blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain. +(3) + + (2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See + Morgan, p. 126. + + (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to + gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed + of." + +Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no +mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth +and the headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity +on this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again +removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse +stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the +approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them +enforced exertion. + + (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear. + +Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be +induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of +horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some +horses again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the +exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected +by the exercise called the {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by +varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses will +not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth along +with an avenue of escape home. (6) + + (5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage + below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte. + + (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home + combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the + exit from the manege or riding school." + +Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at +full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel +round in obedience to the rein. + + (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For + {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole." + +It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to +purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one +knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will +not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play +the part of an arrant traitor. + +And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for +war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can +bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls, +scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by +galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a +slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the +endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body. + +I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform +all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since +many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want +of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will +come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and +free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a +nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the +rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but +is as likely as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into +the worst of straits. + +We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other +horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such +defects are apt to cause his owner trouble. + + (8) Or, "very ticklish." + +As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted, +dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact +idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try +and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began +your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to +undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and +endurance. + + (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and + twirlings about." + +To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed, +gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all +things (10) obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will +give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the +circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of +sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing +and manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands +and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken. + + (10) Al. "thoroughly." + + + +IV + +We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires; +(1) the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how is he to +be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter +of the establishment where the master will see the horse as often as +possible. (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that +there will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the +manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect +a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of +danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb, +to the safe keeping of his horse. + + (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire + and have brought him home." + + (2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the + master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20. + +Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure +horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse +takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any +one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom +either of too much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of +over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of +indigestion (4) or some other malady is coming on. And just as with +human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at their +commencement (5) than after they have become chronic, or been wrongly +treated. (6) + + (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood." + + (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot. + "H. A." viii. 24. 4. + + (5) i.e. "in the early acute stages." + + (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread." + +But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body +are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay +attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil +the best hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being +damp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved +with cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size +to the horse's hoofs. (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated +to strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part in +standing. In the next place it will be the groom's business to lead out +the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and after his morning's feed +to unhalter him from the manger, (9) so that he may come to his evening +meal with greater relish. To secure the best type of stable-yard, and +with a view to strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to take +and throw down loosely (10) four or five waggon loads of pebbles, each +as large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in weight; the +whole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron to prevent scattering. +The mere standing on these will come to precisely the same thing as if +for a certain portion of the day the horse were, off and on, stepping +along a stony road; whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he +will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor +is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend to +harden the frog of the foot also. + + (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good + hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their + horses. + + (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself + at Bari. + + (9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16. + + (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface." + +But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be +taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances +which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and +supple a horse's mouth. (11) + + (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e. + bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201. + + + +V + +It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained +thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first +place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter +(1) at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By +constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not +sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring +himself; (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should +show peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down. + + (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie." + + (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to + one will make a sore." + +It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung +and litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will +discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same +time be doing the horse a kindness. + + (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way." + +The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's +mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground. +(4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere +without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration, +prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of +opportunity for vice. (5) + + (4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32. + + (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs." + +Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above +his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of +anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this +upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of +snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the +head and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse +the lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the +hair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then +beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on the +spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrument +whatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the +direction of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury that part +of the horse's back on which the rider sits. + +The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you +try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused. +So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which +it is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare +away from the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must +suppose, (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large +ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the +eyes. (7) The tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being +to help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to allow the creature +the greatest reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and +those of the neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as +possible. + + (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..." + + (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks." + + (8) Insects, etc. + +Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the +horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a +brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily +suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take +care to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10) + + (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310. + + (10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii. + 42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan + aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de + penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A). + +Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is done +but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive +cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is +most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the +thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly. +Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is +no sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had +not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for +the legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient. + + + +VI + +We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with +least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom +attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the +horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's +knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite +direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his +leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He +will then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by +folding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way. + +The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this +and all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little +as possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse +attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by +approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse +with the least risk of injury to himself. + +When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in +front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself +of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to +do what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the +plan of training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead +the way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of +mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the +power also to turn right about and face his driver. How can a troop +of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this fashion from +behind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the side will have +least power of mischief to horse or man, and at the same time be in the +best position to be mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were it +necessary. + + (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage + ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti + abolos estin}. + +In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first +place, approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing +the reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the +headstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the +horse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of +the headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold +the bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3) +of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their +mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must +press the lip against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit, +when that is done to them. (5) + + (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side." + + (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8. + + (4) i.e. "canine tooth." + + (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth + under the circumstances." + +The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if +any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse +should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will +not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only +when he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and +when he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he +learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him. + + (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade... + paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc., + {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse + must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but + {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either + case at this point. + +It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the +Persian fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age +the master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without +trouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to +mount him. (8) + + (7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38. + + (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7. + +The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is never +to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it will +often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret. +(9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it, +you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly +if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the formidable +object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The opposite +plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies its +fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a +moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its +cause. + + (9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim. + + (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal." + +If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows +how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no +fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and +be able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since +on another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot, +(13) nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14) + + (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad + loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era + began." + + (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part." + + (13) As a member of the cavalry. + + (14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same + horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in + another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse. + + + +VII + +The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to +mount. (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the +interests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides. +First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the +chin-strap or nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack +so as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by +hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or +to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right hand +he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside the +shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any way wrench the horse's +mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring off +the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his body by help of the +left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward movement +(5) (a position in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle also +from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg well bent, and taking +care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass his leg +clean over to the off side; and so having brought his foot well round, +plant himself firmly on his seat. (7) + + (1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or, + reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws + anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for + mounting." + + (2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather + strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as + {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies. + "Curb" would be misleading. + + (3) "Near the withers." + + (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to + mounting." + + (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if + {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff." + + (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude + behind." + + (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back." + +To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his +horse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would +be good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat +from the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except +to do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left, +and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mounting +is (8) that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to +get astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points, +supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden. + + (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of + mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the + soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a + sudden, if occasion need." + +But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a +saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but +rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this +way he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs; +and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike +a blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect. +The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the +leg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some +obstacle; whereas a flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at +the same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider should +also accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple as +possible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of +a tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider is +seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet, +until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be, (10) and got +the reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest fashion; +and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to his side. +This position will give the rider absolute ease and freedom, (11) and +his hand the firmest hold. + + (9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf." + + (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle). + + (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment." + +As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being +weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds +them can also grasp a spear. + +As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he +should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement. +If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held +pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high. +This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently, +as he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs +without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the +gallop. (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left +foot, it will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still +trotting, the signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making +a step with his right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting +his left foot he will start upon it, and while turning left will +simultaneously make the first bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a +matter of instinct, a horse, on being turned to the right, leads off +with his right limbs, and to the left with his left. + + (12) "Forwards!" + + (13) Or, "the true trot." + + (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the + whip." + + (15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I. + Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter." + + (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the + gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc. + +As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it +habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the +order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of +the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18) +But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the +circular; for the horse, being already sated with the straight course, +will be all the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in +the straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held +up, (19) because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is +at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or +slippery. + + (17) {pede}, figure of eight. + + (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege." + + (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi. + 22, of a dog. + + (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground." + +But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the +horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own +body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and +his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes +fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge +him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings +are with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise +quickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems +to have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight +pause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his +fellows first, (21) and now towards them; and then again to quiet him +down in mid-career as short as possible; (22) and from halt once more +to turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is easy to +predict that the day will come when there will be need of each of these +manoeuvres. + + (21) {mentoi}, "of course." + + (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible." + +When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among +other horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the +exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his +compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24) + + (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21. + + (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed." + + + +VIII + +As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race +downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will +need to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank; +(1) or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself +and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a +chance of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their +usefulness. + + (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap + over ditches, and upon high places and down from them." + +And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on +the ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same +topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case, +we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his +bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3) +what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own +horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done. + + (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled." + + (3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase. + +With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him +by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench +yourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce +him to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should +apply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a +bound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite; +and for the future there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere +sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As +soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put +him first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the +spring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap +up and leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the critical +instant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with the whole +body, the horse will certainly perform them with more safety to himself +and to his rider than he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a +ditch or fence, or in making an upward spring or downward jump. (4) + + (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or + down." + +To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and +finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward +to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which +some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in +galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the +Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and +their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6) + + (5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day + (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1). + + (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes." + +Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself +to these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a +gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less +likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in +pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a +shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad +plan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal +may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground. +In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back +and hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled +headforemost down the slope himself if not his horse. + + (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences." + + (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see + Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten, + pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade." + +It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone +through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should +sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will +take much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and +one routine. + +Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his +seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the +same time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing +could be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals, +than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when +these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined +efforts of two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive, +retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed +and plying the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins +and his lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin +range he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or +whenever within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow. +In coming to close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman +towards oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a +device to bring him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so +dragged is to press his horse forward: by which action the man who is +being dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought +to the ground himself. + + (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers." + + (10) Or, "manipulated." + + (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will + unhorse him if anything." + +If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry +skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy +right up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat), +under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the +skirmisher is close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike +dictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he +finds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well +in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do the greatest +mischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his hands. + + (12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23. + +The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty +by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not +open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse +learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does +as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is +disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of being +stated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of +horsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit, +if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will +leap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other feats +incumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word of +command with relaxation. (13) + + (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to + expect some relaxation." + + + +IX + +The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the +chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse; +secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your +purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a +horse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for +the purposes of war. + +The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider +should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or +again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is, +that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in +a man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by +avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a +spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the +act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance; +and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary +time, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next, +beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker +step, but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed without +noticing it. (1) Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just +as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or other experience. +(I say one should be aware that any unexpected shock will produce +disturbance in a horse.) (2) + + (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop." + + (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious. + +So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a +quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but +quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather +than compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather +than the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace +sustained for a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the +reverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast and +oft-repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and +so to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; for +under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the +day by main force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man, +may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief. + + (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter + turns," {apostrophai}. + + (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind. + + (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by + sheer force." + +A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off +at full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain +from setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your +fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6) + + (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai + th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more + mettlesome he will tend to become." + +Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit +be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as +possible by lightness of hand. + +It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a +quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to +touch him as little as possible with anything except that part of the +body necessary to secure a firm seat. + +Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet +and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training +school; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft +soothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions +with the "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the +"chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle, +at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should +avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed, +bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal. As far +as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and, if +circumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But the +best advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the purposes +of war. + + (7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound + from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek. + +As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything +the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal +of high spirit. + + + +X + +But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You +want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur +of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the +bit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted by people +with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they thereby +achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say, +by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive +to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they +distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger. +(1) Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being +ridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary, +let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold +his head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him +perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and +the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let +loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will +see him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with +nervous vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his +tail on high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he +naturally assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what +you are aiming at--a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and +showy animal, the joy of all beholders. + + (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are + thrown into disorder." + + (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of + "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse. + + (3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad + Merc." + +How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will +now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have +at least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good +size; the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp +spikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he +will drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted +with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough, +he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out +of contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase +on it, and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the +effect of which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece. +It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by +keeping it slack or taut. + + (4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll. + +But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible. +If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up +bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a +man takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other +flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point +at which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while +perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the +mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in +the middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with +his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws. + + (5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit." + + (6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223. + + (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small + chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,' + with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it + about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it + may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from + writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses + forces.'" + +To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we +will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have +their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and +where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture +and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the +several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each +other, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may +be, the rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as +follows, if he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described. +The horse's mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make +him toss his head aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the +pressure. But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give +him the bit at once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at +every response to your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs +his service well, (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider +perceives that the horse takes a pleasure in the high arching and +supple play of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severe +exertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and coax +him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In this way the horse will be +encouraged and fall into a rapid pace. + + (8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work + into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the + join." + + (9) "Behaves compliantly." + +That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown +conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a +trot or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a +pleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to perform +it to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing is +pleasant if carried to excess. (10) + + (10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}. + +But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we have +accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into +a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well +by heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously +giving him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one +hand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the +signal "off," will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with +fiery spirit; though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play +of the limbs ceases as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now, +supposing when his fire is thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein, +the effect is instantaneous. Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, +thanks to the relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legs +pliantly moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respect +imitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other horses. +Listen to the epithets with which spectators will describe the type of +horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to work, what paces, (12) +what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears himself (13)--a joy +at once, and yet a terror to behold. + + (11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life." + + (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse." + + (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon + idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor + Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148. + +Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special +need. + + + +XI + +If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state +processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities +not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal +must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a +horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What +we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and +strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the +region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be +able to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so +planting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his +hind-legs on his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that +any one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the +sheath. (3) At the moment the horse does this, the rider should give +him the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can +perform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators. + + (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys. + xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist."). + + (2) See Berenger, ii. 68. + + (3) Lit. "testicles." + +There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so +by touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an +attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the +gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5) +as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does +in obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and +relaxation. + + (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in + various ways--some by... others by bidding..." + + (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf. + Herod. v. 58. + +To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does +blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of +a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or +man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than +of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own +accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing, +when he is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is +bathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine +effect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon +it he will of his own accord another time break into the same +prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes ride, +as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is best +discovered in the graceful handling of such animals. (8) A horse so +prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel; riveting +the gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They will never +turn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so long +as he continues to display his splendid action. + + (6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say. + + (7) Or, "exercising-ground." + + (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature + gracefully himself at once appears magnificent." + +If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in +the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must +not confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, +but should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid +spectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon +the type of animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with +his high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement +forward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walking +pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in the +spectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of the +procession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither too +fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities in +all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe +for action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the +collective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses +will combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole company +(10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle. + + (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}. + L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss. + + (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An. + Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343. + +One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his +horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing +further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training +for war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the +stress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making +every horse he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought +it, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher than human +interpose, (11) he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and +himself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship. + + (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man." + For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and + for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10. + + + +XII + +We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the +risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place, +then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person; +since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole +body; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to +bear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, +but a "strait jacket." (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2) +ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and +close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought +to be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to the nose. + + (1) Cf. "Mem." III. x. + + (2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326: + +{... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion +estin.} + +"Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the +most deadly spot" (W. Leaf). + +As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian +pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts +exposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point: +the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its +wearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals +and parts surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in +thickness sufficient to protect (5) that region. + + (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149. + + (4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj. + {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt." + + (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to + protect the limbs." + +Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would +recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which +protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding +the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition +to which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The +case is different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs +raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any +part of the corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in +place of which the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the +joints, which as the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm +descends close tight again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will +better be protected by a piece like a greave stretched over it than +bound up with the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right hand +is raised should be covered close to the corselet either with calfskin +or with metal; or else there will be a want of protection just at the +most vital point. + + (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. & S. cf. + Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket + joints." + + (7) i.e. "forearm." + +Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in +extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet, +breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time +serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's +belly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected. +It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself +should be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, +and yet not gall the horse's back. + + (8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2. + +As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon +as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which +of course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed +by the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making +sandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins +and stockings for the feet. + +The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of +defence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather +than the straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the +horse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force than +the ordinary weapon. + + (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the + {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13. + +Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and +awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10) +the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one +reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add +to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but +far more manageable. + + (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences + perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I. + ii. 9. + + (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl. + +As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the +longest possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the +second javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the +most effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw +forward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily +from the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly +upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and +to the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at +the moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object +aimed at. (13) + + (12) Al. "to turn right-about." + + (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of + discharge." + +This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and +exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the +theory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be +found developed in the companion treatise. (14) + + (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch." + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of On Horsemanship, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1176 *** |