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diff --git a/old/11398.txt b/old/11398.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..492e023 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11398.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8581 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of the +mortuary customs of the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North American Indians + First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the + Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80, + Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 87-204 + +Author: H. C. Yarrow + +Posting Date: March 24, 2010 [EBook #11398] +Release Date: March 2, 2004 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Anne Folland, Juliet Sutherland +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images +generously made available by the Canadian Institute for +Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org) and The +Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org).) + + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: + +This e-text comes in three forms: Unicode (UTF-8), Latin-1 and ASCII. +Use the one that works best on your text reader. + + --In the UTF-8 (best) version, a small group of words will appear + with a macron ("long" mark) on a or u: + Tsinuk (six times), tamahno-us (three times), me-mel-us-illa-hee, + Kaw-a-wah, Tah-zee (twice each) + There is also a single Greek word. The letter "oe" displays as a + single character, and apostrophes and quotation marks are "curly" + or angled. If any part of this paragraph displays as garbage, try + changing your text reader's "character set" or "file encoding". If + that doesn't work, proceed to: + + --In the Latin-1 version, the words listed above will have a + circumflex (a or u) instead of a macron, the Greek word will be + transliterated and shown between #marks#, and the form "oe" is two + letters. The three long French passages still have the appropriate + accents, but apostrophes and quotation marks will be straight + ("typewriter" form). Again, if you see any garbage in this + paragraph and can't get it to display properly, use: + + --The ASCII-7 or rock-bottom version. In this version, all diacritics + (accents) are gone, _including accents on all French words_. + +Much of this article is quoted from other published sources. The +resulting inconsistencies in spelling and punctuation are unchanged. +Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text. + +The Table of Contents and Index were supplied from the beginning and end +of the Annual Report volume. The List of Illustrations was printed with +the article. + +Most footnotes are purely bibliographic. Asterisks after a few footnote +numbers [44*] were added by the transcriber to identify those notes +that give further information.] + + + + + SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY + + J. W. Powell, Director + + + A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION + + to the + + STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS + + of the + + NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. + + + by + + Dr. H. C. YARROW, + + Act. Asst. Surg., U.S.A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + List of illustrations 89 + Introductory 91 + Classification of burial 92 + Inhumation 93 + Pit burial 93 + Grave burial 101 + Stone graves or cists 113 + Burial in mounds 115 + Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses 122 + Cave burial 126 + Embalmment or mummification 130 + Urn burial 137 + Surface burial 138 + Cairn burial 142 + Cremation 143 + Partial cremation 150 + Aerial sepulture 152 + Lodge burial 152 + Box burial 155 + Tree and scaffold burial 158 + Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries 168 + Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes 171 + Aquatic burial 180 + Living sepulchers 182 + Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc. 183 + Mourning 183 + Sacrifice 187 + Feasts 190 + Superstition regarding burial feasts 191 + Food 192 + Dances 192 + Songs 194 + Games 195 + Posts 197 + Fires 198 + Superstitions 199 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +[In the original, Figure 12 was printed before Figure 11 (both full-page +Plates). Figure 45 (_on_ page 196) was printed before the group of +plates 34-44 (_between_ pages 196 and 197).] + + + 1.--Quiogozon or dead house 94 + 2.--Pima burial 98 + 3.--Towers of silence 105 + 4.--Towers of silence 106 + 5.--Alaskan mummies 135 + 6.--Burial urns 138 + 7.--Indian cemetery 139 + 8.--Grave pen 141 + 9.--Grave pen 141 + 10.--Tolkotin cremation 145 + 11.--Eskimo lodge burial 154 + 12.--Burial houses 154 + 13.--Innuit grave 156 + 14.--Ingalik grave 157 + 15.--Dakota scaffold burial 158 + 16.--Offering food to the dead 159 + 17.--Depositing the corpse 160 + 18.--Tree-burial 161 + 19.--Chippewa scaffold burial 162 + 20.--Scarification at burial 164 + 21.--Australian scaffold burial 166 + 22.--Preparing the dead 167 + 23.--Canoe-burial 171 + 24.--Twana canoe-burial 172 + 25.--Posts for burial canoes 173 + 26.--Tent on scaffold 174 + 27.--House burial 175 + 28.--House burial 175 + 29.--Canoe-burial 178 + 30.--Mourning-cradle 181 + 31.--Launching the burial cradle 182 + 32.--Chippewa widow 185 + 33.--Ghost gamble 195 + 34.--Figured plum stones 196 + 35.--Winning throw, No. 1 196 + 36.--Winning throw, No. 2 196 + 37.--Winning throw, No. 3 196 + 38.--Winning throw, No. 4 196 + 39.--Winning throw, No. 5 196 + 40.--Winning throw, No. 6 196 + 41.--Auxiliary throw, No. 1 196 + 42.--Auxiliary throw, No. 2 196 + 43.--Auxiliary throw, No. 3 196 + 44.--Auxiliary throw, No. 4 196 + 45.--Auxiliary throw, No. 5 196 + 46.--Burial posts 197 + 47.--Grave fire 198 + + + + + A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION + + to the + + STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS + + By H. C. Yarrow. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many +readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen +the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to +reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an +introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate +study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and +more important. + +The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are +rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other +disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all +interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously, +while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable. +This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an +almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and +the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing. +A wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably seconded +the efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, from +the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of +scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press, +too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever on the alert to scatter +broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of +well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry, +and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is +the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North +American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it +be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already +contributed. + +It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest, +since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great +importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost +invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our +globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed +more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of +supererogation to continue a further examination of the subject, for +nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention +of burial observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on +the sea of this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless +supported by corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely +unreliable. To bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and +arrange collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer's +task, and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method +of securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and +need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present +to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to +the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies, +the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples, +and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding +the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be +done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough +analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and +from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be +considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer +having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the +accounts furnished. + +It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be +embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions +to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. J. W. +Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, +from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant encouragement +and advice has been received, and to whom all American ethnologists owe +a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid. + +Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the +subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies +among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost +analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World. + +For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of burials +may be adopted, although further study may lead to some modifications. + + + + +CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL. + + +1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, or holes in the ground, stone graves +or cists, in mounds, beneath or in cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or +in caves. + +2d. By EMBALMMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being +afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in +charnel-houses. + +3d. By DEPOSITION of remains in urns. + +4th. By SURFACE BURIAL, the remains being placed in hollow trees or +logs, pens, or simply covered with earth, or bark, or rocks forming +cairns. + +5th. By CREMATION, or partial burning, generally on the surface of the +earth, occasionally beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed +in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns, +sometimes scattered. + +6th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being left in lodges, houses, +cabins, tents, deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the +two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the +ground. Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of +children, these being hung to trees. + +7th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were +turned adrift. + +These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem +sufficient for all practical needs. + +The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be understood +in its literal significance, the word being derived from the Teutonic +Anglo-Saxon "_birgan_," to conceal or hide away. + +In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, it +has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, in +order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the +relator's language been changed except to correct manifest +unintentional, errors of spelling. + + + + +INHUMATION. + + +_PIT BURIAL._ + +The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been that +of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of +different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of +the process: + +One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:[1] + + The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body + was placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered + with timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby + kept the body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a + round hill over it. They always dressed the corpse in all its + finery, and put wampum and other things into the grave with it; and + the relations suffered not grass nor any wood to grow upon the + grave, and frequently visited it and made lamentation. + +In Jones[2] is the following interesting account from Lawson[3] of the +burial customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas: + + Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was accompanied + with special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon + the funeral according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was + first placed in a cane hurdle and deposited in an outhouse made for + the purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night, + guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with disheveled + hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral go into the town, + and from the backs of the first young men they meet strip such + blankets and matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In + these the dead body is wrapped and then covered with two or three + mats made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or + hollow canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared for + the interment, the corpse is carried from the house in which it has + been lying into the orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in + another hurdle. Seated upon mats are there congregated the family + and tribe of the deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or + conjurer, having enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral + oration, during which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his + valor, skill, love of country, property, and influence; alludes to + the void caused by his death, and counsels those who remain to + supply his place by following in his footsteps; pictures the + happiness he will enjoy in the land of spirits to which he has gone, + and concludes his address by an allusion to the prominent traditions + of his tribe. + +Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed +throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the +opinion of many, "more honored in the breach than in the observance." + + At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from that + Hurdle to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the Relations, + the King, old Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the + Sepulcre, which is about six foot deep and eight foot long, having + at each end (that is, at the Head and Foot) a Light-Wood or + Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down the sides of the Grave firmly into + the Ground (these two Forks are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you + shall understand presently), before they lay the Corps into the + Grave, they cover the bottom two or three time over with the Bark of + Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two Belts that the + _Indians_ carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely upon the said + Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the two Forks, + and having a great many Pieces of Pitch-Pine Logs about two Foot and + a half long, they stick them in the sides of the Grave down each End + and near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the + Ridge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of a House. + These being very thick plac'd, they cover them [many times double] + with Bark; then they throw the Earth thereon that came out of the + Grave and beat it down very firm. By this Means the dead Body lies + in a Vault, nothing touching him. + +After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in +an ossuary called the Quiogozon. + +Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers +called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to +it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair +greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited, +another dried bodies. + +It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M. B. Kent, +relating to the Sacs and Foxes (_Oh-sak-ke-uck_) of the Nehema Agency, +Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead to +prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom has +been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by +examples given further on. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Quiogozon or Dead House.] + + _Ancient burial._--The body was buried in a grave made about 2-1/2 + feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards the east, the + burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave was + prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse was + deposited, a plank covering made and secured some distance above the + body. The plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse with + the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse was + always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a long journey in + life, no coffin being used. + + _Modern burial._--This tribe now usually bury in coffins, rude ones + constructed by themselves, still depositing the body in the grave + with the head towards the east. + + _Ancient funeral ceremonies._--Every relative of the deceased had to + throw some article in the grave, either food, clothing, or other + material. There was no rule stating the nature of what was to be + added to the collection, simply a requirement that something must be + deposited, if it were only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After + the corpse was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead, + instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would soon + discover moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he came to a + great river, which is the river of death; when there he would find a + pole across the river, which, if he has been honest, upright, and + good, will be straight, upon which he could readily cross to the + other side; but if his life had been one of wickedness and sin, the + pole would be very crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he + would be precipitated into the turbulent stream and lost forever. + The brave also told him if he crossed the river in safety the Great + Father would receive him, take out his old brains, give him new + ones, and then he would have reached the happy hunting grounds, + always be happy and have eternal life. After burial a feast was + always called, and a portion of the food of which each and every + relative was partaking was burned to furnish subsistence to the + spirit upon its journey. + + _Modern funeral ceremonies._--Provisions are rarely put into the + grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast subsequent + to burial is burned, although the feast is continued. All the + address delivered by the brave over the corpse after being deposited + in the grave is omitted. A prominent feature of all ceremonies, + either funeral or religious, consists of feasting accompanied with + music and dancing. + + _Ancient mourning observances._--The female relations allowed their + hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed themselves in the most + unpresentable attire, the latter of which the males also do. Men + blacked the whole face for a period of ten days after a death in the + family, while the women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the + children were blacked for three months; they were also required to + fast for the same length of time, the fasting to consist of eating + but one meal per day, to be made entirely of hominy, and partaken of + about sunset. It was believed that this fasting would enable the + child to dream of coming events and prophesy what was to happen in + the future. The extent and correctness of prophetic vision depended + upon how faithfully the ordeal of fasting had been observed. + + _Modern mourning observances._--Many of those of the past are + continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing uncouth + apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children, and they are + adhered to with as much tenacity as many of the professing + Christians belonging to the evangelical churches adhere to their + practices, which constitute mere forms, the intrinsic value of which + can very reasonably be called in question. + +The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,[4] made +the graves of their dead as follows: + + When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse about + four feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the cabin or rock + wherever he died. The corpse is placed in the hole in a sitting + posture, with a blanket wrapped about it, and the legs bent under + and tied together. If a warrior, he is painted, and his pipe, + ornaments, and warlike appendages are deposited with him. The grave + is then covered with canes tied to a hoop round the top of the hole, + then a firm layer of clay, sufficient to support the weight of a + man. The relations howl loudly and mourn publicly for four days. If + the deceased has been a man of eminent character, the family + immediately remove from the house in which he is buried and erect a + new one, with a belief that where the bones of their dead are + deposited the place is always attended by goblins and chimeras dire. + +Dr. W. C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County, +Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most +interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it +may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those +already mentioned: + + The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in southern + Gage County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000 acres, unsurpassed + in beauty of location, natural resources, and adaptability for + prosperous agriculture. This pastoral people, though in the midst of + civilization, have departed but little from the rude practice and + customs of a nomadic life, and here may be seen and studied those + interesting dramas as vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote + frontier. + + During my residence among this people on different occasions, I have + had the opportunity of witnessing the Indian burials and many quaint + ceremonies pertaining thereto. + + When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe + subject, the preparation of the burial costume is immediately began. + The near relatives of the dying Indian surround the humble bedside, + and by loud lamentations and much weeping manifest a grief which is + truly commensurate with the intensity of Indian devotion and + attachment. + + While thus expressing before the near departed their grief at the + sad separation impending, the Indian women, or friendly braves, lose + no time in equipping him or her with the most ornate clothes and + ornaments that are available or in immediate possession. It is thus + that the departed Otoe is enrobed in death, in articles of his own + selection and by arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his + own tongue. It is customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere his + departure, the propriety or impropriety of the accustomed + sacrifices. In some cases there is a double and in others no + sacrifice at all. The Indian women then prepare to cut away their + hair; it is accomplished with scissors, cutting close to the scalp + at the side and behind. + + The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with great + solemnity and care. Bead-work, the most ornate, expensive blankets + and ribbons comprise the funeral shroud. The dead, being thus + enrobed, is placed in a recumbent posture at the most conspicuous + part of the lodge and viewed in rotation by the mourning relatives + previously summoned by a courier, all preserving uniformity in the + piercing screams which would seem to have been learned by rote. + + An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the tribe, + arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge around one of + their number, keeping time upon a drum or some rude cooking-utensil. + + At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance + excitedly around the central person, vociferating, and with wild + gesture, tomahawk in hand, imprecate the evil spirit, which he + drives to the land where the sun goes down. The evil spirit being + thus effectually banished, the mourning gradually subsides, blending + into succeeding scenes of feasting and refreshment. The burial feast + is in every respect equal in richness to its accompanying + ceremonies. All who assemble are supplied with cooked venison, hog, + buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing alike hot cakes + soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case may be. + + Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged Indian + present will sit in the central circle, and in a continuous and + doleful tone narrate the acts of valor in the life of the departed, + enjoining fortitude and bravery upon all sitting around as an + essential qualification for admittance to the land where the Great + Spirit reigns. When the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is + customary for the surviving friends to present the bereaved family + with useful articles of domestic needs, such as calico in bolt, + flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or horses. After + the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the body is carefully + placed in a wagon and, with an escort of all friends, relatives, and + acquaintances, conveyed to the grave previously prepared by some + near relation or friend. When a wagon is used, the immediate + relatives occupy it with the corpse, which is propped in a + semi-sitting posture; before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it + was necessary to bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then + convey him to his last resting place among his friends. In past days + when buffalo were more available, and a tribal hunt was more + frequently indulged in, it is said that those dying on the way were + bound upon horses and thus frequently carried several hundred miles + for interment at the burial places of their friends. + + At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a double + nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel, and upon the + other blended with the deepest grief and most heartfelt sorrow. + Before the interment of the dead the chattels of the deceased are + unloaded from the wagons or unpacked from the backs of ponies and + carefully arranged in the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is + wider than the top (graves here being dug like an inverted funnel), + is spread with straw or grass matting, woven generally by the Indian + women of the tribe or some near neighbor. The sides are then + carefully hung with handsome shawls or blankets, and trunks, with + domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less importance, are piled + around in abundance. The sacrifices are next inaugurated. A pony, + first designated by the dying Indian, is led aside and strangled by + men hanging to either end of a rope. Sometimes, but not always, + a dog is likewise strangled, the heads of both animals being + subsequently laid upon the Indian's grave. The body, which is now + often placed in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if a + coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the deceased + before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a saddle and bridle, + blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon it, the mourning ceases, and + the Indians prepare to close the grave. It should be remembered, + among the Otoe and Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in upon the + body, but simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs that + are accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the + burying is completed, a distribution of the property of the deceased + takes place, the near relatives receiving everything, from the + merest trifle to the tent and homes, leaving the immediate family, + wife and children or father out-door pensioners. + + Although the same generosity is not observed towards the whites + assisting in funeral rites, it is universally practiced as regards + Indians, and poverty's lot is borne by the survivors with a + fortitude and resignation which in them amounts to duty, and marks a + higher grade of intrinsic worth than pervades whites of like + advantages and conditions. We are told in the Old Testament + Scriptures, "four days and four nights should the fires burn," &c. + In fulfillment of this sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil + carefully kept by these Indians four days and four nights at the + graves of their departed. A small fire is kindled for the purpose + near the grave at sunset, where the nearest relatives convene and + maintain a continuous lamentation till the morning dawn. There was + an ancient tradition that at the expiration of this time the Indian + arose, and mounting his spirit pony, galloped off to the happy + hunting-ground beyond. + + Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these superstitions + have faded, and the living sacrifices are partially continued only + from a belief that by parting with their most cherished and valuable + goods they propitiate the Great Spirit for the sins committed during + the life of the deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find + was the practice of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt + offerings the lamb or the ox; hence we cannot censure this people, + but, from a comparison of conditions, credit them with a more strict + observance of our Holy Book than pride and seductive fashions permit + of us. + + From a careful review of the whole of their attendant ceremonies a + remarkable similarity can be marked. The arrangement of the corpse + preparatory to interment, the funeral feast, the local service by + the aged fathers, are all observances that have been noted among + whites, extending into times that are in the memory of those still + living. + +The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that led +the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with the +corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F. E. +Grossman,[5] and the account is corroborated by M. Alphonse Pinart[6] +and Bancroft.[7] + +Captain Grossman's account follows: + + The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the + latter around their neck and under the knees, and then drawing them + tight until the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting + position. They dig the graves from four to five feet deep and + perfectly round (about two feet in diameter), and then hollow out to + one side of the bottom of this grave a sort of vault large enough to + contain the body. Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up + level with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber placed + upon the grave to protect the remains from coyotes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pima burial.] + + Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The + mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The + bodies of their dead are buried if possible, immediately after death + has taken place and the graves are generally prepared before the + patients die. Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had + already been dug) recover. In such cases the graves are left open + until the persons for whom they are intended die. Open graves of + this kind can be seen in several of their burial grounds. Places of + burial are selected some distance from the village, and, if + possible, in a grove of mesquite trees. + + Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house and + personal effects of the deceased are burned and his horses and + cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast for the mourners. + The nearest relatives of the deceased as a sign of their sorrow + remain within their village for weeks, and sometimes months; the men + cut off about six inches of their long hair, while the women cut + their hair quite short. * * * + + The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he + dies impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of + stock. The women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor + should their husbands die, and that then they will have to provide + for their children by their own exertions, do not care to have many + children, and infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to + a great extent. This is not considered a crime, and old women of the + tribe practice it. A widow may marry again after a year's mourning + for her first husband; but having children no man will take her for + a wife and thus burden himself with her children. Widows generally + cultivate a small piece of ground, and friends and relatives (men) + plow the ground for them. + +Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman's description by my friend Dr. W. J. +Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial. + +Stephen Powers[8] describes a similar mode of grave preparation among +the Yuki of California: + + The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a hole six + feet deep sometimes and at the bottom of it "_coyote_" under, making + a little recess in which the corpse is deposited. + +The Comanches of Indian Territory (_Nem_, _we, or us, people_), +according to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, Indian +Territory, go to the opposite extreme, so far as the protection of the +dead from the surrounding earth is concerned. The account as received is +given entire, as much to illustrate this point as others of interest. + + When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be faintly + heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not departed from + the body, the knees are strongly bent upon the chest, and the legs + flexed upon the thighs. The arms are also flexed upon each side of + the chest, and the head bent forward upon the knees. A lariat, or + rope, is now used to firmly bind the limbs and body in this + position. A blanket is then wrapped around the body, and this again + tightly corded, so that the appearance when ready for burial is that + of an almost round and compact body, very unlike the composed pall + of his Wichita or Caddo brother. The body is then taken and placed + in a saddle upon a pony, in a sitting posture; a squaw usually + riding behind, though sometimes one on either side of the horse, + holds the body in position until the place of burial is reached, + when the corpse is literally tumbled into the excavation selected + for the purpose. The deceased is only accompanied by two or three + squaws, or enough to perform the little labor bestowed upon the + burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge or village of the + bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes or heads of canyons in + which the Comanche country abounds is selected, and the body thrown + in, without special reference to position. With this are deposited + the bows and arrows; these, however, are first broken. The saddle is + also placed in the grave, together with many of the personal + valuables of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks + and earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole. + + _Funeral ceremonies._--the best pony owned by the deceased is + brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may appear well + mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the other world. + Formerly, if the deceased were a chief or man of consequence and had + large herds of ponies, many were killed, sometimes amounting to 200 + or 300 head in number. + + The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good pony for + the convoy of the deceased to the happy-grounds by the following + story, which is current among both Comanches and Wichitas: + + "A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no relatives and + who was quite poor. Some of the tribe concluded that almost any kind + of a pony would serve to transport him to the next world. They + therefore killed at his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared + horse. But a few weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo + and behold he returned, riding this same old worn-out horse, weary + and hungry. He first appeared at the Wichita camps, where he was + well known, and asked for something to eat, but his strange + appearance, with sunken eyes and hollow cheeks, filled with + consternation all who saw him, and they fled from his presence. + Finally one bolder than the rest placed a piece of meat on the end + of a lodge-pole and extended it to him. He soon appeared at his own + camp, creating, if possible, even more dismay than among the + Wichitas, and this resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving + their villages and moving _en masse_ to a place on Rush Creek, not + far distant from the present site of Fort Sill. + + "When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was questioned + why he thus appeared among the inhabitants of earth, he made reply + that when he came to the gates of paradise the keepers would on no + account permit him to enter upon such an ill-conditioned beast as + that which bore him, and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the + homes of those whose stinginess and greed permitted him no better + equipment. Since this no Comanche has been permitted to depart with + the sun to his chambers in the west without a steed which in + appearance should do honor alike to the rider and his friends." + + The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that the + spirit may accompany the setting sun to the world beyond. The spirit + starts on its journey the following night after death has taken + place; if this occur at night, the journey is not begun until the + next night. + + _Mourning observances._--All the effects of the deceased, the tents, + blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of value, aside from the + articles which have been buried with the body, are burned, so that + the family is left in poverty. This practice has extended even to + the burning of wagons and harness since some of the civilized habits + have been adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the + smoke, and will thus be of service to the owner in the other world. + Immediately upon the death of a member of the household, the + relatives begin a peculiar wailing, and the immediate members of the + family take off their customary apparel and clothe themselves in + rags and cut themselves across the arms, breast, and other portions + of the body, until sometimes a fond wife or mother faints from loss + of blood. This scarification is usually accomplished with a knife, + or, as in earlier days, with a flint. Hired mourners are employed at + times who are in no way related to the family, but who are + accomplished in the art of crying for the dead. These are invariably + women. Those nearly related to the departed, cut off the long locks + from the entire head, while those more distantly related, or special + friends, cut the hair only from one side of the head. In case of the + death of a chief, the young warriors also cut the hair, usually from + the left side of the head. + + After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is + conducted more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the Comanches + venerate the sun; and the mourning at these seasons is kept up, if + the death occurred in summer, until the leaves fall, or, if in the + winter, until they reappear. + +It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the +corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the +burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body +with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The +hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from +remotest periods of time. + + +_GRAVE BURIAL._ + +The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians of +San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph, +will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon +those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo +people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian +Territory, the most civilized of our tribes. + +According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves _Wee-ka-nahs_. + + These are commonly known to the whites as _Piros_. The manner of + burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern, as far as I can + ascertain from information obtained from the most intelligent of the + tribe, is that the body of the dead is and has been always buried in + the ground in a horizontal position with the flat bottom of the + grave. The grave is generally dug out of the ground in the usual and + ordinary manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7 feet long, and about 2 + feet wide. It is generally finished after receiving its occupant by + being leveled with the hard ground around it, never leaving, as is + customary with the whites, a mound to mark the spot. This tribe of + Pueblo Indians never cremated their dead, as they do not know, even + by tradition, that it was ever done or attempted. There are no + utensils or implements placed in the grave, but there are a great + many Indian ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells, + hawk-bells, round looking-glasses, and a profusion of ribbons of all + imaginable colors; then they paint the body with red vermilion and + white chalk, giving it a most fantastic as well as ludicrous + appearance. They also place a variety of food in the grave as a wise + provision for its long journey to the happy hunting-ground beyond + the clouds. + + The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar. First, after + death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo robe spread out on + the ground, then they dress the body in the best possible manner in + their style of dress; if a male, they put on his beaded leggins and + embroidered _saco_, and his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large + brass or shell ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or + dress, tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her + fancy dancing-moccasins; her _rosario_ around her neck, her brass or + shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed black hair tied up + with red tape or ribbon, this completes her wardrobe for her long + and happy chase. When they get through dressing the body, they place + about a dozen lighted candles around it, and keep them burning + continually until the body is buried. As soon as the candles are + lighted, the _veloris_, or wake, commences; the body lies in state + for about twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends, + relatives, and neighbors of the deceased or "_difunti_" visit the + wake, chant, sing, and pray for the soul of the same, and tell one + another of the good deeds and traits of valor and courage manifested + by the deceased during his earthly career, and at intervals in their + praying, singing, &c., some near relative of the deceased will step + up to the corpse and every person in the room commences to cry + bitterly and express aloud words of endearment to the deceased and + of condolence to the family of the same in their untimely + bereavement. + + At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in + attendance marches out into another room and partakes of a frugal + Indian meal, generally composed of wild game; Chile Colorado or + red-pepper tortillas, and guayaves, with a good supply of mush and + milk, which completes the festive board of the _veloris_ or wake. + When the deceased is in good circumstances, the crowd in attendance + is treated every little while during the wake to alcoholic + refreshments. This feast and feasting is kept up until the Catholic + priest arrives to perform the funeral rites. + + When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather baled up in + a large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around tight with a + rope or lasso made for the purpose; then six or eight men act as + pall-bearers, conducting the body to the place of burial, which is + in front of their church or chapel. The priest conducts the funeral + ceremonies in the ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings + observed by the Catholic church all over the world. While the + grave-diggers are filling up the grave, the friends, relatives, + neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that attend the funeral, give + vent to their sad feelings by making the whole pueblo howl; after + the tremendous uproar subsides, they disband and leave the body to + rest until Gabriel blows his trumpet. When the ceremonies are + performed with all the pomp of the Catholic church, the priest + receives a fair compensation for his services; otherwise he + officiates for the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo + pay him, which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum. + + These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning observance, + which last for one year after the demise of the deceased. While in + mourning for the dead, the mourners do not participate in the + national festivities of the tribe, which are occasions of state with + them, but they retire into a state of sublime quietude which makes + more civilized people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning + ceases, at the end of the year, they have high mass said for the + benefit of the soul of the departed; after this they again appear + upon the arena of their wild sports and continue to be gay and happy + until the next mortal is called from this terrestrial sphere to the + happy hunting-ground, which is their pictured celestial paradise. + The above cited facts, which are the most interesting points + connected with the burial customs of the Indians of the pueblo San + Geronimo de Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but are the + absolute facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances for + a period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a short + distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer of their + peculiar burial customs, am able to give you this true and + undisguised information relative to your circular on "burial + customs." + +Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth coming +in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the burial of +the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. Fordyce +Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection with the +Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves _Kitty-ka-tats_, or those +of the tattooed eyelids. + + When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the + village and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made + for the burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave + prepared for its reception. If the grave is some distance from the + village, the body is carried thither on the back of a pony, being + first wrapped in blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle, + one person walking on either side to support it. The grave is dug + from three to four feet deep and of sufficient length for the + extended body. First blankets and buffalo-robes are laid in the + bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken from the horse and + unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and with ornaments is + placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the head towards the + west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging to the + deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are + deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking + utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are + placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when + the earth is filled in, it need not come in contact with the body or + its trappings. After the grave is filled with earth, a pen of poles + is built around it, or as is frequently the case, stakes are driven + so that they cross each other from either side about midway over the + grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild + animals. After all this is done, the grass or other _debris_ is + carefully scraped from about the grave for several feet, so that the + ground is left smooth and clean. It is seldom the case that the + relatives accompany the remains to the grave, but they more often + employ others to bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is + similar in this tribe, as in others, and it consists in cutting off + the hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave. + +The Caddoes, _Ascena_, or Timber Indians, as they call themselves, +follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but one custom +prevailing is worthy of mention: + + If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is + left to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and the condition of + such individuals in the other world is considered to be far better + than that of persons dying a natural death. + +In a work by Bruhier[9] the following remarks, freely translated by the +writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the +exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above: + + The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the + roads, and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was + esteemed a great honor, a misfortune if not. Sometimes they + interred, always wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor. + +M. Pierre Muret,[10] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his +information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar +method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows: + + It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_ have ever + had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the + world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous + customs about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some + Historians; and the rather because at this day there are still to be + seen among them those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie + us, that their Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet + nevertheless, if we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_, + the _Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far + were they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them: But, as + these Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in the open + fields, which is the greatest shame our Laws do allot to the most + infamous Criminals, by laying them open to the view of all upon the + highways: Yea, in their opinion it was a great unhappiness, if + either Birds or Beasts did not devour their Carcases; and they + commonly made an estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies, + according as they were sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning + these, they resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed, + since even the beasts themselves would not touch them; which caused + an extream sorrow to their Relations, they taking it for an ill + boding to their Family, and an infallible presage of some great + misfortune hanging over their heads; for they persuaded themselves, + that the Souls which inhabited those Bodies being dragg'd into Hell, + would not fail to come and trouble them; and that being always + accompanied with the Devils, their Tormentors, they would certainly + give them a great deal of disturbance. + + And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured, + their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the + Deceased; every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to + congratulate their relations on that account: For as they believed + assuredly, that they were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so they + were persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all those + of their family. + + They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered + up and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see + those of Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane + Bodies, (the sight whereof gives us so much horror, that we + presently bury them out of our sight, whenever we find them + elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or Church-yards) were the occasion + of their greatest joy; beecause they concluded from thence the + happiness of those that had been devoured, wishing after their Death + to meet with the like good luck. + +The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that the +Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a +horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and +of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the +open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief being +that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy at +least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite +probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians +trained dogs for this special purpose, called _Canes sepulchrales_, +which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper +that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to +dwell in. + +The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead on +top of high rocks. + +According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London Times +of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta regarding +the "Towers of Silence," so called, of the Parsees, who, it is well +known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from Persia +by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 years +since. This gentleman's narrative is freely made use of to show how the +custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has continued up to +the present time. + + The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a garden on + the highest point of Malabar Hill, a beautiful, rising ground on one + side of Black Bay, noted for the bungalows and compounds of the + European and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every + direction over its surface. + + The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private road, all + access to which, except to Parsees, is barred by strong iron gates. + +The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says: + + No English nobleman's garden could be better kept, and no pen could + do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses, and + palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred + silence, but of peaceful rest. + +The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about 40 +feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as almost +to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest of the +towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees first +settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next +oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next +century. A sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only used +for criminals. + +The writer proceeds as follows: + + Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest + moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an extraordinary + coping, which instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a + coping formed not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These + birds, on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves side by + side in perfect order and in a complete circle around the parapets + of the towers, with their heads pointing inwards, and so lazily did + they sit there, and so motionless was their whole mien, that except + for their color, they might have been carved out of the stonework. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Parsee Towers of Silence (interior).] + +No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor is +any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. A model +was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this description: + + Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet high and + at least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of solid stone except + in the center, where a well, 5 or 6 feet across, leads down to an + excavation under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles + to each other, terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the + upper surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely hiding + the interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12 feet in height. + This it is which, when viewed from the outside, appears to form one + piece with the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered with + chunam, gives the whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper + surface of the solid stone column is divided into 72 compartments, + or open receptacles, radiating like the spokes of a wheel from the + central well, and arranged in three concentric rings, separated from + each other by narrow ridges of stone, which are grooved to act as + channels for conveying all moisture from the receptacles into the + well and into the lower drains. It should be noted that the number + "3" is emblematical of Zoroaster's three precepts, and the number + "72" of the chapters of his Yasna, a portion of the Zend-Avesta. + + Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next by a + pathway, so that there are three circular pathways, the last + encircling the central well, and these three pathways are crossed by + another pathway conducting from the solitary door which admits the + corpse-bearers from the exterior. In the outermost circle of the + stone coffins are placed the bodies of males, in the middle those of + the females, and in the inner and smallest circle nearest the well + those of children. + + While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the model, + a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our heads. At least a + hundred birds collected round one of the towers began to show + symptoms of excitement, while others swooped down from neighboring + trees. The cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy + soon revealed itself. A funeral was seen to be approaching. However + distant the house of a deceased person, and whether he be rich or + poor, high or low in rank, his body is always carried to the towers + by the official corpse-bearers, called _Nasasalar_, who form a + distinct class, the mourners walking behind. + + Before they remove the body from the house where the relatives are + assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and the corpse is exposed to + the gaze of a dog, regarded by the Parsees as a sacred animal. This + latter ceremony is called _sagdid_. + + Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a curved metal + trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed in pure + white garments, proceed with it towards the towers. They are + followed by the mourners at a distance of at least 30 feet, in + pairs, also dressed in white, and each couple joined by holding a + white handkerchief between them. The particular funeral I witnessed + was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers reached the path + leading by a steep incline to the door of the tower, the mourners, + about eight in number, turned back and entered one of the + prayer-houses. "There," said the secretary, "they repeat certain + gathas, and pray that the spirit of the deceased may be safely + transported, on the fourth day after death, to its final + resting-place." + + The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which other + members of the same family had before been laid. The two bearers + speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed the body of the + child into the interior, and, unseen by any one, laid it uncovered + in one of the open stone receptacles nearest the central well. In + two minutes they reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and + scarcely had they closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down + upon the body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes + more we saw the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again + upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind but a skeleton. + Meanwhile, the bearers were seen to enter a building shaped like a + high barrel. There, as the secretary informed me, they changed their + clothes and washed themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come + out and deposit their cast-off funeral garments in a stone + receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden, lest it + should carry defilement into the city. Perfectly new garments are + supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or, at most, four weeks, + the same bearers return, and, with gloved hands and implements + resembling tongs, place the dry skeleton in the central well. There + the bones find their last resting-place, and there the dust of whole + generations of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for + centuries. + + The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my back on + the towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I asked the secretary how + it was possible to become reconciled to such usage. His reply was + nearly in the following words: "Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived + 6,000 years ago, taught us to regard the elements as symbols of the + Deity. Earth, fire, water, he said, ought never, under any + circumstances, to be defiled by contact with putrefying flesh. + Naked, he said, came we into the world and naked we ought to leave + it. But the decaying particles of our bodies should be dissipated as + rapidly as possible and in such a way that neither Mother Earth nor + the beings she supports should be contaminated in the slightest + degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest of health officers, + and, following his sanitary laws, we build our towers on the tops of + the hills, above all human habitations. We spare no expense in + constructing them of the hardest materials, and we expose our + putrescent bodies in open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen + feet of solid granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures, + but to be dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without + the possibility of polluting the earth or contaminating a single + being dwelling thereon. God, indeed, sends the vultures, and, as a + matter of fact, these birds do their appointed work much more + expeditiously than millions of insects would do if we committed our + bodies to the ground. In a sanitary point of view, nothing can be + more perfect than our plan. Even the rain-water which washes our + skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying charcoal. Here in + these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees that have lived + in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We form a united body in + life and we are united in death." + +It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of +disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with +the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which +allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat +similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the +North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees, +but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care +is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the +corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes +or thongs. + +Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence, +drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Parsee Towers of Silence.] + +George Gibbs[11] gives the following account of burial among the Klamath +and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been +originally furnished him by James G. Swan. + + The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses, + exhibit very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are + inclosed in rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the + body, and covered with earth to some depth; a heavy plank, often + supported by upright head and foot stones, is laid upon the top, or + stones are built up into a wall about a foot above the ground, and + the top flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are surrounded + by neat wooden palings, each pale ornamented with a feather from the + tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are usually staked down by the side, + according to the wealth or popularity of the individual, and + sometimes other articles for ornament or use are suspended over + them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three days, during which the + soul of the deceased is in danger from _O-mah-a_, or the devil. To + preserve it from this peril, a fire is kept up at the grave, and the + friends of the deceased howl around it to scare away the demon. + Should they not be successful in this the soul is carried down the + river, subject, however, to redemption by _Peh-ho-wan_ on payment of + a big knife. After the expiration of three days it is all well with + them. + +The question may well be asked, is the big knife a "sop to Cerberus"? + +To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States +Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer +is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary +customs of the + +WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA. + + A large proportion of these Indians being members of the + Presbyterian church (the missionaries of which church have labored + among them for more than forty years past), the dead of their + families are buried after the customs of that church, and this + influence is felt to a great extent among those Indians who are not + strict church members, so that they are dropping one by one the + traditional customs of their tribe, and but few can now be found who + bury their dead in accordance with their customs of twenty or more + years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to their + modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated below. + + _Warrior._--After death they paint a warrior red across the mouth, + or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb on one side of + the mouth and the fingers separated on the other cheek, the rest of + the face being painted red. (This latter is only done as a mark of + respect to a specially brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the + medicine-bag of the deceased when alive are buried with the body, + the medicine-bag being placed on the bare skin over the region of + the heart. There is not now, nor has there been, among these Indians + any special preparation of the grave. The body of a warrior is + generally wrapped in a blanket or piece of cloth (and frequently in + addition is placed in a box) and buried in the grave prepared for + the purpose, always, as the majority of these Indians inform me, + with the head towards the _south_. (I have, however, seen many + graves in which the head of the occupant had been placed to the + _east_. It may be that these graves were those of Indians who + belonged to the church; and a few Indians inform me that the head is + sometimes placed towards the _west_, according to the occupant's + belief when alive as to the direction from which his guiding + medicine came, and I am personally inclined to give credence to this + latter as sometimes occurring.) In all burials, when the person has + died a natural death, or had not been murdered, and whether man, + woman, or child, the body is placed in the grave with the face _up_. + In cases, however, when a man or woman has been murdered by one of + their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the grave + with the face _down_, head to the _south_, and a piece of fat (bacon + or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of fat is placed in the + mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent the spirit of the murdered + person driving or scaring the game from that section of country. + Those Indians who state that their dead are always buried with the + head towards the south say they do so in order that the spirit of + the deceased may go to the south, the land from which these Indians + believe they originally came. + + _Women and children._--Before death the face of the person expected + to die is often painted in a red color. When this is not done before + death it is done afterwards; the body being then buried in a grave + prepared for its reception, and in the manner described for a + warrior, cooking-utensils taking the place of the warrior's weapons. + In cases of boys and girls a kettle of cooked food is sometimes + placed at the head of the grave after the body is covered. Now, if + the dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go up + and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls do + likewise. This, however, has never obtained as a custom, but is + sometimes done in cases of warriors and women also. + + Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is now, and + always has been, a custom among them to remove a lock of hair from + the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or from the left side of the + head of a woman, which is carefully preserved by some near relative + of the deceased, wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in + the lodge of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the dead + person. To the bundle is attached a tin cup or other vessel, and in + this is placed some food for the spirit of the dead person. Whenever + a stranger happens in at meal time, this food, however, is not + allowed to go to waste; if not consumed by the stranger to whom it + is offered, some of the occupants of the lodge eat it. They seem to + take some pains to please the ghost of the deceased, thinking + thereby they will have good luck in their family so long as they + continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they smoke to + offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time asking it to confer + some favor on them, or aid them in their work or in hunting, &c. + + There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost of the + deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This feast may be at + any time, and is not at any particular time, occurring, however, + generally as often as once a year, unless, at the time of the first + feast, the friends designate a particular time, such, for instance, + as when the leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle + is never permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the dead + person, except to be buried in the grave of one of them. Much of the + property of the deceased person is buried with the body, a portion + being placed under the body and a portion over it. Horses are + sometimes killed on the grave of a warrior, but this custom is + gradually ceasing, in consequence of the value of their ponies. + These animals are therefore now generally given away by the person + before death, or after death disposed of by the near relatives. Many + years ago it was customary to kill one or more ponies at the grave. + In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an Indian, much of his + personal property is now, and has ever been, reserved from burial + with the body, and forms the basis for a gambling party, which will + be described hereafter. No food is ever buried in the grave, but + some is occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case it is + consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the method that + was in vogue with these Indians twenty years ago, and which is still + adhered to, with more or less exactness, by the majority of them, + the exceptions being those who are strict church members and those + very few families who adhere to their ancient customs. + + Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as the oldest + members of these tribes can remember, and with the usual tribal + traditions handed down from generation to generation, in regard to + this as well as to other things, for these Indians to bury in a tree + or on a platform, and in those days an Indian was only buried in the + ground as a mark of disrespect in consequence of the person having + been murdered, in which case the body would be buried in the ground, + _face down_, head toward the south and with a piece of fat in the + mouth. * * * The platform upon which the body was deposited was + constructed of four crotched posts firmly set in the ground, and + connected near the top by cross-pieces, upon which was placed + boards, when obtainable, and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so + as to give a firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an + elevation of from six to eight or more feet, and never contained but + one body, although frequently having sufficient surface to + accommodate two or three. In burying in the crotch of a tree and on + platforms, the head of the dead person was always placed towards the + south; the body was wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely + tied, and many of the personal effects of the deceased were buried + with it; as in the case of a warrior, his bows and arrows, + war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the body, the Indians + saying he would need such things in the next world. + + I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before their + outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near relative whom they + held in great respect with them on their moves, for a greater or + lesser time, often as long as two or three years before burial. + This, however, never obtained generally among them, and some of them + seem to know nothing about it. It has of late years been entirely + dropped, except when a person dies away from home, it being then + customary for the friends to bring the body home for burial. + + _Mourning ceremonies._--The mourning ceremonies before the year 1860 + were as follows: After the death of a warrior the whole camp or + tribe would be assembled in a circle, and after the widow had cut + herself on the arms, legs, and body with a piece of flint, and + removed the hair from her head, she would go around the ring any + number of times she chose, but each time was considered as an oath + that she would not marry for a year, so that she could not marry for + as many years as times she went around the circle. The widow would + all this time keep up a crying and wailing. Upon the completion of + this the friends of the deceased would take the body to the platform + or tree where it was to remain, keeping up all this time their + wailing and crying. After depositing the body, they would stand + under it and continue exhibiting their grief, the squaws by hacking + their arms and legs with flint and cutting off the hair from their + head. The men would sharpen sticks and run them through the skin of + their arms and legs, both men and women keeping up their crying + generally for the remainder of the day, and the near relatives of + the deceased for several days thereafter. As soon as able, the + warrior friends of the deceased would go to a near tribe of their + enemies and kill one or more of them if possible, return with their + scalps, and exhibit them to the deceased person's relatives, after + which their mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as + properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when their + enemies were within reasonable striking distance, such, for + instance, as the Chippewas and the Arickarees, Gros Ventres and + Mandan Indians. In cases of women and children, the squaws would cut + off their hair, hack their persons with flint, and sharpen sticks + and run them through the skin of the arms and legs, crying as for a + warrior. + + It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for a squaw + when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by hanging herself + with a lariat over the limb of a tree. This could not have prevailed + to any great extent, however, although the old men recite several + instances of its occurrence, and a very few examples within recent + years. Such was their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since + which time it has gradually died out, and at the present time these + ancient customs are adhered to by but a single family, known as the + seven brothers, who appear to retain all the ancient customs of + their tribe. At the present time, as a mourning observance, the + squaws hack themselves on their legs with knives, cut off their + hair, and cry and wail around the grave of the dead person, and the + men in addition paint their faces, but no longer torture themselves + by means of sticks passed through the skin of the arms and legs. + This cutting and painting is sometimes done before and sometimes + after the burial of the body. I also observe that many of the women + of these tribes are adopting so much of the customs of the whites as + prescribes the wearing of black for certain periods. During the + period of mourning these Indians never wash their face, or comb + their hair, or laugh. These customs are observed with varying degree + of strictness, but not in many instances with that exactness which + characterized these Indians before the advent of the white man among + them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of the person + practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That mutilation of a + finger by removing one or more joints, so generally observed among + the Minnetarree Indians at the Fort Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not + here seen, although the old men of these tribes inform me that it + was an ancient custom among their women, on the occasion of the + burial of a husband, to cut off a portion of a finger and have it + suspended in the tree above his body. I have, however, yet to see an + example of this having been done by any of the Indians now living, + and the custom must have fallen into disuse more than seventy years + ago. + + In regard to the period of mourning, I would say that there does not + now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never was, any fixed + period of mourning, but it would seem that, like some of the whites, + they mourn when the subject is brought to their minds by some remark + or other occurrence. It is not unusual at the present time to hear a + man or woman cry and exclaim, "O, my poor husband!" "O, my poor + wife!" or "O, my poor child!" as the case may be, and, upon + inquiring, learn that the event happened several years before. + I have elsewhere mentioned that in some cases much of the personal + property of the deceased was and is reserved from burial with the + body, and forms the basis of a gambling party. I shall conclude my + remarks upon the burial customs, &c., of these Indians by an account + of this, which they designate as the "ghost's gamble." + +The account of the game will be found in another part of this paper. + +As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the +tomb, a translation of Schiller's beautiful burial song is here given. +It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted to the +kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.: + +BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN. + + See on his mat, as if of yore, + How lifelike sits he here; + With the same aspect that he wore + When life to him was dear. + But where the right arm's strength, and where + The breath he used to breathe + To the Great Spirit aloft in air, + The peace-pipe's lusty wreath? + And where the hawk-like eye, alas! + That wont the deer pursue + Along the waves of rippling grass, + Or fields that shone with dew? + Are these the limber, bounding feet + That swept the winter snows? + What startled deer was half so fleet, + Their speed outstripped the roe's. + These hands that once the sturdy bow + Could supple from its pride, + How stark and helpless hang they now + Adown the stiffened side! + Yet weal to him! at peace he strays + Where never fall the snows, + Where o'er the meadow springs the maize + That mortal never sows; + Where birds are blithe in every brake, + Where forests teem with deer, + Where glide the fish through every lake, + One chase from year to year! + With spirits now he feasts above; + All left us, to revere + The deeds we cherish with our love, + The rest we bury here. + Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill + Wail death-dirge of the brave + What pleased him most in life may still + Give pleasure in the grave. + We lay the axe beneath his head + He swung when strength was strong, + The bear on which his hunger fed-- + The way from earth is long! + And here, new-sharpened, place the knife + Which severed from the clay, + From which the axe had spoiled the life, + The conquered scalp away. + The paints that deck the dead bestow, + Aye, place them in his hand, + That red the kingly shade may glow + Amid the spirit land. + +The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. McChesney, +face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of Indians, +is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a cemetery +belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near Abiquiu, +N. Mex., a number of bodies, all of which had been buried face downward. +The account originally appeared in Field and Forest, 1877, vol. iii, +No. 1, p. 9. + + On each side of the town were noticed two small arroyas or water + washed ditches, within 30 feet of the walls, and a careful + examination of these revealed the objects of our search. At the + bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly formed subsequent to the + occupation of the village, we found portions of human remains, and + following up the walls of the ditch soon had the pleasure of + discovering several skeletons _in situ_. The first found was in the + eastern arroya, and the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the + surface of the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face + downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the + skeleton were two shining black earthen vases, containing small bits + of charcoal, the bones of mammals, birds, and partially consumed + corn, and above these "_ollas_" the earth to the surface was filled + with pieces of charcoal. Doubtless the remains found in the vases + served at a funeral feast prior to the inhumation. We examined very + carefully this grave, hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or + weapons, but none rewarded our search. In all of the graves examined + the bodies were found in similar positions and under similar + circumstances in both arroyas, several of the skeletons being those + of children. No information could be obtained as to the probable age + of these interments, the present Indians considering them as dating + from the time when their ancestors with Moctezuma came from the + _north_. + +The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman,[12] in disposing +of their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any +needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner: + + The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially + wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the + removal of a small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has + been crammed into the smallest possible space the rock or stump is + again rolled into its former position, when a number of stones are + placed around the base to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin + usually mourn for the period of one month, during that time giving + utterance at intervals to the most dismal lamentations, which are + apparently sincere. During the day this obligation is frequently + neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of his duty + he renews his howling with evident interest. This custom of mourning + for the period of thirty days corresponds to that formerly observed + by the Natchez. + +Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in the +life of Moses Van Campen,[13] which relates to the Indians formerly +inhabiting Pennsylvania: + + Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen + in battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and + laying the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a + little earth. + +As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following +account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr. +Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of +the agents of a French company kept in 1794: + +CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND. + + Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians + plant a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury + them in a bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring + provisions to the place where their fathers are buried. One of the + graves had fallen in, and we observed in the soil some sticks for + stretching skins, the remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps + for carrying it, and near the place where the head lay were the + traces of a fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased + to come and warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited + near it. + + These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the + north shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the + country being claimed by the Oneidas. + +It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has +occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the +graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was +discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may +have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his +vocation--nets, fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was +only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians, +that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were +employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of +skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the +only example of the kind. + +Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe +burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus +described: + + The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan + which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and + drown their grief in _mushla_, the women giving vent to their sorrow + by dashing themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and + inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As + it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of + the body, musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while + preparations are made for its removal. All at once four naked men, + who have disguised themselves with paint so as not to be recognized + and punished by _Wulasha_, rush out from a neighboring hut, and, + seizing a rope attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods, + followed by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into + the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to + serve the departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the + boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the + grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other + articles placed there from time to time by relatives. + + +_STONE GRAVES OR CISTS._ + +These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare +occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care +taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a +suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in +the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the +class of graves previously described. + +A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus described +by Moses Fiske:[14] + + There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular + graves. They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the + bottom ends and sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after + laying in the body, covered it over with earth. + +It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a +number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutre, in France, +and they were almost identical in construction with those described by +Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, this, +however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a deposition +of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which have +elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer in +1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom and +sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were none +directly over the skeletons. + +The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his own +observation in Tennessee. + + The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant throughout + the State. Often hundreds of graves may be found on a single + hillside. The same people sometimes bury in scattered graves and in + mounds--the mounds being composed of a large number of cist graves. + The graves are increased by additions from time to time. The + additions are sometimes placed above and sometimes at the sides of + the others. In the first burials there is a tendency to a concentric + system with the feet towards the center, but subsequent burials are + more irregular, so that the system is finally abandoned before the + place is desired for cemetery purposes. + + Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of + interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before + the decay of the flesh, and in many instances collections of bones + are buried. Sometimes these bones are placed in some order about the + crania, and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of + bones had been emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers, + knives, arrowheads, &c., were usually found, with women, pottery, + rude beads, shells, &c., with children, toys of pottery, beads, + curious pebbles, &c. + + Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous + burial was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists + were covered with slabs. + +Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone +graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian +Institution, to which valuable work[15] the reader is referred for a +more detailed account of this mode of burial. + +G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the +writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to +their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a +receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the +hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the +dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave +by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground +after the grave is filled in. + +The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George Escoll +Sellers,[16] inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which is +as follows: + + Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about 30 deg., it + has been terraced and the terrace as well as the crown of the spur + have been used as a cemetery; portions of the terraces are still + perfect; all the burials appear to have been made in rude stone + cists, that vary in size from 13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4 + feet, and from 18 inches to 2 feet deep. They are made of + thin-bedded sandstone slabs, generally roughly shaped, but some of + them have been edged and squared with considerable care, + particularly the covering slabs. The slope below the terraces was + thickly strewed with these slabs, washed out as the terraces have + worn away, and which have since been carried off for door-steps and + hearth-stones. I have opened many of these cists; they nearly all + contain fragments of human bones far gone in decay, but I have never + succeeded in securing a perfect skull; even the clay vessels that + were interred with the dead have disintegrated, the portions + remaining being almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some of the + cists that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water shells, + but most generally with the fragments of the great salt-pans, which + in every case are so far gone in decay as to have lost the outside + markings. This seems conclusively to couple the tenants of these + ancient graves with the makers and users of these salt-pans. The + great number of graves and the quantity of slabs that have been + washed out prove either a dense population or a long occupancy, or + both. + +W. J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a +description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from +other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated. + + I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some twenty-five + years ago, of seeing what was called "Indian graves," and those that + I examined were close to small streams of water, and were buried in + a sitting or squatting posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones, + and were then buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves + which I examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to + be isolated, no two being found in the same locality. When the + burials took place I could hardly conjecture, but it must have been, + from appearances, from fifty to one hundred years. The bones that I + took out on first appearance seemed tolerably perfect, but on short + exposure to the atmosphere crumbled, and I was unable to save a + specimen. No implements or relics were observed in those examined by + me, but I have heard of others who have found such. In that State, + Kentucky, there are a number of places where the Indians buried + their dead and left mounds of earth over the graves, but I have not + examined them myself. * * * + +According to Bancroft,[17] the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central +America, also followed the cist form of burial. + + In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the + principal men, constructed with flat stones laid together with much + care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food + and wine for the dead. Those for the plebians were merely trenches, + in which were deposited some gourds of maize and wine, and the place + filled with stones. In some parts of Panama and Darien only the + chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the common people a + person feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led to + the woods by his wife, family, or friends, who, supplying him with + some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, then left him to die + alone or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others, with more respect + for their dead, buried them in sepulchers made with niches, where + they placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some, + a mother dying while suckling her infant, the living child was + placed at her breast and buried with her, in order that in her + future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk. + + +_BURIAL IN MOUNDS._ + +In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive, +and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of +Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote +any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting +examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers. + +The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling +cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is +from Prof. F. W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology, +Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is +published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878: + + * * * He then stated that it would be of interest to the members, in + connection with the discovery of dolmens in Japan, as described by + Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four hours there had + been received at the Peabody Museum a small collection of articles + taken from rude dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they would be + called in England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now + engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody Museum. + + These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay + County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the + Missouri River. The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr. + Curtiss, about 8 feet square, and from 4-1/2 to 5 feet high, each + chamber having a passage-way several feet in length and 2 in width, + leading from the southern side and opening on the edge of the mound + formed by covering the chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls + of the chambered passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and + well made of stones, which were evenly laid without clay or mortar + of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a covering of large, + flat rocks, but the others seem to have been closed over with wood. + The chambers were filled with clay which had been burnt, and + appeared as if it had fallen in from above. The inside walls of the + chambers also showed signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each + chamber, were found the remains of several human skeletons, all of + which had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small + fragments of the bones, which were mixed with the ashes and + charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in one chamber he found the + remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these skeletons there + were a few flint implements and minute fragments of vessels of clay. + + A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this + no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This + mound proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also + contained well-made pottery and a peculiar "gorget" of red stone. + The connection of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in + the stone chambers with those who buried their dead in the earth + mounds is, of course, yet to be determined. + +It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used for +secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated. + +In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same investigator +gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the +preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed +therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors: + + Mr. F. W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account of + his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the + Cumberland Valley, Tennessee. + + The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr. + Edwin Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody + Museum at Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds + had been thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular + stone graves of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully + opened. * * * Mr. Putnam's remarks were illustrated by drawings of + several hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds, + particularly to show the great variety of articles of pottery and + several large and many unique forms of implements of chipped flint. + He also exhibited and explained in detail a map of a walled town of + this old nation. This town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a + bend of Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying + ditch, encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this inclosure + there was one large mound with a flat top, 15 feet high, 130 feet + long, and 90 feet wide, which was found not to be a burial mound. + Another mound near the large one, about 50 feet in diameter, and + only a few feet high, contained 60 human skeletons, each in a + carefully-made stone grave, the graves being arranged in two rows, + forming the four sides of a square, and in three layers. * * * The + most important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of + finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived in this + old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located on the map by + Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr. Putnam. + Under the floors of hard clay, which was in places much burnt, Mr. + Putnam found the graves of children. As only the bodies of adults + had been placed in the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly + every site of a house he explored had from one to four graves of + children under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a + regular custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that + the children had undoubtedly been treated with affection, as in + their small graves were found many of the best pieces of pottery he + obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several large pearls, + and many other objects which were probably the playthings of the + little ones while living.[18] + +This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it is +frequently mentioned by writers on North American archaeology. + +The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them +serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part +used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless common. + +Caleb Atwater[19] gives this description of the + +BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO. + + Near the center of the round fort * * * was a tumulus of earth about + 10 feet in height and several rods in diameter at its base. On its + eastern side, and extending 6 rods from it, was a semicircular + pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in the bed of the + Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been brought. The + summit of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was + a raised way to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike. + The summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement and + the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this mound was + entirely removed several years since. The writer was present at its + removal and carefully examined the contents. It contained-- + + 1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the original + surface of the earth. + + 2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as + to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads. + + 3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made of an + elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a + ferule of silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time. + Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted, + yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and + size. + + 4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were + surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared + to have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost + consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a + little to the south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet + to the north of it was another, with which were-- + + 5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1-1/2 inches in + thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica membranacea_), and + on it-- + + 6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was + disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour + answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This + skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal + and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is + in my possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at + the time. The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum, + at Philadelphia. + + To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another, + more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate + representing these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears + to be artificial. This must have been the common cemetery, as it + contains an immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages. + The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads generally + towards the center and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus. + A considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, except by + time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and + knives, and several ornaments, with holes through them, by means of + which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they could be + worn by their owners. On the south side of this tumulus, and not far + from it, was a semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw it, was 6 + feet deep. On opening it was discovered at the bottom a great + quantity of human bones, which I am inclined to believe were the + remains of those who had been slain in some great and destructive + battle: first, because they belonged to persons who had attained + their full size, whereas in the mound adjoining were found the + skeletons of persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were here in + the utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not conjecture + that they belonged to the people who resided in the town, and who + were victorious in the engagement? Otherwise they would not have + been thus honorably buried in the common cemetery. + + _Chillicothe mound._--Its perpendicular height was about 15 feet, + and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was composed of sand + and contained human bones belonging to skeletons which were buried + in different parts of it. It was not until this pile of earth was + removed and the original surface exposed to view that a probable + conjecture of its original design could be formed. About 20 feet + square of the surface had been leveled and covered with bark. On the + center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been spread a + mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the breast lay what + had been a piece of copper, in the form of a cross, which had now + become verdigris. On the breast also lay a stone ornament with two + perforations, one near each end, through which passed a string, by + means of which it was suspended around the wearer's neck. On this + string, which was made of sinews, and very much injured by time, + were placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I cannot + certainly say which. * * * + + _Mounds of stone._--Two such mounds have been described already in + the county of Perry. Others have been found in various parts of the + country. There is one at least in the vicinity of Licking River, not + many miles from Newark. There is another on a branch of Hargus's + Creek, a few miles to the northeast of Circleville. There were + several not very far from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds + were sometimes used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they + were also used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the + recollection of some great transaction or event. In the former not + more generally than one or two skeletons are found; in the latter + none. These mounds are like those of earth, in form of a cone, + composed of small stones on which no marks of tools were visible. In + them some of the most interesting articles are found, such as urns, + ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal, as + well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; * * * works of + this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they are none + of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of + Circleville, which belong to the first class. I saw one of these + stone tumuli which had been piled on the surface of the earth on the + spot where three skeletons had been buried in stone coffins, beneath + the surface. It was situated on the western edge of the hill on + which the "walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to + have been dug to about the depth of ours in the present times. After + the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat stones, the corpses + were placed in these graves in an eastern and western direction, and + large flat stones were laid over the graves; then the earth which + had been dug out of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of + stones was placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however, + that this was a work of our present race of Indians. Such graves are + more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except the skeletons, + was found in these graves; and the skeletons resembled very much the + present race of Indians. + +The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C. +Holbrook[20] as follows: + + I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian mounds + found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first + one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and + 7 feet high. In the interior of this I found a _dolmen_ or + quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4-1/2 feet + wide. It had been built of lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was + covered with large flat stones. No mortar or cement had been used. + The whole structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the + interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the chamber. + Inside of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed remains of eight + human skeletons, two very large teeth of an unknown animal, two + fossils, one of which is not found in this place, and a plummet. One + of the long bones had been splintered; the fragments had united, but + there remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several + places. One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the + size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during life, + for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. I later examined three + circular mounds, but in them I found no dolmens. The first mound + contained three adult human skeletons, a few fragments of the + skeleton of a child, the lower maxillary of which indicated it to be + about six years old. I also found claws of some carnivorous animal. + The surface of the soil had been scooped out and the bodies laid in + the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth; fires had + then been made upon the grave and the mound afterwards completed. + The bones had not been charred. No charcoal was found among the + bones, but occurred in abundance in a stratum about one foot above + them. Two other mounds, examined at the same time, contain no + remains. + + Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4 + feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on + an elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the + top of this mound one might view the country for many miles in + almost any direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long + and 4-1/2 wide. It was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which + had been burned red, some portions having been almost converted into + lime. On and about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the + sides of the altar were fragments of human bones, some of which had + been charred. It was covered by a natural growth of vegetable mold + and sod, the thickness of which was about 10 inches. Large trees had + once grown in this vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed + I could not tell with certainty; to what species they belonged. + Another large mound was opened which contained nothing. + +The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and +was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United +States Army:[21] + + Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were + buried in it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his + head. This idea was based upon some superficial explorations which + had been made from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their + excavations had, indeed, brought to light pots containing fragments + of skulls, but not buried in the position they imagined. Very + extensive explorations, made at different times by myself, have + shown that only fragments of skulls and of the long bones of the + body are to be found in the mound, and that these are commonly + associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but more frequently + broken fragments only. In some instances portions of the skull were + placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited in its immediate + vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand, and fragments of + bones would be found near them. The most successful "find" I made + was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all in a + good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of skull, + which I take, from its small size, to have been that of a female. + Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried + in the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains + because of her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason + of the unusual wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter + of conjecture. I found, altogether, fragments of skulls and + thigh-bones belonging to at least fifty individuals, but in no + instance did I find anything like a complete skeleton. There were no + vertebrae, no ribs, no pelvic bones, and none of the small bones of + the hands and feet. Two or three skulls, nearly perfect, were found, + but they were so fragile that it was impossible to preserve them. In + the majority of instances, only fragments of the frontal and + parietal bones were found, buried in pots or in fragments of pots + too small to have ever contained a complete skull. The conclusion + was irresistible that this was not a burial-place for _the bodies_ + of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been gathered from some + other locality for burial in this mound, or that cremation was + practiced before burial, and the fragments of bone not consumed by + fire were gathered and deposited in the mound. That the latter + supposition is the correct one I deem probable from the fact that in + digging in the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places, + but without any regularity as to depth and position. These evidences + consist in strata of from one to four inches in thickness, in which + the sand is of a dark color and has mixed with it numerous small + fragments of charcoal. + + My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the + following manner: That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was + erected on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the + body was consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered, + placed in a pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were + covered by a layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for + that purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that only + the shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded extremities, + which would be most easily consumed, having disappeared; also, by + the fact that no bones of children were found. Their bones being + smaller, and containing a less proportion of earthy matter, would be + entirely consumed. * * * + + At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I + found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved + skulls. * * * The bodies were not, apparently, deposited upon any + regular system, and I found no objects of interest associated with + the remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the + skeletons found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in + which they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the fact + that they were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of + ante-mortem injuries which must have been of a fatal character. + +Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,[22] in alluding to the ossuary, or +bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation +takes place, in this manner: + + Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of + the deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one + upon another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth + heaped above. + + The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of a + festival called the feast of the dead. + +Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a somewhat +curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley of Ohio: + + A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a + central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons + buried around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture, but leaning + against one another, tipped over towards the right, facing inwards. + I did not see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many + ornaments, awls, &c., said to have been found near the central body. + The parties informing me are trustworthy. + +As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting as +being _sui generis_, the following description by Dr. J. Mason +Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11, +1871, on the farm of R. V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke +County, N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer +of undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted: + +EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND. + + In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he + informed me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was + formerly of considerable height, but had gradually been plowed down; + that several mounds in the neighborhood had been excavated, and + nothing of interest found in them. I asked permission to examine + this mound, which was granted, and upon investigation the following + facts were revealed: + + Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length + and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a + rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was + found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth, + about 18 inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, + and 16 inches in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with + the corners rounded. + + Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an excavation in + the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which, upon + examination, proved to be in front of the remains of a human + skeleton in a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right + hand were resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a + small stone about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian + hatchet. Upon a further examination many of the bones were found, + though in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air + soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable + portion of the skull, maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the + vertebra, were in their proper places, though the weight of the + earth above them had driven them down, yet the entire frame was so + perfect that it was an easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones + of the cranium were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the + neck were found coarse beads that seemed to be of some hard + substance and resembled chalk. A small lump of red paint about the + size of an egg was found near the right side of this skeleton. The + sutures of the cranium indicated the subject to have been 25 or 28 + years of age, and its top rested about 12 inches below the mark of + the plow. + + I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave and found + another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing + the east. A rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right + hand were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been + about 7 inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was + much better finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck + of this one, but were much smaller and of finer quality than those + on the neck of the first. The material, however, seems to be the + same. A much larger amount of paint was found by the side of this + than the first. The bones indicated a person of large frame, who, + I think, was about 50 years of age. Everything about this one had + the appearance of superiority over the first. The top of the skull + was about 6 inches below the mark of the plane. + + I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found + nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east, + found another skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing + the west. On the right side of this was a rock on which the bones of + the right hand were resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, + which had been about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_ + pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better + finished than the others. Beads were also found on the neck of this, + but much smaller and finer than those of the others. A larger amount + of paint than both of the others was found near this one. The top of + the cranium had been moved by the plow. The bones indicated a person + of 40 years of age. + + There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller + bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken + from their bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with + the fact that the farm on which this grave was found was the first + settled in that part of the country, the date of the first deed made + from Lord Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years + (the land still belonging to the descendants of the same family that + first occupied it), would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old + grave. + + The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet, + the line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of + the soil. It was dug in rich, black loam, and filled around the + bodies with white or yellow sand, which I suppose was carried from + the river-bank, 200 yards distant. The skeletons approximated the + walls of the grave, and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth, + and so decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both in + quality and odor, that the line of the bodies could be readily + traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had been flesh, was + similar to clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when compressed + in the hand. + + This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots + made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the + warrior had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need, + in the "hunting-grounds beyond," his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and + scalping-knife. + + The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will + carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the + American Indians were in possession of at least some of the + mysteries of our order, and that it was evidently the grave of + Masons, and the three highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave + was situated due east and west; an altar was erected in the center; + the south, west, and east were occupied--_the north was not_; + implements of authority were near each body. The difference in the + quality of the beads, the tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces, + and the difference in distance that the bodies were placed from the + surface, indicate beyond doubt that these three persons had been + buried by Masons, and those, too, that understood what they were + doing. + + Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the Masonic + world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic information? + + The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other + bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at + Washington, D.C., to be placed among the archives of that + institution for exhibition, at which place they may be seen. + +Should Dr. Spainhour's inferences be incorrect, there is still a +remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason. + +In support of this gentleman's views, attention is called to the +description of the _Midawan_--a ceremony of initiation for would-be +medicine men--in Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of the +United States, 1855, p. 428, relating to the Sioux and Chippewas. In +this account are found certain forms and resemblances which have led +some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of Masonry. + + +_BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES._ + +While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted +methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--they +differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial burial, +and must consequently fall under another caption. The narratives which +are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former kinds of burial. + +Bartram[23] relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the +Carolinas: + + The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a + four-foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the + deceased laid on in his house, lining the grave with cypress bark, + when they place the corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were + alive, depositing with him his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other + matters as he had the greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest + wife, or the queen dowager, has the second choice of his + possessions, and the remaining effects are divided among his other + wives and children. + +According to Bernard Roman,[24] the "funeral customs of the Chickasaws +did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred +the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in +which the deceased expired." + +The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable +distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as +related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency: + + The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the + house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case + the body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown + in, and stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body + first takes off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with + water before putting them on or mingling with the living. When a + body is removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and + the place in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the devil + comes to the place of death and remains where a dead body is. Wild + animals frequently (indeed, generally) get the bodies, and it is a + very easy matter to pick up skulls and bones around old camping + grounds, or where the dead are laid. In case it is not desirable to + abandon a place, the sick person is left out in some lone spot + protected by brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or + food brought to them until they die. This is done only when all hope + is gone. I have found bodies thus left so well inclosed with brush + that wild animals were unable to get at them; and one so left to die + was revived by a cup of coffee from our house and is still living + and well. + +Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal +communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr. +Menard, as follows: + + This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a reservation in the + extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona. + The funeral ceremonies of the Navajos are of the most simple + character. They ascribe the death of an individual to the direct + action of _Chinde_, or the devil, and believe that he remains in the + vicinity of the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the + tribe dies a shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by + one of the near male relatives, and into this the corpse is + unceremoniously tumbled by the relatives, who have previously + protected themselves from the evil influence by smearing their naked + bodies with tar from the pinon tree. After the body has thus been + disposed of, the hogan (composed of logs and branches of trees + covered with earth) is pulled down over it and the place deserted. + Should the deceased have no near relatives or was of no importance + in the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed with, + the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This carelessness does + not appear to arise from want of natural affection for the dead, but + fear of the evil influence of _Chinde_ upon the surviving relatives + causes them to avoid doing anything that might gain for them his + ill-will. A Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the logs + of a fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have been + years in that condition. There are no mourning observances other + than smearing the forehead and under the eyes with tar, which is + allowed to remain until worn off, and then not renewed. The deceased + is apparently forgotten, as his name is never spoken by the + survivors for fear of giving offense to _Chinde_. + +J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California, +furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the Navajos: + + When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the + ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body + into as small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with + cords, place them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing, + everything owned by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all + gathered around the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their + faces with their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks, + pull out their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These + burials were generally made under their thatch houses or very near + thereto. The house where one died was always torn down, removed, + rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks, &c., were in their own + jargon; none else could understand, and they seemingly knew but + little of its meaning (if there was any meaning in it); it simply + seemed to be the promptings of grief, without sufficient + intelligence to direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out his own + impulse. + +The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,[25] relating to the +Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example +of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to +consider the receptacles as temples. + + Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n'enterent point leur Chef, + lorsqu'il est decede; mais-ils font secher son cadavre au feu et a + la fumee de facon qu'ils en font un vrai squelette. Apres l'avoir + reduit en cet etat, ils le portent au Temple (car ils en ont un + ainsi que les Natchez), et le mettent a la place de son + predecesseur, qu'ils tirent de l'endroit qu'il occupoit, pour le + porter avec les corps de leurs autres Chefs dans le fond du Temple + ou ils sont tous ranges de suite dresses sur leurs pieds comme des + statues. A l'egard du dernier mort, il est expose a l'entree de ce + Temple sur une espece d'autel ou de table faite de cannes, et + couverte d'une natte tres-fine travaillee fort proprement en + quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces memes cannes. Le + cadavre du Chef est expose au milieu de cette table droit sur ses + pieds, soutenu par derriere par une longue perche peinte en rouge + dont le bout passe au dessus de sa tete, et a laquelle il est + attache par le milieu du corps avec une liane. D'une main il tient + un casse-tete ou une petite hache, de l'autre un pipe; et au-dessus + de sa tete, est attache au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le + Calumet le plus fameux de tous ceux qui lui ont ete presentes + pendant sa vie. Du reste cette table n'est gueres elevee de terre + que d'un demi-pied; mais elle a au moins six pieds de large et dix + de longueur. + + C'est sur cette table qu'on vient tous les jours servir a manger a + ce Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de sagamite, du bled + grole ou boucane, &c. C'est-la aussi qu'au commencement de toutes + les recoltes ses Sujets vont lui offrir les premiers de tous les + fruits qu'ils peuvent recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est presente de la + sorte reste sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est + toujours ouverte, qu'il n'y a personne prepose pour y veiller, que + par consequent y entre qui veut, et que d'ailleurs il est eloigne du + Village d'un grand quart de lieue, il arrive que ce sont + ordinairement des Etrangers, Chasseurs ou Sauvages, qui profitent de + ces mets et de ces fruits, ou qu'ils sont consommes par les animaux. + Mais cela est egal a ces sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu'ils + retournent le lendemain, plus ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur + Chef a bien mange, et que par consequent il est content d'eux + quoiqu'il les ait abandonnes. Pour leur ouvrir les yeux sur + l'extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur representer ce + qu'ils ne peuvent s'empecher de voir eux-memes, que ce n'est point + ce mort qui mange; ils repondent que si ce n'est pas lui, c'est + toujours lui au moins qui offre a qui il lui plait ce qui a ete mis + sur la table; qu'apres tout c'etoit la la pratique de leur pere, de + leur mere, de leurs parens; qu'ils n'ont pas plus d'esprit qu'eux, + et qu'ils ne sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example. + + C'est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la veuve + du Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent de tems en + tems lui rendre visite et lui faire leur harangue, comme s'il etoit + en etat de les entendre. Les uns lui demandent pourquoi il s'est + laisse mourir avant eux? d'autres lui disent que s'il est mort ce + n'est point leur faute; que c'est lui meme qui s'est tue par telle + debauche on par tel effort; enfin s'il y a eu quelque defaut dans + son gouvernement, on prend ce tems-la pour le lui reprocher. + Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui disant de + n'etre pas fache contre eux, de bien manger, et qu'ils auront + toujours bien soin de lui. + +Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the +publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p. 89, taken from Strachey's +Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early writer on +American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess as a +truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of +Virginia: + + Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the + cenotaphies or the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes, so soon + as they be dead, they embowell, and, scraping the flesh from off the + bones, they dry the same upon hurdells into ashes, which they put + into little potts (like the anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the + bones they bind together or case up in leather, hanging braceletts, + or chaines of copper, beads, pearle, or such like, as they used to + wear about most of their joints and neck, and so repose the body + upon a little scaffold (as upon a tomb), laying by the dead bodies' + feet all his riches in severall basketts, his apook, and pipe, and + any one toy, which in his life he held most deare in his fancy; + their inwards they stuff with pearle, copper, beads, and such trash, + sowed in a skynne, which they overlapp againe very carefully in whit + skynnes one or two, and the bodyes thus dressed lastly they rowle in + matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay them orderly one by one, as + they dye in their turnes, upon an arche standing (as aforesaid) for + the tomb, and thes are all the ceremonies we yet can learne that + they give unto their dead. We heare of no sweet oyles or oyntments + that they use to dresse or chest their dead bodies with; albeit they + want not of the pretious rozzin running out of the great cedar, + wherewith in the old time they used to embalme dead bodies, washing + them in the oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the priests the care + of these temples and holy interments are committed, and these + temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or ministers to + exercise themselves in contemplation, for they are seldome out of + them, and therefore often lye in them and maynteyne contynuall fier + in the same, upon a hearth somewhat neere the east end. + + For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the earth with + sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in skynns and matts with + their jewells, they laye uppon sticks in the ground, and soe cover + them with earth; the buryall ended, the women (being painted all + their faces with black coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in + their howses, mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling + and howling as may expresse their great passions. + +While this description brings the subject under the head before +given--house burial--at the same time it might also afford an example of +embalmment or mummifying. + +Figure 1 may be referred to as a probable representation of the temple +or charnel-house described. + +The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be +considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices +prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the +Rev. J. G. Wood,[26] bury their dead within the inclosure of the +home-stead, fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems. +The Apingi, according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in +its dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and +deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas +bury within the inclosure of a man's house, although the bones are +subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside +the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle +inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the +Bechuanas follow the same general plan. + +The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted above +(p. 314), is added as containing an account of certain details which +resemble somewhat those followed by North American Indians. In the +narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed only if +specially desired by the expiring person: + + When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar fashion. + As soon as life is extinct--some say even before the last breath is + drawn--the bystanders break the spine by a blow from a large stone. + They then unwind the long rope that encircles the loins, and lash + the body together in a sitting posture, the head being bent over the + knees. Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its + face to the north, as already described when treating of the + Bechuanas. Cattle are then slaughtered in honor of the dead chief, + and over the grave a post is erected, to which the skulls and hair + are attached as a trophy. The bow, arrows, assagai, and clubs of the + deceased are hung on the same post. Large stones are pressed into + the soil above and around the grave, and a large pile of thorns is + also heaped over it, in order to keep off the hyenas, who would be + sure to dig up and devour the body before the following day. The + grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. Now and then a + chief orders that his body shall be left in his own house, in which + case it is laid on an elevated platform, and a strong fence of + thorns and stakes built round the hut. + + The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief forsakes the + place and takes the whole of the people under his command. He + remains at a distance for several years, during which time he wears + the sign of mourning, i.e., a dark-colored conical cap, and round + the neck a thong, to the ends of which are hung two small pieces of + ostrich-shell. When the season of mourning is over, the tribe + return, headed by the chief, who goes to the grave of his father, + kneels over it, and whispers that he has returned, together with the + cattle and wives which his father gave him. He then asks for his + parent's aid in all his undertakings, and from that moment takes the + place which his father filled before him. Cattle are then + slaughtered, and a feast held to the memory of the dead chief and in + honor of the living one, and each person present partakes of the + meat, which is distributed by the chief himself. The deceased chief + symbolically partakes of the banquet. A couple of twigs cut from the + tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased belonged are + considered as his representative, and with this emblem each piece of + meat is touched before the guests consume it. In like manner, the + first pail of milk that is drawn is taken to the grave and poured + over it. + + +_CAVE BURIAL._ + +Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in +rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the +earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only +the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation +and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of +artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have +actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of place at this +time, except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so far +as can be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient +resting places for their deceased relatives and friends. + +In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered, +but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few +illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of +observers to the subject. + +While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a natural +cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to which +resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had +deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was +quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination +made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the +same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the +Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it, +which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian, +a Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of his +tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the +party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted +in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew +a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if +an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some +years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent +game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it +was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full +extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many +refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and +the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of +a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was +pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This entrance +was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As the +Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones and +roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of uninterrupted, +faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. The guide was +asked if many bodies were therein, and replied "Heaps, heaps," moving +the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There is no reason to +doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it was voluntarily +imparted. + +In a communication received from Dr. A. J. McDonald, physician to the +Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of crevice or +rock-fissure burial, which follows: + + As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the + medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged + in preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long; + whatever articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time + of death are not removed. The dead man's limbs are straightened out, + his weapons of war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets + wrapped securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready + for burial. It is the custom to secure if possible, for the purpose + of wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in which the + Indian died. At the same time that the body is being fitted for + internment, the squaws having immediate care of it, together with + all the other squaws in the neighborhood, keep up a continued chant + or dirge, the dismal cadence of which may, when the congregation of + women is large, be heard for quite a long distance. The death song + is not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces expressions + eulogistic in character, but whether or not any particular formula + of words is adopted on such occasion is a question which I am + unable, with the materials at my disposal, to determine with any + degree of certainty. + + The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing + the dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot + chosen for burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as + can be ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to + select sepulchers of this character. From descriptions given by Mr. + Harris, who has several times been fortunate enough to discover + remains, it would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by + this tribe with respect to the position in which the body is placed, + the space accommodation of the sepulcher probably regulating this + matter; and from the same source I learn that it is not usual to + find the remains of more than one Indian deposited in one grave. + After the body has been received into the cleft, it is well covered + with pieces of rock, to protect it against the ravages of wild + animals. The chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the burial + ceremonies are at an end. The men during all this time have not been + idle, though they have in no way participated in the preparation of + the body, have not joined the squaws in chanting praises to the + memory of the dead, and have not even as mere spectators attended + the funeral, yet they have had their duties to perform. In + conformity with a long-established custom, all the personal property + of the deceased is immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle + are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The performance of + this part of the ceremonies is assigned to the men; a duty quite in + accord with their taste and inclinations. Occasionally the + destruction of horses and other properly is of considerable + magnitude, but usually this is not the case, owing to a practice + existing with them of distributing their property among their + children while they are of a very tender age, retaining to + themselves only what is necessary to meet every-day requirements. + + The widow "goes into mourning" by smearing her face with a substance + composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once, + and is allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only + mourning observance of which I have any knowledge. + + The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as + those in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property + takes place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse. + Should a youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the + Indians will not as a role have anything to do with the interment of + the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this agency some + time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the usual manner; the men + of the tribe selected a spot for the burial, and the employee at the + agency, after digging a grave and depositing the corpse therein, + filled it up according to the fashion of civilized people, and then + at the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks on + top. Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have the employes + perform the service as expeditiously as possible. + +Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos +agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock +fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency. + +An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been used +for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J. D. Whitney:[27] + + The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now + in the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is near the Stanislaus + River, in Calaveras County, on a nameless creek, about two miles + from Abbey's Ferry, on the road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr. + Robinson. There were two or three persons with me, who had been to + the place before and knew that the skulls in question were taken + from it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and since that the + condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing to some + alteration in the road, mining operations, or some other cause which + I could not ascertain, there has accumulated on the formerly clean + stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface + earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which could not be + removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet + deep at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet + in diameter. It is the general opinion of those who have noticed + this cave and saw it years ago that it was a burying-place of the + present Indians. Dr. Jones said he found remains of bows and arrows + and charcoal with the skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed + at the time the village of Murphy's was burned. All the people spoke + of the skulls as lying on the surface and not as buried in the + stalagmite. + +The next description of cave burial, by W. H. Dall,[28] is so remarkable +that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to +the Innuits of Alaska. + + The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of + writing I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are + some crania found by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave + and a cranium obtained at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of + Islands. These were deposited in a remarkable manner, precisely + similar to that adopted by most of the continental Innuit, but + equally different from the modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave + we found what at first appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which + proved to be made of the very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of + some large cetacean. These were arranged so as to form a rude + rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces of bone. This + was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 18 inches deep. + The bottom was formed of flat pieces of stone. Three such were found + close together, covered with and filled by an accumulation of fine + vegetable and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton in + the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in the + Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all the bones, + with the exception of the skull, were minced to a soft paste, or + even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted me to dig into a small + knoll near the ancient shell-heap, and here we found, in a precisely + similar sarcophagus, the remains of a skeleton, of which also only + the cranium retained sufficient consistency to admit of + preservation. This inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty + mass not reduced to mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous + growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly 2 feet above the + remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness of this kind + of growth in these northern regions, attested by numerous Arctic + travelers, the antiquity of the remains becomes evident. + +It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as +regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments +were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of +Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many +mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles +were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary +skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view. + + + + +EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION. + + +Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying +or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind +have generally been found in such repositories. + +It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss +the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain +processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh +must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of +this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories +advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians. +Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their +dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on +this point no definite information has been procured. In the final +volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification +among the Indians and aborigines of this continent. + +The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time of +the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more +than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by +others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from +corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to +prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. "They did not +inter them," says he, "for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did +they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything +which it touched." According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment +originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his +tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief, +insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples +that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty +thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the +souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived, +provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that +sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the +deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the +ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising +that this theory has obtained many believers. M. Gannal believes +embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our +nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains of +loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariset think it was intended to obviate, +in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being primarily a +cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; and the +Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from the +finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had +hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is +thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction +to embalmment in North America. + +From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it +appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of +Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of +distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to +Beverly,[29] being as follows: + + The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of their Kings + and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following manner: + First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can, slitting + it only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from the Bones + as clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that + they may preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in + the Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean time + has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed + right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very + fine white Sand. After this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body + looks as if the Flesh had not been removed. They take care to keep + the Skin from shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease, + which saves it also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar'd, + they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, upon a large Shelf + rais'd above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with Mats, for the + Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the same, to keep it from + the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and + when it is thoroughly dried, it is sewed up in a Basket, and set at + the Feet of the Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also they + set up a _Quioccos_, or Idol, which they believe will be a Guard to + the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the Priests must + give his Attendance, to take care of the dead Bodies. So great an + Honour and Veneration have these ignorant and unpolisht People for + their Princes even after they are dead. + +It should be added that, in the writer's opinion, this account and +others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and +recopied a score of times. + +According to Pinkerton,[30] who took the account from Smith's Virginia, +the Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows: + + In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the Devil's] image + euill favouredly carved, and then painted and adorned with chaines + of copper, and beads, and covered with a skin, in such manner as the + deformitie may well suit with such a God. By him is commonly the + sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then + dried upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of + their ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of copper, + pearle, and such like, as they use to wear. Their inwards they + stuffe with copper beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lappe they + them very carefully in white skins, and so rowle them in mats for + their winding-sheets. And in the Tombe, which is an arch made of + mats, they lay them orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth + their Kings have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples + and bodies are kept by their Priests. + + For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the earth with + sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with + their Jewels they lay them upon stickes in the ground, and so cover + them with earth. The buriale ended, the women being painted all + their faces with blacke cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in + the houses mourning and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and + howling as may expresse their great passions. * * * + + Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three + great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and the + tombes of their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in + length, built harbourwise after their building. This place they + count so holey as that but the priests and Kings dare come into + them; nor the savages dare not go up the river in boates by it, but + that they solemnly cast some piece of copper, white beads or pocones + into the river for feare their Okee should be offended and revenged + of them. + + They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteeme + quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond the mountains + towards the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of + their Okee, with their bedes paynted rede with oyle and pocones, + finely trimmed with feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets, + copper, and tobacco, doing nothing but dance and sing with all their + predecessors. But the common people they suppose shall not live + after deth, but rot in their graves like dede dogges. + +This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former +page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding +truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other. + +Figure 1 may again be referred to as an example of the dead-house +described. + +The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson, +used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the subjoined +extract from Schoolcraft;[31] but instead of laying away the remains in +caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched +sticks. + + The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of earth is + raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even, + sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity of the person + whose monument it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made + ridgeways, like the roof of a house. This in supported by nine + stakes or small posts, the grave being about 6 to 8 feet in length + and 4 feet in breadth, about which is hung gourds, feathers, and + other such like trophies, placed there by the dead man's relations + in respect to him in the grave. The other parts of the funeral rites + are thus: As soon as the party is dead they lay the corpse upon a + piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or embalming it with a small + root beaten to powder, which looks as red as vermillion; the same is + mixed with bear's oil to beautify the hair. After the carcass has + laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and lay it upon crotches + cut on purpose for the support thereof from the earth; then they + anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients of the powder + of this root and bear's oil. When it is so done they cover it over + very exactly with the bark or pine of the cypress tree to prevent + any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean all about + it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal estate he was + possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads, + feathers, match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being + clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty for + three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch + pine mixed with bear's oil. All the while he tells the dead man's + relations and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was, + and of the great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks + tending to the praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows + mellow and will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it, + making the bones very clean, then anoint them with the ingredients + aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very carefully) in a cloth + artificially woven of opossum's hair. The bones they carefully + preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and cleansing them. By + these means they preserve them for many ages, that you may see an + Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or some of his + relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs, as + when an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of + stones (or sticks where stones are not to be found); to this + memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the + heap in respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of + light wood or pitch-pine over the graves of the more distinguished, + covering it with bark and then with earth, leaving the body thus in + a subterranean vault until the flesh quits the bones. The bones are + then taken up, cleaned, jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins, + and laid away in the _Quiogozon_, which is the royal tomb or + burial-place of their kings and war-captains, being a more + magnificent cabin reared at the public expense. This Quiogozon is an + object of veneration, in which the writer says he has known the + king, old men, and conjurers to spend several days with their idols + and dead kings, and into which he could never gain admittance. + +Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the +saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt +with archaeologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve +these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with +certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens +were found. Charles Wilkins[32] thus describes one: + + * * * An exsiccated body of a female[33] * * * was found at the + depth of about 10 feet from the surface of the cave bedded in clay + strongly impregnated with nitre, placed in a sitting posture, + incased in broad stones standing on their edges, with a flat atone + covering the whole. It was enveloped in coarse clothes, * * * the + whole wrapped in deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the + manner in which the Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the + stone coffin were the working utensils, beads, feathers, and other + ornaments of dress which belonged to her. + +The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.[34*] + + AUG. 24th, 1815. + + DEAR SIR: I offer you some observations on a curious piece of + American antiquity now in New York. It is a human body: found in one + of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect desiccation; + all the fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other firm parts + are in a state of entire preservation. I think it enough to have + puzzled Bryant and all the archaeologists. + + This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of + Glasgow for saltpetre. + + These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract + and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash; and + probably the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good + proportion of calcareous carbonate. Amidst them drying and + antiseptick ingredients, it may be conceived that putrefaction would + be stayed, and the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope + of the body is a deer-skin, probably dried in the usual way, and + perhaps softened before its application by rubbing. The next + covering is a deer's skin, whose hair had been cut away by a sharp + instrument resembling a batter's knife. The remnant of the hair and + the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a sheared pelt of beaver. The + next wrapper is of cloth made of twine doubled and twisted. But the + thread does not appear to have been formed by the wheel, nor the web + by the loom. The warp and filling seem to have been crossed and + knotted by an operation like that of the fabricks of the northwest + coast, and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the lamented + Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the fibrous + material. + + The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the preceding, but + furnished with large brown feathers, arranged and fashioned with + great art, so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from + wet and cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole + bears a near similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the + nations of the northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell + from what bird they were derived. + + The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm reclining + forward, and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs + down, with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual, + who was a male, did not probably exceed the age of fourteen at his + death. There is near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of + the skull, which probably killed him. The skin has sustained little + injury; it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be + decided with exactness, from its present appearance. The scalp, with + small exceptions, is covered with sorrel or foxey hair. The teeth + are white and sound. The hands and feet, in their shrivelled state, + are slender and delicate. All this is worthy the investigation of + our acute and perspicacious colleague, Dr. Holmes. + + There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like + the Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except + the several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of + a suture or incision about the belly; whence it seems that the + viscera were not removed. + + It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as to the + antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation. + + First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that class of + white men of which we are members. + + 2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of + Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled + up the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this + head I should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious + friend, Noah Webster. + + 3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged to + any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting Kentucky. + + 4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted + threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash + and the Pacifick Islands, that I refer this individual to that era + of time, and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of + the Green River, and of the place where these relicks were found. + This conclusion is strengthened by the consideration that such + manufactures are not prepared by the actual and resident red men of + the present day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him, + he would have thought of the people who constructed those ancient + forts and mounds, whose exact history no man living can give. But I + forbear to enlarge; my intention being merely to manifest my respect + to the society for having enrolled me among its members, and to + invite the attention of its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a + subject of such curiousity. + + With respect, I remain yours, + + SAMUEL L. MITCHILL. + +It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that the +natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be +seen from the work recently published by W. H. Dall,[35] the description +of the mummies being as follows: + + We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment + in their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already + described; second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or + stones in some convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss, + covered by matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or + carvings associated with them. We found only three or four specimens + in all in these places, of which we examined a great number. This + was apparently the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and + one which more recently was still pursued in the case of poor or + unpopular individuals. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Alaskan Mummies.] + + Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few + centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was + adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The + bodies were eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running + water, dried, and usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of + fur and fine grass matting. The body was usually doubled up into the + smallest compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of + children, was usually suspended (so as not to touch the ground) in + some convenient rock shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body + was placed in a lifelike position, dressed and armed. They were + placed as if engaged in some congenial occupation, such as hunting, + fishing, sewing, &c. With them were also placed effigies of the + animals they were pursuing, while the hunter was dressed in his + wooden armor and provided with an enormous mask all ornamented with + feathers, and a countless variety of wooden pendants, colored in gay + patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the weapons even were only + fac-similes in wood of the original articles. Among the articles + represented were drums, rattles, dishes, weapons, effigies of men, + birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of rods or scales of wood, + and remarkable masks, so arranged that the wearer when erect could + only see the ground at his feet. These were worn at their religious + dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to animate a + temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look upon it while so + occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the masking of those + who had gone into the land of spirits. + + The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the + whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit--has + erroneously been confounded with the one now described. The latter + included women as well as men, and all those whom the living desired + particularly to honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the + bodies of males, and they were not associated with the paraphernalia + of those I have described. Indeed, the observations I have been able + to make show the bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with + stone weapons and actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the + meanest apparel, and no carvings of consequence. These details, and + those of many other customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear + no testimony * * * do not come within my line. + +Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies. + +Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings' Expedition,[36] speaks of the +Aleutian Islanders embalming their dead, as follows: + + They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they + embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in + their best attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their + darts and instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured + mats, embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less + ceremony. A mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut + for some months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it + begins to smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with it. + +Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin +gives this account: + + The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial + Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the + mummified remains of Indians who lived on an island north of + Ounalaska one hundred and fifty years ago. This contribution to + science was secured by Captain Henning, an agent of the company who + has long resided at Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians + he learned that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the + island in question, as the last resting-place of a great chief, + known as Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the + neighborhood of Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and other furs, and + he bore up for the island, with the intention of testing the truth + of the tradition he had heard. He had more difficulty in entering + the cave than in finding it, his schooner having to beat on and off + shore for three days. Finally he succeeded in affecting a landing, + and clambering up the rocks he found himself in the presence of the + dead chief, his family and relatives. + + The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care + the mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments + scattered around were also taken away. + + In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have + as yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large + basket-like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the + wrappings are finely wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in + texture, and skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of + thinly cut wood, and adjoining the center portions are pieces of + body armor composed of reeds bound together. The body is covered + with the fine skin of the sea-otter, always a mark of distinction in + the interments of the Aleuts, and round the whole package are + stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the sinews of the sea + lion; also those of a bird-net. There are evidently some bulky + articles inclosed with the chief's body, and the whole package + differs very much from the others, which more resemble, in their + brown-grass matting, consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich + Islands than the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose + and of a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon + after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet of the + latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The remaining mummies are + of adults. + + One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man's body in + tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face + decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by + severing some of the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending + the limbs downward horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most + peculiar package, next to that of the chief, is one which incloses + in a single matting, with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and + woman. The collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and + female, which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The hair + has changed its color to a brownish red. The relics obtained with + the bodies include a few wooden vessels scooped out smoothly: + a piece of dark, greenish, flat stone, harder than the emerald, + which the Indians use to tan skins; a scalp-lock of jet-black hair; + a small rude figure, which may have been a very ugly doll or an + idol; two or three tiny carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very + neatly executed; a comb, a necklet made of bird's claws inserted + into one another, and several specimens of little bags, and a cap + plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight. + +In Cary's translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following passage +occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the Macrobrian +Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a matter of +curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved have ever +been discovered. + + After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which are + said to be prepared from crystal in the following manner. When they + have dried the body, either as the Egyptians do, or in some other + way, they plaster it all over with gypsum, and paint it, making it + as much as possible resemble real life; they then put round it a + hollow column made of crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and + is easily wrought. The body being in the middle of the column is + plainly seen, nor does it emit an unpleasant smell, nor is it in any + way offensive, and it is all visible as the body itself. The nearest + relations keep the column in their houses for a year, offering to it + the first-fruits of all, and performing sacrifices; after that time + they carry it out and place it somewhere near the city. + + NOTE.--The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back + being covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen + all round, as the column of glass was transparent. + +With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment +may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that +particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to +ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular +preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil +of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts. + + + + +URN-BURIAL. + + +To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following +account of urn-burial in Foster[37] may be added: + + Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the + mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the + mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S.C., according to Dr. + Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human + remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small + the skull is placed with the face downward in the opening, + constituting a sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in + which urn-burial alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was + accidentally discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine's + Island, off the coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that + from a mound at New Madrid, Mo., he obtained a human skull inclosed + in an earthen jar, the lips of which were too small to admit of its + extraction. It must therefore have been molded on the head after + death. + + A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the + funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to + admit of the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either + the clay must have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or + the neck of the jar must have been added subsequently to the other + rites of interment.[38] + +It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the +distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for +notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and +Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but +_to a very limited extent_, in North America, except as a secondary +interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or +ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under +circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent +to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of +ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as +the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply +tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been +that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the +fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in +urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution, +furnishes the following account of urns used for burial: + + I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover, + Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received + from Mr. William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on + his plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of + the Oconee River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes, + tall grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same + source one of the covers, of which the ornamentation was different + but more entire. A portion of a similar cover has been received also + from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. McKinley ascribes the use of these urns + and covers to the Muscogees, a branch of the Creek Nation. + +These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the +ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the +bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was +a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around +the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented +scroll ornamentations. + +The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:[39] + + Burial-urns * * * comprise vessels or ollas without handles, for + cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height, with broad, + open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a laminated exterior + (partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the indentations + extend simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion being plain. + +So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been +found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr. +J. C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of possibility +that future researches in regions not far distant from that which he +explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents different +forms of burial-urns, _a_, _b_, and _e_, after Foster, are from Laporte, +Ind. _f_, after Foster, is from Greenup County, Kentucky; _d_ is from +Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian collection, No. 27976; and _c_ is one +of the peculiar shoe-shaped urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake +Nicaragua, by Surgeon J. C. Bransford, U.S.N. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Burial Urns.] + + + + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Cemetery.] + +SURFACE BURIAL. + + +This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far as +can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was +employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for +time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees, +the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead +being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the +Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently +large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and +permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen +was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by R. S. +Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a communication received +in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial in two different ways: + + * * * 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have been found + in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split and the two halves + hollowed out to receive the body, when it was either closed with + withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes; and sometimes + a hollow tree is used by closing the ends. + + 2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs + laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they + meet in a single log at the top. + +The writer has recently received from Prof. C. Engelhardt, of +Copenhagen, Denmark, a brochure describing the oak coffins of +Borum-AEshoei. From an engraving in this volume it would appear that the +manner employed by the ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins +has its analogy among the North American Indians. + +Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent +in accordance with the _ante mortem_ wishes of the dead, were the +obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is +given by George Catlin:[40] + + He requested them to take his body down the river to this his + favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury + him on the back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried + alive under him, from whence he could see, as he said, "the + Frenchmen passing up and down the river in their boats." He owned, + amongst many horses, a noble white steed, that was led to the top of + the grass-covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the + presence of the whole nation and several of the fur-traders and the + Indian agent, he was placed astride of his horse's back, with his + bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver slung, with his pipe and + his medicine bag, with his supply of dried meat, and his + tobacco-pouch replenished to last him through the journey to the + beautiful hunting grounds of the shades of his fathers, with his + flint, his steel, and his tinder to light his pipe by the way; the + scalps he had taken from his enemies' heads could be trophies for + nobody else, and were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in + full dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved to the last + moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles' plumes. In this + plight, and the last funeral honors having been performed by the + medicine-men, every warrior of his band painted the palm and fingers + of his right hand with vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly + impressed on the milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This all + done, turfs were brought and placed around the feet and legs of the + horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over the back + and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of all over the head + and even the eagle plumes of its valiant rider, where all together + have smouldered and remained undisturbed to the present day. + +Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a +high bluff of the Missouri River. + +According to the Rev. J. G. Wood,[41] the Obongo, an African tribe, +buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of +the Seminoles: + + When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow tree in + the forest and drop it into the hollow, which is afterwards filled + to the top with earth, leaves, and branches. + +M. de la Potherie[42] gives an account of surface burial as practiced by +the Iroquois of New York: + + Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son seant, on oint ses + cheveux et tout son corps d'huile d'animaux, on lui applique du + vermillon sur le visage; on lui met toutes sortes de beaux plumages + de la rassade de la porcelaine et on le pare des plus beaux habits + que l'on peut trouver, pendant que les parens et des vieilles + continuent toujours a pleurer. Cette ceremonie finie, les alliez + apportent plusieurs presens. Les uns sont pour essuyer les larmes et + les autres pour servir de matelas au defunt, on en destine certains + pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, disent-ils, que la plague ne + l'incommode, on y etend fort proprement des peaux d'ours et de + chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui met ses ajustemens avec + un sac de farine de bled d'Inde, de la viande, sa cuilliere, et + generalement tout ce qu'il faut a un homme qui veut faire un long + voyage, avec toux les presens qui lui ont ete faits a sa mort, et + s'il a ete guerrier on lui donne ses armes pour s'en servir au pais + des morts. L'on couvre ensuite ce cadavre d'ecorce d'arbres sur + lesquelles on jette de la terre et quantite de pierres, et on + l'entoure de pierres pour empecher que les animaux ne le deterrent. + Ces sortes de funerailles ne se font que dans leur village. + Lorsqu'ils meurent en campagne on les met dans un cercueil d'ecorce, + entre les branches des arbres ou on les eleve sur quatre pilliers. + + On observe ces memes funerailles aux femmes et aux filles. Tous ceux + qui ont assiste aux obseques profitent de toute la depouille du + defunt et s'il n'avoit rien, les parens y supleent. Ainsi ils ne + pleurent pas en vain. Le deuil consiste a ne se point couper ni + graisser les cheveux et de se tenir neglige sans aucune parure, + couverts de mechantes hardes. Le pere et la mere portent le deuil de + leur fils. Si le pere meurt les garcons le portent, et les filles de + leur mere. + +Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to forward +to the writer an interesting work by J. V. Spencer,[43] containing +annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and +partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly +inhabiting Illinois: + + Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his + hands grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow hole in the + ground, setting the body in up to the waist, so the most of the body + was above ground. The part above ground was then covered by a + buffalo robe, and a trench about eight feet square was then dug + about the grave. In this trench they set picketing about eight feet + high, which secured the grave against wild animals. When I first + came here there were quite a number of these high picketings still + standing where their chiefs had been buried, and the body of a chief + was disposed of in this way while I lived near their village. The + common mode of burial was to dig a shallow grave, wrap the body in a + blanket, place it in the grave, and fill it nearly full of dirt; + then take split sticks about three feet long and stand them in the + grave so that their tops would come together in the form of a roof; + then they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks in place. + I saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their child about + a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a blanket and putting + a long stick through the blanket, each taking an end of the stick. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Grave Pen.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Grave Pen.] + + I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is done by + digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in it, and covering + it. I have seen several bodies in one tree. I think when they are + disposed of in this way it is by special request, as I knew of an + Indian woman who lived with a white family who desired her body + placed in a tree, which was accordingly done.[44*] Doubtless there + was some peculiar superstition attached to this mode, though I do + not remember to have heard what it was. + +Judge H. Welch[45] states that "the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies +buried by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of +sticks or logs. I think the bodies lay heads to the east." And C. C. +Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as follows: + + I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge Welch. + * * * In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, Judge Gibson, to Fort + Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of an Ottawa or Pottawatomie + chief. The body lay on the ground covered with notched poles. It had + been there but a few days and the worms were crawling around the + body. My special interest in the case was the accusation of + witchcraft against a young squaw who was executed for killing him by + her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only parts of + skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been burned. + +W. A. Brice[46] mentions a curious variety of surface burial not +heretofore met with: + + And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough of a + tree, or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the infant of the + Indian mother; or a few little log inclosures, where the bodies of + adults sat upright, with all their former apparel wrapped about + them, and their trinkets, tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be + seen at any time for many years by the few pale-faces visiting or + sojourning here. + +A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may be +considered under that head is the one employed by some of the Ojibways +and Swampy Crees of Canada. A small cavity is scooped out, the body +deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus formed +being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark. + +Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River +exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the +Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave, +which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and +they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and 9. + + +_CAIRN-BURIAL._ + +The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock +burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent +among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas. + +In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries in +Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen or +twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the +side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully +chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find +it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have +been constructed in the following manner: A number of bowlders had been +removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had been +obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, with +weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the mountain +aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, forming a +huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the last resting +place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the graves were +scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which had been +sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of the +graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number of +articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a +boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this +place. + +From Dr. O. G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, Indian +Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was received. +According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves _Kaw-a-wah_, the +Comanches _Nerm_, and the Apaches _Tah-zee_. + + They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not seem to + have any particular rule with regard to the position. Sometimes + prone, sometimes supine, but always decumbent. They select a place + where the grave is easily prepared, which they do with such + implements as they chance to have, viz, a squaw-axe, or hoe. If they + are traveling, the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much + time is spent in finishing. I was present at the burial of Black + Hawk, an Apache chief, some two years ago, and took the body in my + light wagon up the side of a mountain to the place of burial. They + found a crevice in the rocks about four feet wide and three feet + deep. By filling in loose rocks at either end they made a very nice + tomb. The body was then put in face downwards, short sticks were put + across, resting on projections of rock at the sides, brush was + thrown on this, and flat rocks laid over the whole of it. + + The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing, together + with all the ornaments most admired by the person when living. The + face is painted with any colored paint they may have, mostly red and + yellow, as I have observed. The body is then wrapped in skins, + blankets, or domestic, with the hands laid across the breast, and + the legs placed upon the thighs. They put into the grave their guns, + bows and arrows, tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins, + and trinkets of various kinds. One or more horses are killed over or + near the grave. Two horses and a mule were killed near Black Hawk's + grave. They were led up near and shot in the head. At the death of a + Comanche chief, some years ago, I am told about seventy horses were + killed, and a greater number than that were said to have been killed + at the death of a prominent Kiowa chief a few years since. + + The mourning is principally done by the relatives and immediate + friends, although any one of their own tribe, or one of another + tribe, who chances to be passing, will stop and moan with the + relatives. Their mourning consists in a weird wail, which to be + described must be heard, and once heard is never forgotten, together + with the scarifying of their faces, arms, and legs with some sharp + instrument, the cutting off of the hair, and oftentimes the cutting + off of a joint of a finger, usually the little finger (Comanches do + not cut off fingers). The length of time and intensity of their + mourning depends upon the relation and position of the deceased in + the tribe. I have known instances where, if they should be passing + along where any of their friends had died, even a year after their + death, they would mourn. + +The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath heaps +of rocks, according to H. Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, Nevada, +although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as reasons +for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, because +they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural indolence of +the Indians--indisposition to work any more than can be helped. + +The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as +did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact, +a number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom +prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient +Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this +ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the +body in small pieces and collecting in a pot. + + + + +CREMATION. + + +Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common custom +to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially those +living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we have +undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more eastern +ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from its +great antiquity, for Tegg[47] informs us that it reached as far back as +the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the burning +of Menoeacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, eighth +judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among the +ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos up +to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom among +civilized people. + +While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance of +this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North America, +yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be entered upon +regarding the details of it among the ancients and the origin of the +ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the country, with +discursive notes and an account of its origin among the Nishinams of +California, by Stephen Powers,[48] seem to be all that is required at +this time: + + The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that + exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and + women, the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died + they should return to the earth after two or three days as he + himself does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said + this should not be; but that when men died their friends should burn + their bodies and once a year make a great mourning for them and the + coyote prevailed. So, presently when deer died, they burned his + body, as the coyote had decreed and after a year they made a great + mourning for him. But the moon created the rattlesnake and caused it + to bite the coyote's son, so that he died. Now, though the coyote + had been willing to burn the deer's relations, he refused to burn + his own son. Then the moon said unto him, "This is your own rule. + You would have it so, and now your son shall be burned like the + others." So he was burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for + him. Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, as he + had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise. + + This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in + that it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not + practice cremation, which is also established by other traditions. + It hints at the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set + great store by the moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred + ways and observe its changes for a hundred purposes. + +Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in +Schoolcraft[49] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers: + + The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number + died the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they + thought then. After crawling over the body for a time they took all + manner of shapes, some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope, + etc. It was discovered however, that great numbers were taking wings + and for a while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they + would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the + earth might become depopulated in this way, concluded to stop it at + once and ordered that when one of their people died the body must be + burnt. Ever after they continued to burn the bodies of deceased + persons. + +Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins +of Oregon:[50] + + The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and quite + peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days + laid out in his lodge and on the tenth it is buried. For this + purpose a rising ground is selected, on which are laid a number of + sticks, about 7 feet long, of cypress, neatly split and in the + interstices, placed a quantity of gummy wood. During these + operations invitations are dispatched to the natives of the + neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the ceremony. + When the preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on the + pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of + burning, the bystanders appear to be in a high state of merriment. + If a stranger happen to be present they invariably plunder him, but + if that pleasure be denied them, they never separate without + quarreling among themselves. Whatever property the deceased + possessed is placed about the corpse, and if he happened to be a + person of consequence, his friends generally purchase a capote, + a shirt, a pair of trousers, &c, which articles are also laid around + the pile. If the doctor who attended him has escaped uninjured, he + is obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last time + tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation. Failing in + this, he throws on the body a piece of leather, or some other + article, as a present, which in some measure appeases the resentment + of his relatives, and preserves the unfortunate quack from being + maltreated. During the nine days the corpse is laid out, the widow + of the deceased is obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to + sunrise, and from this custom there is no relaxation even during the + hottest days of summer! While the doctor is performing his last + operations she must lie on the pile, and after the fire is applied + to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her to be removed, + which, however, is never done until her body is completely covered + with blisters. After being placed on her legs, she is obliged to + pass her hands gently through the flame and collect some of the + liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which she is permitted + to wet her face and body. When the friends of the deceased observe + the sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they compel + the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint of hard + pressing to straighten those members. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Tolkotin cremation.] + + If during her husband's life time she has been known to have + committed any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him + savory food or neglected his clothing, &c. she is now made to suffer + severely for such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently + fling her in the funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her + friends, and thus between alternate scorching and cooling she is + dragged backwards and forwards until she falls into a state of + insensibility. + + After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow + collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of + birch bark and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to + carry on her back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all + the laborious duties of cooking, collecting food, &c. devolve on + her. She must obey the orders of all the women, and even of the + children belonging to the village, and the slightest mistake or + disobedience subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment. + The ashes of her husband are carefully collected and deposited in a + grave which it is her duty to keep free from weeds, and should any + such appear, she is obliged to root them out with her fingers. + During this operation her husband's relatives stand by and beat her + in a cruel manner until the task is completed or she falls a victim + to their brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid this complicated + cruelty, frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on + for three or four years, the friends of her husband agree to relieve + her from the her painful mourning. This is a ceremony of much + consequence and the preparations for it occupy a considerable time + generally from six to eight months. The hunters proceed to the + various districts in which deer and beaver abound and after + collecting large quantities of meat and fur return to the village. + The skins are immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing, + trinkets, &c. Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants of the + various friendly villages, and when they have all assembled the + feast commences, and presents are distributed to each visitor. The + object of their meeting is then explained, and the woman is brought + forward, still carrying on her back the bones of her late husband, + which are now removed and placed in a covered box, which is nailed + or otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her conduct as a + faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the ceremony of her + manumission is completed by one man powdering on her head the down + of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a bladder of oil. + She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of single + blessedness, but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter the risk + attending a second widowhood. + + The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it + with equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid + the brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of + religious rite. + +Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the +description given. + +Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of +this narrative may be permitted. + +It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after death--certainly a +long period of time, when it is remembered that Indians as a rule +endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. This may be +accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the friends and +relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, and of +making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the +verification of the dead person, William Sheldon[51] gives an account of +a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and +which seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased +persons by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this +is mere hypothesis: + + They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased + persons. When one of them died, it was necessary that all his + relations should see him and examine the body in order to ascertain + that he died a natural death. They acted so rigidly on this + principle, that if one relative remained who had not seen the body + all the others could not convince that one that the death was + natural. In such a case the absent relative considered himself as + bound in honor to consider all the other relatives as having been + accessories to the death of the kinsman, and did not rest until he + had killed one of them to revenge the death of the deceased. If a + Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his relations lived + in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon them to see the body, + and several months sometimes elapsed before it could be finally + interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately painted all over + with _roucou_, and had his mustachios and the black streaks in his + face made with a black paint, which was different from that used in + their lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the _carbet_ where + he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body was let + down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to the knees, and + the body was placed in it in a sitting posture, resembling that in + which they crouched round the fire or the table when alive, with the + elbows on the knees and the palms of the hands against the cheeks. + No part of the body touched the outside of the grave, which was + covered with wood and mats until all the relations had examined it. + When the customary examinations and inspections were ended the hole + was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained undisturbed. The hair + of the deceased was kept tied behind. In this way bodies have + remained several months without any symptoms of decay or producing + any disagreeable smell. The _roucou_ not only preserved them from + the sun, air, and insects during their lifetime, but probably had + the same effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs were placed by + them when they were covered over for inspection, and they were + finally buried with them. + +Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very +merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a +funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over +for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be +remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As +already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the +widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but, +if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable +to such torments. + +It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a husband +died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her severely. +Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to take good +care of their husbands. + +George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,[52] states that among the Indians of Clear +Lake, California, "the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a +hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered." + +According to Stephen Powers,[53] cremation was common among the Se-nel +of California. He thus relates it. + + The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of + incremation that he once witnessed, which was frightful for its + exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that + of a wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they + placed in his month two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in + his ears and hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his + feather mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows, + painted arrows, &c. When the torch was applied they set up a + mournful ululation, chanting and dancing about him, gradually + working themselves into a wild and ecstatic raving, which seemed + almost a demoniacal possession, leaping, howling, lacerating their + flesh. Many seemed to lose all self-control. The younger + English-speaking Indians generally lend themselves charily to such + superstitious work, especially if American spectators are present, + but even they were carried away by the old contagious frenzy of + their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, quite new and fine, + and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the blazing pile. + Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a pile of California + blankets, when a white man, to test his sincerity, offend him $16 + for them, jingling the bright coins before his eyes, but the savage + (for such he had become again for the moment) otherwise so + avaricious, hurled him away with a yell of execration and ran and + threw his offering into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied, + wildly flung upon the pyre all they had in the world--their dearest + ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings of glittering + shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair, beating their + breasts in their mad and insensate infatuation, some of them would + have cast themselves bodily into the flaming ruins and perished with + the chief had they not been restrained by their companions. Then the + bright, swift flames, with their hot tongues, licked this "cold + obstruction" into chemic change, and the once "delighted spirit" of + the savage was borne up. * * * + + It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare's shudder at the + thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of + his superstition to think of the soul, of his departed friend set + free and purified by the swift purging heat of the flames not + dragged down to be clogged and bound in the mouldering body, but + borne up in the soft, warm chariots of the smoke toward the + beautiful sun, to bask in his warmth and light, and then to fly away + to the Happy Western Land. What wonder if the Indian shrinks with + unspeakable horror from the thought of _burying his friend's + soul!_--of pressing and ramming down with pitiless clods that inner + something which once took such delight in the sweet light of the + sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade him to do otherwise + and follow our custom! What wonder if even then he does it with sad + fears and misgivings! Why not let him keep his custom! In the + gorgeous landscapes and balmy climate of California an Indian + incremation is as natural to the savage as it is for him to love the + beauty of the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian + bury their dead if they will; it matters little, the earth is the + same above as below; or to them the bosom of the earth may seem even + the better; but in California do not blame the savage if he recoils + at the thought of going underground! This soft pale halo of the + lilac hills--ah, let him console himself if he will with the belief + that his lost friend enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by + saying that they destroyed full $500 worth of property. "The + blankets," said he with a fine Californian scorn of much absurd + insensibility to such a good bargain, "the blankets that the + American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money." + + After death the Se-nel hold that bad Indians return into coyotes. + Others fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are + hooked off by a raging bull at the further end, while the good + escape across. Like the Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it + necessary to nourish the spirits of the departed for the space of a + year. This is generally done by a squaw, who takes pinole in her + blanket, repairs to the scene of the incremation, or to places + hallowed by the memory of the dead, when she scatters it over the + ground, meantime rocking her body violently to and fro in a dance + and chanting the following chorous: + + Hel-lel-li-ly, + Hel-lel-lo, + Hel-lel-lu. + + This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words + have no meaning whatever. + +Henry Gillman[54] has published an interesting account of the +exploration of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant +evidence that cremation had existed among the former Indian population. +It is as follows: + + In opening a burial-mound at Cade's Pond, a small body of water + situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fe Lake, Fla., the + writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull + of the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of + his ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human + burials, the bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a + great number of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in + brilliant colors, chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them + ornamented with indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in + the ceramic art, though they are reduced to fragments. The first of + the skulls referred to was exhumed at a depth of 2-1/2 feet. It rested + on its apex (base uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half + incinerated human bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the + sand which invariably sifts into crania under such circumstances. + Immediately beneath the skull lay the greater part of a human tibia, + presenting the peculiar compression known as a platycnemism to the + degree of affording a latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and + surrounding it lay the fragments of a large number of human bones, + probably constituting an entire individual. In the second instance + of this peculiar mode in cremation, the cranium was discovered on + nearly the opposite side of the mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and, + like the former, resting on its apex. It was filled with a black + mass--the residuum of burnt human bones mingled with sand. At three + feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a flattened tibia, which + presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both the skulls were free + from all action of fire, and though subsequently crumbling to pieces + on their removal, the writer had opportunity to observe their strong + resemblance to the small, orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed + from mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was perceptible in the + other cranium belonging to this mound. The small narrow, retreating + frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather protuberant + occipital, which was not in the least compressed, the well defined + supraciliary ridges, and the superior border of the orbits, + presenting a quadrilateral outline, were also particularly noticed. + The lower facial bones, including the maxillaries, were wanting. On + consulting such works as are accessible to him, the writer finds no + mention of any similar relics having been discovered in mounds in + Florida, or elsewhere. For further particulars reference may be had + to a paper on the subject read before the Saint Louis meeting of the + American Association, August, 1878. + +The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the +people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial +cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use +of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique. + +The fact is well-known to archaeologists that whenever cremation was +practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the +blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead, +but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as +occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E. +Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account +of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at +the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but +all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had +served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained +unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed. + +A. S. Tiffany[55] describes what he calls a cremation-furnace, +discovered within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa. + + * * * Mound seven miles, below the city, a projecting point known as + Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black soil to the depth of + from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a burnt indurated clay, + resembling in color and texture a medium-burned brick, and about 30 + inches in depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred + human remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged + and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor of the + pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much + decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind + were discovered. The furnace appears to have been constructed by + excavating the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or + skeletons which had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and + placing the fuel among and above the bodies, with a covering of + poles or split timbers extending over and resting upon the earth, + with the clay covering above, which latter we now find resting upon + the charred remains. The ends of the timber covering, where they + were protected by the earth above and below, were reduced to + charcoal, parallel pieces of which were found at right angles to the + length of the mound. No charcoal was found among or near the + remains, the combustion there having been complete. The porous and + softer portions of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black. + Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably not + been opened after the burning. + +This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect. + +Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given to +show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be +sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples. + + +_PARTIAL CREMATION._ + +Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is +supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of +North Carolina, and which is thus described by J. W. Foster:[56] + + Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region, when, in + pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in + the valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell + commenced farming. During the first season's operations the + plowshare, in passing over a certain portion of a field, produced a + hollow rumbling sound, and in exploring for the cause the first + object met with was a shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a + slab of burnt clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which, + in the attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing + beneath this slab was found, but on examining its under side, to his + great surprise there was the mould of a naked human figure. Three of + these burned-clay sepulchers were thus raised and examined during + the first year of his occupancy, since which time none have been + found until recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow + brought up another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the + impress of a plump human arm. + + Col. C. W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which + have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus: + + "We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for + 500 years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles + of stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under + one pile, but a grave has just been opened of the following + construction: A pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face + upward; then over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the + form and features. On this was built a hot fire, which formed an + entire shield of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such + tomb gives a perfect cast of the form of the occupant." + + Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these + archeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the + exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the mould, which + he reached through a layer of charcoal, and then with a trowel + excavated beneath it. The clay was not thoroughly baked, and no + impression of the corpse was left, except of the forehead and that + portion of the limbs between the ankles and the knees, and even + these portions of the mould crumbled. The body had been placed east + and west, the head toward the east. "I had hoped," continues Mr. + McDowell, "that the cast in the clay would be as perfect as one I + found 51 years ago, a fragment of which I presented to Colonel + Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on one side and on + the other of the fingers, that had pressed down the soft clay upon + the body interred beneath it." The mound-builders of the Ohio + valley, as has been shown, often placed a layer of clay over the + dead, but not in immediate contact, upon which they builded fires; + and the evidence that cremation was often resorted to in their + disposition are too abundant to be gainsaid. + +This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:[57] + + Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his + attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient + race of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial + places were discovered where the bodies had been placed with the + face up and covered with a coating of plastic clay about an inch + thick. A pile of wood was then placed on top and fired, which + consumed the body and baked the clay, which retained the impression + of the body. This was then lightly covered with earth. + +It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the cases +are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in the +extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of +burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the +ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster +(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins. + +Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been practiced +by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who + + Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders + nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole + of sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head + being cut off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows, + bead-work, trappings, &c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of + food, consisting of dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with + the body also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless + body; then a bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the grave by + the different members of the tribe, and on these fagots the head was + placed, the pile fired, and the head consumed to ashes; after this + was done the female relatives of the deceased, who had appeared as + mourners with their faces blackened with a preparation resembling + tar or paint, dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head + and made three marks on their right cheek. This constituted the + mourning garb, the period of which lasted until this black substance + wore off from the face. In addition to this mourning, the blood + female relatives of the deceased (who, by the way, appeared to be a + man of distinction) had their hair cropped short. I noticed while + the head was burning that the old women of the tribe sat on the + ground, forming a large circle, inside of which another circle of + young girls were formed standing and swaying their bodies to and fro + and singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male + that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very different, + their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins and laid away in + caves, with their valuables and in some cases food being placed with + them in their mouths. Occasionally money is left to pay for food in + the spirit land. + +This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy +quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial +above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only +well-authenticated case on record, although E. A. Barber[58] has +described what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one +above noted: + + A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice + recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New + Jersey bank of the Delaware River, a short distance below Gloucester + City, the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position, + in a high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few + inches below the surface the neck bones were found, and below these + the remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of + the hands and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be + determined whether the remains were those of an Indian or of a white + man, but in either case the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal. + A careful exhumation and critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil + disclosed the fact that around the lower extremities of the body had + been placed a number of large stones, which revealed traces of fire, + in conjunction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had + undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes it appear reasonably + certain that the subject had been executed, probably as a prisoner + of war. A pit had been dug, in which he was placed erect, and a fire + kindled around him. Then he had been buried alive, or, at least, if + he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the + earth, with the exception of his head, which was left protruding + above the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it + seems probable that the head had either been burned or severed from + the body and removed, or else left a prey to ravenous birds. The + skeleton, which would have measured fully six feet in height, was + undoubtedly that of a man. + +Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom +known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in +some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning. +The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an +outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient +Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with +the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in +the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment, +placed a piece of money in the corpse's mouth, which was thought to be +Charon's fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River. +Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a certain cake, +composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury of +Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet +entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more. + + + + +AERIAL SEPULTURE. + + +_LODGE-BURIAL._ + +Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground, +including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the +first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is +by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,[59] +and relates to the Sioux: + + I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to + the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our + curiosity. There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie, + and in them we found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the + ground, wrapped in their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles, + spears, camp-kettles, and all their accoutrements piled up around + them. Some lodges contained three, others only one body, all of + which were more or less in a state of decomposition. A short + distance apart from these was one lodge which, though small, seemed + of rather superior pretensions, and was evidently pitched with great + care. It contained the body of a young Indian girl of sixteen or + eighteen years, with a countenance presenting quite an agreeable + expression: she was richly dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth + elaborately ornamented; a new pair of moccasins, beautifully + embroidered with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her body was + wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner; she had + evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our surprise a portion + of the upper part of her person was bare, exposing the face and a + part of the breast, as if the robes in which she was wrapped had by + some means been disarranged, whereas all the other bodies were + closely covered up. It was, at the time, the opinion of our + mountaineers, that these Indians must have fallen in an encounter + with a party of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they had all + died of the cholera, and that this young girl, being considered past + recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the habiliments of the + dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and abandoned to her fate, so + fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this to them novel and + terrible disease. + +It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, and +due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the homes +of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was not the +case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among the same +tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of their chiefs +(Long Horse) being disposed of as follows: + + The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the + base, converging to a point, at least 30 feet high, covered with + buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch, + which floats outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The + different skins are neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and + all painted in seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and + yellow, decorated with various lifelike war scenes. Over the small + entrance is a large bright cross, the upright being a large stuffed + white wolf-skin upon his war lance, and the cross-bar of bright + scarlet flannel, containing the quiver of bow and arrows, which + nearly all warriors still carry, even when armed with repeating + rifles. As the cross is not a pagan but a Christian (which Long + Horse was not either by profession or practice) emblem, it was + probably placed there by the influence of some of his white friends. + I entered, finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war + dress, paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about + breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A large + opening and wind-flap at the top favored ventilation, and though he + had lain there in an open coffin a full month, some of which was hot + weather, there was but little effluvia; in fact, I have seldom found + much in a burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus + performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose. + +This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of +Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he +relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is +admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal +of his article, that the facts are correct. + +General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the +Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small +scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins +deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his +side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then closed up. + +Dr. W. J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of the +Shoshones of Nevada: + + The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known to have + at any time practiced cremation. In Independence Valley, under a + deserted and demolished _wickeup_ or "brush tent," I found the + dried-up corpse of a boy, about twelve years of age. The body had + been here for at least six weeks, according to information received, + and presented a shriveled and hideous appearance. The dryness of the + atmosphere prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region + usually leave the body when life terminates, merely throwing over it + such rubbish as may be at hand, or the remains of their primitive + shelter tents, which are mostly composed of small branches, leaves, + grass, &c. + + The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the eastern banks + of the Owyhee River, upper portion of Nevada, did not bury their + dead at the time of my visit in 1871. Whenever the person died, his + lodge (usually constructed of poles and branches of _Salix_) was + demolished and placed in one confused mass over his remains, when + the band removed a short distance. When the illness is not too + great, or death sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable + place, some distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to + avoid the necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens, and other + carnivores soon remove all the flesh so that there remains nothing + but the bones, and even these are scattered by the wolves. The + Indians at Tuscarora, Nevada, stated that when it was possible and + that they should by chance meet the bony remains of any Shoshone, + they would bury it, but in what manner I failed to discover as the + were very reticent, and avoided giving any information regarding the + dead. One corpse was found totally dried and shrivelled, owing to + the dryness of the atmosphere in this region. + +Capt. F. W. Beechey[60] describes a curious mode of burial among the +Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat +similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a +good idea of these burial receptacles. + + Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to what we had + already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished several examples of the + manner in which this tribe of natives dispose of their dead. In some + instances a platform was constructed of drift-wood raised about two + feet and a quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed, + with its head to the westward and a double tent of drift-wood + erected over it, the inner one with spars about seven feet long, and + the outer one with some that were three times that length. They were + placed close together, and at first no doubt sufficiently so to + prevent the depredations of foxes and wolves, but they had yielded + at last, and all the bodies, and even the hides that covered them, + had suffered by these rapacious animals. + + In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks, as at + Cape Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock made of eider + duck skins, with one of deer skin over it, and were covered with a + sea horse hide, such as the natives use for their _baidars_. + Suspended to the poles, and on the ground near them, were several + Esquimaux implements, consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a + tamborine, which, we were informed as well as signs could convey the + meaning of the natives, were placed there for the use of the + deceased, who, in the next world (pointing to the western sky) ate, + drank, and sang songs. Having no interpreter, this was all the + information I could obtain, but the custom of placing such + instruments around the receptacles of the dead is not unusual, and + in all probability the Esquimaux may believe that the soul has + enjoyments in the next world similar to those which constitute their + happiness in this. + +The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the +Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J. F. Hammond, U.S.A., place +their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a +rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the +northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in Figure 12. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Burial Houses.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Eskimo lodge burial.] + +Bancroft[61] states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a +death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited +palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being +supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and +attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently +informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic +accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the +Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the +floors of their houses, a custom which has been followed by the Mosquito +Indians of Central America and one or two of our own tribes. + + +_BOX-BURIAL._ + +Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain tribes +on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead wonderfully +carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a low platform +or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small house with an +angular roof, and each one has an opening through which food may be +passed to the corpse. + +Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much +resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did +the same. + +Capt. J. H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following relating +to the Creeks in Indian Territory. + + * * * are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute made of + branches of trees, covered with small branches, leaves, and earth. + I have seen several of their graves, which after a few weeks had + become uncovered and the remains exposed to view. I saw in one Creek + grave (a child's) a small sum of silver, in another (adult male) + some implements of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred + with the feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies + of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and faces with + a composition made of grease and wood ashes, and would remain in + that condition for several days, and probably a month. + +Josiah Priest[62] gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe +of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The +writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an +example of credulity shown by many writers and readers. + + The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there was no + bad smell, they were deposited in large wooden coffins, well + constructed, and placed upon benches two feet from the ground. In + smaller coffins, and in baskets, the Spaniards found the clothes of + the deceased men and women, and so many pearls that they distributed + them among the officers and soldiers by handsfulls. + +In Bancroft[63] may be found the following account of the burial boxes +of the Esquimaux. + + The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the body up + and place it on the side in a plank box which is elevated three or + four feet from the ground and supported by four posts. The grave-box + is often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes and animals. + Sometimes it is wrapped in skins placed upon an elevated frame and + covered with planks or trunks of trees so as to protect it from wild + beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are deposited the arms, + clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the deceased. + Frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where the + bodies lie exposed with their heads placed towards the north. + +Frederic Whymper[64] describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that +Territory. + + Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain only the + ashes of the dead. These people invariably burn the deceased. On one + of the boxes I saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human + hair depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of the + (happily) deceased one's ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more + esteemed than if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are + much ornamented with carved and painted faces and other devices. + +W. H. Dall,[65] well known as one of the most experienced and careful of +American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the Innuits +of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as follows: Figs. +13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume noted. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Innuit Grave.] + +INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK. + + The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its side in a + box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long. This + is elevated several feet above the ground on four posts which + project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with + red chalk in figures of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to + the wealth of the dead man, a number of articles which belonged to + him are attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them + have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even + kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably + the wooden dish, or "kantag," from which the deceased was accustomed + to eat, is hung on one of the posts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ingalik grave.] + +INNUIT OF YUKON. + + The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner previously + described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the sarcophagus, + which, in this case, is ornamented with snow-shoes, a reel for + seal-lines, a fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kantag. The latter + is found with every grave, and usually one is placed in the box with + the body. Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is + placed in the coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is thus + disposed of. Generally the furs, possessions, and clothing (except + such as has been worn) are divided among the nearer relatives of the + dead, or remain in possession of his family if he has one; such + clothing, household utensils, and weapons as the deceased had in + daily use are almost invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are + many deaths about the same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything + belonging to the dead is destroyed. The house in which a death + occurs is always deserted and usually destroyed. In order to avoid + this, it is not uncommon to take the sick person out of the house + and put him in a tent to die. A woman's coffin may be known by the + kettles and other feminine utensils about it. There is no + distinction between the sexes in method of burial. On the outside of + the coffin, figures are usually drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur + animals usually indicate that the dead person was a good trapper; if + seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter; representation of + parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of his death is also + occasionally indicated. For four days after a death the women in the + village do no sewing; for five days the men do not cut wood with an + axe. The relatives of the dead must not seek birds' eggs on the + overhanging cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under + them and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or + indicated, except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body, + chanting a mournful refrain until he is interred. They seldom + suspect that others have brought the death about by shamanism, as + the Indians almost invariably do. + + At the end of a year from the death, a festival is given, presents + are made to those who assisted in making the coffin, and the period + of mourning is over. Their grief seldom seems deep but they indulge + for a long time in wailing for the dead at intervals. I have seen + several women who refused to take a second husband, and had remained + single in spite of repeated offers for many years. + +INGALIKS OF ULUKUK. + + As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mikala, one of + my men, informed me that it was women lamenting for the dead. On + landing, I saw several Indians hewing out the box in which the dead + are placed. * * * The body lay on its side on a deer skin, the heels + were lashed to the small of the back, and the head bent forward on + the chest so that his coffin needed to be only about four feet long. + + +_TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL._ + +We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the most +common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite extensively +practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned the choice +of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where timber +abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being employed. + +From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has +been received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the +Brule or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are +called _Sicaugu_, in the Indian tongue _Seechaugas_, or the "burned +thigh" people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only on +account of its careful attention to details, but from its known +truthfulness of description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial. + +FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES. + + Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude boxes, + either burying them when implements for digging can be had, or, when + they have no means of making a grave, placing them on top of the + ground on some hill or other slight elevation, yet this is done in + imitation of the whites, and their general custom, as a people, + probably does not differ in any essential way from that of their + forefathers for many generations in the past. In disposing of the + dead, they wrap the body tightly in blankets or robes (sometimes + both) wind it all over with thongs made of the hide of some animal + and place it reclining on the back at full length, either in the + branches of some tree or on a scaffold made for the purpose. These + scaffolds are about eight feet high and made by planting four forked + sticks firmly in the ground, one at each corner and then placing + others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the body is + securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is placed on the + same scaffold, though generally a separate one is made for each + occasion. These Indians being in all things most superstitious, + attach a kind of sacredness to these scaffolds and all the materials + used or about the dead. This superstition is in itself sufficient to + prevent any of their own people from disturbing the dead, and for + one of another nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered + an offense not too severely punished by death. The same feeling also + prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or any of the wood which + has been used about them, even for firewood, though the necessity + may be very great, for fear some evil consequences will follow. It + is also the custom, though not universally followed, when bodies + have been for two years on the scaffolds to take them down and bury + them under ground. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Dakota Scaffold Burial.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Offering Food to the Dead.] + + All the work about winding up the dead, building the scaffold, and + placing the dead upon it is done by women only, who, after having + finished their labor, return and bring the men, to show them where + the body is placed, that they may be able to find it in future. + Valuables of all kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.--in + short, whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and + locks of hair cut from the heads of the mourners at his death, are + always bound up with the body. In case the dead was a man of + importance, or if the family could afford it, even though he were + not, one or several horses (generally, in the former case, those + which the departed thought most of) are shot and placed under the + scaffold. The idea in this is that the spirit of the horse will + accompany and be of use to his spirit in the "happy hunting + grounds," or, as these people express it, "the spirit land." + + When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death occurs, the + friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and begin crying over + the departed or departing one. This consists in uttering the most + heartrending, almost hideous wails and lamentations, in which all + join until exhausted. Then the mourning ceases for a time until some + one starts it again, when all join in as before and keep it up until + unable to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is removed. + This crying is done almost wholly by women, who gather in large + numbers on such occasions, and among them a few who are professional + mourners. These are generally old women and go whenever a person is + expected to die, to take the leading part in the lamentations, + knowing that they will be well paid at the distribution of goods + which follows. As soon as death takes place, the body is dressed by + the women in the best garments and blankets obtainable, new ones if + they can be afforded. The crowd gathered near continue wailing + piteously, and from time to time cut locks of hair from their own + heads with knives, and throw them on the dead body. Those who wish + to show their grief most strongly, cut themselves in various places, + generally in the legs and arms, with their knives or pieces of + flint, more commonly the latter, causing the blood to flow freely + over their persons. This custom is followed to a less degree by the + men. + + A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the desire to + get the dead out of sight, the fear that the disease which caused + the death will communicate itself to others of the family causes + them to hasten the disposition of it as soon as they are certain + that death has actually taken place. + + Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After that is + done, connected with which there seems to be no particular ceremony, + the few women who attend to it return to the lodge and a + distribution is made among them and others, not only of the + remaining property of the deceased, but of all the possessions, even + to the lodge itself of the family to which he belonged. This custom + in some cases has been carried so far as to leave the rest of the + family not only absolutely destitute but actually naked. After + continuing in this condition for a time, they gradually reach the + common level again by receiving gifts from various sources. + + The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the dead, + a strict observance of the ten days following the death, as follows: + They are to rise at a very early hour and work unusually hard all + day, joining in no feast, dance, game, or other diversion, eat but + little, and retire late, that they may be deprived of the usual + amount of sleep as of food. During this they never paint themselves, + but at various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead + in loud cries and lamentations for hours together. After the ten + days have expired they paint themselves again and engage in the + usual amusements of the people as before. The men are expected to + mourn and fast for one day and then go on the war-path against some + other tribe, or on some long journey alone. If he prefers, he can + mourn and fast for two or more days and remain at home. The custom + of placing food at the scaffold also prevails to some extent. If but + little is placed there it is understood to be for the spirit of the + dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If much is provided, it is + done with the intention that those of the same sex and age as the + deceased shall meet there and consume it. If the dead be a little + girl, the young girls meet and eat what is provided; if it be a man, + then men assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never mention + the name of the dead. + +"KEEPING THE GHOST." + + Still another custom, though at the present day by no means + generally followed, is still observed to some extent among them. + This is called _wanagee yuhapee_, or "keeping the ghost." A little + of the hair from the head of the deceased being preserved is bound + up in calico and articles of value until the roll is about two feet + long and ten inches or more in diameter, when it is placed in a case + made of hide handsomely ornamented with various designs in different + colored paints. When the family is poor, however, they may + substitute for this case blue or scarlet blanket or cloth. The roll + is then swung lengthwise between two supports made of sticks, placed + thus x in front of a lodge which has been set apart for the purpose. + In this lodge are gathered presents of all kinds, which are given + out when a sufficient quantity is obtained. It is often a year and + sometimes several years before this distribution is made. During all + this time the roll containing the hair of the deceased is left + undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they are brought in + are piled in the back part of the lodge, and are not to be touched + until given out. No one but men and boys are admitted to the lodge + unless it be a wife of the deceased, who may go in if necessary very + early in the morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke, + eat, and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their + pipes in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left + undisturbed until after the distribution. When they eat, a portion + is always placed first under the roll outside for the spirit of the + deceased. No one is allowed to take this unless a large quantity is + so placed, in which case it may be eaten by any persons actually in + need of food, even though strangers to the dead. When the proper + time comes the friends of the deceased and all to whom presents are + to be given are called together to the lodge and the things are + given out by the man in charge. Generally this is some near relative + of the departed. The roll is now undone and small locks of the hair + distributed with the other presents, which ends the ceremony. + + Sometimes this "keeping the ghost" is done several times, and it is + then looked upon as a repetition of the burial or putting away of + the dead. During all the time before the distribution of the hair, + the lodge, as well as the roll, is looked upon as in a manner + sacred, but after that ceremony it becomes common again and may be + used for any ordinary purpose. No relative or near friend of the + dead wishes to retain anything in his possession that belonged to + him while living, or to see, hear, or own anything which will remind + him of the departed. Indeed, the leading idea in all their burial + customs in the laying away with the dead their most valuable + possessions, the giving to others what is left of his and the family + property, the refusal to mention his name, &c., is to put out of + mind as soon and as effectual as possible the memory of the + departed. + + From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they believe + each person to have a spirit which continues to live after the death + of the body. They have no idea of a future life in the body, but + believe that after death their spirits will meet and recognize the + spirits of their departed friends in the spirit land. They deem it + essential to their happiness here, however, to destroy as far as + practicable their recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of + death as a sleep, and of the dead as asleep or having gone to sleep + at such a time. These customs are gradually losing their hold upon + them, and are much less generally and strictly observed than + formerly. + +Figure 15 furnishes a good example of scaffold burial. Figure 16, +offering of food and drink to the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead +upon the scaffold. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Depositing the Corpse.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Tree-burial.] + +A. Delano,[66] mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he +noticed in Nebraska. + + * * * During the afternoon we passed a Sioux burying-ground, if I + may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a hackberry tree, elevated + about twenty feet from the ground, a kind of rack was made of broken + tent poles, and the body (for there was but one) was placed upon it, + wrapped in his blanket, and a tanned buffalo skin, with his tin cup, + moccasins, and various things which he had used in life, were placed + upon his body, for his use in the land of spirits. + +Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend Dr. +Washington Matthews, United States Army. + +John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the +following account of tree-burial among this tribe: + + Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose + the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed, + closely sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the + branches of a tree so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and + then left to slowly waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of + a squaw or child, it was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where + it soon became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes, + &c., of men were inclosed, and the small toys of children with them. + The ceremonies were equally barbarous, the relatives cutting off, + according to the depth of their grief, one or more joints of the + fingers, divesting themselves of clothing even in the coldest + weather, and filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing + up and burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men would + not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead body. + +The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and +Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E. H. Alden, United States Indian +agent at Fort Berthold: + + The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but always on + a scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet high, on which the + box is placed, or, if no box is used, the body wrapped in red or + blue cloth if able, or, if not, a blanket of cheapest white cloth, + the tools and weapons being placed directly under the body, and + there they remain forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of + them. It would be bad medicine to touch the dead or anything so + placed belonging to him. Should the body by any means fall to the + ground, it is never touched or replaced on the scaffold. As soon as + one dies he is immediately buried, sometimes within an hour, and the + friends begin howling and wailing as the process of interment goes + on, and continue mourning day and night around the grave, without + food sometimes three or four days. Those who mourn are always paid + for it in some way by the other friends of the deceased, and those + who mourn the longest are paid the most. They also show their grief + and affection for the dead by a fearful cutting of their own bodies, + sometimes only in part, and sometimes all over their whole flesh, + and this sometimes continues for weeks. Their hair, which is worn in + long braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They seem proud + of their mutilations. A young man who had just buried his mother + came in boasting of, and showing his mangled legs. + +According to Thomas L. McKenney,[67] the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis., +buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as +follows: + + One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place the + coffin or box containing their remains on two cross-pieces, nailed + or tied with wattap to four poles. The poles are about ten feet + high. They plant near these posts the wild hop or some other kind of + running vine, which spreads over and covers the coffin. I saw one of + these on the island, and as I have described it. It was the coffin + of a child about four years old. It was near the lodge of the sick + girl. I have a sketch of it. I asked the chief why his people + disposed of their dead in that way. He answered they did not like to + put them out of their sight so soon by putting them under ground. + Upon a platform they could see the box that contained their remains, + and that was a comfort to them. + +Figure 19 is copied from McKenney's picture of this form of burial. + +Keating[68] thus describes burial scaffolds: + + On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high, corpses + were deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair + was suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide + informed us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by + the relatives to testify their grief. In the center, between the + four posts which supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the + ground, it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human + figures, five of which had a design of a petticoat indicating them + to be females; the rest amounting to seven, were naked and were + intended for male figures; of the latter four were headless, showing + that they had been slain, the three other male figures were + unmutilated, but held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide + informed us designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an + usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a warrior's + remains, does not represent the achievements of the deceased, but + those of the warriors that assembled near his remains danced the + dance of the post, and related their martial exploits. A number of + small bones of animals were observed in the vicinity, which were + probably left there after a feast celebrated in honor of the dead. + + The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man + could not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country + where boxes and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the + corpses have remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down + and burned. Our guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a + witness to an interesting, though painful, circumstance that + occurred here. An Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing + that his son had died at this spot, came up in a canoe to take + charge of the remains and convey them down the river to his place of + abode but on his arrival he found that the corpse had already made + such progress toward decomposition as rendered it impossible for it + to be removed. He then undertook with a few friends, to clean off + the bones. All the flesh was scraped off and thrown into the stream, + the bones were carefully collected into his canoe, and subsequently + carried down to his residence. + +Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is +the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M. +Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis, +United States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to +the Cheyennes of Kansas. + + The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of + Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by + four notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The + unusual care manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr. + Sternberg to infer that some important chief was inclosed in it. + Believing that articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and + that their value would be enhanced if the were received at the + Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to send the + case unopened. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Chippewa Scaffold Burial.] + + I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the + contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of + white willow, about six feet long, three feet broad, and three feet + high, with a flooring of buffalo thongs arranged as a net-work. This + cradle was securely fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles + of ironwood and cottonwood, about twelve feet in length. These poles + doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of the vertical poles + described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in two buffalo + robes of large size and well preserved. On removing these an + aperture eighteen inches square was found at the middle of the + right-side of the cradle or basket. Within appeared other buffalo + robes folded about the remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes. + Five robes were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we + came to a series of new blankets folded about the remains. There + were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one white. These being + removed, the next wrappings consisted of a striped white and gray + sack, and of a United States Infantry overcoat, like the other + coverings nearly new. We had now come apparently upon the immediate + envelope of the remains, which it was now evident must be those of a + child. These consisted of three robes, with hoods very richly + ornamented with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of + buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated + with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of blue + and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow, and the third + blue and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass bells + attached all about the borders by strings of beads. + + The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that + used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and + upon a pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red + paint, bits of antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &c. The + three bead-work hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we + successively unwrapped a gray woolen double shawl, five yards of + blue cassimere, six yards of red calico, and six yards of brown + calico, and finally disclosed the remains of a child, probably about + a year old, in an advanced stage of decomposition. The cadaver had a + beaver-cap ornamented with disks of copper containing the bones of + the cranium, which had fallen apart. About the neck were long wampum + necklaces, with _Dentalium_, _Unionidae_, and _Auriculae_, + interspersed with beads. There were also strings of the pieces of + _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so valued by the Indians on + this side of the Rocky Mountains. The body had been elaborately + dressed for burial, the costume consisting of a red-flannel cloak, + a red tunic, and frock-leggins adorned with bead-work, yarn + stockings of red and black worsted, and deer-skin beadwork + moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets, a porcelain + image, a China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a pair of + mittens, a fur collar, a pouch of the skin of _Putorius vison_, &c. + +Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished by +Dr. L. S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to +the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious +mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the +entire globe: + + The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be + found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay + the body, but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more + general practice is to lay them upon scaffolds from seven to ten + feet high and out of the reach of carnivorous animals, as the wolf. + These scaffolds are constructed upon four posts set into the ground + something after the manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like + all labors of a domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to + the women, usually the old women. The work begins as soon as life is + extinct. The face, neck, and hands are thickly painted with + vermilion, or a species of red earth found in various portions of + the Territory when the vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The + clothes and personal trinkets of the deceased ornament the body. + When blankets are available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts of + the body being completely enveloped. Around this a dressed skin of + buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the flesh side out, and the + whole securely bound with thongs of skins, either raw or dressed; + and for ornament, when available, a bright-red blanket envelopes all + other coverings, and renders the general scene more picturesque + until dimmed by time and the elements. As soon as the scaffold is + ready, the body is borne by the women, followed by the female + relatives, to the place of final deposit, and left prone in its + secure wrappings upon this airy bed of death. This ceremony is + accompanied with lamentations wild and weird that one must see and + hear in order to appreciate. If the deceased be a brave, it is + customary to place upon or beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads + which time has rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been + brave in war some of his implements of battle are placed on the + scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If the deceased has been a + chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it is not uncommon to slay + his favorite pony and place the body beneath the scaffold, under the + superstition, I suppose, that the horse goes with the man. As + illustrating the propensity to provide the dead with the things used + while living, I may mention that some years ago I loaned to an old + man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a young man who was + slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made him promise faithfully + that he would return it as soon as his son was done using it. Not + long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which held the + remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been + returned I presume the young man is not done using it. + + The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be + of universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never + cut under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck, + and the top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole + body, are smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk, + moistened with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family + possessions except the few shabby articles of apparel worn by the + mourners, are given away and the family left destitute. Thus far the + custom is universal or nearly so. The wives, mother, and sisters of + a deceased man, on the first, second, or third day after the + funeral, frequently throw off their moccasins and leggings and gash + their legs with their butcher-knives, and march through the camp and + to the place of burial with bare and bleeding extremities, while + they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. The men likewise + often gash themselves in many places, and usually seek the solitude + of the higher point on the distant prairie, where they remain + fasting, smoking, and wailing out their lamentations for two or + three days. A chief who had lost a brother once came to me after + three or four days of mourning in solitude almost exhausted from + hunger and bodily anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both + lower extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from the + ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed from + exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me that he had not + slept for several days or nights. I dressed his wounds with a + soothing ointment, and gave him a full dose of an effective anodyne, + after which he slept long and refreshingly, and awoke to express his + gratitude and shake my hand in a very cordial and sincere manner. + When these harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the mourners + usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial, toward + the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until it is apparently + assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up for more than + four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at intervals, + for weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the bereft. + I have seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle of an + old father going daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows + are lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would move + a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when, silent + and solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect of + this observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a + grown-up son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of + the scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence. + The foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during + a period of more than six years' constant intercourse with several + subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory + has failed to recall upon a brief consideration. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Scarification at Burial.] + +Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for the +dead. + +Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner's narrative may not be deemed +inappropriate here. + +Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great +antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to +have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation, +and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., were +thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles supposed or +known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also consumed. The +Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, Caribs, and many of +the tribes of North American Indians followed these customs. The cutting +of hair as a mourning observance is of very great antiquity, and Tegg +relates that among the ancients whole cities and countries were shaved +(_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians not only shaved themselves +on such occasions, but extended the same process to their domestic +animals, and Alexander, at the death of Hephaestin, not only cut off the +manes of his horses and mules, but took down the battlements from the +city walls, that even towns might seem in mourning and look bald. +Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed from a remote period of +time, having possibly replaced, in the process of evolution, to a +certain extent, the more barbarous practice of absolute personal +sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human sacrifices have taken +place to only a limited extent, but formerly many victims were +immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida and Carolina +Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for the reason, +according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun +descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as all other +members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only persons of +an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among some tribes +of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by +no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans, +and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutre, +in France, the writer saw horses' bones exhumed from the graves examined +in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this +subject, and they have invariably informed him that when horses were +slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the band. + +Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the +Colchians enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to trees; +the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to the use +of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it seems +somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the eastern +portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in this way, +which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much easier +method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living in +sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that the +Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, the +fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to the +supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the +desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This +desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification. + +The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in loud +cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a greater +significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and on this +point Bruhier[69] seems quite positive, his interpretation being that +such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some +interesting examples, which may be admitted here: + + The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with + comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to + leave this world, having everything to make life comfortable. They + place the corpse on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five + feet deep, and for ten days they bring food, requesting the corpse + to eat. Finally, being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor + return to life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and + fill up the grave. + +When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the body, +closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received the +last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead, +finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased +by name was known as the _conclamation_, and was a custom anterior even +to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately +removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater +propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves +on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the +Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number, +performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village +church steeple and again at the grave[70*]. This custom, however, was +probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to +prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad +spirits. + +W. L. Hardisty[71] gives a curious example of log-burial in trees, +relating to the Loucheux of British America: + + They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure + it to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A log about + eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts + carefully hollowed out to the required size. The body is then + inclosed and the two pieces well lashed together, preparatory to + being finally secured, as before stated, to the trees. + +The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing +scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood[72] gives a number +of examples of this mode of burial. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Australian Scaffold Burial.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Preparing the Dead.] + + In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the + body by fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a + peculiarly conspicuous object. Should a tree grow favorably for + their purpose, they will employ it as the final resting place for + the dead body. Lying in its canoe coffin, and so covered over with + leaves and grass that its shape is quite disguised, the body is + lifted into a convenient fork of the tree and lashed to the boughs, + by native ropes. No farther care is taken of it, and if in process + of time it should be blown out of the tree, no one will take the + trouble of replacing it. + + Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial + platform is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches + in the ground and connecting them at their tops by smaller + horizontal branches. Such are the curious tombs which are + represented in the illustration. * * * These strange tombs are + mostly placed among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful + than the sound of the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch + in which the corpse is lying. The object of this aerial tomb is + evident enough, namely, to protect the corpse from the dingo, or + native dog. That the ravens and other carrion-eating birds should + make a banquet upon the body of the dead man does not seem to + trouble the survivors in the least, and it often happens that the + traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed ravens that the body + of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over his head. + + The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who + have died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in + battle the body is treated in a very different manner. A moderately + high platform is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the + dead warrior with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are + crossed and the arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is + then removed, and after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over + the body, which has previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is + done in the ceremony of initiation. The legs and arms are covered + with zebra-like stripes of red, white, and yellow, and the weapons + of the dead man are laid across his lap. + + The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform, + and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the + friends and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to + speak. Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their + duty being to see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to + keep the flies away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu + feathers. When a body has been treated in this manner it becomes + hard and mummy-like, and the strongest point is that the wild dogs + will not touch it after it has been so long smoked. It remains + sitting on the platform for two months or so, and is then taken down + and buried, with the exception of the skull, which is made into a + drinking-cup for the nearest relative. * * * + +This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as the +process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from decomposition. + +Figs. 21 and 22 represent the Australian burials described, and are +after the original engravings in Wood's work. The one representing +scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of our own Indians. + +With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, +the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are given: + + If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead + bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds + resembling trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning + them and preserving their ashes in urns, I think we can answer the + inquiry by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American + Indians, as well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed + that the human soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and + nature of a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their + habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the soul-bird would + have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place if it was + placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the earth; + moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest + secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard + like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones. + +This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the writer's +possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct without +farther investigation. + + +_PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES._ + +Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first +depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain +for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and +deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by +writers "bone-houses." Roman[73] relates the following concerning the +Choctaws: + + The following treatment of the dead is very strange. * * * As soon + as the deceased is departed, a stage is erected (as in the annexed + plate is represented) and the corpse is laid on it and covered with + a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it is decorated, and the poles + painted red with vermillion and bear's oil; if a child, it is put + upon stakes set across; at this stage the relations come and weep, + asking many questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did + not his wife serve him well? was he not contented with his children? + had he not corn enough? did not his land produce sufficient of + everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c., and this accompanied + by loud howlings; the women will be there constantly, and sometimes, + with the corrupted air and heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige + the bystanders to carry them home; the men will also come and mourn + in the same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable times + when they are least likely to be discovered. + + The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain + time, but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or + four months, but seldom more than half that time. A certain set of + venerable old Gentlemen, who wear very long nails as a + distinguishing badge on the thumb, fore, and middle finger of each + hand, constantly travel through the nation (when I was there I was + told there were but five of this respectable order) that one of them + may acquaint those concerned, of the expiration of this period, + which is according to their own fancy; the day being come, the + friends and relations assemble near the stage, a fire is made, and + the respectable operator, after the body is taken down, with his + nails tears the remaining flesh off the bones, and throws it with + the entrails into the fire, where it is consumed; then he scrapes + the bones and burns the scrapings likewise; the head being painted + red with vermillion is with the rest of the bones put into a neatly + made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and deposited in the + loft of a hut built for that purpose, and called bone house; each + town has one of these; after remaining here one year or thereabouts, + if he be a man of any note, they take the chest down, and in an + assembly of relations and friends they weep once more over him, + refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him + to lasting oblivion. + + An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as + one to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial + obsequies and mourning. + +Jones[74] quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the +Natchez tribe: + + Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs. + These tombs were located within or very near their temples. They + rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were + raised some three feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a + foot and a half wide, they were prepared for the reception of a + single corpse. After the body was placed upon it, a basket-work of + twigs was woven around and covered with mud, an opening being left + at the head, through which food was presented to the deceased. When + the flesh had all rotted away, the bones were taken out, placed in a + box made of canes, and then deposited in the temple. The common dead + were mourned and lamented for a period of three days. Those who fell + in battle were honored with a more protracted and grievous + lamentation. + +Bartram[75] gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial +among the Choctaws of Carolina: + + The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a + very different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a + scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where + they lay the corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is + suffered to remain, visited and protected by the friends and + relations, until the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from + the bones; then undertakers, who make it their business, carefully + strip the flesh from the bones, wash and cleanse them, and when dry + and purified by the air, having provided a curiously-wrought chest + or coffin, fabricated of bones and splints, they place all the bones + therein, which is deposited in the bone-house, a building erected + for that purpose in every town; and when this house is full a + general solemn funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or + friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the + bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following one + another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and connections + attending their respective corps, and the multitude following after + them, all as one family, with united voice of alternate allelujah + and lamentation, slowly proceeding on to the place of general + interment, when they place the coffins in order, forming a + pyramid;[76*] and, lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a + conical hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn + procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is called the + feast of the dead. + +Morgan[77] also alludes to this mode of burial: + + The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding erected + upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to + waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of + decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the + former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house by its side, + prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the + whole family were preserved from generation to generation by the + filial or parental affection of the living. After the lapse of a + number of years, or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve + of abandoning a settlement, it was customary to collect these + skeletons from the whole community around and consign them to a + common resting-place. + + To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless + to be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which have been found in + such numbers in various parts of the country. On opening these + mounds the skeletons are usually found arranged in horizontal + layers, a conical pyramid, those in each layer radiating from a + common center. In other cases they are found placed promiscuously. + +Dr. D. G. Brinton[78] likewise gives an account of the interment of +collected bones: + + East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated + periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to collect and clean + the osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the + intervening time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with + choice furs, and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such + is the origin of those immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains + of nations and generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent + curiosity, so frequently chances upon in all portions of our + territory. Throughout Central America the same usage obtained in + various localities, as early writers and existing monuments + abundantly testify. Instead of interring the bones, were they those + of some distinguished chieftain, they were deposited in the temples + or the council-houses, usually in small chests of canes or splints. + Such were the charnel-houses which the historians of De Soto's + expedition so often mention, and these are the "arks" Adair and + other authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians + from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient Israelites bore + with them in their migration. + + A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her + deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them + in such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc. + Exp., p. 200). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for + all, without exception. About a year after death the bones were + cleaned, bleached, painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a + wicker basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling + (Gumilla Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity + of these heirlooms became burdensome they were removed to some + inaccessible cavern and stowed away with reverential care. + +George Catlin[79] describes what he calls the "Golgothas" of the +Mandans: + + There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty + feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a + little mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo + skulls (a male and female), and in the center of the little mound is + erected "a medicine pole," of about twenty feet high, supporting + many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they + suppose have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred + arrangement. + + Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to + evince their further affections for the dead, not in groans and + lamentations, however, for several years have cured the anguish, but + fond affection and endearments are here renewed, and conversations + are here held and cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls + is placed upon a bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and + placed under it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the + skull of her husband or her child which lies in this group, and + there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it with a dish of + the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, which she sets before + the skull at night, and returns for the dish in the morning. As soon + as it is discovered that the sage on which the skull rests is + beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and places the + skull carefully upon it, removing that which was under it. + + Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this + spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold + converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a + pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or + lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the + most pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as they were + wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back. + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Canoe Burial.] + +From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which have +been described by the authors cited were not confined to any special +tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have prevailed +among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known. + + +_SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES._ + +The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes, +either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is +common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast. + +The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington Territory, +and may be found in Swan.[80] + + In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a celebrated doctor, + were the chief mourners, probably from being the smartest scamps + among the relatives. Their duty was to prepare the canoe for the + reception of the body. One of the largest and best the deceased had + owned was then hauled into the woods, at some distance back of the + lodge, after having been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two + large square holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and + stern, for the twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for + further use, and therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the + whites (who are but too apt to help themselves to these depositories + for the dead), and also to allow any rain to pass off readily. + + When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets, was + brought out, and laid in it on mats previously spread. All the + wearing apparel was next put in beside the body, together with her + trinkets, beads, little baskets, and various trifles she had prized. + More blankets were then covered over the body, and mats smoothed + over all. Next, a small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was + placed, bottom up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with + mats. The canoe was then raised up and placed on two parallel bars, + elevated four or five feet from the ground, and supported by being + inserted through holes mortised at the top of four stout posts + previously firmly planted in the earth. Around these holes were then + hung blankets, and all the cooking utensils of the deceased, pots, + kettles, and pans, each with a hole punched through it, and all her + crockery-ware, every piece of which was first cracked or broken, to + render it useless; and then, when all was done, they left her to + remain for one year, when the bones would be buried in a box in the + earth directly under the canoe; but that, with all its appendages, + would never be molested, but left to go to gradual decay. + + They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and would + no more think of using one than we would of using our own graveyard + relics; and it is, in their view, as much of a desecration for a + white man to meddle or interfere with these, to them, sacred + mementoes, as it would be to us to have an Indian open the graves of + our relatives. Many thoughtless white men have done this, and + animosities have been thus occasioned. + +Figure 23 represents this mode of burial. + +From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the Twanas, +and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency, +Washington Territory, is selected: + + The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age, + dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I + went to the house to attend the funeral. She had then been placed in + a Hudson's Bay Company's box for a coffin, which was about 3-1/2 + feet long, 1-1/2 wide, and 1-1/2 high. She was very poor when she died, + owing to her disease, or she could not have been put in this box. + A fire was burning near by, where a large number of her things had + been consumed, and the rest was in three boxes near the coffin. Her + mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with others, and often + saying, "My daughter, my daughter, why did you die?" and similar + words. The burial did not take place until the next day, and I was + invited to go. It was an aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was + about 25 feet long. The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were + about a foot wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were + placed, on which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this + was done which was new to me, but the significance of which I did + not learn. As fast as the holes were cut in the posts, green leaves + were gathered and placed over the holes until the posts were put in + the ground. The coffin-box and the three others containing her + things were placed in the canoe and a roof of boards made over the + central part, which was entirely covered with white cloth. The head + part and the foot part of her bedstead were then nailed on to the + posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed on each of these. + After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull and went to the + beach except her father, mother, and brother, who remained ten or + fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning. They then came + down and made a present to those persons who were there--a gun to + one, a blanket to each of two or three others, and a dollar and a + half to each of the rest, including myself, there being about + fifteen persons present. Three or four of them then made short + speeches, and we came home. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Twana Canoe-Burial.] + + The reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a + prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected + that there will be a "_pot-latch_" or distribution of money near + this place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation + of two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at the + grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried in the + ground. Shortly after her death both her father and mother cut off + their hair as a sign of their grief. + +Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and represents +the burial mentioned in his narrative. + +The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed +canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by +Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of +the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized +by painstaking attention to detail: + + I divide this subject into five periods, varying according to time, + though they are somewhat intermingled. + + (_a_) There are places where skulls and skeletons have been plowed + up or still remain in the ground and near together, in such a way as + to give good ground for the belief which is held by white residents + in the region, that formerly persons were buried in the ground and + in irregular cemeteries. I know of such places in Duce Waillops + among the Twanas, and at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the + Clallams. These graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the + present day profess to have no knowledge as to who is buried in + them, except that they believe, undoubtedly, that they are the + graves of their ancestors. I do not know that any care has ever been + exercised by any one in exhuming these skeletons so as to learn any + particulars about them. It is possible, however, that these persons + were buried according to the (_b_) or canoe method, and that time + has buried them where they now are. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Posts for Burial Canoes.] + + (_b_) Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the forks + of two trees and left there. There was no particular cemetery, but + the person was generally left near the place where the death + occurred. The Skokomish Valley is said to have been full of canoes + containing persons thus buried. What their customs were while + burying, or what they placed around the dead, I am not informed but + am told that they did not take as much care then of their dead as + they do now. I am satisfied, however, that they then left some + articles around the dead. An old resident informs me that the + Clallam Indians always bury their dead in a sitting posture. + + (_c_) About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in British + Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region, unprincipled white + men took many of the canoes in which the Indian dead had been left, + emptying them of their contents. This incensed the Indians and they + changed their mode of burial somewhat by burying the dead in one + place, placing them in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by + building scaffolds for them instead of placing them in forks of + trees, and in cutting their canoes so as to render them useless, + when they were used as coffins or left by the side of the dead. The + ruins of one such graveyard now remain about two miles from this + agency. Nearly all the remains were removed a few years ago. + + With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I have + drawn. Fig. 25 shows that at present only one pair of posts remains. + I have supplied the other pair as they evidently were. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tent on Scaffold.] + + Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part which is + covered with board and cloth incloses the coffin which is on a + scaffold. + + As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites they have + learned to bury in the ground, and this is the most common method at + the present time. There are cemeteries everywhere where Indians have + resided any length of time. After a person has died a coffin is made + after the cheaper kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it, + and also with it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes, + though occasionally money. I lately heard of a child being buried + with a twenty-dollar gold piece in each hand and another in its + month, but I am not able to vouch for the truth of it. As a general + thing, money is too valuable with them for this purpose and there is + too much temptation for some one to rob the grave when this is left + in it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--House-Burial.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--House-Burial.] + + (_d_) The grave is dug after the style of the whites and the coffin + then placed in it. After it has been covered it is customary though + not universal, to build some kind of an inclosure over it or around + it in the shape of a small house, shed, lodge or fence. These are + from 2 to 12 feet high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet + long. Some of these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to + see within and some are quite open. Occasionally a window is placed + in the front side. Sometimes these enclosures are covered with + cloth, which is generally white, sometimes partly covered, and some + have none. Around the grave, both outside and inside of the + inclosure, various articles are placed, as guns, canoes, dishes, + pails, cloth, sheets, blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and + occasionally a roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said + that around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few + years ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of these + articles are cut or broken so as to render them valueless to man and + to prevent their being stolen. Poles are also often erected, from 10 + to 30 feet long, on which American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes, + and cloths of various colors are hung. A few graves have nothing of + this kind. On some graves these things are renewed every year or + two. This depends mainly on the number of relatives living and the + esteem in which they hold the deceased. + + The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it away + particle by particle to the spirit of the deceased in the spirit + land, and also as these articles decay they are also carried away in + a similar manner. I have never known of the placing food near a + grave. Figures 27 and 28 will give you some idea of this class of + graves. Figure 27 has a paling fence 12 feet square around it. + Figure 28 is simply a frame over a grave where there is no + enclosure. + + (_e_) _Civilized mode._--A few persons, of late, have fallen almost + entirely into the American custom of burying, building a simple + paling fence around it, but placing no articles around it; this is + more especially true of the Clallams. + +FUNERAL CEREMONIES. + + In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances of + sections (_a_) and (_b_) of the preceding subject I know nothing. In + regard to (_c_) and (_d_), they begin to mourn, more especially the + women, as soon as a person dies. Their mourning song consists + principally of the sounds represented by the three English notes mi + mi, do do, la la; those who attend the funeral are expected to bring + some articles to place in the coffin or about the grave as a token + of respect for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this + purpose have been cloth of some kind; a small piece of cloth is + returned by the mourners to the attendants as a token of + remembrance. They bury much sooner after death than white persons + do, generally as soon as they can obtain a coffin. I know of no + other native funeral ceremonies. Occasionally before being taken to + the grave, I have held Christian funeral ceremonies over them, and + these services increase from year to year. One reason which has + rendered them somewhat backward about having these funeral services + is, that they are quite superstitions about going near the dead, + fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased will enter + the living and kill them also. Especially are they afraid of having + children go near, being much more fearful of the effect of the evil + spirit on them than on older persons. + +MOURNING OBSERVANCES. + + They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning, but + often continue it after the burial, though I do not know that they + often visit the grave. If they feel the loss very much, sometimes + they will mourn nearly every day for several weeks; especially is + this true when they meet an old friend who has not been seen since + the funeral, or when they see an article owned by the deceased which + they have not seen for a long time. The only other thing of which I + think, which bears on this subject, is an idea they have, that + before a person dies--it may be but a short time or it may be + several months--a spirit from the spirit land comes and carries off + the spirit of the individual to that place. There are those who + profess to discover when this is done, and if by any of their + incantations they can compel that spirit to return, the person will + not die, but if they are not able, then the person will become dead + at heart and in time die, though it may not be for six months or + even twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a + pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has recently + been published by the Department of the Interior, under Prof. F. V. + Hayden, United States Geologist. + +George Gibbs[81] gives a most interesting account of the burial +ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, which is +here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples of other +modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative +would destroy the thread of the story: + + The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes + was in canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some + prominent point a short distance from the village, and sometimes + placed between the forks of trees or raised from the ground on + posts. Upon the Columbia River the Tsinuk had in particular two very + noted cemeteries, a high isolated bluff about three miles below the + mouth of the Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance + above, called Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been + very ancient. Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver's lieutenants, who + explored the river, makes mention only of _several_ canoes at this + place; and Lewis and Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of + them at all, but at the time of Captain Wilkes's expedition it is + conjectured that there were at least 3,000. A fire caused by the + carelessness of one of his party destroyed the whole, to the great + indignation of the Indians. + + Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river + in 1839, remarks: "In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great + ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague. + Consequently Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent + shores, were studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our + visit the skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all + directions." This method generally prevailed on the neighboring + coasts, as at Shoal Water Bay, &c. Farther up the Columbia, as at + the Cascades, a different form was adopted, which is thus described + by Captain Clarke: + + "About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the + woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight + vaults, made of pine cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet + square and 6 in height, the top securely covered with wide boards, + sloping a little, so as to convey off the rain. The direction of all + these is east and west, the door being on the eastern side, and + partially stopped with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of + men and other animals. On entering we found in some of them four + dead bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of grass + and bark, lying on a mat in a direction east and west; the other + vaults contained only bones, which in some of them were piled to a + height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults and on poles attached to + them hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in their bottoms, + baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of + trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection, + which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity of war + or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of + the walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures + cut and painted on them, and besides these were several wooden + images of men, some of them so old and decayed as to have almost + lost their shape, which were all placed against the sides of the + vault. These images, as well as those in the houses we have lately + seen, do not appear to be at all the objects of adoration in this + place; they were most probably intended as resemblances of those + whose decease they indicate, and when we observe them in houses they + occupy the most conspicuous part, but are treated more like + ornaments than objects of worship. Near the vaults which are still + standing are the remains of others on the ground, completely rotted + and covered with moss; and as they are formed of the most durable + pine and cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a very + long series of years this retired spot has been the depository for + the Indians near this place." + + Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few + miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The _Watlala_, a + tribe of the Upper Tsinuk, whose burial place is here described, are + now nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in + different states of preservation. The position of the body, as + noticed by Clarke, is, I believe, of universal observance, the head + being always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that + the road to the _me-mel-us-illa-hee_, the country of the dead, is + toward the west, and if they place them otherwise they would be + confused. East of the Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are + equestrian, and who use canoes only for ferriage or transportation + purposes, bury their dead, usually heaping over them piles of + stones, either to mark the spot or to prevent the bodies from being + exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many of their + graves placed in conspicuous points of the basaltic walls which line + the lower valleys, and designated by a clump of poles planted over + them, from which fluttered various articles of dress. Formerly these + prairie tribes killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling + into disuse in consequence of the teachings of the whites. + + Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among + the Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of + box, rudely constructed of boards, and elsewhere on the Sound the + same method is adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are + placed on elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the + Indians upon the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a + distance from it buried them. Most of the graves are surrounded with + strips of cloth, blankets, and other articles of property. Mr. + Cameron, an English gentleman residing at Esquimalt Harbor, + Vancouver Island, informed me that on his place there were graves + having at each corner a large stone, the interior space filled with + rubbish. The origin of these was unknown to the present Indians. + + The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked; + persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little + care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly + attracted to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that + at Port Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing + the skeletons of young children, and, what is not easily explained, + small square boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think + that any of these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor + have I been able to learn from living Indians that they formerly + followed that practice. What he took for such I do not understand. + He also mentions seeing in the same place a cleared space recently + burned over, in which the skulls and bones of a number lay among the + ashes. The practice of burning the dead exists in parts of + California and among the Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also + pursued by the "Carriers" of New California, but no intermediate + tribes, to my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the Sound do + not at present. + + It is clear from Vancouver's narrative that some great epidemic had + recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity + of human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit, + and very probably the Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in + which the inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is + frequently done. They almost invariably remove from any place where + sickness has prevailed, generally destroying the house also. + + At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver's officers, noticed + several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them + were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied + up in baskets. The smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed, + but not one of the limb bones was found, which gave rise to an + opinion that these, by the living inhabitants of the neighborhood, + were appropriated to useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows, + spears, or other weapons. + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Canoe Burial.] + + It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether + foreign to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably + been removed and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are + variously disposed of; sometimes by suspending them, at others by + placing in the hollows of trees. A cemetery devoted to infants is, + however, an unusual occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note + much pomp was used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes + were of great size and value--the war or state canoes of the + deceased. Frequently one was inverted over that holding the body, + and in one instance, near Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited + in a small canoe, which again was placed in a larger one and covered + with a third. Among the _Tsinuk_ and _Tsihalis_ the _tamahno-us_ + board of the owner was placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do + not make these _tamahno-us_ boards, but they sometimes constructed + effigies of their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as + possible, dressed in his usual costume, and wearing the articles of + which he was fond. One of these, representing the Skagit chief + Sneestum, stood very conspicuously upon a high bank on the eastern + side of Whidbey Island. The figures observed by Captain Clarke at + the Cascades were either of this description or else the carved + posts which had ornamented the interior of the houses of the + deceased, and were connected with the superstition of the + _tamahno-us_. The most valuable articles of property were put into + or hung up around the grave, being first carefully rendered + unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped to do + honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have been practiced in + parting with articles so precious, but those interested frequently + had the least to say on the subject. The graves of women were + distinguished by a cap, a Kamas stick, or other implement of their + occupation, and by articles of dress. + + Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the + deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied + to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this + practice has been almost entirely given up, but till within a very + few years it was not uncommon. A case which occurred in 1850 has + been already mentioned. Still later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsinuk chief + living at Shoalwater Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging + to his daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be + done. The woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the woods + half starved. Her master attempted to reclaim her, but was soundly + thrashed and warned against another attempt. + + It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a + considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of the + burial-place. With the common class of persons family pride or + domestic affection was satisfied with the gathering together of the + bones after the flesh had decayed and wrapping them in a new mat. + The violation of the grave was always regarded as an offense of the + first magnitude and provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher + remarks: "Great secrecy is observed in all their burial ceremonies, + partly from fear of Europeans, and as among themselves they will + instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb or wage war if + perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate and tenaceously + bent on revenge should they discover that any act of the kind has + been perpetrated by a white man. It is on record that part of the + crew of a vessel on her return to this port (the Columbia) suffered + because a person who belonged to her (but not then in her) was known + to have taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had + become an object of curiosity." He adds, however, that at the period + of his visit to the river "the skulls and skeletons were scattered + about in all directions; and as I was on most of their positions + unnoticed by the natives, I suspect the feeling does not extend much + beyond their relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body, + goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as their + canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care taken by placing + them in sequestered spots." + + The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of + death will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas. + Wailing for the dead is continued for a long time, and it seems to + be rather a ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief. + The duty, of course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is + usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a + little distant from the lodge or camp and in a loud, sobbing voice + repeat a sort of stereotyped formula; as, for instance, a mother, on + the loss of her child, "_A seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud! + ad-de-dah_," "Ah chief!" "My child dead, alas!" When in dreams they + see any of their deceased friends this lamentation is renewed. + +With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned by +Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing to +die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom +has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the +individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states +that-- + + In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died, + those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved + ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed + themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that + they might wait upon him in the land of spirits. + +It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this +revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa. + + + + +AQUATIC BURIAL. + + +As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead has +never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although +occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or +water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes. +Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are +informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy, +living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed +their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred +to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans, +with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or +about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder "the +beautiful," it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which +was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The +Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to +Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of +room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of +thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the +Cherokees of Tennessee "seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the +river." + +The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of +sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their +bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J. G. Wood[82] states that the +Obongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the +course of which has been previously diverted. A deep grave is dug in the +bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over carefully. +Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so that all +traces of the grave are soon lost. + +The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply +sinking the body in some stream. + +Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to that +employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosenca, a town of Calabria, the +Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and having made a +grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most rapid, they +interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and riches. They +then caused the river to resume its regular course, and destroyed all +persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic grave. + +A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De +Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well +weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the +Mississippi. + +After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial, +aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have +been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes, +and is by Capt. J. H. Simpson:[83] + + Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and + which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this + route last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls + which have been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom + of the Goshute Indians burying their dead in springs, which they + sank with stones or keep down with sticks. He says he has actually + seen the Indians bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo, + where he resides. + +As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in another +part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they were +obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the bottom +before using the water. + +This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and +but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned, +especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is +quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or +springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a +reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to +attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to +poison the springs for white persons. + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Mourning Cradle.] + +The second example is by George Catlin,[84] and relates to the Chinook: + + * * * This little cradle has a strap which passes over the woman's + forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if the child dies + during its subjection to this rigid mode, its cradle becomes its + coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it lies floating on the + water in some sacred pool, where they are often in the habit of + fastening their canoes containing the dead bodies of the old and + young, or, which in often the case, elevated into the branches of + trees, where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry + whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed in their + canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale them out, and + provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they are performing their + "long journey after death to their contemplated hunting grounds," + which these people think is to be performed in their canoes. + +Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle. +Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her +dead child to the mercy of the elements. + + + + +LIVING SEPULCHERS. + + +This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to express +the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving friends +and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has already +been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is not +believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, although +cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true that a +few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered apochryphal +in character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how +credulous were the early writers on American natives. + +That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is +somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies +been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the +statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a +number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial. + +For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the Massagetics, +Padaeans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously +strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and +Tertullian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the +dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did the +same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to be +preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms. + +J. G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of Africa +devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the common +people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony. + +The following extract is from Lafitau:[85] + + Dans l'Amerique Meridionale quelque Peuples decharnent les corps de + leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi que je viens de + le dire, et apres les avoir consumees, ils conservent pendant + quelque temps leurs cadavres avec respect dans leurs Cabanes, et il + portent ces squeletes dans les combats en guise d'Etendard, pour + ranimer leur courage par cette vue et inspirer de la terreur a leurs + ennemis. * * * + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Launching the Burial Cradle.] + + Il est vrai qu'il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de leurs + parens; mais il est faux qu'elles les mettent a mort dans leur + vieillesse, pour avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de leur chair, et + d'en faire un repas. Quelques Nations de l'Amerique Meridionale, qui + ont encore cette coutume de manger les corps morts de leurs parens, + n'en usent ainsi que par piete, piete mal entendue a la verite, mais + piete coloree neanmoins par quelque ombre de raison; car ils croyent + leur donner une sepulture bien plus honorable. + +To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is +not believed to have been practiced by them. + + + + +MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES, +AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL. + + +The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them, +particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper, +yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples, +under separate heads. + + +_MOURNING._ + +One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of a +chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,[86] who for +many years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction +as a warrior. + + I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head + chief's death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we + slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the + contemplation of the scenes that would be enacted at my arrival. + When we drew in sight of the village, we found every lodge laid + prostrate. We entered amid shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was + streaming from every conceivable part of the bodies of all who were + old enough to comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were + dismembered; hair torn from the head lay in profusion about the + paths; wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where + unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This fearful + mourning lasted until evening of the next day. * * * + + A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint + them with the death of our head chief, and request them to assemble + at the Rose Bud, in order to meet our village and devote themselves + to a general time of mourning, there met, in conformity to the + summons, over ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a + scene of disorderly, vociferous mourning, no imagination can + conceive nor any pen portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his + hair; a thing he was never known to do before. The cutting and + hacking of human flesh exceeded all my previous experience; fingers + were dismembered as readily as twigs, and blood was poured out like + water. Many of the warriors would cut two gashes nearly the entire + length of their arm; then, separating the skin from the flesh at one + end, would grasp it in their other hand, and rip it asunder to the + shoulder. Others would carve various devices upon their breasts and + shoulders, and raise the skin in the same manner to make the scars + show to advantage after the wound was healed. Some of their + mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at them, but + they would not appear to receive any pain from them. + +It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth's statements are to be +taken _cum grana salis_. + +From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of Lake +Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of +mourning has been received: + + There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for + their dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her + husband; by day as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a + constant visitor to the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance + will she follow the raised camp. The friends and relatives of the + young mourner will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind + from the thought of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment, but + as nature is exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake of food; the + supply is scant, but on every occasion the best and largest + proportion is deposited upon the grave of her husband. In the mean + time the female relatives of the deceased have, according to custom, + submitted to her charge a parcel made up of different cloths + ornamented with bead-work and eagle's feathers, which she is charged + to keep by her side--the place made vacant by the demise of her + husband--a reminder of her widowhood. She is therefore for a term of + twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery, neither is she + permitted to slicken up and comb her head; this to avoid attracting + attention. Once in a while a female relative of deceased, + commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will visit her and + voluntarily proceed to comb out the long-neglected and matted hair. + With a jealous eye a vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during + the term of her widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to + marry, any time during her widowhood, an unmarried brother or + cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her + husband. + + At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully + performed and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and, + with greetings commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her + face, comb her hair, and attire her person with new apparel, and + otherwise demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint. + Still she has not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to + marry a relative of the deceased and will marry another, she then + has to purchase her freedom by giving a certain amount of goods and + whatever else she might have manufactured during her widowhood in + anticipation of the future now at hand. Frequently, though, during + widowhood the vows are disregarded and an inclination to flirt and + play courtship or form an alliance of marriage outside of the + relatives of the deceased is being indulged, and when discovered the + widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick braided hair is + shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her apparel and trinkets + are torn from her person, and a quarrel frequently results fatally + to some member of one or the other side. + +Thomas L. McKenney[87] gives a description of the Chippewa widow which +differs slightly from the one above: + + I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls of + clothing. On inquiring what these imported, I learn that they _are + widows_ who carry them, and that these are badges of mourning. It is + indispensable, when a woman of the Chippeway Nation loses her + husband, for her to take of her best apparel--and the whole of it is + not worth a dollar--and roll it up, and confine it by means of her + husband's sashes; and if he had ornaments, these are generally put + on the top of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth. + This bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is + never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it with her; + if she sits down in her lodge, she places it by her side. This badge + of widowhood and of mourning the widow is compelled to carry with + her until some of her late husband's family shall call and take it + away, which is done when they think she has mourned long enough, and + which is generally at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not + before, released from her mourning, and at liberty to marry again. + She has the privilege to take this husband to the family of the + deceased and leave it, but this is considered indecorous, and is + seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the deceased takes the widow for + his wife at the grave of her husband, which is done by a ceremony of + walking her over it. And this he has a right to do; and when this is + done she is not required to go into mourning; or, if she chooses, + she has the right _to go to him_, and he is _bound_ to support her. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Chippewa Widow.] + + I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges. The size + varies according to the quantity of clothing which the widow may + happen to have. It is expected of her to put up her _best_ and wear + her _worst_. The "_husband_" I saw just now was 30 inches high and + 18 inches in circumference. + + I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had been left + to mourn after this fashion for years, none of her husband's family + calling for the badge or token of her grief. At a certain time it + was told her that some of her husband's family were passing, and she + was advised to speak to them on the subject. She did so, and told + them she had mourned long and was poor; that she had no means to buy + clothes, and her's being all in the mourning badge, and sacred, + could not be touched. She expressed a hope that her request might + not be interpreted into a wish to marry; it was only made that she + might be placed in a situation to get some clothes. She got for + answer, that "they were going to Mackinac, and would think of it." + They left her in this state of uncertainty, but on returning, and + finding her faithful still, they took her "husband" and presented + her with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded for her + constancy and made comfortable. + + The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the term of + their grief, which is generally about a year. The Chippeway men + mourn by painting their faces black. + + I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the badge + of mourning, this "_husband_" comes in for an equal share, as if it + were the living husband. + + A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image of it in + the best manner she is able, and dresses it as she did her living + child, and fixes it in the kind of cradle I have referred to, and + goes through the ceremonies of nursing it as if it were alive, by + dropping little particles of food in the direction of its mouth, and + giving it of whatever the living child partook. This ceremony also + is generally observed for a year. + +Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the +substitute for the dead husband. + +The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags, +furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other +tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged +to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle containing +the bones of the deceased consort. + +Similar observances, according to Bancroft,[88] were followed by some of +the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and +Mosquitos being as follows: + + The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a year, + after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for + another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and + then only was she allowed to marry again. + + On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is + destroyed, the cocoa palms being cut down, and all who have taken + part in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut + off the hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape + of the neck to the forehead. Widows, according to some old writers, + after supplying the grave with food for a year take up the bones and + carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night + for another year, after which they are placed at the door or upon + the house-top. On the anniversary of deaths, friends of the deceased + hold a feast, called _seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor + are drained to his memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on + an occasion of this kind, says that males and females were dressed + in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and white, while their + faces were correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they + performed a slow walk around, prostrating themselves at intervals + and calling loudly upon the dead and tearing the ground with their + hands. At no other time is the departed referred to, the very + mention of his name being superstitiously avoided. Some tribes + extend a thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in + a straight line over every obstacle. Froeebel states that among the + Woolwas all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that + both husband and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of + either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time. + +Benson[89] gives the following account of the Choctaws' funeral +ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and +dance: + + Their funeral is styled by them "the last cry." + + When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and + place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and + arrows, hatchet, and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are + planted at the head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the + grave is then inclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral + ceremonies now begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night + and morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous + cries and wailings. It is not important that any other member of the + family should take any very active part in the "cry," though they do + participate to some extent. + + The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the + grave during one entire moon from the date when the death occurred. + On the evening of the last day of the moon the friends all assemble + at the cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions for a + sumptuous feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled + together in a kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved + wife goes to the grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her + bitter wailings and lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked + the kettle is taken from the fire and placed in the center of the + cabin, and the friends gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn + spoon from hand to hand and from mouth to mouth till all have been + bountifully supplied. While supper is being served, two of the + oldest men of the company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and + fill it up, taking down the flags. All then join in a dance, which + not unfrequently is continued till morning; the widow does not fail + to unite in the dance, and to contribute her part to the festivities + of the occasion. This is the "_last cry_," the days of mourning are + ended, and the widow is now ready to form another matrimonial + alliance. The ceremonies are precisely the same when a man has lost + his wife, and they are only slightly varied when any other member of + the family has died. (Slaves were buried without ceremonies.) + + +_SACRIFICE._ + +Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in connection +with another subject, but it is thought others might prove interesting. +The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.[90] + + When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by his + wives and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns took care to + follow the same custom. The law likewise condemned every Natchez to + death who had married a girl of the blood of the Suns as soon as she + was expired. On this occasion I must tell you the history of an + Indian who was noways willing to submit to this law. His name was + _Elteacteal_; he contracted an alliance with the Suns, but the + consequences which this honor brought along with it had like to have + proved very unfortunate to him. His wife fell sick; as soon as he + saw her at the point of death he fled, embarked in a piragua on the + _Mississippi_, and came to New Orleans. He put himself under the + protection of M. de Bienville, the then governor, and offered to be + his huntsman. The governor accepted his services, and interested + himself for him with the Natchez, who declared that he had nothing + more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he was accordingly + no longer a lawful prize. + + _Elteacteal_, being thus assured, ventured to return to his nation, + and, without settling among them, he made several voyages thither. + He happened to be there when the Sun called the _Stung Serpent_, + brother to the Great Sun, died. He was a relative of the late wife + of _Elteacteal_, and they resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de + Bienville had been recalled to France, and the sovereign of the + Natchez thought that the protector's absence had annulled the + reprieve granted to the protected person, and accordingly he caused + him to be arrested. As soon as the poor fellow found himself in the + hut of the grand chief of war, together with the other victims + destined to be sacrificed to the _Stung Serpent_, he gave vent to + the excess of his grief. The favorite wife of the late Son, who was + likewise to be sacrificed, and who saw the preparations for her + death with firmness, and seemed impatient to rejoin her husband, + hearing _Elteacteal's_ complaints and groans, said to him: "Art thou + no warrior?" He answered, "Yes: I am one." "However," said she, + "thou cryest; life is dear to thee, and as that is the case, it is + not good that thou shouldst go along with us; go with the women." + _Elteacteal_ replied: "True; life is dear to me. It would be well if + I walked yet on earth till to the death of the Great Sun, and I + would die with him." "Go thy way," said the favorite, "it is not fit + thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart should remain behind on + earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee no more." + + _Elteacteal_ did not stay to hear this order repeated to him; he + disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of which were his + relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age and their infirmities + had disgusted them of life; none of them had been able to use their + legs for a great while. The hair of the two that were related to + _Elteacteal_ was no more gray than those of women of fifty-five + years in France. The other old woman was a hundred and twenty years + old, and had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among + the Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin. They were + dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the _Stung Serpent_, + and the other two upon the place before the temple. * * * A cord is + fastened round their necks with a slip-knot, and eight men of their + relations strangle them by drawing, four one way and four the other. + So many are not necessary, but as they acquire nobility by such + executions, there are always more than are wanting, and the + operation is performed in an instant. The generosity of these women + gave _Elteacteal_ life again, acquired him the degree of + _considered_, and cleared his honor, which he had sullied by fearing + death. He remained quiet after that time, and taking advantage of + what he had learned during his stay among the French, he became a + juggler and made use of his knowledge to impose upon his countrymen. + + The morning after this execution they made everything ready for the + convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of the ceremonies + appeared at the door of the hut, adorned suitably to his quality. + The victims who were to accompany the deceased prince into the + mansion of the spirits came forth; they consisted of the favorite + wife of the deceased, of his second wife, his chancellor, his + physician, his hired man, that is, his first servant, and of some + old women. + + The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were several + Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for the Suns of + both sexes that were her children to appear, and spoke to the + following effect: + + "Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from you + (_sic_) arms and to follow your father's steps, who waits for me in + the country of the spirits; if I were to yield to your tears I would + injure my love and fail in my duty. I have done enough for you by + bearing you next to my heart, and by suckling you with my breasts. + You that are descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought you to + shed tears? Rejoice rather that you are _Suns_ and warriors; you are + bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the whole nation: + go, my children, I have provided for all your wants, by procuring + you friends; my friends and those of your father are yours too; + I leave you amidst them; they are the French; they are + tender-hearted and generous; make yourselves worthy of their esteem + by not degenerating from your race; always act openly with them and + never implore them with meanness. + + "And you, Frenchmen," added she, turning herself towards our + officers, "I recommend my orphan children to you; they will know no + other fathers than you; you ought to protect them." + + After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned to her + husband's hut with a surprising firmness. + + A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims of her + own accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore the _Stung + Serpent_ to follow him into the other world. The Europeans called + her the _haughty_ lady, on account of her majestic deportment and + her proud air, and because she only frequented the company of the + most distinguished Frenchmen. They regretted her much, because she + had the knowledge of several simples with which she had saved the + lives of many of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with + grief and horror. The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and + spoke to them with a smiling countenance: "I die without fear;" said + she, "grief does not embitter my last hours. I recommend my children + to you; whenever you see them, noble Frenchmen, remember that you + have loved their father, and that he was till death a true and + sincere friend of your nation, whom he loved more than himself. The + disposer of life has been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go + and join him; I shall tell him that I have seen your hearts moved at + the sight of his corps; do not be grieved; we shall be longer + friends in the _country of the spirits_ than here, because we do not + die there again."[91*] + + These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French; they were + obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great Sun from killing + himself, for he was inconsolable at the death of his brother, upon + whom he was used to lay the weight of government, he being great + chief of war of the Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies; + that prince grew furious by the resistance he met with; he held his + gun by the barrel, and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by the + lock, and caused the powder to fall out of the pan; the hut was full + of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables[92*] but the French raised their + spirits again, by hiding all the arms belonging to the sovereign, + and filling the barrel of his gun with water, that it might be unfit + for use for some time. + + As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign's life in safety, they + thanked the French, by squeezing their hands, but without speaking; + a most profound silence reigned throughout, for grief and awe kept + in bounds the multitude that were present. + + The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this + transaction. She was asked whether she was ill, and she answered + aloud, "Yes, I am"; and added with a lower voice, "If the Frenchmen + go out of this hut, my husband dies and all the Natches will die + with him; stay, then, brave Frenchmen, because your words are as + powerful as arrows; besides, who could have ventured to do what you + have done? But you are his true friends and those of his brother." + Their laws obliged the Great Sun's wife to follow her husband in the + grave; this was doubtless the cause of her fears; and likewise the + gratitude towards the French, who interested themselves in behalf of + his life, prompted her to speak in the above-mentioned manner. + + The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to them: "My + friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief that, though my eyes + were open, I have not taken notice that you have been standing all + this while, nor have I asked you to sit down; but pardon the excess + of my affliction." + + The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that they + were going to leave him alone, but that they would cease to be his + friends unless he gave orders to light the fires again,[93*] + lighting his own before them; and that they should not leave him + till his brother was buried. + + He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: "Since all the + chiefs and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I will do it; + I will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted again immediately, + and I'll wait till death joins me to my brother; I am already old, + and till I die I shall walk with the French; had it not been for + them I should have gone with my brother, and all the roads would + have been covered with dead bodies." + +Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been credited +by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, and its +seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of similar +ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds. + +An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice is +described by Miss A. J. Allen,[94] and refers to the Wascopums, of +Oregon. + + At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words, it was + found that the chief had determined that the deceased boy's friend, + who had been his companion in hunting the rabbit, snaring the + pheasant, and fishing in the streams, was to be his companion to the + spirit land; his son should not be deprived of his associate in the + strange world to which he had gone; that associate should perish by + the hand of his father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house. + This receptacle was built on a long, black rock in the center of the + Columbia River, around which, being so near the falls, the current + was amazingly rapid. It was thirty feet in length, and perhaps half + that in breadth, completely enclosed and sodded except at one end, + where was a narrow aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse + through. The council overruled, and little George, instead of being + slain, was conveyed living to the dead-house about sunset. The dead + were piled on each side, leaving a narrow aisle between, and on one + of these was placed the deceased boy; and, bound tightly till the + purple, quivering flesh puffed above the strong bark cords, that he + might die very soon, the living was placed by his side, his face to + his till the very lips met, and extending along limb to limb and + foot to foot, and nestled down into his couch of rottenness, to + impede his breathing as far as possible and smother his cries. + +Bancroft[95] states that-- + + The slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and Tarascos were + selected from various trades and professions, and took with them the + most cherished articles of the master and the implements of their + trade wherewith to supply his wants-- + +while among certain of the Central American tribe death was voluntary, +wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing themselves +by means of a vegetable poison. + +To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that self-murder +is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, if he so +wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or friend to the +"happy other world;" and when this is remembered we need not feel +astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self immolations +are related. It is quite likely that among our own people similar +customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down such +proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us, +notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place +on the occasion of the death of a beloved one. + + +_FEASTS._ + +In Beltrami[96] an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of +the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took +place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place: + + I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the + manes of _Cloudy Weather's_ son-in-law, whose body had remained with + the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their repasts. + What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in this + funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific + lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others + were singing and dancing with all their might. + + At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand Medicine_, + and at which as _a man of another world_ I was permitted to attend, + the same practice occurred. But at the feast which took place on + that occasion an allowance was served up for the deceased out of + every article of which it consisted, while others were beating, + wounding, and torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow + both over the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that + this was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they + could possibly supply. His wife furnished out an entertainment + present for him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with + his arms, his provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine + bag, he was wrapped up in the skin which had been his last covering + when alive. He was then tied round with the bark of some particular + trees which they use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm + texture and hold (the only ones indeed which they have), and instead + of being buried in the earth was hung up to a large oak. The reason + of this was that, as his favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit + would be enabled more easily from such a situation to fly with him + to Paradise. + +Hind[97] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which +occurred among the Hurons of New York: + + The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the + "feasts of the dead" at the village of Ossosane, before the + dispersion of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in + the presence of 2,000 Indians, who offered 1,300 presents at the + common tomb, in testimony of their grief. The people belonging to + five large villages deposited the bones of their dead in a gigantic + shroud, composed of forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten + beaver skins. After being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they + were placed between moss and bark. A wall of stones was built around + this vast ossuary to preserve it from profanation. Before covering + the bones with earth a few grains of Indian corn were thrown by the + women upon the sacred relics. According to the superstitious belief + of the Hurons the souls of the dead remain near the bodies until the + "feast of the dead"; after which ceremony they become free, and can + at once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe to be + situated in the regions of the setting sun. + +Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom of +exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting +them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in +Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of +Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a slatted pen containing the remains of +hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and +preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris +afford examples of burial ossuaries. + + +_SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS._ + +The following account is by Dr. S. G. Wright, acting physician to the +Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:-- + + Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still adhere + to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed + friends; the object is to feast with the departed; that is, they + believe that while they partake of the visible material the departed + spirit partakes at the same time of the spirit that dwells in the + food. From ancient time it was customary to bury with the dead + various articles, such especially as were most valued in lifetime. + The idea was that there was a spirit dwelling in the article + represented by the material article; thus the war-club contained a + spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, which could be used + by the departed in another world. These several spiritual implements + were supposed, of course, to accompany the soul, to be used also on + the way to its final abode. This habit has now ceased. + + +_FOOD._ + +This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection +with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an +almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to +place food in or near the grave of deceased persons. + + +_DANCES._ + +Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a +death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by +Morgan:[98] + + An occasional and very singular figure was called the "dance for the + dead." It was known as the _O-he-wae._ It was danced by the women + alone. The music was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being + stationed in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which + they sang the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and + mournful music. This dance was usually separate from all councils + and the only dance of the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon + after and continued until towards morning, when the shades of the + dead who were believed to be present and participate in the dance + were supposed to disappear. The dance was had whenever a family + which had lost a member called for it, which was usually a year + after the event. In the spring and fall it was often given for all + the dead indiscriminately, who were believed then to revisit the + earth and join in the dance. + +The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers[99] and +relates to the Yo-kai-a of California, containing other matters of +importance pertaining to burial: + + I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding + there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine + it, but was not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence + of the old sexton by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver + half dollar. The pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 + feet deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the interior + was damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was + provided with a tunnel-like entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet + high, and leading down to a level with the floor of the pit. The + mouth of the tunnel was closed with brush, and the venerable sexton + would not remove it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several + times to and fro before the entrance. + + Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled + poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude + devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat, + which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the + tribe, lately deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the + Senel come up to condole with the Yo-kai-a on the loss of their + chief, and a dance or series of dances was held which lasted three + days. During this time of course the Senel were the guests of the + Yo-kai-a, and the latter were subjected to a considerable expense. + I was prevented by other engagements from being present, and shall + be obliged to depend on the description of an eye-witness, Mr. John + Tenney, whose account is here given with a few changes: + + There are four officials connected with the building, who are + probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They + are the assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from + one of them, and admission was given by the same. These four wore + black vests trimmed with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief + made no special display on the occasion. In addition to these four, + who were officers of the assembly-chamber, there were an old man and + a young woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The young + woman was dressed differently from any other, the rest dressing in + plain calico dresses. Her dress was white covered with spots of red + flannel, cut in neat figure, ornamented with shells. It looked + gorgeous and denoted some office, the name of which I could not + ascertain. Before the visitors were ready to enter, the older men of + the tribe were reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As + the ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and young woman + were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the entrance, they + inaugurated the exercises by a brief service, which seemed to be a + dedication of the house to the exercises about to commence. Each of + them spoke a few words, joined in a brief chant, and the house was + thrown open for their visitors. They staid at their post until the + visitors entered and were seated on one side of the room. After the + visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all, though + there was plenty of room in the center for the dancing. + + Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe made a + brief speech in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief + of the Yo-kai-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss. + As he spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out, + and with difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I presume that he + proposed a few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole + assemblage burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if + in agony. The whole thing created such a din that I was compelled to + stop my ears. The air was rent and pierced with their cries. This + wailing and shedding of tears lasted about three or five minutes, + though it seemed to last a half hour. At a given signal they ceased, + wiped their eyes, and quieted down. + + Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was + set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors wens five men, who + were muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint + and feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies. + They were girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors, + sometimes with variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the + shoulder, reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the + neck, while their heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers. + They had whistles in their months as they danced, swaying their + heads, bending and whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be + exercised, and the feather ornaments quivered with light. They were + agile and graceful as they bounded about in the sinuous course of + the dance. + + The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only + marked time by stepping up and down with short step. They always + took their places first and disappeared first, the men making their + exit gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable + for the occasion. They were white dresses, trimmed heavily with + black velvet. The stripes were about three inches wide, some plain + and others edged like saw teeth. This was an indication of their + mourning for the dead chief, in whose honor they had prepared that + style of dancing. Strings of haliotis and pachydesma shell beads + encircled their necks, and around their waists were belts heavily + loaded with the same material. Their head-dresses were more showy + than those of the men. The head was encircled with a bandeau of + otters' or beavers' fur, to which were attached short wires standing + out in all directions, with glass or shell beads strung on them, and + at the tips little feather flags and quail plumes. Surmounting all + was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray, and scarlet, the top + generally being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and tossing very + beautifully. All these combined gave their heads a very brilliant + and spangled appearance. + + The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the + Yo-kai-a chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful + and simple, being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were + used, accompanied with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a + hollow slab. The second day the dance was more lively on the part of + the men, the music was better, employing airs which had a greater + range of tune, and the women generally joined in the chorus. The + dress of the women was not so beautiful, as they appeared in + ordinary calico. The third day, if observed in accordance with + Indian custom, the dancing was still more lively and the proceedings + more gay, just as the coming home from a Christian funeral is apt to + be much more jolly than the going out. + + A Yo-kai-a widow's style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the + usual evidences of grief, she mingles the ashes of her dead husband + with pitch, making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a + band about two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is + previously cut off close to the head), so that at a little distance + she appears to be wearing a white chaplet. + + It is their custom to "feed the spirits of the dead" for the space + of one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to + frequent while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground. + A Yo-kai-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to + some place where her little one played when alive, or to the spot + where the body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This + is accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling + upon her little one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and + melancholy chant, and dances with a wild static swaying of the body. + + +_SONGS._ + +It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals, +but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these chants may no +doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful ejaculation. +A writer[100] mentions it as follows: + + At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing, + with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same + melody at the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song + and at the same time, but each begins and finishes when he or she + may wish. Often for weeks, or even months, after the decease of a + dear friend, a living one, usually a woman, will sit by her house + and sing or cry by the hour, and they also sing for a short time + when they visit the grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have + not seen since the decease. At the funeral both men and women sing. + No. 11 I have heard more frequently some time after the funeral, and + No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by the Twanas. (For song see + p. 251 of the magazine quoted.) The words are simply an exclamation + of grief, as our word "alas," but they also have other words which + they use, and sometimes they use merely the syllable _la_. Often the + notes are sung in this order, and sometimes not, but in some order + the notes _do_ and _la_, and occasionally _mi_, are sung. + +Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a peculiar +death dirge sung by the Senel of California, as related by Mr. Powers. +It is as follows: + + Hel-lel-li-ly, + Hel-lel-lo, + Hel-lel-lo. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Ghost Gamble.] + +Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the attention +of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for instance, +the Basques of Spain ululate thus: + + Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo, + Lelo il Lelo, + Lelo zarat, Lelo zara, + Il Lelon killed Lelo. + +This was called the "ululating Lelo." Mr. Campbell says: + + This again connects with the Linus or Ailinus of the Greeks and + Egyptians * * * which Wilkinson connects with the Coptic "ya + lay-lee-ya lail." The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard the South + Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek verb + #ololuzo# and the Latin ululare, with an English howl and wail, + are probably derived from this ancient form of lamentation. + +In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks +describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he +inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost +tribes of Israel. + + +_GAMES._ + +It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those +athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person +which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a +practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which +consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct. +Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed among +the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and interesting +account of what is called the "ghost gamble." This is played with marked +wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to the Sioux. +Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in which this +game is played. + + After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge + of the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the time of the + first feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair--they + are divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians + invited to play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is + selected to represent the ghost and he plays against all the others, + who are not required to stake anything on the result, but simply + invited to take part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the + lodge of the dead person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing + the lock of hair. In cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy + the stakes are furnished by his rich friends, should he have any. + The players are called in one at a time, and play singly against the + ghost's representative, the gambling being done in recent years by + means of cards. If the invited player succeeds in beating the ghost, + he takes one of the piles of goods and passes out, when another is + invited to play, &c., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases + of men only the men play, and in cases of women the women only take + part in the ceremony. + + Before white men came among these Indians and taught them many of + his improved vices, this game was played by means of figured + plum-seeds, the men using eight and the women seven seeds, figured + as follows, and shown in Figure 34. + + Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse containing + nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a small spot of the + color of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a + black spot in the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a + buffalo's head on one side and the reverse simply two crossed black + lines. There is but one seed of this kind in the set used by the + women. Two seeds have half of one side blackened and the rest left + plain, so as to represent a half moon; the reverse has a black + longitudinal line crossed at right angles by six small ones. There + are six throws whereby the player can win, and five that entitle him + to another throw. The winning throws are as follows, each winner + taking a pile of the ghost's goods: + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Auxiliary throw No 5.] + + Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo's head up, + and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two + black with natural spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and + the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones + up, two black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the + transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two + black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo's + head up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two + longitudinally crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up + wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, buffalo's + head up, and two long crossed up wins a pile. The following + auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to win: two plain ones + up, two with black spots up, one half moon up, one longitudinally + crossed one up, and buffalo's head up gives another throw, and on + this throw, if the two plain ones up and two with black spots with + either of the half moons or buffalo's head up, the player takes a + pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons up, + and the transversely crossed one up entitles to another throw, when, + if all of the black sides come up, excepting one, the throw wins. + One of the plain ones up and all the rest with black sides up gives + another throw, and the same then turning up wins. One of the plain + black ones up with that side up of all the others having the least + black on gives another throw, when the same turning up again wins. + One half moon up, with that side up of all the others having the + least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is then + duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men, has its place + in their game whenever its facings are mentioned above. I transmit + with this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can be used to + illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a + hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Figured Plum Stones.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Winning Throw No. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Winning Throw No. 2.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Winning Throw No. 3.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Winning Throw No. 4.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Winning Throw No. 5.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Winning Throw No. 6.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Auxiliary Throw No. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Auxiliary Throw No. 2.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Auxiliary Throw No. 3.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Auxiliary Throw No. 4.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Grave Posts.] + +For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his +indebtedness to Dr. C. C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian +Agency. + +Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the +different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones +sent by Dr. McChesney. + + +_POSTS._ + +These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, and +have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family, +certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the +achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and danced +at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently plant poles +near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, horses' tails, +&c. The custom among the present Indians does not exist to any extent. +Beltrami[101] speaks of it as follows: + + Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted + by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was + raised, covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies + slain by the tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary + Manitous. + +The following extract from Schoolcraft[102] relates to the burial posts +used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 46 is after the picture given by +this author in connection with the account quoted: + + Among the Sioux and Western Chippewas, after the body had been + wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a + scaffold or in a tree until the flesh is entirely decayed, after + which the bones are buried and grave-posts fixed. At the head of the + grave a tubular piece of cedar or other wood, called the + _adjedatig_, is set. This grave-board contains the symbolic or + representative figure, which records, if it be a warrior, his totem, + that is to say the symbol of his family, or surname, and such + arithmetical or other devices as seem to denote how many times the + deceased has been in war parties, and how many scalps he has taken + from the enemy--two facts from which his reputation is essentially + to be derived. It is seldom that more is attempted in the way of + inscription. Often, however, distinguished chiefs have their war + flag, or, in modern days, a small ensign of American fabric, + displayed on a standard at the head of their graves, which is left + to fly over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps + of their enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the + swallow-tailed falcon, or some carnivorous bird, are also placed, in + such instances, on the _adjedatig_, or suspended, with offerings of + various kinds, on a separate staff. But the latter are + superadditions of a religious character, and belong to the class of + the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig (_ante_, No. 4). The building of a funeral + fire on recent graves is also a rite which belongs to the + consideration of their religious faith. + + +_FIRES._ + +It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building fires +on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the soul +thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that demons +were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford light to +the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer states +that-- + + The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the grave + was to light the spirit on its journey. By a coincidence to be + explained by the universal sacredness of the number, both Algonkins + and Mexicans maintained it for four nights consecutively. The former + related the tradition that one of their ancestors returned from the + spirit land and informed their nation that the journey thither + consumed just four days, and that collecting fuel every night added + much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered, all of which + could be spared it. + +So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also +intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast. + +Stephen Powers[103] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of +California as to the use of fires: + + After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity + of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the "Big Indians" do, + that the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely + attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the + debatable land, and that they require the fire to light them on + their darksome journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker + than a wicked one, hence they regulate the number of nights for + burning a light according to the character for goodness or the + opposite which the deceased possessed in this world. + +Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that a +somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux. + +Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one of +the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Grave Fire.] + + +_SUPERSTITIONS._ + +An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an +account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the +Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by +various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but +in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be +provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a +few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,[104] +and relates to the Hidatsa: + + When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around the camp + or village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his + departed kindred in the "village of the dead." When he has arrived + there he is rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on + earth by receiving the same regard in the one place as in the other, + for there as here the brave man is honored and the coward despised. + Some say that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a + separate part of the village, but that their condition differs in no + wise from that of the others. In the next world human shades hunt + and live in the shades of buffalo and other animals that have here + died. There, too there are four seasons, but they come in an inverse + order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four nights that the + ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who + disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from the + shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins which they leave at + the door of the lodge. The smell of the burning leather they claim + keeps the ghost out; but the true friends of the dead man take no + such precautions. + +From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the +Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the +spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather +should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to +speculate on. + +The next account, by Keating,[105] relating to the Chippewas, shows a +slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already alluded to: + + The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely + distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag_, and appear to + supply to it the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe + that it quits the body it the time of death, and repairs to what + they term _Chekechekchekawe_; this region is supposed to be situated + to the south, and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to + arriving there they meet with a stream which they are obliged to + cross upon a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those + who die from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream; they are + thrown into it and remain there forever. Some souls come to the edge + of the stream, but are prevented from passing by the snake, which + threatens to devour them; these are the souls of the persons in a + lethargy or trance. Being refused a passage these souls return to + their bodies and reanimate them. They believe that animals have + souls, and even that inorganic substances, such as kettles, &c., + have in them a similar essence. + + In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits. + Those who have been good men are free from pain; they have no duties + to perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing, and they + feed upon mushrooms, which are very abundant. The souls of bad men + are haunted by the phantom of the persons or things that they have + injured; thus, if a man has destroyed much property the phantoms of + the wrecks of this property obstruct his passage wherever he goes; + if he has been cruel to his dogs or horses they also torment him + after death. The ghosts of those whom during his lifetime he wronged + are there permitted to avenge their injuries. They think that when a + soul has crossed the stream it cannot return to its body, yet they + believe in apparitions, and entertain the opinion that the spirits + of the departed will frequently revisit the abodes of their friends + in order to invite them to the other world, and to forewarn them of + their approaching dissolution. + +Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of +examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following +relates to the Karok of California: + + How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is + shown by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the + _pet-chi-e-ri_ the mere mention of the dead relative's name. It is a + deadly insult to the survivors, and can be atoned for only by the + same amount of blood-money paid for willful murder. In default of + that they will have the villain's blood. * * * At the mention of his + name the mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do + not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. * * * They + believe that the soul of a good Karok goes to the "happy western + land" beyond the great ocean. That they have a well-grounded + assurance of an immortality beyond the grave is proven, if not + otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical custom of whispering a + message in the ear of the dead. * * * Believe that dancing will + liberate some relative's soul from bonds of death, and restore him + to earth. + +According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies away +with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk will +catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he was +good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that-- + + The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of + the dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes. When I + asked the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for "father" + and "mother" and certain others similar, he shook his head + mournfully and said, "All dead," "All dead," "No good." They are + forbidden to mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult + to the relatives, * * * and that the Mat-toal hold that the good + depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but + the soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which + they consider, of all animals, the cousin-german of sin. + +The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows +regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs: + + * * * It has always been one of the most passionate desires among + the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the Shastika, to live, die, + and be buried where they were born. Some of their usages in regard + to the dead and their burial may be gathered from an incident that + occurred while the captives of 1873 were on their way from the Lava + Beds to Fort Klamath, as it was described by an eye-witness. + Curly-headed Jack, a prominent warrior, committed suicide with a + pistol. His mother and female friends gathered about him and set up + a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood and + endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life. The mother + took his head in her lap and scooped the blood from his ear, another + old woman placed her hand upon his heart, and a third blew in his + face. The sight of the group--these poor old women, whose grief was + unfeigned, and the dying man--was terrible in its sadness. Outside + the tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim, Steamboat + Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had been the dying man's + companions from childhood, all affected to tears. When he was + lowered into the grave, before the soldiers began to cover the body, + Huka Jim was seen running eagerly about the camp trying to exchange + a two-dollar bill of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior + that amount of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency + would be of any use to him in the other world--sad commentary on our + national currency!--and desired to have the coin instead. Procuring + it from one of the soldiers he cast it in and seemed greatly + relieved. All the dead man's other effects, consisting of clothing, + trinkets, and a half dollar, were interred with him, together with + some root-flour as victual for the journey to the spirit land. + +The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead +may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.[106] It regards +the natives of Washington Territory: + + My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is this: It is + the universal custom with these Indians never to live in a lodge + where a person has died. If a person of importance dies, the lodge + is usually burned down, or taken down and removed to some other part + of the bay; and it can be readily seen that in the case of the Palux + Indians, who had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before + stated, their relatives chose at once to leave for some other place. + This objection to living in a lodge where a person has died is the + reason why their sick slaves are invariably carried out into the + woods, where they remain either to recover or die. There is, + however, no disputing the fact that an immense mortality has + occurred among these people, and they are now reduced to a mere + handful. + + The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead person, + and their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes give rise to a + difficulty as to who shall perform the funeral ceremonies; for any + person who handles a dead body must not eat of salmon or sturgeon + for thirty days. Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I have known them + leave the corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in two + instances that came to my knowledge, the whites had to burn the + lodges, with the bodies in them, to prevent infection. + + So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had buried + Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could be seen. All + kept in their lodges, singing and drumming to keep away the spirits + of the dead. + +According to Bancroft[107]-- + + The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after death + transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while the nobler + became stars and beautiful birds. + +The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously +avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those +of our own country. + +Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, to +enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed +final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and +while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on +hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire +for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper, +that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of +the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to +induce further investigation and contribution from careful and +conscientious observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and +correspondence given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in +short, most of them may serve as copies for preparation of similar +material. + +To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are also +given. + +_1st._ NAME OF THE TRIBE; present appellation; former, if differing any; +and that used by the Indians themselves. + +_2d._ LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range +of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate. + +_3d._ DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and +characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse +prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it +spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the character +of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food +put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an +ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried together; and is the +clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever prevail? + +_4th._ MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF +THE GRAVES; CREMATION.--Are burials usually made in high and dry +grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the +dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies +placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was +practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of +custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the +survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are +scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction +of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in +skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are +suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the +water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be +given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial +posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of +position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation, +or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of +remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if +any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been +used, describe them. + +_5th._ MOURNING OBSERVANCES.--Is scarification practiced, or personal +mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead +lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry +symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are +sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are +fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long? + +_6th._ BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS.--Give in full all that can +be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very +important. + +In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and +correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and +full as possible. + +One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is +the "why" and "wherefore" for every rite and custom; for, as a rule, +observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact, +but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it. + +Any material the result of careful observation will be most gratefully +received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer must here +confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have already +contributed, a number so large that limited space precludes a mention of +their individual names. + +Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested +in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general. +Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious +forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men. + +The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos. +Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made by +Mr. W. H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended their +preparation. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + + + [Footnote 1: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1853, pt. 3, p. 193.] + + [Footnote 2: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.] + + [Footnote 3: Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.] + + [Footnote 4: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p. 270.] + + [Footnote 5: Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.] + + [Footnote 6: Voy. dans l'Arizona, in Bull. Soc. de Geographie, + 1877.] + + [Footnote 7: Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. 1, p. 555.] + + [Footnote 8: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.] + + [Footnote 9: L'incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1, + p. 439.] + + [Footnote 10: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.] + + [Footnote 11: Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States, + 1853, Pt. 3, p. 140.] + + [Footnote 12: U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.] + + [Footnote 13: Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841, + p. 252.] + + [Footnote 14: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.] + + [Footnote 15: Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to + Knowledge. No. 259, 1876. Pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55, 82.] + + [Footnote 16: Pop. Sc. Month., Sept., 1877, p. 577.] + + [Footnote 17: Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, + p. 780.] + + [Footnote 18: A detailed account of this exploration, with many + illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the + Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.] + + [Footnote 19: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 _et + seq._] + + [Footnote 20: American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.] + + [Footnote 21: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.] + + [Footnote 22: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 513.] + + [Footnote 23: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 515.] + + [Footnote 24: A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida, + 1775.] + + [Footnote 25: Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp. + 241-243.] + + [Footnote 26: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i, + p. 464.] + + [Footnote 27: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.] + + [Footnote 28: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 62.] + + [Footnote 29: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.] + + [Footnote 30: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.] + + [Footnote 31: Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp. + 155 _et seq._] + + [Footnote 32: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.] + + [Footnote 33: Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll. + Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 318.] + + [Footnote 34: A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age, + discovered in Kentucky, is now in the cabinet of the American + Antiquarian Society. It is a female. Several human bodies were + found enwrapped carefully in skins and cloths. They were inhumed + below the floor of the cave; _inhumed_, and not lodged in + catacombs.] + + [Footnote 35: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.] + + [Footnote 36: Billings' Exped., 1802, p. 161.] + + [Footnote 37: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.] + + [Footnote 38: Rawlinson's Herodotus, Book i, chap. 198, _note_.] + + [Footnote 39: Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 455 et seq.] + + [Footnote 40: Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians, + 1844, vol. ii, p. 5.] + + [Footnote 41: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, + p. 483.] + + [Footnote 42: Hist. de l'Amerique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii, + p. 43.] + + [Footnote 43: Pioneer Life, 1872.] + + [Footnote 44: I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was + undoubtedly an exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island) + the bluffs on the peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River + (three miles distant) were thickly studded with Indian grave + mounds, showing conclusively that subterranean was the usual mode + of burial. In making roads, streets, and digging foundations, + skulls, bones, trinkets, beads, etc., in great numbers, were + exhumed, proving that many things (according to the wealth or + station of survivors) were deposited in the graves. In 1836 I + witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner stated. + --P. GREGG.] + + [Footnote 45: Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist. + Soc. (1879?), p. 107.] + + [Footnote 46: Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.] + + [Footnote 47: The Last Act, 1876.] + + [Footnote 48: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.] + + [Footnote 49: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part + IV, p. 224.] + + [Footnote 50: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii, + p. 387.] + + [Footnote 51: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.] + + [Footnote 52: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part + iii, p. 112.] + + [Footnote 53: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.] + + [Footnote 54: Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.] + + [Footnote 55: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-'76, p. 64.] + + [Footnote 56: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 149.] + + [Footnote 57: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874, p. 168.] + + [Footnote 58: Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.] + + [Footnote 59: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of + Utah, 1852, p. 43.] + + [Footnote 60: Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol. i, + p. 332.] + + [Footnote 61: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. i, p. 780.] + + [Footnote 62: Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p. 286.] + + [Footnote 63: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol. i, p. 69.] + + [Footnote 64: Travels in Alaska, 1869, p. 100.] + + [Footnote 65: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145.] + + [Footnote 66: Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.] + + [Footnote 67: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.] + + [Footnote 68: Long's Exped. to the St. Peter's River, 1824, + p. 332.] + + [Footnote 69: L'incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome i, + p. 475, _et seq._] + + [Footnote 70: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that + the custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the + Moravian settlement of Salem, N.C.] + + [Footnote 71: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319.] + + [Footnote 72: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. ii, p. 774, + _et seq._] + + [Footnote 73: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.] + + [Footnote 74: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.] + + [Footnote 75: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 516.] + + [Footnote 76: "Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have + given it as their opinion that all those pyramidal artificial + hills, usually called Indian mounds, were raised on this occasion, + and are generally sepulchers. However, I am of different + opinion."] + + [Footnote 77: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.] + + [Footnote 78: Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.] + + [Footnote 79: Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.] + + [Footnote 80: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.] + + [Footnote 81: Cont. N. A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p. 200.] + + [Footnote 82: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, + p. 483.] + + [Footnote 83: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859, + p. 48.] + + [Footnote 84: Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii, + p. 141.] + + [Footnote 85: Moeurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.] + + [Footnote 86: Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.] + + [Footnote 87: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.] + + [Footnote 88: Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731, + 744.] + + [Footnote 89: Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.] + + [Footnote 90: Bossu's Travels (Forster's translation), 1771, + p. 38.] + + [Footnote 91: At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the + victims swallow little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make + them giddy, and as it were to take the sensation of pain from + them; after that they were all strangled and put upon mats, the + favorite on the right, the other wife on the left, and the others + according to their rank.] + + [Footnote 92: The established distinctions among these Indians + were as follows: The Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the + highest rank; next come the Nobles; after them the Honorables; and + last of all the common people, who were very much despised. As the + nobility was propagated by the women, this contributed much to + multiply it.] + + [Footnote 93: The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the + fires, which is only done at the death of the sovereign.] + + [Footnote 94: Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.] + + [Footnote 95: Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.] + + [Footnote 96: Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.] + + [Footnote 97: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii, + p. 164.] + + [Footnote 98: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.] + + [Footnote 99: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.] + + [Footnote 100: Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.] + + [Footnote 101: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.] + + [Footnote 102: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851, + part i, p. 356.] + + [Footnote 103: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.] + + [Footnote 104: Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. + Geol. Surv. of Terr., 1877, p. 409.] + + [Footnote 105: Long's Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.] + + [Footnote 106: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.] + + [Footnote 107: Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.] + + + + +INDEX. + + + Abiquiu, Ancient cemetery of 111 + Acaxers and Yaquis, cairn burial 143 + "Adjedatig" 197 + Aerial burial in canoes, Chinooks 171 + ---- sepulture, 152 + Alaric's burial 181 + Alaska cave burial 129 + Alaskan mummies 134, 135 + Alden, E. H., Scaffold burial 161 + Aleutian Islanders, embalmment 135, 136 + Algonkins, Burial fires of the 198 + Alibamans, Aquatic burial of suicides by 180 + Allen, Miss A. J., Burial sacrifice 189 + Ancient burial customs of barbaric tribes 152 + ---- cemetery of Abiquiu 111 + ---- nations, Tree burial of 165, 166 + Ancients, Curious mourning observances 165, 166 + Antiquity of cremation 143 + Apingi burial 125, 126 + Aquatic burial, Alibamans, of suicides 180 + ---- Cherokees 180 + ---- Chinooks 180 + ---- Gosh-Utes 181 + ---- Hyperboreans 180 + ---- Ichthyophagi 180 + ---- Itzas 180 + ---- Kavague 180 + ---- Lotophagians 180 + ---- Obongo 180 + Ascena or Timber Indians 103 + Atwater, Caleb, Burial mounds 117 + Australian scaffold burial 167 + Aztecs and Taracos, Burial sacrifice 190 + Baldwin, C. C., Pottawatomie surface burial 141 + Balearic Islanders, Cairn burial 143 + Bancroft, H. H., Burial sacrifice 190 + ----, Canoe burial in ground 112 + ----, Costa Rica hut burial 154 + ----, Doracho cist burial 115 + ----, Esquimaux burial boxes 155 + ----, Mourning, Central Americans 185 + ----, Pima burial 98 + ----, Superstitions regarding dead 201 + Barbaric tribes, Ancient burial customs of 152 + Barber, E. A., Burial urns 138 + ----, Partial cremation 151 + Bari of Africa, burial 125 + Bartram, John, Cabin burial 122 + ----, Choctaw ossuary 120 + ----, Partial scaffold burial 169 + Bechuana burial 126 + Beckwourth, James, Crow mourning 183 + Beechey, Capt. F. W., Lodge burial 154 + Beltrami, J. C., Burial feast 190 + ----, Burial posts 197 + Benson, H. C., Choctaw burial 186 + Bessels, Dr. Emil, Esquimaux superstition 198 + Beverly, Robert, Virginia mummies 131 + Birgan, Meaning of word 93 + Blackbird's burial 139 + Blackfeet burial lodges 154 + ---- cairn burial 143 + ---- tree burial 161 + Bonaks, Cremation 144 + Bone cleaning of the dead 168 + Boner, J. H., Moravian mourning 166 + Bossu, M., Burial denied to suicides 180 + Boteler, Dr. W. C., Oto burial ceremonies 96 + Box burial, Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee 155 + ----, Esquimaux 155, 156 + ----, Indians of Talomeco River 155 + ----, Innuits and Ingaliks 156, 158 + ----, Kalosh 156 + Bransford, Dr. J. C., U.S.N., Burial urns discovered by 138 + Brebeuf, Pere de, Burial feast 191 + Brice, W. A., Surface burial 141 + Brinton, Dr. D. G., Burial of collected bones 170 + Bruhier, J. J., Corsican customs 147 + ---- Persian burial 103 + Brule Sioux, tree and scaffold burial 158, 160 + Burchard, J. L., Pit burial 124 + Butterfield, H., Shoshone cairn burial 143 + Burial, Apingi 125, 126 + ----, Aquatic 180 + ---- canoes and houses 177-179 + ----, Bari of Africa 125 + ----, Bechuanas 126 + ---- beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses 122 + ----, Box 155 + ----, Carolina tribes 93 + ----, Caddos 103 + ----, Cairn 142 + ----, Cairn, Ute 142 + ---- case, Cheyenne 162, 163 + ----, Cave 126 + ----, Chieftain, of the 110, 111 + ----, Classification of 92-93 + ----, Damara 126 + ---- dance, Yo-kai-a 192, 194 + ---- dances 193 + ---- feast, Description of, by Beltrami 190, 191 + ---- ----, Hurons, of the 191 + ---- feasts 190 + ---- ----, superstitions regarding 191 + ---- fires, Algonkins 198 + ---- ----, Yurok 198 + ---- ----, Esquimaux 198 + ---- food 192 + ---- games 195 + ----, Grave 101 + ----, Ground, in canoes 112 + ---- in logs 138, 139 + ---- in mounds 115 + ---- in standing posture 151, 152 + ----, Indians of Virginia 125 + ----, Iroquois 140 + ----, Kaffir 126 + ----, Klamath and Trinity Indians 106, 107 + ----, Latookas 126 + ----, Lodge 152 + ---- lodges, Blackfeet 154 + ---- ----, Cheyenne 154 + ---- ----, Shoshone 153, 154 + ----, Muscogulges 122, 123 + ----, Meaning and derivation of word 93 + ----, Moquis, 114 + ----, Navajo, 123 + ----, Obongo, 139, 140 + ---- of Alaric, 181 + ---- of Blackbird, 139 + ---- of De Soto, 181 + ---- of Long Horse, 153 + ---- of Ouray, 128 + ----, Parsee, 105, 106 + ----, Pit, 93 + ----, Pitt River Indians, 151 + ---- posts, Sioux and Chippewa, 197, 198 + ----, Round Valley Indians, 124 + ---- sacrifice, Aztecs and Tarascos, 190 + ---- ----, Indians of Northwest, 180 + ---- ----, Indians of Panama, 180 + ---- ----, Natchez, 187, 189 + ---- ----, Tsinuk, 179 + ---- ----, Wascopums, 189, 190 + ----, Sacs and Foxes, 94, 95 + ---- scaffolds, 162 + ---- song, Schiller's, 110, 111 + ---- ---- of Basques and others, 195 + ---- superstitions, Chippewas, 199, 200 + ---- ----, Indians of Washington Territory, 201 + ---- ----, Karok, 200 + ---- ----, Kelta, 200 + ---- ----, Modocs, 200, 201 + ---- ----, Mosquito Indians, 201 + ---- ----, Tlascaltecs, 201 + ---- ----, Tolowa, 200 + ----, Surface, 138, 139 + ----, Urn, 137 + ---- ---- and cover, Georgia, 138 + ---- ----, New Mexico, 138 + + Cabins, wigwams, or houses, Burial beneath or in, 122 + Caddos, Burial, 103 + Cairn burial, Acaxers and Yaquis, 143 + ----, Balearic Islanders, 143 + ----, Blackfeet, 143 + ----, Esquimaux, 143 + ----, Kiowas and Comanches, 142, 143 + ----, Pi-Utes, 143 + ----, Reasons for, 143 + ----, Shoshonis, 143 + Calaveras Cave, 128, 129 + California steatite burial urn, 138 + Campbell, John, Burial songs, 195 + Canes sepulchrales, 104 + Canoe burial in ground, 112 + ---- ----, Mosquito Indians, 112, 113 + ---- ----, Santa Barbara, 112 + ----, Clallam, 173, 174 + ----, Twana, 171, 173 + Canoes and houses, Burial, 177-179 + Canoes, Superterrene and aerial burial in, 171 + Caraibs, Verification of death, 146 + Carolina tribes, Burial among, 93 + Catlin, George, Burial of Blackbird, 139 + ----, Golgotha of Mandans, 170 + ----, Mourning cradle, 181 + Cave burial, 126 + ----, Alaska, 129 + ----, Calaveras, 128, 129 + ----, Utes, 127, 128 + Cherokee aquatic burial, 180 + Cheyenne burial case, 162, 163 + ---- lodges, 154 + Chillicothe mound, 117, 118 + Chinook aerial burial in canoes, 171 + ---- aquatic burial, 180 + ---- mourning cradle, 181, 182 + Chippewa burial superstitions, 199, 200 + ---- mourning, 184 + ---- scaffold burial, 161, 162 + ---- widow, 184, 185 + Choctaw mound burial, 120 + ---- scaffold burial, 169 + Choctaws funeral ceremonies, 186 + Cist burial, Doracho, 115 + ---- graves, Kentucky, 114, 115 + ---- ----, Indians of Illinois, 114 + Cists or stone graves, 113 + ----, Solutre, 113 + ----, Tennessee, 113 + Clallam canoe burial, 173, 174 + ---- house burial, 175 + Classification of burial, 92 + Cleveland, Wm. J., Tree and scaffold burial, 158 + Collected bones, Interment of, 170 + Comanche inhumation, 99, 100 + Congaree and Santee Indians, embalmment 132, 133 + Corsican funeral custom 147 + Cox, Ross, Cremation 144 + Coyotero Apaches, Inhumation 111, 112 + Cradle, mourning, Illustration of 181 + Crock, Choctaw, and Cherokee box burial 155 + Creeks and Seminoles, Inhumation 95, 96 + ----, "Hallelujah" of the 195 + Cremation, Antiquity of 143 + ----, Bonaks 144 + ---- furnace 149 + ----, Indians of Clear Lake 147 + ----, Indians of Southern Utah 149 + ---- mound, Florida 148, 149 + ----, Nishinams 144 + ----, Partial 150, 151 + ----, Se-nel 147, 148 + ----, Tolkotins 144-146 + Crow lodge burial 153 + ---- mourning 183, 184 + Curious mourning observances of ancients 165, 166 + Curtiss, E., Exploration by 115, 116 + + Dakhnias 104 + Dall, W. H., Burial boxes 156 + ----, Cave burial 129 + ----, Mummies 134 + Damara burial 126 + Dance for the dead 192 + Dances, Burial 192 + Danish burial logs 139 + Dead, Dance for the 192 + Delano, A., Tree burial 161 + Description of burial feast 190, 191 + De Soto's burial 181 + Devouring the dead, Fans of Africa 182 + ----, Indians of South America 182, 183 + ----, Massageties, Padaens, and others 182 + Dolmens in Japan 115 + Doracho cist burial 115 + Drew, Benjamin, Schiller's burial song 110 + Dumont, M. Butel de, House burial 124 + + Eells, Rev. M., Canoe burial 171 + Embalmment, Aleutian Islanders 135, 136 + ----, Congaree and Santee Indians 132, 133 + ----, or mummification 130 + Engelhardt, Prof. C. 139 + Esquimaux box burial 155, 156 + ---- burial fires 198 + ---- cairn burial 143 + ---- lodge burial 154 + European ossuaries 191 + Excavation of Indian mound, North Carolina 120-122 + + Fans of Africa devour the dead 182 + Feasts, Burial 190 + Fires, Burial 198 + Fiske, Moses, Cists 113 + Florida cremation mound 148, 149 + ---- mound burial 119, 120 + Food, Burial 192 + Ford, Lieut. Geo. E., U.S.A., Cabin burial 123 + Foreman, Dr. E., Burial urns 138 + ---- Cremation 149 + Foster, J. W., Urn burial 137 + ---- Cremation 150 + Funeral ceremonies, Choctaws 186 + ----, Twanas and Clallams 176 + ---- custom, Corsican 147 + Furnace, Cremation 149 + + Gageby, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Box burial 155 + Games, Burial 195 + Gardner, Dr. W., U.S.A., Theory of scaffold burial 167 + Ghost gamble 195-197 + Gianque, Florian, Mound burial 120 + Gibbs, George 106 + ----, Burial canoes and houses 177 + Gilbert, G. K., Klamath burial 147 + ---- Moquis burial 114 + Gillman, Henry, Exploration of mound 148 + Given, Dr. O. G., Cairn burial 142 + "Golgothas," Mandans 170 + Gosh-Utes, Aquatic burial amongst 181 + Grave burial 101 + Gregg, Dr. P., Surface burial 140 + Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce, Comanche inhumation 99 + ---- Wichita burial customs 102 + Grossman, Capt. F. E., Pima burial 98 + Gros Ventres and Mandans, Scaffold burial 161 + + "Hallelujah" of the Creeks 195 + Hammond, Dr. J. F., Burial lodges 154 + Hardisty, W. L., Log burial in trees 166 + Hidatsa superstitions 199 + Hind, Henry Youle, Burial feast 191 + Hoffman, Dr. W. J. 99 + ---- Drawing of Pima burial 111, 153 + Holbrook, W. C., Burial mounds 118 + Holmes, W. H., Drawings by 106, 203 + Hough, Franklin B., Canoe burial in the ground 112 + House burial, Clallams 175 + ----, Paskagoulas and Billoxis 124, 125 + Hurons, Burial feast of 191 + Hyperboreans, aquatic burial 180 + + Ichthyophagi, aquatic burial 180 + Illinois mounds 118 + Indian mound in North Carolina, Excavation of 120-122 + Indians of Bellingham Bay, lodge burial 154 + ---- of Clear Lake, cremation 147 + ---- of Costa Rica, lodge burial 154 + ---- of Illinois, cist burial 114 + ---- of Northwest, burial sacrifice 180 + ---- of Panama, burial sacrifice 180 + ---- of South America devour the dead 182, 183 + ---- of Southern Utah, cremation 149 + ---- of Talomeco River, box burial 155 + ---- of Taos, inhumation 101, 102 + ---- of Virginia, burial 125 + ---- of Washington Territory, burial superstition 201 + Inhumation 93 + ----, Comanches 99, 100 + ----, Coyotero Apaches 111, 112 + ----, Creeks and Seminoles 95, 96 + ----, Indians of Taos 101, 102 + ----, Mohawks 93 + ----, Otoe and Missouri Indians. 96, 97, 98 + ----, Pimas 98, 99 + ----, Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux 107-110 + ----, Wichitas 102, 103 + ----, Yuki 99 + Innuit and Ingalik box burial 156-158 + Interment of collected bones 170 + Iroquois scaffold burial 169, 170 + ---- surface burial 140 + Itzas, Aquatic burial 180 + + Japan dolmens 115 + Jenkes, Col. C. W., Partial cremation 150 + Johnston, Adam, Cremation myth 144 + Jones, Dr. Charles C., Stone graves of Tennessee 114 + ---- Natchez burial 169 + Joseph, Judge Anthony, Inhumation of Taos Indians 101 + + Kaffir burial 126 + Kalosh box burial 156 + Kavague aquatic burial 180 + Kaw-a-wah 142 + Keating, William H., Burial scaffolds 162 + ----, Burial superstitions 199 + "Keeping the Ghost" 160 + Kent, M. B., Sac and Fox burial 94 + Kentucky cist graves 114, 115 + ---- mummies 133 + Kiowa and Comanche cairn burial 142, 143 + Kitty-ka-tats 102 + Klamath and Trinity Indians, burial 106, 107 + Klingbeil, William, Partial cremation 151 + + Lafitau, J. F. 182 + "Last cry" 186 + Latookas burial 126 + Lawson, John, Partial embalmment 132 + ----, Pit burial 93 + List of illustrations, Burial customs 87 + Living sepulchers 182 + Lodge burial 152 + ----, Crow 153 + ----, Esquimaux 154 + ----, Indians of Bellingham Bay 154 + ----, Indians of Costa Rica 154 + ----, Sioux 152, 153 + Log burial 138, 139 + ----, Danish 139 + ---- in trees, Loucheux 166 + Long Horse, burial of 153 + Lotophagians, Aquatic burial 180 + Loucheux, log burial in trees 166 + + McChesney, Dr. Charles E. 107-111 + ----, "Ghost gamble" 195 + McDonald, Dr. A. J., Rock fissure burial 127 + McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial 161 + ----, Chippewa widow 184 + Macrobrian Ethiopians, Preservation of the dead 136, 137 + Mahan, I. L., Chippewa mourning 184 + Mandan "Golgothas" 170 + Matthews, Dr. Washington, U.S.A., Hidatsa superstition 199 + ----, Tree burial 161 + Menard, Dr. John, Navajo burial 123 + Miami Valley mound burial 120 + Midawan, a ceremony of initiation 122 + Miller, Dr. C. C., Assistance from 197 + Mitchell, Dr. Samuel L., Kentucky mummies 133, 134 + Mohawks, Inhumation 93 + Monotheism defined 30, 32, 142 + Moquis burial 114 + Moravian mourning 166 + Morgan, Lewis H., Burial dance 192 + ----, Partial scaffold burial 169 + Morse, E. S., Dolmens in Japan 115 + Mortuary customs of Parthians, Medes, etc. 104 + ---- Persians 103, 104 + Mosquito Indians, Burial superstition of 201 + ----, canoe burial in ground 112, 113 + Mound burial 115 + ----, Choctaws 120 + ----, Florida 119, 120 + ----, Miami Valley 120 + ----, Ohio 117, 118 + Mounds, Illinois 118, 119 + ---- of stone 118 + Mourning ceremonies, Sioux 109, 110 + ----, Chippewa 184 + ---- cradle, Chinook 181, 182 + ---- ----, engraving of 181 + ---- Crows 183, 184 + ---- customs of widows 185, 186 + ----, Indians of Northwest 179 + ---- Moravian 166 + ---- observances, Twana and Clallams 176 + ---- sacrifice, feasts, food, etc 183 + Mummies, Alaskan 134, 135 + ----, Kentucky 133 + ----, Northwest coast 135 + ----, Virginia 131, 132 + Mummification or embalmment 130 + Mummification, Theories regarding 130 + Muret, Pierre, Living sepulchres 182 + ----, Persian mortuary customs 103 + Muscogulge burial 122, 123 + Natchez burial sacrifice 187-189 + ---- scaffold burial 169 + Navajo burial 123 + Norm 142 + New Mexico burial urn 138 + Nishinams, Cremation among the 144 + Norris, P. W., lodge burial 153 + North Carolina Indians, Partial cremation 150, 151 + Northwest coast mummies 135 + ----, Indians of, mourning 179 + + Obongo aquatic burial 180 + ---- surface burial 139, 140 + Observers, Queries for, regarding burial 202, 203 + Ohio mound burial 117 + Oh-sah-ke-uck 94 + Ojibwa and Cree surface burial 141 + Ossuaries, European 191 + Otis, Dr. George A., U.S.A., Burial case 162 + Oto and Missouri Indians, Inhumation 96-98 + Ouray, Burial of 128 + Owsley, Dr. W. J., Cist graves 114 + + Partial cremation 150 + ---- ----, North Carolina Indians 150, 151 + ---- scaffold burial and ossuaries 168 + Parsee burial 105, 106 + Paskagoulas and Billoxis, House burial 124, 125 + Persians, Mortuary customs of the 103, 104 + Pimas, Inhumation among 98, 99 + Pinart, M. Alphonse, Pima burial 98 + Pinkerton, John, Virginia mummies 131 + Piros 101 + Pit burial 93 + Pitt River Indians, Burial and cremation 151 + Pi-Ute cairn burial 143 + Posts, Burial 197 + Potherie, De la M., Surface burial 140 + Powell, J. W., Stone graves or cists 113 + Powers, Stephen, Burial dance 192 + ----, Burial song 194 + ----, Origin of cremation 144 + ----, Se-nel cremation 147 + ----, Yuki burial 99 + Preparation of dead, + ---- Similarity of, between Comanches and African tribes 100 + Preservation of dead, Macrobrian Ethiopians 136, 137 + ----, Werowance of Virginia 131, 132 + Priest, Josiah, Box burial 155 + Putnam, F. W., Stone graves or cists 115, 116 + + Queries for observers regarding burial 202, 203 + Quiogozon or ossuary 94 + + Reason for cairn burial 143 + Remarks, Final 203 + Review of Turner's narrative 165 + Robertson, R. S., Surface burial 139 + Roman, Bernard, Choctaw hone houses 168 + ----, Funeral customs of Chickasaws 123 + Round Valley Indians, burial among 124 + + Sacrifice 187 + Sacs and Foxes, burial among 94, 95 + ----, surface burial 140, 141 + Sauer, Martin, Aleutian mummies 135 + Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies, surface burial among 151 + Scaffold burial, Australia 167 + ---- ----, Chippewas 161, 162 + ---- ----, Choctaw 169 + ---- ----, Gros-Ventres and Mandans 161 + ---- ----, Iroquois 169, 170 + ---- ----, Natchez 169 + ---- ----, Sioux 163, 164 + ----, Tent burial on 174 + Scaffolds, Theory regarding 167, 168 + Schiller's burial song 110 + Schoolcraft, Henry R., Burial posts 197 + ----, Cremation myth 144 + ----, Mohawk burial 93, 95 + ----, Partial embalmment 132 + Seechaugas 158 + Sellers, George Escoll, Cist burial 114 + Se-nel, Cremation among the 147, 148 + Sepulture, Aerial 152 + Sheldon, William, Caraib burial customs 146 + Shoshone burial lodges 153, 154 + ---- cairn burial 143 + Sicaugu 158 + Simpson, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Aquatic burial 181 + Sioux and Chippewa burial posts 197, 198 + ---- lodge burial 152, 153 + ---- mourning ceremonies 109, 110 + Sioux, scaffold burial of the 163, 164 + ----, tree burial of the 161 + Solutre cists 113 + Songs, Burial 194 + ---- ----, of Basques and others 195 + Southern Indians, Urn burial among 137 + Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason, Curious burial 120 + Spencer, J. W., Partial surface burial 140 + Standing posture, Burial in 151, 152 + Stansbury, Capt. H., U.S.A., Lodge burial 152 + Steatite burial urn, California 138 + Sternberg, Dr. George M., U.S.A., Grave mounds 119 + ----, Burial case discovered 162 + Stone graves or cists 113 + ---- mounds 118 + Superstition, Hidatsa 199 + ---- regarding burial feasts 191 + Superstitions, Burial 199 + Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes 171 + Surface burial 138, 139 + ----, Ojibways and Crees 141 + ----, Sacs and Foxes 140, 141 + ----, Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies 141 + Swan, James G., Canoe burial 171 + ----, Klamath burial 106 + ----, Superstitions 201 + + Tah-zee 142 + Tegg, William, Antiquity of cremation 143 + ----, Towers of silence 104 + Tennessee cists 113 + Tent burial on scaffold 174 + Theories regarding mummification or embalmment 130 + ---- regarding use of scaffolds 176, 168 + Tiffany, A. S., Cremation furnace 149 + Timberlake, H., Aquatic burial 180 + Tolkotin cremation 144, 146 + Tompkins, Gen. Chas. H., U.S.A., Partial cremation 151 + Towers of silence, Description of 104-106 + Tree and scaffold burial 158 + ---- ----, Brule Sioux 158, 160 + ---- burial, ancient nations 165, 166 + ---- ----, Blackfeet 101 + ---- ----, Sioux 101 + Tsinuk burial sacrifice 179 + Turner, Dr. L. S., Scaffold burial 163 + Turner's narrative, Review of 165 + Twana and Clallam mourning observances 176 + ---- canoe burial 171-173 + Twanas and Clallams, funeral ceremonies 176 + + Urn burial by Southern Indians 137 + Ute cairn burial 142 + ---- cave burial 127, 128 + + Van Camper, Moses. Mode of burial of Indians inhabiting + Pennsylvania 112 + Van Vliet, Gen. Stewart, U.S.A., Tree and scaffold burial 153 + Verification of death, Caraibs 146 + Virginia mummies 131, 132 + + Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux, Inhumation among 107-110 + Wascopums, Burial sacrifice of 189, 190 + Wee-ka-nahs 101 + Welch, H., Surface burial 141 + Werowance of Virginia, preservation of the dead 131, 132 + Whitney, J. D., burial cave, Description of a 128 + Whymper, Frederic, Burial boxes 156 + Wichitas, Inhumation among the 102, 103 + Widow, Chippewa 184, 185 + Widows, Mourning customs of 185, 186 + Wilcox, E., Partial cremation 150 + Wilkins, Charles, Kentucky mummies 133 + Williams, Monier, Parsee burial 104 + Wood, Rev. J. G., African surface burial 139 + ----, Bari burial 125 + ----, Fans of Africa devour the dead 182 + ----, Obongo aquatic burial 180 + Wright, Dr. S. G., Superstitions regarding burial feasts 191 + + Yo-kai-a burial dance 192-194 + Young, John, Tree burial 161 + Yuki inhumation 99 + Yurok burial fires 198 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + +_Errata_ + +Unless otherwise noted, spelling and punctuation are unchanged. +Differences in punctuation or hyphenization between the List of +Illustrations and the captions themselves are not noted. + + [List of Illustrations] + 1.--Quiogozon or dead house [Quiogozeon] + + two small arroyas + [_spelling "arroya" consistent throughout the quoted passage_] + chanting the following chorous: + [_spelling in quoted passage unchanged_] + the Colchians enveloped their dead [Colchiens] + these are considered apochryphal [_spelling unchanged_] + Horace and Tertullian both affirm [Tertulian] + cum grana salis [_error unchanged: correct form is "grano"_] + the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her husband. + [_bracketed "sic" in original_] + Froeebel states that among the Woolwas + [_spelling unchanged: probably error for "Froebel" (two letters) + or "Froebel" (o-umlaut alone)_] + tear myself from you (_sic_) arms + [_error unchanged; parenthetical "sic" in original_] + + [Footnote 54] + Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753. [1878.] + + [Index] + [Missing commas within entries or before sub-entries have been + silently supplied.] + McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial [Scafford] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of +the mortuary customs of the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS *** + +***** This file should be named 11398.txt or 11398.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/3/9/11398/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Anne Folland, Juliet Sutherland +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net. 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