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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of the
+mortuary customs of the North American Ind, by H. C. Yarrow
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North American Indians
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 87-204
+
+Author: H. C. Yarrow
+
+Posting Date: March 24, 2010 [EBook #11398]
+Release Date: March 2, 2004
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Anne Folland, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Canadian Institute for
+Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org) and The
+Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org).)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber’s Note:
+
+This e-text comes in three forms: Unicode (UTF-8), Latin-1 and ASCII.
+Use the one that works best on your text reader.
+
+  --In the UTF-8 (best) version, a small group of words will appear
+  with a macron (“long” mark) on a or u:
+    Tsinūk (six times), tamahno-ūs (three times), mé-mel-ūs-illa-hee,
+    Kaw-a-wāh, Tāh-zee (twice each)
+  There is also a single Greek word. The letter “œ” displays as a
+  single character, and apostrophes and quotation marks are “curly”
+  or angled. If any part of this paragraph displays as garbage, try
+  changing your text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding”. If
+  that doesn’t work, proceed to:
+
+  --In the Latin-1 version, the words listed above will have a
+  circumflex (â or û) instead of a macron, the Greek word will be
+  transliterated and shown between #marks#, and the form “œ” is two
+  letters. The three long French passages still have the appropriate
+  accents, but apostrophes and quotation marks will be straight
+  (“typewriter” form). Again, if you see any garbage in this
+  paragraph and can’t get it to display properly, use:
+
+  --The ASCII-7 or rock-bottom version. In this version, all diacritics
+  (accents) are gone, _including accents on all French words_.
+
+Much of this article is quoted from other published sources. The
+resulting inconsistencies in spelling and punctuation are unchanged.
+Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text.
+
+The Table of Contents and Index were supplied from the beginning and end
+of the Annual Report volume. The List of Illustrations was printed with
+the article.
+
+Most footnotes are purely bibliographic. Asterisks after a few footnote
+numbers [44*] were added by the transcriber to identify those notes
+that give further information.]
+
+
+
+
+  SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+  J. W. Powell, Director
+
+
+  A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION
+
+  to the
+
+  STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS
+
+  of the
+
+  NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
+
+
+  by
+
+  Dr. H. C. YARROW,
+
+  Act. Asst. Surg., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  List of illustrations                                   89
+  Introductory                                            91
+  Classification of burial                                92
+  Inhumation                                              93
+    Pit burial                                            93
+    Grave burial                                         101
+    Stone graves or cists                                113
+    Burial in mounds                                     115
+    Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses      122
+    Cave burial                                          126
+  Embalmment or mummification                            130
+  Urn burial                                             137
+  Surface burial                                         138
+    Cairn burial                                         142
+  Cremation                                              143
+    Partial cremation                                    150
+  Aerial sepulture                                       152
+    Lodge burial                                         152
+    Box burial                                           155
+    Tree and scaffold burial                             158
+    Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries                168
+    Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes             171
+  Aquatic burial                                         180
+  Living sepulchers                                      182
+  Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc.                      183
+    Mourning                                             183
+    Sacrifice                                            187
+    Feasts                                               190
+    Superstition regarding burial feasts                 191
+    Food                                                 192
+    Dances                                               192
+    Songs                                                194
+    Games                                                195
+    Posts                                                197
+    Fires                                                198
+    Superstitions                                        199
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+[In the original, Figure 12 was printed before Figure 11 (both full-page
+Plates). Figure 45 (_on_ page 196) was printed before the group of
+plates 34-44 (_between_ pages 196 and 197).]
+
+
+   1.--Quiogozon or dead house                            94
+   2.--Pima burial                                        98
+   3.--Towers of silence                                 105
+   4.--Towers of silence                                 106
+   5.--Alaskan mummies                                   135
+   6.--Burial urns                                       138
+   7.--Indian cemetery                                   139
+   8.--Grave pen                                         141
+   9.--Grave pen                                         141
+  10.--Tolkotin cremation                                145
+  11.--Eskimo lodge burial                               154
+  12.--Burial houses                                     154
+  13.--Innuit grave                                      156
+  14.--Ingalik grave                                     157
+  15.--Dakota scaffold burial                            158
+  16.--Offering food to the dead                         159
+  17.--Depositing the corpse                             160
+  18.--Tree-burial                                       161
+  19.--Chippewa scaffold burial                          162
+  20.--Scarification at burial                           164
+  21.--Australian scaffold burial                        166
+  22.--Preparing the dead                                167
+  23.--Canoe-burial                                      171
+  24.--Twana canoe-burial                                172
+  25.--Posts for burial canoes                           173
+  26.--Tent on scaffold                                  174
+  27.--House burial                                      175
+  28.--House burial                                      175
+  29.--Canoe-burial                                      178
+  30.--Mourning-cradle                                   181
+  31.--Launching the burial cradle                       182
+  32.--Chippewa widow                                    185
+  33.--Ghost gamble                                      195
+  34.--Figured plum stones                               196
+  35.--Winning throw, No. 1                              196
+  36.--Winning throw, No. 2                              196
+  37.--Winning throw, No. 3                              196
+  38.--Winning throw, No. 4                              196
+  39.--Winning throw, No. 5                              196
+  40.--Winning throw, No. 6                              196
+  41.--Auxiliary throw, No. 1                            196
+  42.--Auxiliary throw, No. 2                            196
+  43.--Auxiliary throw, No. 3                            196
+  44.--Auxiliary throw, No. 4                            196
+  45.--Auxiliary throw, No. 5                            196
+  46.--Burial posts                                      197
+  47.--Grave fire                                        198
+
+
+
+
+  A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION
+
+  to the
+
+  STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
+
+  By H. C. Yarrow.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many
+readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen
+the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to
+reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an
+introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate
+study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and
+more important.
+
+The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously,
+while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable.
+This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an
+almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and
+the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing.
+A wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably seconded
+the efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, from
+the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of
+scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press,
+too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever on the alert to scatter
+broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of
+well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry,
+and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is
+the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North
+American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it
+be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already
+contributed.
+
+It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed
+more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of
+supererogation to continue a further examination of the subject, for
+nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention
+of burial observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on
+the sea of this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless
+supported by corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely
+unreliable. To bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and
+arrange collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer’s
+task, and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method
+of securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and
+need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present
+to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to
+the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies,
+the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples,
+and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding
+the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be
+done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough
+analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and
+from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be
+considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer
+having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the
+accounts furnished.
+
+It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions
+to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. J. W.
+Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,
+from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant encouragement
+and advice has been received, and to whom all American ethnologists owe
+a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.
+
+Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the
+subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies
+among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost
+analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.
+
+For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of burials
+may be adopted, although further study may lead to some modifications.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.
+
+
+1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, or holes in the ground, stone graves
+or cists, in mounds, beneath or in cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or
+in caves.
+
+2d. By EMBALMMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being
+afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in
+charnel-houses.
+
+3d. By DEPOSITION of remains in urns.
+
+4th. By SURFACE BURIAL, the remains being placed in hollow trees or
+logs, pens, or simply covered with earth, or bark, or rocks forming
+cairns.
+
+5th. By CREMATION, or partial burning, generally on the surface of the
+earth, occasionally beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed
+in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns,
+sometimes scattered.
+
+6th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being left in lodges, houses,
+cabins, tents, deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the
+two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the
+ground. Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of
+children, these being hung to trees.
+
+7th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were
+turned adrift.
+
+These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.
+
+The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be understood
+in its literal significance, the word being derived from the Teutonic
+Anglo-Saxon “_birgan_,” to conceal or hide away.
+
+In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, it
+has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, in
+order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the
+relator’s language been changed except to correct manifest
+unintentional, errors of spelling.
+
+
+
+
+INHUMATION.
+
+
+_PIT BURIAL._
+
+The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been that
+of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of
+different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of
+the process:
+
+One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:[1]
+
+  The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body
+  was placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered
+  with timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby
+  kept the body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a
+  round hill over it. They always dressed the corpse in all its
+  finery, and put wampum and other things into the grave with it; and
+  the relations suffered not grass nor any wood to grow upon the
+  grave, and frequently visited it and made lamentation.
+
+In Jones[2] is the following interesting account from Lawson[3] of the
+burial customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:
+
+  Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was accompanied
+  with special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon
+  the funeral according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was
+  first placed in a cane hurdle and deposited in an outhouse made for
+  the purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night,
+  guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with disheveled
+  hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral go into the town,
+  and from the backs of the first young men they meet strip such
+  blankets and matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In
+  these the dead body is wrapped and then covered with two or three
+  mats made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or
+  hollow canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared for
+  the interment, the corpse is carried from the house in which it has
+  been lying into the orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in
+  another hurdle. Seated upon mats are there congregated the family
+  and tribe of the deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or
+  conjurer, having enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral
+  oration, during which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his
+  valor, skill, love of country, property, and influence; alludes to
+  the void caused by his death, and counsels those who remain to
+  supply his place by following in his footsteps; pictures the
+  happiness he will enjoy in the land of spirits to which he has gone,
+  and concludes his address by an allusion to the prominent traditions
+  of his tribe.
+
+Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the
+opinion of many, “more honored in the breach than in the observance.”
+
+  At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from that
+  Hurdle to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the Relations,
+  the King, old Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the
+  Sepulcre, which is about six foot deep and eight foot long, having
+  at each end (that is, at the Head and Foot) a Light-Wood or
+  Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down the sides of the Grave firmly into
+  the Ground (these two Forks are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you
+  shall understand presently), before they lay the Corps into the
+  Grave, they cover the bottom two or three time over with the Bark of
+  Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two Belts that the
+  _Indians_ carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely upon the said
+  Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the two Forks,
+  and having a great many Pieces of Pitch-Pine Logs about two Foot and
+  a half long, they stick them in the sides of the Grave down each End
+  and near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the
+  Ridge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of a House.
+  These being very thick plac’d, they cover them [many times double]
+  with Bark; then they throw the Earth thereon that came out of the
+  Grave and beat it down very firm. By this Means the dead Body lies
+  in a Vault, nothing touching him.
+
+After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in
+an ossuary called the Quiogozon.
+
+Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers
+called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to
+it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair
+greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited,
+another dried bodies.
+
+It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M. B. Kent,
+relating to the Sacs and Foxes (_Oh-sak-ke-uck_) of the Nehema Agency,
+Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead to
+prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom has
+been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by
+examples given further on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Quiogozon or Dead House.]
+
+  _Ancient burial._--The body was buried in a grave made about 2½
+  feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards the east, the
+  burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave was
+  prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse was
+  deposited, a plank covering made and secured some distance above the
+  body. The plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse with
+  the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse was
+  always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a long journey in
+  life, no coffin being used.
+
+  _Modern burial._--This tribe now usually bury in coffins, rude ones
+  constructed by themselves, still depositing the body in the grave
+  with the head towards the east.
+
+  _Ancient funeral ceremonies._--Every relative of the deceased had to
+  throw some article in the grave, either food, clothing, or other
+  material. There was no rule stating the nature of what was to be
+  added to the collection, simply a requirement that something must be
+  deposited, if it were only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After
+  the corpse was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead,
+  instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would soon
+  discover moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he came to a
+  great river, which is the river of death; when there he would find a
+  pole across the river, which, if he has been honest, upright, and
+  good, will be straight, upon which he could readily cross to the
+  other side; but if his life had been one of wickedness and sin, the
+  pole would be very crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he
+  would be precipitated into the turbulent stream and lost forever.
+  The brave also told him if he crossed the river in safety the Great
+  Father would receive him, take out his old brains, give him new
+  ones, and then he would have reached the happy hunting grounds,
+  always be happy and have eternal life. After burial a feast was
+  always called, and a portion of the food of which each and every
+  relative was partaking was burned to furnish subsistence to the
+  spirit upon its journey.
+
+  _Modern funeral ceremonies._--Provisions are rarely put into the
+  grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast subsequent
+  to burial is burned, although the feast is continued. All the
+  address delivered by the brave over the corpse after being deposited
+  in the grave is omitted. A prominent feature of all ceremonies,
+  either funeral or religious, consists of feasting accompanied with
+  music and dancing.
+
+  _Ancient mourning observances._--The female relations allowed their
+  hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed themselves in the most
+  unpresentable attire, the latter of which the males also do. Men
+  blacked the whole face for a period of ten days after a death in the
+  family, while the women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the
+  children were blacked for three months; they were also required to
+  fast for the same length of time, the fasting to consist of eating
+  but one meal per day, to be made entirely of hominy, and partaken of
+  about sunset. It was believed that this fasting would enable the
+  child to dream of coming events and prophesy what was to happen in
+  the future. The extent and correctness of prophetic vision depended
+  upon how faithfully the ordeal of fasting had been observed.
+
+  _Modern mourning observances._--Many of those of the past are
+  continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing uncouth
+  apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children, and they are
+  adhered to with as much tenacity as many of the professing
+  Christians belonging to the evangelical churches adhere to their
+  practices, which constitute mere forms, the intrinsic value of which
+  can very reasonably be called in question.
+
+The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,[4] made
+the graves of their dead as follows:
+
+  When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse about
+  four feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the cabin or rock
+  wherever he died. The corpse is placed in the hole in a sitting
+  posture, with a blanket wrapped about it, and the legs bent under
+  and tied together. If a warrior, he is painted, and his pipe,
+  ornaments, and warlike appendages are deposited with him. The grave
+  is then covered with canes tied to a hoop round the top of the hole,
+  then a firm layer of clay, sufficient to support the weight of a
+  man. The relations howl loudly and mourn publicly for four days. If
+  the deceased has been a man of eminent character, the family
+  immediately remove from the house in which he is buried and erect a
+  new one, with a belief that where the bones of their dead are
+  deposited the place is always attended by goblins and chimeras dire.
+
+Dr. W. C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County,
+Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most
+interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it
+may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those
+already mentioned:
+
+  The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in southern
+  Gage County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000 acres, unsurpassed
+  in beauty of location, natural resources, and adaptability for
+  prosperous agriculture. This pastoral people, though in the midst of
+  civilization, have departed but little from the rude practice and
+  customs of a nomadic life, and here may be seen and studied those
+  interesting dramas as vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote
+  frontier.
+
+  During my residence among this people on different occasions, I have
+  had the opportunity of witnessing the Indian burials and many quaint
+  ceremonies pertaining thereto.
+
+  When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe
+  subject, the preparation of the burial costume is immediately began.
+  The near relatives of the dying Indian surround the humble bedside,
+  and by loud lamentations and much weeping manifest a grief which is
+  truly commensurate with the intensity of Indian devotion and
+  attachment.
+
+  While thus expressing before the near departed their grief at the
+  sad separation impending, the Indian women, or friendly braves, lose
+  no time in equipping him or her with the most ornate clothes and
+  ornaments that are available or in immediate possession. It is thus
+  that the departed Otoe is enrobed in death, in articles of his own
+  selection and by arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his
+  own tongue. It is customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere his
+  departure, the propriety or impropriety of the accustomed
+  sacrifices. In some cases there is a double and in others no
+  sacrifice at all. The Indian women then prepare to cut away their
+  hair; it is accomplished with scissors, cutting close to the scalp
+  at the side and behind.
+
+  The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with great
+  solemnity and care. Bead-work, the most ornate, expensive blankets
+  and ribbons comprise the funeral shroud. The dead, being thus
+  enrobed, is placed in a recumbent posture at the most conspicuous
+  part of the lodge and viewed in rotation by the mourning relatives
+  previously summoned by a courier, all preserving uniformity in the
+  piercing screams which would seem to have been learned by rote.
+
+  An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the tribe,
+  arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge around one of
+  their number, keeping time upon a drum or some rude cooking-utensil.
+
+  At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance
+  excitedly around the central person, vociferating, and with wild
+  gesture, tomahawk in hand, imprecate the evil spirit, which he
+  drives to the land where the sun goes down. The evil spirit being
+  thus effectually banished, the mourning gradually subsides, blending
+  into succeeding scenes of feasting and refreshment. The burial feast
+  is in every respect equal in richness to its accompanying
+  ceremonies. All who assemble are supplied with cooked venison, hog,
+  buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing alike hot cakes
+  soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case may be.
+
+  Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged Indian
+  present will sit in the central circle, and in a continuous and
+  doleful tone narrate the acts of valor in the life of the departed,
+  enjoining fortitude and bravery upon all sitting around as an
+  essential qualification for admittance to the land where the Great
+  Spirit reigns. When the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is
+  customary for the surviving friends to present the bereaved family
+  with useful articles of domestic needs, such as calico in bolt,
+  flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or horses. After
+  the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the body is carefully
+  placed in a wagon and, with an escort of all friends, relatives, and
+  acquaintances, conveyed to the grave previously prepared by some
+  near relation or friend. When a wagon is used, the immediate
+  relatives occupy it with the corpse, which is propped in a
+  semi-sitting posture; before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it
+  was necessary to bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then
+  convey him to his last resting place among his friends. In past days
+  when buffalo were more available, and a tribal hunt was more
+  frequently indulged in, it is said that those dying on the way were
+  bound upon horses and thus frequently carried several hundred miles
+  for interment at the burial places of their friends.
+
+  At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a double
+  nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel, and upon the
+  other blended with the deepest grief and most heartfelt sorrow.
+  Before the interment of the dead the chattels of the deceased are
+  unloaded from the wagons or unpacked from the backs of ponies and
+  carefully arranged in the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is
+  wider than the top (graves here being dug like an inverted funnel),
+  is spread with straw or grass matting, woven generally by the Indian
+  women of the tribe or some near neighbor. The sides are then
+  carefully hung with handsome shawls or blankets, and trunks, with
+  domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less importance, are piled
+  around in abundance. The sacrifices are next inaugurated. A pony,
+  first designated by the dying Indian, is led aside and strangled by
+  men hanging to either end of a rope. Sometimes, but not always,
+  a dog is likewise strangled, the heads of both animals being
+  subsequently laid upon the Indian’s grave. The body, which is now
+  often placed in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if a
+  coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the deceased
+  before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a saddle and bridle,
+  blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon it, the mourning ceases, and
+  the Indians prepare to close the grave. It should be remembered,
+  among the Otoe and Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in upon the
+  body, but simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs that
+  are accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the
+  burying is completed, a distribution of the property of the deceased
+  takes place, the near relatives receiving everything, from the
+  merest trifle to the tent and homes, leaving the immediate family,
+  wife and children or father out-door pensioners.
+
+  Although the same generosity is not observed towards the whites
+  assisting in funeral rites, it is universally practiced as regards
+  Indians, and poverty’s lot is borne by the survivors with a
+  fortitude and resignation which in them amounts to duty, and marks a
+  higher grade of intrinsic worth than pervades whites of like
+  advantages and conditions. We are told in the Old Testament
+  Scriptures, “four days and four nights should the fires burn,” &c.
+  In fulfillment of this sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil
+  carefully kept by these Indians four days and four nights at the
+  graves of their departed. A small fire is kindled for the purpose
+  near the grave at sunset, where the nearest relatives convene and
+  maintain a continuous lamentation till the morning dawn. There was
+  an ancient tradition that at the expiration of this time the Indian
+  arose, and mounting his spirit pony, galloped off to the happy
+  hunting-ground beyond.
+
+  Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these superstitions
+  have faded, and the living sacrifices are partially continued only
+  from a belief that by parting with their most cherished and valuable
+  goods they propitiate the Great Spirit for the sins committed during
+  the life of the deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find
+  was the practice of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt
+  offerings the lamb or the ox; hence we cannot censure this people,
+  but, from a comparison of conditions, credit them with a more strict
+  observance of our Holy Book than pride and seductive fashions permit
+  of us.
+
+  From a careful review of the whole of their attendant ceremonies a
+  remarkable similarity can be marked. The arrangement of the corpse
+  preparatory to interment, the funeral feast, the local service by
+  the aged fathers, are all observances that have been noted among
+  whites, extending into times that are in the memory of those still
+  living.
+
+The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that led
+the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with the
+corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F. E.
+Grossman,[5] and the account is corroborated by M. Alphonse Pinart[6]
+and Bancroft.[7]
+
+Captain Grossman’s account follows:
+
+  The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the
+  latter around their neck and under the knees, and then drawing them
+  tight until the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting
+  position. They dig the graves from four to five feet deep and
+  perfectly round (about two feet in diameter), and then hollow out to
+  one side of the bottom of this grave a sort of vault large enough to
+  contain the body. Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up
+  level with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber placed
+  upon the grave to protect the remains from coyotes.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pima burial.]
+
+  Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The
+  mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The
+  bodies of their dead are buried if possible, immediately after death
+  has taken place and the graves are generally prepared before the
+  patients die. Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had
+  already been dug) recover. In such cases the graves are left open
+  until the persons for whom they are intended die. Open graves of
+  this kind can be seen in several of their burial grounds. Places of
+  burial are selected some distance from the village, and, if
+  possible, in a grove of mesquite trees.
+
+  Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house and
+  personal effects of the deceased are burned and his horses and
+  cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast for the mourners.
+  The nearest relatives of the deceased as a sign of their sorrow
+  remain within their village for weeks, and sometimes months; the men
+  cut off about six inches of their long hair, while the women cut
+  their hair quite short. * * *
+
+  The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he
+  dies impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of
+  stock. The women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor
+  should their husbands die, and that then they will have to provide
+  for their children by their own exertions, do not care to have many
+  children, and infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to
+  a great extent. This is not considered a crime, and old women of the
+  tribe practice it. A widow may marry again after a year’s mourning
+  for her first husband; but having children no man will take her for
+  a wife and thus burden himself with her children. Widows generally
+  cultivate a small piece of ground, and friends and relatives (men)
+  plow the ground for them.
+
+Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman’s description by my friend Dr. W. J.
+Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.
+
+Stephen Powers[8] describes a similar mode of grave preparation among
+the Yuki of California:
+
+  The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a hole six
+  feet deep sometimes and at the bottom of it “_coyote_” under, making
+  a little recess in which the corpse is deposited.
+
+The Comanches of Indian Territory (_Nem_, _we, or us, people_),
+according to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, Indian
+Territory, go to the opposite extreme, so far as the protection of the
+dead from the surrounding earth is concerned. The account as received is
+given entire, as much to illustrate this point as others of interest.
+
+  When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be faintly
+  heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not departed from
+  the body, the knees are strongly bent upon the chest, and the legs
+  flexed upon the thighs. The arms are also flexed upon each side of
+  the chest, and the head bent forward upon the knees. A lariat, or
+  rope, is now used to firmly bind the limbs and body in this
+  position. A blanket is then wrapped around the body, and this again
+  tightly corded, so that the appearance when ready for burial is that
+  of an almost round and compact body, very unlike the composed pall
+  of his Wichita or Caddo brother. The body is then taken and placed
+  in a saddle upon a pony, in a sitting posture; a squaw usually
+  riding behind, though sometimes one on either side of the horse,
+  holds the body in position until the place of burial is reached,
+  when the corpse is literally tumbled into the excavation selected
+  for the purpose. The deceased is only accompanied by two or three
+  squaws, or enough to perform the little labor bestowed upon the
+  burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge or village of the
+  bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes or heads of cañons in
+  which the Comanche country abounds is selected, and the body thrown
+  in, without special reference to position. With this are deposited
+  the bows and arrows; these, however, are first broken. The saddle is
+  also placed in the grave, together with many of the personal
+  valuables of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks
+  and earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.
+
+  _Funeral ceremonies._--the best pony owned by the deceased is
+  brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may appear well
+  mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the other world.
+  Formerly, if the deceased were a chief or man of consequence and had
+  large herds of ponies, many were killed, sometimes amounting to 200
+  or 300 head in number.
+
+  The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good pony for
+  the convoy of the deceased to the happy-grounds by the following
+  story, which is current among both Comanches and Wichitas:
+
+  “A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no relatives and
+  who was quite poor. Some of the tribe concluded that almost any kind
+  of a pony would serve to transport him to the next world. They
+  therefore killed at his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared
+  horse. But a few weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo
+  and behold he returned, riding this same old worn-out horse, weary
+  and hungry. He first appeared at the Wichita camps, where he was
+  well known, and asked for something to eat, but his strange
+  appearance, with sunken eyes and hollow cheeks, filled with
+  consternation all who saw him, and they fled from his presence.
+  Finally one bolder than the rest placed a piece of meat on the end
+  of a lodge-pole and extended it to him. He soon appeared at his own
+  camp, creating, if possible, even more dismay than among the
+  Wichitas, and this resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving
+  their villages and moving _en masse_ to a place on Rush Creek, not
+  far distant from the present site of Fort Sill.
+
+  “When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was questioned
+  why he thus appeared among the inhabitants of earth, he made reply
+  that when he came to the gates of paradise the keepers would on no
+  account permit him to enter upon such an ill-conditioned beast as
+  that which bore him, and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the
+  homes of those whose stinginess and greed permitted him no better
+  equipment. Since this no Comanche has been permitted to depart with
+  the sun to his chambers in the west without a steed which in
+  appearance should do honor alike to the rider and his friends.”
+
+  The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that the
+  spirit may accompany the setting sun to the world beyond. The spirit
+  starts on its journey the following night after death has taken
+  place; if this occur at night, the journey is not begun until the
+  next night.
+
+  _Mourning observances._--All the effects of the deceased, the tents,
+  blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of value, aside from the
+  articles which have been buried with the body, are burned, so that
+  the family is left in poverty. This practice has extended even to
+  the burning of wagons and harness since some of the civilized habits
+  have been adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the
+  smoke, and will thus be of service to the owner in the other world.
+  Immediately upon the death of a member of the household, the
+  relatives begin a peculiar wailing, and the immediate members of the
+  family take off their customary apparel and clothe themselves in
+  rags and cut themselves across the arms, breast, and other portions
+  of the body, until sometimes a fond wife or mother faints from loss
+  of blood. This scarification is usually accomplished with a knife,
+  or, as in earlier days, with a flint. Hired mourners are employed at
+  times who are in no way related to the family, but who are
+  accomplished in the art of crying for the dead. These are invariably
+  women. Those nearly related to the departed, cut off the long locks
+  from the entire head, while those more distantly related, or special
+  friends, cut the hair only from one side of the head. In case of the
+  death of a chief, the young warriors also cut the hair, usually from
+  the left side of the head.
+
+  After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is
+  conducted more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the Comanches
+  venerate the sun; and the mourning at these seasons is kept up, if
+  the death occurred in summer, until the leaves fall, or, if in the
+  winter, until they reappear.
+
+It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the
+corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the
+burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body
+with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The
+hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from
+remotest periods of time.
+
+
+_GRAVE BURIAL._
+
+The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians of
+San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph,
+will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon
+those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo
+people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian
+Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.
+
+According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves _Wee-ka-nahs_.
+
+  These are commonly known to the whites as _Piros_. The manner of
+  burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern, as far as I can
+  ascertain from information obtained from the most intelligent of the
+  tribe, is that the body of the dead is and has been always buried in
+  the ground in a horizontal position with the flat bottom of the
+  grave. The grave is generally dug out of the ground in the usual and
+  ordinary manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7 feet long, and about 2
+  feet wide. It is generally finished after receiving its occupant by
+  being leveled with the hard ground around it, never leaving, as is
+  customary with the whites, a mound to mark the spot. This tribe of
+  Pueblo Indians never cremated their dead, as they do not know, even
+  by tradition, that it was ever done or attempted. There are no
+  utensils or implements placed in the grave, but there are a great
+  many Indian ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells,
+  hawk-bells, round looking-glasses, and a profusion of ribbons of all
+  imaginable colors; then they paint the body with red vermilion and
+  white chalk, giving it a most fantastic as well as ludicrous
+  appearance. They also place a variety of food in the grave as a wise
+  provision for its long journey to the happy hunting-ground beyond
+  the clouds.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar. First, after
+  death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo robe spread out on
+  the ground, then they dress the body in the best possible manner in
+  their style of dress; if a male, they put on his beaded leggins and
+  embroidered _saco_, and his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large
+  brass or shell ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or
+  dress, tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her
+  fancy dancing-moccasins; her _rosario_ around her neck, her brass or
+  shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed black hair tied up
+  with red tape or ribbon, this completes her wardrobe for her long
+  and happy chase. When they get through dressing the body, they place
+  about a dozen lighted candles around it, and keep them burning
+  continually until the body is buried. As soon as the candles are
+  lighted, the _veloris_, or wake, commences; the body lies in state
+  for about twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends,
+  relatives, and neighbors of the deceased or “_difunti_” visit the
+  wake, chant, sing, and pray for the soul of the same, and tell one
+  another of the good deeds and traits of valor and courage manifested
+  by the deceased during his earthly career, and at intervals in their
+  praying, singing, &c., some near relative of the deceased will step
+  up to the corpse and every person in the room commences to cry
+  bitterly and express aloud words of endearment to the deceased and
+  of condolence to the family of the same in their untimely
+  bereavement.
+
+  At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in
+  attendance marches out into another room and partakes of a frugal
+  Indian meal, generally composed of wild game; Chilé Colorado or
+  red-pepper tortillas, and guayaves, with a good supply of mush and
+  milk, which completes the festive board of the _veloris_ or wake.
+  When the deceased is in good circumstances, the crowd in attendance
+  is treated every little while during the wake to alcoholic
+  refreshments. This feast and feasting is kept up until the Catholic
+  priest arrives to perform the funeral rites.
+
+  When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather baled up in
+  a large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around tight with a
+  rope or lasso made for the purpose; then six or eight men act as
+  pall-bearers, conducting the body to the place of burial, which is
+  in front of their church or chapel. The priest conducts the funeral
+  ceremonies in the ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings
+  observed by the Catholic church all over the world. While the
+  grave-diggers are filling up the grave, the friends, relatives,
+  neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that attend the funeral, give
+  vent to their sad feelings by making the whole pueblo howl; after
+  the tremendous uproar subsides, they disband and leave the body to
+  rest until Gabriel blows his trumpet. When the ceremonies are
+  performed with all the pomp of the Catholic church, the priest
+  receives a fair compensation for his services; otherwise he
+  officiates for the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo
+  pay him, which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.
+
+  These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning observance,
+  which last for one year after the demise of the deceased. While in
+  mourning for the dead, the mourners do not participate in the
+  national festivities of the tribe, which are occasions of state with
+  them, but they retire into a state of sublime quietude which makes
+  more civilized people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning
+  ceases, at the end of the year, they have high mass said for the
+  benefit of the soul of the departed; after this they again appear
+  upon the arena of their wild sports and continue to be gay and happy
+  until the next mortal is called from this terrestrial sphere to the
+  happy hunting-ground, which is their pictured celestial paradise.
+  The above cited facts, which are the most interesting points
+  connected with the burial customs of the Indians of the pueblo San
+  Geronimo de Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but are the
+  absolute facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances for
+  a period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a short
+  distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer of their
+  peculiar burial customs, am able to give you this true and
+  undisguised information relative to your circular on “burial
+  customs.”
+
+Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth coming
+in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the burial of
+the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. Fordyce
+Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection with the
+Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves _Kitty-ka-tats_, or those
+of the tattooed eyelids.
+
+  When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the
+  village and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made
+  for the burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave
+  prepared for its reception. If the grave is some distance from the
+  village, the body is carried thither on the back of a pony, being
+  first wrapped in blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle,
+  one person walking on either side to support it. The grave is dug
+  from three to four feet deep and of sufficient length for the
+  extended body. First blankets and buffalo-robes are laid in the
+  bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken from the horse and
+  unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and with ornaments is
+  placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the head towards the
+  west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging to the
+  deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are
+  deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+  utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are
+  placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when
+  the earth is filled in, it need not come in contact with the body or
+  its trappings. After the grave is filled with earth, a pen of poles
+  is built around it, or as is frequently the case, stakes are driven
+  so that they cross each other from either side about midway over the
+  grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild
+  animals. After all this is done, the grass or other _debris_ is
+  carefully scraped from about the grave for several feet, so that the
+  ground is left smooth and clean. It is seldom the case that the
+  relatives accompany the remains to the grave, but they more often
+  employ others to bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is
+  similar in this tribe, as in others, and it consists in cutting off
+  the hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave.
+
+The Caddoes, _Ascena_, or Timber Indians, as they call themselves,
+follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but one custom
+prevailing is worthy of mention:
+
+  If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is
+  left to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and the condition of
+  such individuals in the other world is considered to be far better
+  than that of persons dying a natural death.
+
+In a work by Bruhier[9] the following remarks, freely translated by the
+writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the
+exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:
+
+  The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the
+  roads, and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was
+  esteemed a great honor, a misfortune if not. Sometimes they
+  interred, always wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor.
+
+M. Pierre Muret,[10] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his
+information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar
+method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:
+
+  It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_ have ever
+  had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the
+  world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous
+  customs about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some
+  Historians; and the rather because at this day there are still to be
+  seen among them those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie
+  us, that their Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet
+  nevertheless, if we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_,
+  the _Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far
+  were they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them: But, as
+  these Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in the open
+  fields, which is the greatest shame our Laws do allot to the most
+  infamous Criminals, by laying them open to the view of all upon the
+  highways: Yea, in their opinion it was a great unhappiness, if
+  either Birds or Beasts did not devour their Carcases; and they
+  commonly made an estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies,
+  according as they were sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning
+  these, they resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed,
+  since even the beasts themselves would not touch them; which caused
+  an extream sorrow to their Relations, they taking it for an ill
+  boding to their Family, and an infallible presage of some great
+  misfortune hanging over their heads; for they persuaded themselves,
+  that the Souls which inhabited those Bodies being dragg’d into Hell,
+  would not fail to come and trouble them; and that being always
+  accompanied with the Devils, their Tormentors, they would certainly
+  give them a great deal of disturbance.
+
+  And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured,
+  their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the
+  Deceased; every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to
+  congratulate their relations on that account: For as they believed
+  assuredly, that they were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so they
+  were persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all those
+  of their family.
+
+  They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered
+  up and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see
+  those of Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane
+  Bodies, (the sight whereof gives us so much horror, that we
+  presently bury them out of our sight, whenever we find them
+  elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or Church-yards) were the occasion
+  of their greatest joy; beecause they concluded from thence the
+  happiness of those that had been devoured, wishing after their Death
+  to meet with the like good luck.
+
+The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that the
+Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and
+of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the
+open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief being
+that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy at
+least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite
+probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians
+trained dogs for this special purpose, called _Canes sepulchrales_,
+which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper
+that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to
+dwell in.
+
+The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead on
+top of high rocks.
+
+According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London Times
+of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta regarding
+the “Towers of Silence,” so called, of the Parsees, who, it is well
+known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from Persia
+by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 years
+since. This gentleman’s narrative is freely made use of to show how the
+custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has continued up to
+the present time.
+
+  The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a garden on
+  the highest point of Malabar Hill, a beautiful, rising ground on one
+  side of Black Bay, noted for the bungalows and compounds of the
+  European and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every
+  direction over its surface.
+
+  The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private road, all
+  access to which, except to Parsees, is barred by strong iron gates.
+
+The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:
+
+  No English nobleman’s garden could be better kept, and no pen could
+  do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses, and
+  palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred
+  silence, but of peaceful rest.
+
+The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about 40
+feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as almost
+to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest of the
+towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees first
+settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next
+oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next
+century. A sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only used
+for criminals.
+
+The writer proceeds as follows:
+
+  Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest
+  moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an extraordinary
+  coping, which instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a
+  coping formed not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These
+  birds, on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves side by
+  side in perfect order and in a complete circle around the parapets
+  of the towers, with their heads pointing inwards, and so lazily did
+  they sit there, and so motionless was their whole mien, that except
+  for their color, they might have been carved out of the stonework.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Parsee Towers of Silence (interior).]
+
+No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor is
+any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. A model
+was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this description:
+
+  Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet high and
+  at least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of solid stone except
+  in the center, where a well, 5 or 6 feet across, leads down to an
+  excavation under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles
+  to each other, terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the
+  upper surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely hiding
+  the interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12 feet in height.
+  This it is which, when viewed from the outside, appears to form one
+  piece with the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered with
+  chunam, gives the whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper
+  surface of the solid stone column is divided into 72 compartments,
+  or open receptacles, radiating like the spokes of a wheel from the
+  central well, and arranged in three concentric rings, separated from
+  each other by narrow ridges of stone, which are grooved to act as
+  channels for conveying all moisture from the receptacles into the
+  well and into the lower drains. It should be noted that the number
+  “3” is emblematical of Zoroaster’s three precepts, and the number
+  “72” of the chapters of his Yasna, a portion of the Zend-Avestá.
+
+  Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next by a
+  pathway, so that there are three circular pathways, the last
+  encircling the central well, and these three pathways are crossed by
+  another pathway conducting from the solitary door which admits the
+  corpse-bearers from the exterior. In the outermost circle of the
+  stone coffins are placed the bodies of males, in the middle those of
+  the females, and in the inner and smallest circle nearest the well
+  those of children.
+
+  While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the model,
+  a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our heads. At least a
+  hundred birds collected round one of the towers began to show
+  symptoms of excitement, while others swooped down from neighboring
+  trees. The cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy
+  soon revealed itself. A funeral was seen to be approaching. However
+  distant the house of a deceased person, and whether he be rich or
+  poor, high or low in rank, his body is always carried to the towers
+  by the official corpse-bearers, called _Nasasalár_, who form a
+  distinct class, the mourners walking behind.
+
+  Before they remove the body from the house where the relatives are
+  assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and the corpse is exposed to
+  the gaze of a dog, regarded by the Parsees as a sacred animal. This
+  latter ceremony is called _sagdid_.
+
+  Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a curved metal
+  trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed in pure
+  white garments, proceed with it towards the towers. They are
+  followed by the mourners at a distance of at least 30 feet, in
+  pairs, also dressed in white, and each couple joined by holding a
+  white handkerchief between them. The particular funeral I witnessed
+  was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers reached the path
+  leading by a steep incline to the door of the tower, the mourners,
+  about eight in number, turned back and entered one of the
+  prayer-houses. “There,” said the secretary, “they repeat certain
+  gáthás, and pray that the spirit of the deceased may be safely
+  transported, on the fourth day after death, to its final
+  resting-place.”
+
+  The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which other
+  members of the same family had before been laid. The two bearers
+  speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed the body of the
+  child into the interior, and, unseen by any one, laid it uncovered
+  in one of the open stone receptacles nearest the central well. In
+  two minutes they reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and
+  scarcely had they closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down
+  upon the body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes
+  more we saw the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again
+  upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind but a skeleton.
+  Meanwhile, the bearers were seen to enter a building shaped like a
+  high barrel. There, as the secretary informed me, they changed their
+  clothes and washed themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come
+  out and deposit their cast-off funeral garments in a stone
+  receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden, lest it
+  should carry defilement into the city. Perfectly new garments are
+  supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or, at most, four weeks,
+  the same bearers return, and, with gloved hands and implements
+  resembling tongs, place the dry skeleton in the central well. There
+  the bones find their last resting-place, and there the dust of whole
+  generations of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for
+  centuries.
+
+  The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my back on
+  the towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I asked the secretary how
+  it was possible to become reconciled to such usage. His reply was
+  nearly in the following words: “Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived
+  6,000 years ago, taught us to regard the elements as symbols of the
+  Deity. Earth, fire, water, he said, ought never, under any
+  circumstances, to be defiled by contact with putrefying flesh.
+  Naked, he said, came we into the world and naked we ought to leave
+  it. But the decaying particles of our bodies should be dissipated as
+  rapidly as possible and in such a way that neither Mother Earth nor
+  the beings she supports should be contaminated in the slightest
+  degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest of health officers,
+  and, following his sanitary laws, we build our towers on the tops of
+  the hills, above all human habitations. We spare no expense in
+  constructing them of the hardest materials, and we expose our
+  putrescent bodies in open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen
+  feet of solid granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures,
+  but to be dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without
+  the possibility of polluting the earth or contaminating a single
+  being dwelling thereon. God, indeed, sends the vultures, and, as a
+  matter of fact, these birds do their appointed work much more
+  expeditiously than millions of insects would do if we committed our
+  bodies to the ground. In a sanitary point of view, nothing can be
+  more perfect than our plan. Even the rain-water which washes our
+  skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying charcoal. Here in
+  these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees that have lived
+  in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We form a united body in
+  life and we are united in death.”
+
+It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of
+disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with
+the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which
+allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat
+similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the
+North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees,
+but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care
+is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the
+corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes
+or thongs.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence,
+drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Parsee Towers of Silence.]
+
+George Gibbs[11] gives the following account of burial among the Klamath
+and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been
+originally furnished him by James G. Swan.
+
+  The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses,
+  exhibit very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are
+  inclosed in rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the
+  body, and covered with earth to some depth; a heavy plank, often
+  supported by upright head and foot stones, is laid upon the top, or
+  stones are built up into a wall about a foot above the ground, and
+  the top flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are surrounded
+  by neat wooden palings, each pale ornamented with a feather from the
+  tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are usually staked down by the side,
+  according to the wealth or popularity of the individual, and
+  sometimes other articles for ornament or use are suspended over
+  them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three days, during which the
+  soul of the deceased is in danger from _O-mah-á_, or the devil. To
+  preserve it from this peril, a fire is kept up at the grave, and the
+  friends of the deceased howl around it to scare away the demon.
+  Should they not be successful in this the soul is carried down the
+  river, subject, however, to redemption by _Péh-ho-wan_ on payment of
+  a big knife. After the expiration of three days it is all well with
+  them.
+
+The question may well be asked, is the big knife a “sop to Cerberus”?
+
+To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States
+Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer
+is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary
+customs of the
+
+WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.
+
+  A large proportion of these Indians being members of the
+  Presbyterian church (the missionaries of which church have labored
+  among them for more than forty years past), the dead of their
+  families are buried after the customs of that church, and this
+  influence is felt to a great extent among those Indians who are not
+  strict church members, so that they are dropping one by one the
+  traditional customs of their tribe, and but few can now be found who
+  bury their dead in accordance with their customs of twenty or more
+  years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to their
+  modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated below.
+
+  _Warrior._--After death they paint a warrior red across the mouth,
+  or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb on one side of
+  the mouth and the fingers separated on the other cheek, the rest of
+  the face being painted red. (This latter is only done as a mark of
+  respect to a specially brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the
+  medicine-bag of the deceased when alive are buried with the body,
+  the medicine-bag being placed on the bare skin over the region of
+  the heart. There is not now, nor has there been, among these Indians
+  any special preparation of the grave. The body of a warrior is
+  generally wrapped in a blanket or piece of cloth (and frequently in
+  addition is placed in a box) and buried in the grave prepared for
+  the purpose, always, as the majority of these Indians inform me,
+  with the head towards the _south_. (I have, however, seen many
+  graves in which the head of the occupant had been placed to the
+  _east_. It may be that these graves were those of Indians who
+  belonged to the church; and a few Indians inform me that the head is
+  sometimes placed towards the _west_, according to the occupant’s
+  belief when alive as to the direction from which his guiding
+  medicine came, and I am personally inclined to give credence to this
+  latter as sometimes occurring.) In all burials, when the person has
+  died a natural death, or had not been murdered, and whether man,
+  woman, or child, the body is placed in the grave with the face _up_.
+  In cases, however, when a man or woman has been murdered by one of
+  their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the grave
+  with the face _down_, head to the _south_, and a piece of fat (bacon
+  or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of fat is placed in the
+  mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent the spirit of the murdered
+  person driving or scaring the game from that section of country.
+  Those Indians who state that their dead are always buried with the
+  head towards the south say they do so in order that the spirit of
+  the deceased may go to the south, the land from which these Indians
+  believe they originally came.
+
+  _Women and children._--Before death the face of the person expected
+  to die is often painted in a red color. When this is not done before
+  death it is done afterwards; the body being then buried in a grave
+  prepared for its reception, and in the manner described for a
+  warrior, cooking-utensils taking the place of the warrior’s weapons.
+  In cases of boys and girls a kettle of cooked food is sometimes
+  placed at the head of the grave after the body is covered. Now, if
+  the dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go up
+  and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls do
+  likewise. This, however, has never obtained as a custom, but is
+  sometimes done in cases of warriors and women also.
+
+  Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is now, and
+  always has been, a custom among them to remove a lock of hair from
+  the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or from the left side of the
+  head of a woman, which is carefully preserved by some near relative
+  of the deceased, wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in
+  the lodge of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the dead
+  person. To the bundle is attached a tin cup or other vessel, and in
+  this is placed some food for the spirit of the dead person. Whenever
+  a stranger happens in at meal time, this food, however, is not
+  allowed to go to waste; if not consumed by the stranger to whom it
+  is offered, some of the occupants of the lodge eat it. They seem to
+  take some pains to please the ghost of the deceased, thinking
+  thereby they will have good luck in their family so long as they
+  continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they smoke to
+  offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time asking it to confer
+  some favor on them, or aid them in their work or in hunting, &c.
+
+  There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost of the
+  deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This feast may be at
+  any time, and is not at any particular time, occurring, however,
+  generally as often as once a year, unless, at the time of the first
+  feast, the friends designate a particular time, such, for instance,
+  as when the leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle
+  is never permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the dead
+  person, except to be buried in the grave of one of them. Much of the
+  property of the deceased person is buried with the body, a portion
+  being placed under the body and a portion over it. Horses are
+  sometimes killed on the grave of a warrior, but this custom is
+  gradually ceasing, in consequence of the value of their ponies.
+  These animals are therefore now generally given away by the person
+  before death, or after death disposed of by the near relatives. Many
+  years ago it was customary to kill one or more ponies at the grave.
+  In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an Indian, much of his
+  personal property is now, and has ever been, reserved from burial
+  with the body, and forms the basis for a gambling party, which will
+  be described hereafter. No food is ever buried in the grave, but
+  some is occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case it is
+  consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the method that
+  was in vogue with these Indians twenty years ago, and which is still
+  adhered to, with more or less exactness, by the majority of them,
+  the exceptions being those who are strict church members and those
+  very few families who adhere to their ancient customs.
+
+  Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as the oldest
+  members of these tribes can remember, and with the usual tribal
+  traditions handed down from generation to generation, in regard to
+  this as well as to other things, for these Indians to bury in a tree
+  or on a platform, and in those days an Indian was only buried in the
+  ground as a mark of disrespect in consequence of the person having
+  been murdered, in which case the body would be buried in the ground,
+  _face down_, head toward the south and with a piece of fat in the
+  mouth. * * * The platform upon which the body was deposited was
+  constructed of four crotched posts firmly set in the ground, and
+  connected near the top by cross-pieces, upon which was placed
+  boards, when obtainable, and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so
+  as to give a firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an
+  elevation of from six to eight or more feet, and never contained but
+  one body, although frequently having sufficient surface to
+  accommodate two or three. In burying in the crotch of a tree and on
+  platforms, the head of the dead person was always placed towards the
+  south; the body was wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely
+  tied, and many of the personal effects of the deceased were buried
+  with it; as in the case of a warrior, his bows and arrows,
+  war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the body, the Indians
+  saying he would need such things in the next world.
+
+  I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before their
+  outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near relative whom they
+  held in great respect with them on their moves, for a greater or
+  lesser time, often as long as two or three years before burial.
+  This, however, never obtained generally among them, and some of them
+  seem to know nothing about it. It has of late years been entirely
+  dropped, except when a person dies away from home, it being then
+  customary for the friends to bring the body home for burial.
+
+  _Mourning ceremonies._--The mourning ceremonies before the year 1860
+  were as follows: After the death of a warrior the whole camp or
+  tribe would be assembled in a circle, and after the widow had cut
+  herself on the arms, legs, and body with a piece of flint, and
+  removed the hair from her head, she would go around the ring any
+  number of times she chose, but each time was considered as an oath
+  that she would not marry for a year, so that she could not marry for
+  as many years as times she went around the circle. The widow would
+  all this time keep up a crying and wailing. Upon the completion of
+  this the friends of the deceased would take the body to the platform
+  or tree where it was to remain, keeping up all this time their
+  wailing and crying. After depositing the body, they would stand
+  under it and continue exhibiting their grief, the squaws by hacking
+  their arms and legs with flint and cutting off the hair from their
+  head. The men would sharpen sticks and run them through the skin of
+  their arms and legs, both men and women keeping up their crying
+  generally for the remainder of the day, and the near relatives of
+  the deceased for several days thereafter. As soon as able, the
+  warrior friends of the deceased would go to a near tribe of their
+  enemies and kill one or more of them if possible, return with their
+  scalps, and exhibit them to the deceased person’s relatives, after
+  which their mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as
+  properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when their
+  enemies were within reasonable striking distance, such, for
+  instance, as the Chippewas and the Arickarees, Gros Ventres and
+  Mandan Indians. In cases of women and children, the squaws would cut
+  off their hair, hack their persons with flint, and sharpen sticks
+  and run them through the skin of the arms and legs, crying as for a
+  warrior.
+
+  It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for a squaw
+  when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by hanging herself
+  with a lariat over the limb of a tree. This could not have prevailed
+  to any great extent, however, although the old men recite several
+  instances of its occurrence, and a very few examples within recent
+  years. Such was their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since
+  which time it has gradually died out, and at the present time these
+  ancient customs are adhered to by but a single family, known as the
+  seven brothers, who appear to retain all the ancient customs of
+  their tribe. At the present time, as a mourning observance, the
+  squaws hack themselves on their legs with knives, cut off their
+  hair, and cry and wail around the grave of the dead person, and the
+  men in addition paint their faces, but no longer torture themselves
+  by means of sticks passed through the skin of the arms and legs.
+  This cutting and painting is sometimes done before and sometimes
+  after the burial of the body. I also observe that many of the women
+  of these tribes are adopting so much of the customs of the whites as
+  prescribes the wearing of black for certain periods. During the
+  period of mourning these Indians never wash their face, or comb
+  their hair, or laugh. These customs are observed with varying degree
+  of strictness, but not in many instances with that exactness which
+  characterized these Indians before the advent of the white man among
+  them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of the person
+  practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That mutilation of a
+  finger by removing one or more joints, so generally observed among
+  the Minnetarree Indians at the Fort Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not
+  here seen, although the old men of these tribes inform me that it
+  was an ancient custom among their women, on the occasion of the
+  burial of a husband, to cut off a portion of a finger and have it
+  suspended in the tree above his body. I have, however, yet to see an
+  example of this having been done by any of the Indians now living,
+  and the custom must have fallen into disuse more than seventy years
+  ago.
+
+  In regard to the period of mourning, I would say that there does not
+  now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never was, any fixed
+  period of mourning, but it would seem that, like some of the whites,
+  they mourn when the subject is brought to their minds by some remark
+  or other occurrence. It is not unusual at the present time to hear a
+  man or woman cry and exclaim, “O, my poor husband!” “O, my poor
+  wife!” or “O, my poor child!” as the case may be, and, upon
+  inquiring, learn that the event happened several years before.
+  I have elsewhere mentioned that in some cases much of the personal
+  property of the deceased was and is reserved from burial with the
+  body, and forms the basis of a gambling party. I shall conclude my
+  remarks upon the burial customs, &c., of these Indians by an account
+  of this, which they designate as the “ghost’s gamble.”
+
+The account of the game will be found in another part of this paper.
+
+As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the
+tomb, a translation of Schiller’s beautiful burial song is here given.
+It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:
+
+BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.
+
+  See on his mat, as if of yore,
+    How lifelike sits he here;
+  With the same aspect that he wore
+    When life to him was dear.
+  But where the right arm’s strength, and where
+    The breath he used to breathe
+  To the Great Spirit aloft in air,
+    The peace-pipe’s lusty wreath?
+  And where the hawk-like eye, alas!
+    That wont the deer pursue
+  Along the waves of rippling grass,
+    Or fields that shone with dew?
+  Are these the limber, bounding feet
+    That swept the winter snows?
+  What startled deer was half so fleet,
+    Their speed outstripped the roe’s.
+  These hands that once the sturdy bow
+    Could supple from its pride,
+  How stark and helpless hang they now
+    Adown the stiffened side!
+  Yet weal to him! at peace he strays
+    Where never fall the snows,
+  Where o’er the meadow springs the maize
+    That mortal never sows;
+  Where birds are blithe in every brake,
+    Where forests teem with deer,
+  Where glide the fish through every lake,
+    One chase from year to year!
+  With spirits now he feasts above;
+    All left us, to revere
+  The deeds we cherish with our love,
+    The rest we bury here.
+  Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill
+    Wail death-dirge of the brave
+  What pleased him most in life may still
+    Give pleasure in the grave.
+  We lay the axe beneath his head
+    He swung when strength was strong,
+  The bear on which his hunger fed--
+    The way from earth is long!
+  And here, new-sharpened, place the knife
+    Which severed from the clay,
+  From which the axe had spoiled the life,
+    The conquered scalp away.
+  The paints that deck the dead bestow,
+    Aye, place them in his hand,
+  That red the kingly shade may glow
+    Amid the spirit land.
+
+The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. McChesney,
+face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of Indians,
+is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a cemetery
+belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near Abiquiu,
+N. Mex., a number of bodies, all of which had been buried face downward.
+The account originally appeared in Field and Forest, 1877, vol. iii,
+No. 1, p. 9.
+
+  On each side of the town were noticed two small arroyas or water
+  washed ditches, within 30 feet of the walls, and a careful
+  examination of these revealed the objects of our search. At the
+  bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly formed subsequent to the
+  occupation of the village, we found portions of human remains, and
+  following up the walls of the ditch soon had the pleasure of
+  discovering several skeletons _in situ_. The first found was in the
+  eastern arroya, and the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the
+  surface of the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face
+  downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the
+  skeleton were two shining black earthen vases, containing small bits
+  of charcoal, the bones of mammals, birds, and partially consumed
+  corn, and above these “_ollas_” the earth to the surface was filled
+  with pieces of charcoal. Doubtless the remains found in the vases
+  served at a funeral feast prior to the inhumation. We examined very
+  carefully this grave, hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or
+  weapons, but none rewarded our search. In all of the graves examined
+  the bodies were found in similar positions and under similar
+  circumstances in both arroyas, several of the skeletons being those
+  of children. No information could be obtained as to the probable age
+  of these interments, the present Indians considering them as dating
+  from the time when their ancestors with Moctezuma came from the
+  _north_.
+
+The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman,[12] in disposing
+of their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any
+needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner:
+
+  The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially
+  wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the
+  removal of a small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has
+  been crammed into the smallest possible space the rock or stump is
+  again rolled into its former position, when a number of stones are
+  placed around the base to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin
+  usually mourn for the period of one month, during that time giving
+  utterance at intervals to the most dismal lamentations, which are
+  apparently sincere. During the day this obligation is frequently
+  neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of his duty
+  he renews his howling with evident interest. This custom of mourning
+  for the period of thirty days corresponds to that formerly observed
+  by the Natchez.
+
+Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in the
+life of Moses Van Campen,[13] which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:
+
+  Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen
+  in battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and
+  laying the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a
+  little earth.
+
+As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:
+
+CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.
+
+  Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians
+  plant a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury
+  them in a bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring
+  provisions to the place where their fathers are buried. One of the
+  graves had fallen in, and we observed in the soil some sticks for
+  stretching skins, the remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps
+  for carrying it, and near the place where the head lay were the
+  traces of a fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased
+  to come and warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited
+  near it.
+
+  These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the
+  north shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the
+  country being claimed by the Oneidas.
+
+It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was
+discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may
+have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his
+vocation--nets, fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was
+only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians,
+that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were
+employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of
+skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the
+only example of the kind.
+
+Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus
+described:
+
+  The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan
+  which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and
+  drown their grief in _mushla_, the women giving vent to their sorrow
+  by dashing themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and
+  inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As
+  it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of
+  the body, musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while
+  preparations are made for its removal. All at once four naked men,
+  who have disguised themselves with paint so as not to be recognized
+  and punished by _Wulasha_, rush out from a neighboring hut, and,
+  seizing a rope attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods,
+  followed by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into
+  the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to
+  serve the departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the
+  boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the
+  grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other
+  articles placed there from time to time by relatives.
+
+
+_STONE GRAVES OR CISTS._
+
+These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in
+the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the
+class of graves previously described.
+
+A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus described
+by Moses Fiske:[14]
+
+  There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular
+  graves. They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the
+  bottom ends and sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after
+  laying in the body, covered it over with earth.
+
+It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a
+number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutré, in France,
+and they were almost identical in construction with those described by
+Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, this,
+however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a deposition
+of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which have
+elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer in
+1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom and
+sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were none
+directly over the skeletons.
+
+The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his own
+observation in Tennessee.
+
+  The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant throughout
+  the State. Often hundreds of graves may be found on a single
+  hillside. The same people sometimes bury in scattered graves and in
+  mounds--the mounds being composed of a large number of cist graves.
+  The graves are increased by additions from time to time. The
+  additions are sometimes placed above and sometimes at the sides of
+  the others. In the first burials there is a tendency to a concentric
+  system with the feet towards the center, but subsequent burials are
+  more irregular, so that the system is finally abandoned before the
+  place is desired for cemetery purposes.
+
+  Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of
+  interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before
+  the decay of the flesh, and in many instances collections of bones
+  are buried. Sometimes these bones are placed in some order about the
+  crania, and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of
+  bones had been emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers,
+  knives, arrowheads, &c., were usually found, with women, pottery,
+  rude beads, shells, &c., with children, toys of pottery, beads,
+  curious pebbles, &c.
+
+  Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous
+  burial was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists
+  were covered with slabs.
+
+Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work[15] the reader is referred for a
+more detailed account of this mode of burial.
+
+G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the
+writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to
+their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a
+receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the
+hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the
+dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave
+by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground
+after the grave is filled in.
+
+The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George Escoll
+Sellers,[16] inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which is
+as follows:
+
+  Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about 30°, it
+  has been terraced and the terrace as well as the crown of the spur
+  have been used as a cemetery; portions of the terraces are still
+  perfect; all the burials appear to have been made in rude stone
+  cists, that vary in size from 13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4
+  feet, and from 18 inches to 2 feet deep. They are made of
+  thin-bedded sandstone slabs, generally roughly shaped, but some of
+  them have been edged and squared with considerable care,
+  particularly the covering slabs. The slope below the terraces was
+  thickly strewed with these slabs, washed out as the terraces have
+  worn away, and which have since been carried off for door-steps and
+  hearth-stones. I have opened many of these cists; they nearly all
+  contain fragments of human bones far gone in decay, but I have never
+  succeeded in securing a perfect skull; even the clay vessels that
+  were interred with the dead have disintegrated, the portions
+  remaining being almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some of the
+  cists that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water shells,
+  but most generally with the fragments of the great salt-pans, which
+  in every case are so far gone in decay as to have lost the outside
+  markings. This seems conclusively to couple the tenants of these
+  ancient graves with the makers and users of these salt-pans. The
+  great number of graves and the quantity of slabs that have been
+  washed out prove either a dense population or a long occupancy, or
+  both.
+
+W. J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a
+description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from
+other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.
+
+  I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some twenty-five
+  years ago, of seeing what was called “Indian graves,” and those that
+  I examined were close to small streams of water, and were buried in
+  a sitting or squatting posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones,
+  and were then buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves
+  which I examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to
+  be isolated, no two being found in the same locality. When the
+  burials took place I could hardly conjecture, but it must have been,
+  from appearances, from fifty to one hundred years. The bones that I
+  took out on first appearance seemed tolerably perfect, but on short
+  exposure to the atmosphere crumbled, and I was unable to save a
+  specimen. No implements or relics were observed in those examined by
+  me, but I have heard of others who have found such. In that State,
+  Kentucky, there are a number of places where the Indians buried
+  their dead and left mounds of earth over the graves, but I have not
+  examined them myself. * * *
+
+According to Bancroft,[17] the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central
+America, also followed the cist form of burial.
+
+  In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the
+  principal men, constructed with flat stones laid together with much
+  care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food
+  and wine for the dead. Those for the plebians were merely trenches,
+  in which were deposited some gourds of maize and wine, and the place
+  filled with stones. In some parts of Panama and Darien only the
+  chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the common people a
+  person feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led to
+  the woods by his wife, family, or friends, who, supplying him with
+  some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, then left him to die
+  alone or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others, with more respect
+  for their dead, buried them in sepulchers made with niches, where
+  they placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some,
+  a mother dying while suckling her infant, the living child was
+  placed at her breast and buried with her, in order that in her
+  future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk.
+
+
+_BURIAL IN MOUNDS._
+
+In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote
+any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting
+examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.
+
+The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F. W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Archæology,
+Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is
+published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:
+
+  * * * He then stated that it would be of interest to the members, in
+  connection with the discovery of dolmens in Japan, as described by
+  Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four hours there had
+  been received at the Peabody Museum a small collection of articles
+  taken from rude dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they would be
+  called in England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now
+  engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody Museum.
+
+  These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay
+  County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the
+  Missouri River. The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr.
+  Curtiss, about 8 feet square, and from 4½ to 5 feet high, each
+  chamber having a passage-way several feet in length and 2 in width,
+  leading from the southern side and opening on the edge of the mound
+  formed by covering the chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls
+  of the chambered passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and
+  well made of stones, which were evenly laid without clay or mortar
+  of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a covering of large,
+  flat rocks, but the others seem to have been closed over with wood.
+  The chambers were filled with clay which had been burnt, and
+  appeared as if it had fallen in from above. The inside walls of the
+  chambers also showed signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each
+  chamber, were found the remains of several human skeletons, all of
+  which had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small
+  fragments of the bones, which were mixed with the ashes and
+  charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in one chamber he found the
+  remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these skeletons there
+  were a few flint implements and minute fragments of vessels of clay.
+
+  A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this
+  no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This
+  mound proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also
+  contained well-made pottery and a peculiar “gorget” of red stone.
+  The connection of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in
+  the stone chambers with those who buried their dead in the earth
+  mounds is, of course, yet to be determined.
+
+It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used for
+secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.
+
+In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same investigator
+gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the
+preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:
+
+  Mr. F. W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account of
+  his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the
+  Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.
+
+  The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr.
+  Edwin Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody
+  Museum at Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds
+  had been thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular
+  stone graves of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully
+  opened. * * * Mr. Putnam’s remarks were illustrated by drawings of
+  several hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds,
+  particularly to show the great variety of articles of pottery and
+  several large and many unique forms of implements of chipped flint.
+  He also exhibited and explained in detail a map of a walled town of
+  this old nation. This town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a
+  bend of Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying
+  ditch, encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this inclosure
+  there was one large mound with a flat top, 15 feet high, 130 feet
+  long, and 90 feet wide, which was found not to be a burial mound.
+  Another mound near the large one, about 50 feet in diameter, and
+  only a few feet high, contained 60 human skeletons, each in a
+  carefully-made stone grave, the graves being arranged in two rows,
+  forming the four sides of a square, and in three layers. * * * The
+  most important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of
+  finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived in this
+  old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located on the map by
+  Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr. Putnam.
+  Under the floors of hard clay, which was in places much burnt, Mr.
+  Putnam found the graves of children. As only the bodies of adults
+  had been placed in the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly
+  every site of a house he explored had from one to four graves of
+  children under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a
+  regular custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that
+  the children had undoubtedly been treated with affection, as in
+  their small graves were found many of the best pieces of pottery he
+  obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several large pearls,
+  and many other objects which were probably the playthings of the
+  little ones while living.[18]
+
+This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it is
+frequently mentioned by writers on North American archæology.
+
+The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part
+used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless common.
+
+Caleb Atwater[19] gives this description of the
+
+BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.
+
+  Near the center of the round fort * * * was a tumulus of earth about
+  10 feet in height and several rods in diameter at its base. On its
+  eastern side, and extending 6 rods from it, was a semicircular
+  pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in the bed of the
+  Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been brought. The
+  summit of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was
+  a raised way to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike.
+  The summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement and
+  the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this mound was
+  entirely removed several years since. The writer was present at its
+  removal and carefully examined the contents. It contained--
+
+  1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the original
+  surface of the earth.
+
+  2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as
+  to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.
+
+  3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made of an
+  elk’s horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a
+  ferule of silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time.
+  Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted,
+  yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and
+  size.
+
+  4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were
+  surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared
+  to have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost
+  consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a
+  little to the south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet
+  to the north of it was another, with which were--
+
+  5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1½ inches in
+  thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica membranacea_), and
+  on it--
+
+  6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was
+  disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour
+  answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This
+  skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal
+  and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is
+  in my possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at
+  the time. The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal’s Museum,
+  at Philadelphia.
+
+  To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another,
+  more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate
+  representing these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears
+  to be artificial. This must have been the common cemetery, as it
+  contains an immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages.
+  The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads generally
+  towards the center and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus.
+  A considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, except by
+  time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and
+  knives, and several ornaments, with holes through them, by means of
+  which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they could be
+  worn by their owners. On the south side of this tumulus, and not far
+  from it, was a semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw it, was 6
+  feet deep. On opening it was discovered at the bottom a great
+  quantity of human bones, which I am inclined to believe were the
+  remains of those who had been slain in some great and destructive
+  battle: first, because they belonged to persons who had attained
+  their full size, whereas in the mound adjoining were found the
+  skeletons of persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were here in
+  the utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not conjecture
+  that they belonged to the people who resided in the town, and who
+  were victorious in the engagement? Otherwise they would not have
+  been thus honorably buried in the common cemetery.
+
+  _Chillicothe mound._--Its perpendicular height was about 15 feet,
+  and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was composed of sand
+  and contained human bones belonging to skeletons which were buried
+  in different parts of it. It was not until this pile of earth was
+  removed and the original surface exposed to view that a probable
+  conjecture of its original design could be formed. About 20 feet
+  square of the surface had been leveled and covered with bark. On the
+  center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been spread a
+  mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the breast lay what
+  had been a piece of copper, in the form of a cross, which had now
+  become verdigris. On the breast also lay a stone ornament with two
+  perforations, one near each end, through which passed a string, by
+  means of which it was suspended around the wearer’s neck. On this
+  string, which was made of sinews, and very much injured by time,
+  were placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I cannot
+  certainly say which. * * *
+
+  _Mounds of stone._--Two such mounds have been described already in
+  the county of Perry. Others have been found in various parts of the
+  country. There is one at least in the vicinity of Licking River, not
+  many miles from Newark. There is another on a branch of Hargus’s
+  Creek, a few miles to the northeast of Circleville. There were
+  several not very far from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds
+  were sometimes used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they
+  were also used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the
+  recollection of some great transaction or event. In the former not
+  more generally than one or two skeletons are found; in the latter
+  none. These mounds are like those of earth, in form of a cone,
+  composed of small stones on which no marks of tools were visible. In
+  them some of the most interesting articles are found, such as urns,
+  ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal, as
+  well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; * * * works of
+  this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they are none
+  of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of
+  Circleville, which belong to the first class. I saw one of these
+  stone tumuli which had been piled on the surface of the earth on the
+  spot where three skeletons had been buried in stone coffins, beneath
+  the surface. It was situated on the western edge of the hill on
+  which the “walled town” stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to
+  have been dug to about the depth of ours in the present times. After
+  the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat stones, the corpses
+  were placed in these graves in an eastern and western direction, and
+  large flat stones were laid over the graves; then the earth which
+  had been dug out of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of
+  stones was placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however,
+  that this was a work of our present race of Indians. Such graves are
+  more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except the skeletons,
+  was found in these graves; and the skeletons resembled very much the
+  present race of Indians.
+
+The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C.
+Holbrook[20] as follows:
+
+  I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian mounds
+  found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first
+  one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and
+  7 feet high. In the interior of this I found a _dolmen_ or
+  quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4½ feet
+  wide. It had been built of lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was
+  covered with large flat stones. No mortar or cement had been used.
+  The whole structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
+  interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the chamber.
+  Inside of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed remains of eight
+  human skeletons, two very large teeth of an unknown animal, two
+  fossils, one of which is not found in this place, and a plummet. One
+  of the long bones had been splintered; the fragments had united, but
+  there remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several
+  places. One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the
+  size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during life,
+  for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. I later examined three
+  circular mounds, but in them I found no dolmens. The first mound
+  contained three adult human skeletons, a few fragments of the
+  skeleton of a child, the lower maxillary of which indicated it to be
+  about six years old. I also found claws of some carnivorous animal.
+  The surface of the soil had been scooped out and the bodies laid in
+  the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth; fires had
+  then been made upon the grave and the mound afterwards completed.
+  The bones had not been charred. No charcoal was found among the
+  bones, but occurred in abundance in a stratum about one foot above
+  them. Two other mounds, examined at the same time, contain no
+  remains.
+
+  Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4
+  feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on
+  an elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the
+  top of this mound one might view the country for many miles in
+  almost any direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long
+  and 4½ wide. It was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which
+  had been burned red, some portions having been almost converted into
+  lime. On and about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the
+  sides of the altar were fragments of human bones, some of which had
+  been charred. It was covered by a natural growth of vegetable mold
+  and sod, the thickness of which was about 10 inches. Large trees had
+  once grown in this vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed
+  I could not tell with certainty; to what species they belonged.
+  Another large mound was opened which contained nothing.
+
+The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
+was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army:[21]
+
+  Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were
+  buried in it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his
+  head. This idea was based upon some superficial explorations which
+  had been made from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their
+  excavations had, indeed, brought to light pots containing fragments
+  of skulls, but not buried in the position they imagined. Very
+  extensive explorations, made at different times by myself, have
+  shown that only fragments of skulls and of the long bones of the
+  body are to be found in the mound, and that these are commonly
+  associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but more frequently
+  broken fragments only. In some instances portions of the skull were
+  placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited in its immediate
+  vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand, and fragments of
+  bones would be found near them. The most successful “find” I made
+  was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all in a
+  good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of skull,
+  which I take, from its small size, to have been that of a female.
+  Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried
+  in the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains
+  because of her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason
+  of the unusual wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter
+  of conjecture. I found, altogether, fragments of skulls and
+  thigh-bones belonging to at least fifty individuals, but in no
+  instance did I find anything like a complete skeleton. There were no
+  vertebræ, no ribs, no pelvic bones, and none of the small bones of
+  the hands and feet. Two or three skulls, nearly perfect, were found,
+  but they were so fragile that it was impossible to preserve them. In
+  the majority of instances, only fragments of the frontal and
+  parietal bones were found, buried in pots or in fragments of pots
+  too small to have ever contained a complete skull. The conclusion
+  was irresistible that this was not a burial-place for _the bodies_
+  of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been gathered from some
+  other locality for burial in this mound, or that cremation was
+  practiced before burial, and the fragments of bone not consumed by
+  fire were gathered and deposited in the mound. That the latter
+  supposition is the correct one I deem probable from the fact that in
+  digging in the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places,
+  but without any regularity as to depth and position. These evidences
+  consist in strata of from one to four inches in thickness, in which
+  the sand is of a dark color and has mixed with it numerous small
+  fragments of charcoal.
+
+  My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the
+  following manner: That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was
+  erected on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the
+  body was consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered,
+  placed in a pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were
+  covered by a layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for
+  that purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that only
+  the shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded extremities,
+  which would be most easily consumed, having disappeared; also, by
+  the fact that no bones of children were found. Their bones being
+  smaller, and containing a less proportion of earthy matter, would be
+  entirely consumed. * * *
+
+  At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I
+  found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved
+  skulls. * * * The bodies were not, apparently, deposited upon any
+  regular system, and I found no objects of interest associated with
+  the remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the
+  skeletons found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in
+  which they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the fact
+  that they were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of
+  ante-mortem injuries which must have been of a fatal character.
+
+Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,[22] in alluding to the ossuary, or
+bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation
+takes place, in this manner:
+
+  Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of
+  the deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one
+  upon another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth
+  heaped above.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of a
+  festival called the feast of the dead.
+
+Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a somewhat
+curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley of Ohio:
+
+  A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a
+  central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons
+  buried around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture, but leaning
+  against one another, tipped over towards the right, facing inwards.
+  I did not see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many
+  ornaments, awls, &c., said to have been found near the central body.
+  The parties informing me are trustworthy.
+
+As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting as
+being _sui generis_, the following description by Dr. J. Mason
+Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11,
+1871, on the farm of R. V. Michaux, esq., near John’s River, in Burke
+County, N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer
+of undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:
+
+EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.
+
+  In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he
+  informed me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was
+  formerly of considerable height, but had gradually been plowed down;
+  that several mounds in the neighborhood had been excavated, and
+  nothing of interest found in them. I asked permission to examine
+  this mound, which was granted, and upon investigation the following
+  facts were revealed:
+
+  Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length
+  and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a
+  rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was
+  found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth,
+  about 18 inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length,
+  and 16 inches in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with
+  the corners rounded.
+
+  Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an excavation in
+  the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which, upon
+  examination, proved to be in front of the remains of a human
+  skeleton in a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right
+  hand were resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a
+  small stone about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian
+  hatchet. Upon a further examination many of the bones were found,
+  though in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air
+  soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable
+  portion of the skull, maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the
+  vertebra, were in their proper places, though the weight of the
+  earth above them had driven them down, yet the entire frame was so
+  perfect that it was an easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones
+  of the cranium were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the
+  neck were found coarse beads that seemed to be of some hard
+  substance and resembled chalk. A small lump of red paint about the
+  size of an egg was found near the right side of this skeleton. The
+  sutures of the cranium indicated the subject to have been 25 or 28
+  years of age, and its top rested about 12 inches below the mark of
+  the plow.
+
+  I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave and found
+  another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing
+  the east. A rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right
+  hand were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been
+  about 7 inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was
+  much better finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck
+  of this one, but were much smaller and of finer quality than those
+  on the neck of the first. The material, however, seems to be the
+  same. A much larger amount of paint was found by the side of this
+  than the first. The bones indicated a person of large frame, who,
+  I think, was about 50 years of age. Everything about this one had
+  the appearance of superiority over the first. The top of the skull
+  was about 6 inches below the mark of the plane.
+
+  I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found
+  nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east,
+  found another skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing
+  the west. On the right side of this was a rock on which the bones of
+  the right hand were resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk,
+  which had been about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
+  pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better
+  finished than the others. Beads were also found on the neck of this,
+  but much smaller and finer than those of the others. A larger amount
+  of paint than both of the others was found near this one. The top of
+  the cranium had been moved by the plow. The bones indicated a person
+  of 40 years of age.
+
+  There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller
+  bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken
+  from their bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with
+  the fact that the farm on which this grave was found was the first
+  settled in that part of the country, the date of the first deed made
+  from Lord Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years
+  (the land still belonging to the descendants of the same family that
+  first occupied it), would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old
+  grave.
+
+  The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet,
+  the line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of
+  the soil. It was dug in rich, black loam, and filled around the
+  bodies with white or yellow sand, which I suppose was carried from
+  the river-bank, 200 yards distant. The skeletons approximated the
+  walls of the grave, and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth,
+  and so decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both in
+  quality and odor, that the line of the bodies could be readily
+  traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had been flesh, was
+  similar to clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when compressed
+  in the hand.
+
+  This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots
+  made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the
+  warrior had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need,
+  in the “hunting-grounds beyond,” his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and
+  scalping-knife.
+
+  The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will
+  carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the
+  American Indians were in possession of at least some of the
+  mysteries of our order, and that it was evidently the grave of
+  Masons, and the three highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave
+  was situated due east and west; an altar was erected in the center;
+  the south, west, and east were occupied--_the north was not_;
+  implements of authority were near each body. The difference in the
+  quality of the beads, the tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces,
+  and the difference in distance that the bodies were placed from the
+  surface, indicate beyond doubt that these three persons had been
+  buried by Masons, and those, too, that understood what they were
+  doing.
+
+  Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the Masonic
+  world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic information?
+
+  The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other
+  bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at
+  Washington, D.C., to be placed among the archives of that
+  institution for exhibition, at which place they may be seen.
+
+Should Dr. Spainhour’s inferences be incorrect, there is still a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.
+
+In support of this gentleman’s views, attention is called to the
+description of the _Midawan_--a ceremony of initiation for would-be
+medicine men--in Schoolcraft’s History of the Indian Tribes of the
+United States, 1855, p. 428, relating to the Sioux and Chippewas. In
+this account are found certain forms and resemblances which have led
+some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of Masonry.
+
+
+_BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES._
+
+While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--they
+differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial burial,
+and must consequently fall under another caption. The narratives which
+are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former kinds of burial.
+
+Bartram[23] relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the
+Carolinas:
+
+  The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a
+  four-foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the
+  deceased laid on in his house, lining the grave with cypress bark,
+  when they place the corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were
+  alive, depositing with him his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other
+  matters as he had the greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest
+  wife, or the queen dowager, has the second choice of his
+  possessions, and the remaining effects are divided among his other
+  wives and children.
+
+According to Bernard Roman,[24] the “funeral customs of the Chickasaws
+did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred
+the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired.”
+
+The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:
+
+  The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the
+  house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case
+  the body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown
+  in, and stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body
+  first takes off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with
+  water before putting them on or mingling with the living. When a
+  body is removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and
+  the place in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the devil
+  comes to the place of death and remains where a dead body is. Wild
+  animals frequently (indeed, generally) get the bodies, and it is a
+  very easy matter to pick up skulls and bones around old camping
+  grounds, or where the dead are laid. In case it is not desirable to
+  abandon a place, the sick person is left out in some lone spot
+  protected by brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or
+  food brought to them until they die. This is done only when all hope
+  is gone. I have found bodies thus left so well inclosed with brush
+  that wild animals were unable to get at them; and one so left to die
+  was revived by a cup of coffee from our house and is still living
+  and well.
+
+Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal
+communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr.
+Menard, as follows:
+
+  This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a reservation in the
+  extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona.
+  The funeral ceremonies of the Navajos are of the most simple
+  character. They ascribe the death of an individual to the direct
+  action of _Chinde_, or the devil, and believe that he remains in the
+  vicinity of the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the
+  tribe dies a shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by
+  one of the near male relatives, and into this the corpse is
+  unceremoniously tumbled by the relatives, who have previously
+  protected themselves from the evil influence by smearing their naked
+  bodies with tar from the piñon tree. After the body has thus been
+  disposed of, the hogan (composed of logs and branches of trees
+  covered with earth) is pulled down over it and the place deserted.
+  Should the deceased have no near relatives or was of no importance
+  in the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed with,
+  the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This carelessness does
+  not appear to arise from want of natural affection for the dead, but
+  fear of the evil influence of _Chinde_ upon the surviving relatives
+  causes them to avoid doing anything that might gain for them his
+  ill-will. A Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the logs
+  of a fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have been
+  years in that condition. There are no mourning observances other
+  than smearing the forehead and under the eyes with tar, which is
+  allowed to remain until worn off, and then not renewed. The deceased
+  is apparently forgotten, as his name is never spoken by the
+  survivors for fear of giving offense to _Chinde_.
+
+J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the Navajos:
+
+  When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the
+  ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body
+  into as small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with
+  cords, place them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing,
+  everything owned by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all
+  gathered around the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their
+  faces with their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks,
+  pull out their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These
+  burials were generally made under their thatch houses or very near
+  thereto. The house where one died was always torn down, removed,
+  rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks, &c., were in their own
+  jargon; none else could understand, and they seemingly knew but
+  little of its meaning (if there was any meaning in it); it simply
+  seemed to be the promptings of grief, without sufficient
+  intelligence to direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out his own
+  impulse.
+
+The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,[25] relating to the
+Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example
+of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to
+consider the receptacles as temples.
+
+  Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n’enterent point leur Chef,
+  lorsqu’il est décédé; mais-ils font sécher son cadavre au feu et à
+  la fumée de façon qu’ils en font un vrai squelette. Après l’avoir
+  réduit en cet état, ils le portent au Temple (car ils en ont un
+  ainsi que les Natchez), et le mettent à la place de son
+  prédécesseur, qu’ils tirent de l’endroit qu’il occupoit, pour le
+  porter avec les corps de leurs autres Chefs dans le fond du Temple
+  où ils sont tous rangés de suite dressés sur leurs pieds comme des
+  statues. A l’égard du dernier mort, il est exposé à l’entrée de ce
+  Temple sur une espèce d’autel ou de table faite de cannes, et
+  couverte d’une natte très-fine travaillée fort proprement en
+  quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces mêmes cannes. Le
+  cadavre du Chef est exposé au milieu de cette table droit sur ses
+  pieds, soutenu par derrière par une longue perche peinte en rouge
+  dont le bout passe au dessus de sa tête, et à laquelle il est
+  attaché par le milieu du corps avec une liane. D’une main il tient
+  un casse-tête ou une petite hache, de l’autre un pipe; et au-dessus
+  de sa tête, est attaché au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le
+  Calumet le plus fameux de tous ceux qui lui ont été présentés
+  pendant sa vie. Du reste cette table n’est guères élevée de terre
+  que d’un demi-pied; mais elle a au moins six pieds de large et dix
+  de longueur.
+
+  C’est sur cette table qu’on vient tous les jours servir à manger à
+  ce Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de sagamité, du bled
+  grolé ou boucané, &c. C’est-là aussi qu’au commencement de toutes
+  les récoltes ses Sujets vont lui offrir les premiers de tous les
+  fruits qu’ils peuvent recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est présenté de la
+  sorte reste sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est
+  toujours ouverte, qu’il n’y a personne préposé pour y veiller, que
+  par conséquent y entre qui veut, et que d’ailleurs il est éloigné du
+  Village d’un grand quart de lieue, il arrive que ce sont
+  ordinairement des Etrangers, Chasseurs ou Sauvages, qui profitent de
+  ces mets et de ces fruits, ou qu’ils sont consommés par les animaux.
+  Mais cela est égal à ces sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu’ils
+  retournent le lendemain, plus ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur
+  Chef a bien mangé, et que par conséquent il est content d’eux
+  quoiqu’il les ait abandonnés. Pour leur ouvrir les yeux sur
+  l’extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur représenter ce
+  qu’ils ne peuvent s’empêcher de voir eux-mêmes, que ce n’est point
+  ce mort qui mange; ils répondent que si ce n’est pas lui, c’est
+  toujours lui au moins qui offre à qui il lui plaît ce qui a été mis
+  sur la table; qu’après tout c’étoit là la pratique de leur père, de
+  leur mère, de leurs parens; qu’ils n’ont pas plus d’esprit qu’eux,
+  et qu’ils ne sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.
+
+  C’est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la veuve
+  du Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent de tems en
+  tems lui rendre visite et lui faire leur harangue, comme s’il étoit
+  en état de les entendre. Les uns lui demandent pourquoi il s’est
+  laissé mourir avant eux? d’autres lui disent que s’il est mort ce
+  n’est point leur faute; que c’est lui même qui s’est tué par telle
+  débauche on par tel effort; enfin s’il y a eu quelque défaut dans
+  son gouvernement, on prend ce tems-là pour le lui reprocher.
+  Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui disant de
+  n’être pas fâché contre eux, de bien manger, et qu’ils auront
+  toujours bien soin de lui.
+
+Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the
+publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p. 89, taken from Strachey’s
+Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early writer on
+American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess as a
+truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of
+Virginia:
+
+  Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the
+  cenotaphies or the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes, so soon
+  as they be dead, they embowell, and, scraping the flesh from off the
+  bones, they dry the same upon hurdells into ashes, which they put
+  into little potts (like the anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the
+  bones they bind together or case up in leather, hanging braceletts,
+  or chaines of copper, beads, pearle, or such like, as they used to
+  wear about most of their joints and neck, and so repose the body
+  upon a little scaffold (as upon a tomb), laying by the dead bodies’
+  feet all his riches in severall basketts, his apook, and pipe, and
+  any one toy, which in his life he held most deare in his fancy;
+  their inwards they stuff with pearle, copper, beads, and such trash,
+  sowed in a skynne, which they overlapp againe very carefully in whit
+  skynnes one or two, and the bodyes thus dressed lastly they rowle in
+  matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay them orderly one by one, as
+  they dye in their turnes, upon an arche standing (as aforesaid) for
+  the tomb, and thes are all the ceremonies we yet can learne that
+  they give unto their dead. We heare of no sweet oyles or oyntments
+  that they use to dresse or chest their dead bodies with; albeit they
+  want not of the pretious rozzin running out of the great cedar,
+  wherewith in the old time they used to embalme dead bodies, washing
+  them in the oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the priests the care
+  of these temples and holy interments are committed, and these
+  temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or ministers to
+  exercise themselves in contemplation, for they are seldome out of
+  them, and therefore often lye in them and maynteyne contynuall fier
+  in the same, upon a hearth somewhat neere the east end.
+
+  For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the earth with
+  sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in skynns and matts with
+  their jewells, they laye uppon sticks in the ground, and soe cover
+  them with earth; the buryall ended, the women (being painted all
+  their faces with black coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in
+  their howses, mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling
+  and howling as may expresse their great passions.
+
+While this description brings the subject under the head before
+given--house burial--at the same time it might also afford an example of
+embalmment or mummifying.
+
+Figure 1 may be referred to as a probable representation of the temple
+or charnel-house described.
+
+The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be
+considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices
+prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the
+Rev. J. G. Wood,[26] bury their dead within the inclosure of the
+home-stead, fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems.
+The Apingi, according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in
+its dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and
+deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas
+bury within the inclosure of a man’s house, although the bones are
+subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside
+the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle
+inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the
+Bechuanas follow the same general plan.
+
+The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted above
+(p. 314), is added as containing an account of certain details which
+resemble somewhat those followed by North American Indians. In the
+narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed only if
+specially desired by the expiring person:
+
+  When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar fashion.
+  As soon as life is extinct--some say even before the last breath is
+  drawn--the bystanders break the spine by a blow from a large stone.
+  They then unwind the long rope that encircles the loins, and lash
+  the body together in a sitting posture, the head being bent over the
+  knees. Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its
+  face to the north, as already described when treating of the
+  Bechuanas. Cattle are then slaughtered in honor of the dead chief,
+  and over the grave a post is erected, to which the skulls and hair
+  are attached as a trophy. The bow, arrows, assagai, and clubs of the
+  deceased are hung on the same post. Large stones are pressed into
+  the soil above and around the grave, and a large pile of thorns is
+  also heaped over it, in order to keep off the hyenas, who would be
+  sure to dig up and devour the body before the following day. The
+  grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. Now and then a
+  chief orders that his body shall be left in his own house, in which
+  case it is laid on an elevated platform, and a strong fence of
+  thorns and stakes built round the hut.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief forsakes the
+  place and takes the whole of the people under his command. He
+  remains at a distance for several years, during which time he wears
+  the sign of mourning, i.e., a dark-colored conical cap, and round
+  the neck a thong, to the ends of which are hung two small pieces of
+  ostrich-shell. When the season of mourning is over, the tribe
+  return, headed by the chief, who goes to the grave of his father,
+  kneels over it, and whispers that he has returned, together with the
+  cattle and wives which his father gave him. He then asks for his
+  parent’s aid in all his undertakings, and from that moment takes the
+  place which his father filled before him. Cattle are then
+  slaughtered, and a feast held to the memory of the dead chief and in
+  honor of the living one, and each person present partakes of the
+  meat, which is distributed by the chief himself. The deceased chief
+  symbolically partakes of the banquet. A couple of twigs cut from the
+  tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased belonged are
+  considered as his representative, and with this emblem each piece of
+  meat is touched before the guests consume it. In like manner, the
+  first pail of milk that is drawn is taken to the grave and poured
+  over it.
+
+
+_CAVE BURIAL._
+
+Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only
+the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation
+and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of
+artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have
+actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of place at this
+time, except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so far
+as can be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient
+resting places for their deceased relatives and friends.
+
+In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.
+
+While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a natural
+cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to which
+resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had
+deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was
+quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination
+made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the
+same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the
+Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it,
+which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian,
+a Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of his
+tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the
+party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted
+in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew
+a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if
+an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some
+years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent
+game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it
+was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full
+extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many
+refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and
+the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of
+a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
+pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This entrance
+was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As the
+Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones and
+roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of uninterrupted,
+faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. The guide was
+asked if many bodies were therein, and replied “Heaps, heaps,” moving
+the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There is no reason to
+doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it was voluntarily
+imparted.
+
+In a communication received from Dr. A. J. McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of crevice or
+rock-fissure burial, which follows:
+
+  As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the
+  medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged
+  in preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long;
+  whatever articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time
+  of death are not removed. The dead man’s limbs are straightened out,
+  his weapons of war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets
+  wrapped securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready
+  for burial. It is the custom to secure if possible, for the purpose
+  of wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in which the
+  Indian died. At the same time that the body is being fitted for
+  internment, the squaws having immediate care of it, together with
+  all the other squaws in the neighborhood, keep up a continued chant
+  or dirge, the dismal cadence of which may, when the congregation of
+  women is large, be heard for quite a long distance. The death song
+  is not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces expressions
+  eulogistic in character, but whether or not any particular formula
+  of words is adopted on such occasion is a question which I am
+  unable, with the materials at my disposal, to determine with any
+  degree of certainty.
+
+  The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing
+  the dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot
+  chosen for burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as
+  can be ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to
+  select sepulchers of this character. From descriptions given by Mr.
+  Harris, who has several times been fortunate enough to discover
+  remains, it would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by
+  this tribe with respect to the position in which the body is placed,
+  the space accommodation of the sepulcher probably regulating this
+  matter; and from the same source I learn that it is not usual to
+  find the remains of more than one Indian deposited in one grave.
+  After the body has been received into the cleft, it is well covered
+  with pieces of rock, to protect it against the ravages of wild
+  animals. The chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the burial
+  ceremonies are at an end. The men during all this time have not been
+  idle, though they have in no way participated in the preparation of
+  the body, have not joined the squaws in chanting praises to the
+  memory of the dead, and have not even as mere spectators attended
+  the funeral, yet they have had their duties to perform. In
+  conformity with a long-established custom, all the personal property
+  of the deceased is immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle
+  are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The performance of
+  this part of the ceremonies is assigned to the men; a duty quite in
+  accord with their taste and inclinations. Occasionally the
+  destruction of horses and other properly is of considerable
+  magnitude, but usually this is not the case, owing to a practice
+  existing with them of distributing their property among their
+  children while they are of a very tender age, retaining to
+  themselves only what is necessary to meet every-day requirements.
+
+  The widow “goes into mourning” by smearing her face with a substance
+  composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once,
+  and is allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only
+  mourning observance of which I have any knowledge.
+
+  The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as
+  those in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property
+  takes place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse.
+  Should a youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the
+  Indians will not as a role have anything to do with the interment of
+  the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this agency some
+  time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the usual manner; the men
+  of the tribe selected a spot for the burial, and the employee at the
+  agency, after digging a grave and depositing the corpse therein,
+  filled it up according to the fashion of civilized people, and then
+  at the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks on
+  top. Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have the employes
+  perform the service as expeditiously as possible.
+
+Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos
+agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock
+fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.
+
+An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been used
+for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J. D. Whitney:[27]
+
+  The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now
+  in the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is near the Stanislaus
+  River, in Calaveras County, on a nameless creek, about two miles
+  from Abbey’s Ferry, on the road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr.
+  Robinson. There were two or three persons with me, who had been to
+  the place before and knew that the skulls in question were taken
+  from it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and since that the
+  condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing to some
+  alteration in the road, mining operations, or some other cause which
+  I could not ascertain, there has accumulated on the formerly clean
+  stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface
+  earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which could not be
+  removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet
+  deep at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet
+  in diameter. It is the general opinion of those who have noticed
+  this cave and saw it years ago that it was a burying-place of the
+  present Indians. Dr. Jones said he found remains of bows and arrows
+  and charcoal with the skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed
+  at the time the village of Murphy’s was burned. All the people spoke
+  of the skulls as lying on the surface and not as buried in the
+  stalagmite.
+
+The next description of cave burial, by W. H. Dall,[28] is so remarkable
+that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to
+the Innuits of Alaska.
+
+  The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of
+  writing I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are
+  some crania found by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave
+  and a cranium obtained at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of
+  Islands. These were deposited in a remarkable manner, precisely
+  similar to that adopted by most of the continental Innuit, but
+  equally different from the modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave
+  we found what at first appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which
+  proved to be made of the very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of
+  some large cetacean. These were arranged so as to form a rude
+  rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces of bone. This
+  was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 18 inches deep.
+  The bottom was formed of flat pieces of stone. Three such were found
+  close together, covered with and filled by an accumulation of fine
+  vegetable and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton in
+  the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in the
+  Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all the bones,
+  with the exception of the skull, were minced to a soft paste, or
+  even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted me to dig into a small
+  knoll near the ancient shell-heap, and here we found, in a precisely
+  similar sarcophagus, the remains of a skeleton, of which also only
+  the cranium retained sufficient consistency to admit of
+  preservation. This inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty
+  mass not reduced to mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous
+  growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly 2 feet above the
+  remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness of this kind
+  of growth in these northern regions, attested by numerous Arctic
+  travelers, the antiquity of the remains becomes evident.
+
+It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments
+were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many
+mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles
+were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary
+skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.
+
+
+
+
+EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.
+
+
+Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying
+or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind
+have generally been found in such repositories.
+
+It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss
+the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain
+processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh
+must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of
+this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories
+advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians.
+Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their
+dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on
+this point no definite information has been procured. In the final
+volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification
+among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.
+
+The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time of
+the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more
+than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by
+others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. “They did not
+inter them,” says he, “for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched.” According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief,
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived,
+provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the
+ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising
+that this theory has obtained many believers. M. Gannal believes
+embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our
+nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains of
+loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariset think it was intended to obviate,
+in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being primarily a
+cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; and the
+Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from the
+finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had
+hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is
+thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction
+to embalmment in North America.
+
+From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it
+appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly,[29] being as follows:
+
+  The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of their Kings
+  and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following manner:
+  First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can, slitting
+  it only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from the Bones
+  as clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that
+  they may preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in
+  the Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean time
+  has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed
+  right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very
+  fine white Sand. After this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body
+  looks as if the Flesh had not been removed. They take care to keep
+  the Skin from shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease,
+  which saves it also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar’d,
+  they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, upon a large Shelf
+  rais’d above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with Mats, for the
+  Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the same, to keep it from
+  the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and
+  when it is thoroughly dried, it is sewed up in a Basket, and set at
+  the Feet of the Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also they
+  set up a _Quioccos_, or Idol, which they believe will be a Guard to
+  the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the Priests must
+  give his Attendance, to take care of the dead Bodies. So great an
+  Honour and Veneration have these ignorant and unpolisht People for
+  their Princes even after they are dead.
+
+It should be added that, in the writer’s opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.
+
+According to Pinkerton,[30] who took the account from Smith’s Virginia,
+the Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:
+
+  In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the Devil’s] image
+  euill favouredly carved, and then painted and adorned with chaines
+  of copper, and beads, and covered with a skin, in such manner as the
+  deformitie may well suit with such a God. By him is commonly the
+  sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then
+  dried upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of
+  their ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of copper,
+  pearle, and such like, as they use to wear. Their inwards they
+  stuffe with copper beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lappe they
+  them very carefully in white skins, and so rowle them in mats for
+  their winding-sheets. And in the Tombe, which is an arch made of
+  mats, they lay them orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth
+  their Kings have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples
+  and bodies are kept by their Priests.
+
+  For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the earth with
+  sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with
+  their Jewels they lay them upon stickes in the ground, and so cover
+  them with earth. The buriale ended, the women being painted all
+  their faces with blacke cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in
+  the houses mourning and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and
+  howling as may expresse their great passions. * * *
+
+  Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three
+  great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and the
+  tombes of their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in
+  length, built harbourwise after their building. This place they
+  count so holey as that but the priests and Kings dare come into
+  them; nor the savages dare not go up the river in boates by it, but
+  that they solemnly cast some piece of copper, white beads or pocones
+  into the river for feare their Okee should be offended and revenged
+  of them.
+
+  They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteeme
+  quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond the mountains
+  towards the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of
+  their Okee, with their bedes paynted rede with oyle and pocones,
+  finely trimmed with feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets,
+  copper, and tobacco, doing nothing but dance and sing with all their
+  predecessors. But the common people they suppose shall not live
+  after deth, but rot in their graves like dede dogges.
+
+This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former
+page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding
+truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.
+
+Figure 1 may again be referred to as an example of the dead-house
+described.
+
+The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson,
+used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the subjoined
+extract from Schoolcraft;[31] but instead of laying away the remains in
+caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched
+sticks.
+
+  The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of earth is
+  raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even,
+  sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity of the person
+  whose monument it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made
+  ridgeways, like the roof of a house. This in supported by nine
+  stakes or small posts, the grave being about 6 to 8 feet in length
+  and 4 feet in breadth, about which is hung gourds, feathers, and
+  other such like trophies, placed there by the dead man’s relations
+  in respect to him in the grave. The other parts of the funeral rites
+  are thus: As soon as the party is dead they lay the corpse upon a
+  piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or embalming it with a small
+  root beaten to powder, which looks as red as vermillion; the same is
+  mixed with bear’s oil to beautify the hair. After the carcass has
+  laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and lay it upon crotches
+  cut on purpose for the support thereof from the earth; then they
+  anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients of the powder
+  of this root and bear’s oil. When it is so done they cover it over
+  very exactly with the bark or pine of the cypress tree to prevent
+  any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean all about
+  it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal estate he was
+  possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads,
+  feathers, match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being
+  clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty for
+  three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch
+  pine mixed with bear’s oil. All the while he tells the dead man’s
+  relations and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was,
+  and of the great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks
+  tending to the praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows
+  mellow and will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it,
+  making the bones very clean, then anoint them with the ingredients
+  aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very carefully) in a cloth
+  artificially woven of opossum’s hair. The bones they carefully
+  preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and cleansing them. By
+  these means they preserve them for many ages, that you may see an
+  Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or some of his
+  relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs, as
+  when an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of
+  stones (or sticks where stones are not to be found); to this
+  memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the
+  heap in respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of
+  light wood or pitch-pine over the graves of the more distinguished,
+  covering it with bark and then with earth, leaving the body thus in
+  a subterranean vault until the flesh quits the bones. The bones are
+  then taken up, cleaned, jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins,
+  and laid away in the _Quiogozon_, which is the royal tomb or
+  burial-place of their kings and war-captains, being a more
+  magnificent cabin reared at the public expense. This Quiogozon is an
+  object of veneration, in which the writer says he has known the
+  king, old men, and conjurers to spend several days with their idols
+  and dead kings, and into which he could never gain admittance.
+
+Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt
+with archæologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve
+these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with
+certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens
+were found. Charles Wilkins[32] thus describes one:
+
+  * * * An exsiccated body of a female[33] * * * was found at the
+  depth of about 10 feet from the surface of the cave bedded in clay
+  strongly impregnated with nitre, placed in a sitting posture,
+  incased in broad stones standing on their edges, with a flat atone
+  covering the whole. It was enveloped in coarse clothes, * * * the
+  whole wrapped in deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the
+  manner in which the Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the
+  stone coffin were the working utensils, beads, feathers, and other
+  ornaments of dress which belonged to her.
+
+The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.[34*]
+
+  AUG. 24th, 1815.
+
+  DEAR SIR: I offer you some observations on a curious piece of
+  American antiquity now in New York. It is a human body: found in one
+  of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect desiccation;
+  all the fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other firm parts
+  are in a state of entire preservation. I think it enough to have
+  puzzled Bryant and all the archæologists.
+
+  This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of
+  Glasgow for saltpetre.
+
+  These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract
+  and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash; and
+  probably the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good
+  proportion of calcareous carbonate. Amidst them drying and
+  antiseptick ingredients, it may be conceived that putrefaction would
+  be stayed, and the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope
+  of the body is a deer-skin, probably dried in the usual way, and
+  perhaps softened before its application by rubbing. The next
+  covering is a deer’s skin, whose hair had been cut away by a sharp
+  instrument resembling a batter’s knife. The remnant of the hair and
+  the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a sheared pelt of beaver. The
+  next wrapper is of cloth made of twine doubled and twisted. But the
+  thread does not appear to have been formed by the wheel, nor the web
+  by the loom. The warp and filling seem to have been crossed and
+  knotted by an operation like that of the fabricks of the northwest
+  coast, and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the lamented
+  Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the fibrous
+  material.
+
+  The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the preceding, but
+  furnished with large brown feathers, arranged and fashioned with
+  great art, so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from
+  wet and cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole
+  bears a near similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the
+  nations of the northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell
+  from what bird they were derived.
+
+  The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm reclining
+  forward, and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs
+  down, with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual,
+  who was a male, did not probably exceed the age of fourteen at his
+  death. There is near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of
+  the skull, which probably killed him. The skin has sustained little
+  injury; it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be
+  decided with exactness, from its present appearance. The scalp, with
+  small exceptions, is covered with sorrel or foxey hair. The teeth
+  are white and sound. The hands and feet, in their shrivelled state,
+  are slender and delicate. All this is worthy the investigation of
+  our acute and perspicacious colleague, Dr. Holmes.
+
+  There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like
+  the Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except
+  the several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of
+  a suture or incision about the belly; whence it seems that the
+  viscera were not removed.
+
+  It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as to the
+  antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.
+
+  First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that class of
+  white men of which we are members.
+
+  2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of
+  Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled
+  up the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this
+  head I should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious
+  friend, Noah Webster.
+
+  3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged to
+  any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting Kentucky.
+
+  4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted
+  threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash
+  and the Pacifick Islands, that I refer this individual to that era
+  of time, and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of
+  the Green River, and of the place where these relicks were found.
+  This conclusion is strengthened by the consideration that such
+  manufactures are not prepared by the actual and resident red men of
+  the present day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him,
+  he would have thought of the people who constructed those ancient
+  forts and mounds, whose exact history no man living can give. But I
+  forbear to enlarge; my intention being merely to manifest my respect
+  to the society for having enrolled me among its members, and to
+  invite the attention of its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a
+  subject of such curiousity.
+
+  With respect, I remain yours,
+
+    SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.
+
+It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that the
+natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W. H. Dall,[35] the description
+of the mummies being as follows:
+
+  We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment
+  in their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already
+  described; second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or
+  stones in some convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss,
+  covered by matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or
+  carvings associated with them. We found only three or four specimens
+  in all in these places, of which we examined a great number. This
+  was apparently the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and
+  one which more recently was still pursued in the case of poor or
+  unpopular individuals.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Alaskan Mummies.]
+
+  Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few
+  centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was
+  adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The
+  bodies were eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running
+  water, dried, and usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of
+  fur and fine grass matting. The body was usually doubled up into the
+  smallest compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of
+  children, was usually suspended (so as not to touch the ground) in
+  some convenient rock shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body
+  was placed in a lifelike position, dressed and armed. They were
+  placed as if engaged in some congenial occupation, such as hunting,
+  fishing, sewing, &c. With them were also placed effigies of the
+  animals they were pursuing, while the hunter was dressed in his
+  wooden armor and provided with an enormous mask all ornamented with
+  feathers, and a countless variety of wooden pendants, colored in gay
+  patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the weapons even were only
+  fac-similes in wood of the original articles. Among the articles
+  represented were drums, rattles, dishes, weapons, effigies of men,
+  birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of rods or scales of wood,
+  and remarkable masks, so arranged that the wearer when erect could
+  only see the ground at his feet. These were worn at their religious
+  dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to animate a
+  temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look upon it while so
+  occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the masking of those
+  who had gone into the land of spirits.
+
+  The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the
+  whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit--has
+  erroneously been confounded with the one now described. The latter
+  included women as well as men, and all those whom the living desired
+  particularly to honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the
+  bodies of males, and they were not associated with the paraphernalia
+  of those I have described. Indeed, the observations I have been able
+  to make show the bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with
+  stone weapons and actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the
+  meanest apparel, and no carvings of consequence. These details, and
+  those of many other customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear
+  no testimony * * * do not come within my line.
+
+Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.
+
+Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings’ Expedition,[36] speaks of the
+Aleutian Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:
+
+  They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they
+  embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in
+  their best attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their
+  darts and instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured
+  mats, embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less
+  ceremony. A mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut
+  for some months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it
+  begins to smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with it.
+
+Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account:
+
+  The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial
+  Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the
+  mummified remains of Indians who lived on an island north of
+  Ounalaska one hundred and fifty years ago. This contribution to
+  science was secured by Captain Henning, an agent of the company who
+  has long resided at Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians
+  he learned that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the
+  island in question, as the last resting-place of a great chief,
+  known as Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the
+  neighborhood of Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and other furs, and
+  he bore up for the island, with the intention of testing the truth
+  of the tradition he had heard. He had more difficulty in entering
+  the cave than in finding it, his schooner having to beat on and off
+  shore for three days. Finally he succeeded in affecting a landing,
+  and clambering up the rocks he found himself in the presence of the
+  dead chief, his family and relatives.
+
+  The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care
+  the mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments
+  scattered around were also taken away.
+
+  In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have
+  as yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large
+  basket-like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the
+  wrappings are finely wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in
+  texture, and skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of
+  thinly cut wood, and adjoining the center portions are pieces of
+  body armor composed of reeds bound together. The body is covered
+  with the fine skin of the sea-otter, always a mark of distinction in
+  the interments of the Aleuts, and round the whole package are
+  stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the sinews of the sea
+  lion; also those of a bird-net. There are evidently some bulky
+  articles inclosed with the chief’s body, and the whole package
+  differs very much from the others, which more resemble, in their
+  brown-grass matting, consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich
+  Islands than the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose
+  and of a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon
+  after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet of the
+  latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The remaining mummies are
+  of adults.
+
+  One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man’s body in
+  tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face
+  decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by
+  severing some of the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending
+  the limbs downward horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most
+  peculiar package, next to that of the chief, is one which incloses
+  in a single matting, with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and
+  woman. The collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and
+  female, which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The hair
+  has changed its color to a brownish red. The relics obtained with
+  the bodies include a few wooden vessels scooped out smoothly:
+  a piece of dark, greenish, flat stone, harder than the emerald,
+  which the Indians use to tan skins; a scalp-lock of jet-black hair;
+  a small rude figure, which may have been a very ugly doll or an
+  idol; two or three tiny carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very
+  neatly executed; a comb, a necklet made of bird’s claws inserted
+  into one another, and several specimens of little bags, and a cap
+  plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.
+
+In Cary’s translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following passage
+occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the Macrobrian
+Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a matter of
+curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved have ever
+been discovered.
+
+  After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which are
+  said to be prepared from crystal in the following manner. When they
+  have dried the body, either as the Egyptians do, or in some other
+  way, they plaster it all over with gypsum, and paint it, making it
+  as much as possible resemble real life; they then put round it a
+  hollow column made of crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and
+  is easily wrought. The body being in the middle of the column is
+  plainly seen, nor does it emit an unpleasant smell, nor is it in any
+  way offensive, and it is all visible as the body itself. The nearest
+  relations keep the column in their houses for a year, offering to it
+  the first-fruits of all, and performing sacrifices; after that time
+  they carry it out and place it somewhere near the city.
+
+  NOTE.--The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back
+  being covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen
+  all round, as the column of glass was transparent.
+
+With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil
+of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.
+
+
+
+
+URN-BURIAL.
+
+
+To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster[37] may be added:
+
+  Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the
+  mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the
+  mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S.C., according to Dr.
+  Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human
+  remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small
+  the skull is placed with the face downward in the opening,
+  constituting a sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in
+  which urn-burial alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was
+  accidentally discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine’s
+  Island, off the coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that
+  from a mound at New Madrid, Mo., he obtained a human skull inclosed
+  in an earthen jar, the lips of which were too small to admit of its
+  extraction. It must therefore have been molded on the head after
+  death.
+
+  A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the
+  funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to
+  admit of the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either
+  the clay must have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or
+  the neck of the jar must have been added subsequently to the other
+  rites of interment.[38]
+
+It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but
+_to a very limited extent_, in North America, except as a secondary
+interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or
+ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of
+ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as
+the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply
+tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been
+that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the
+fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in
+urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution,
+furnishes the following account of urns used for burial:
+
+  I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover,
+  Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received
+  from Mr. William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on
+  his plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of
+  the Oconee River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes,
+  tall grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same
+  source one of the covers, of which the ornamentation was different
+  but more entire. A portion of a similar cover has been received also
+  from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. McKinley ascribes the use of these urns
+  and covers to the Muscogees, a branch of the Creek Nation.
+
+These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was
+a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around
+the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented
+scroll ornamentations.
+
+The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:[39]
+
+  Burial-urns * * * comprise vessels or ollas without handles, for
+  cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height, with broad,
+  open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a laminated exterior
+  (partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the indentations
+  extend simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion being plain.
+
+So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J. C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of possibility
+that future researches in regions not far distant from that which he
+explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents different
+forms of burial-urns, _a_, _b_, and _e_, after Foster, are from Laporte,
+Ind. _f_, after Foster, is from Greenup County, Kentucky; _d_ is from
+Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian collection, No. 27976; and _c_ is one
+of the peculiar shoe-shaped urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake
+Nicaragua, by Surgeon J. C. Bransford, U.S.N.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Burial Urns.]
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Cemetery.]
+
+SURFACE BURIAL.
+
+
+This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far as
+can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was
+employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for
+time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees,
+the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead
+being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the
+Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently
+large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and
+permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen
+was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by R. S.
+Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a communication received
+in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial in two different ways:
+
+  * * * 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have been found
+  in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split and the two halves
+  hollowed out to receive the body, when it was either closed with
+  withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes; and sometimes
+  a hollow tree is used by closing the ends.
+
+  2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs
+  laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they
+  meet in a single log at the top.
+
+The writer has recently received from Prof. C. Engelhardt, of
+Copenhagen, Denmark, a brochure describing the oak coffins of
+Borum-Æshœi. From an engraving in this volume it would appear that the
+manner employed by the ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins
+has its analogy among the North American Indians.
+
+Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent
+in accordance with the _ante mortem_ wishes of the dead, were the
+obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is
+given by George Catlin:[40]
+
+  He requested them to take his body down the river to this his
+  favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury
+  him on the back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried
+  alive under him, from whence he could see, as he said, “the
+  Frenchmen passing up and down the river in their boats.” He owned,
+  amongst many horses, a noble white steed, that was led to the top of
+  the grass-covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the
+  presence of the whole nation and several of the fur-traders and the
+  Indian agent, he was placed astride of his horse’s back, with his
+  bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver slung, with his pipe and
+  his medicine bag, with his supply of dried meat, and his
+  tobacco-pouch replenished to last him through the journey to the
+  beautiful hunting grounds of the shades of his fathers, with his
+  flint, his steel, and his tinder to light his pipe by the way; the
+  scalps he had taken from his enemies’ heads could be trophies for
+  nobody else, and were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in
+  full dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved to the last
+  moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles’ plumes. In this
+  plight, and the last funeral honors having been performed by the
+  medicine-men, every warrior of his band painted the palm and fingers
+  of his right hand with vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly
+  impressed on the milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This all
+  done, turfs were brought and placed around the feet and legs of the
+  horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over the back
+  and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of all over the head
+  and even the eagle plumes of its valiant rider, where all together
+  have smouldered and remained undisturbed to the present day.
+
+Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a
+high bluff of the Missouri River.
+
+According to the Rev. J. G. Wood,[41] the Obongo, an African tribe,
+buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of
+the Seminoles:
+
+  When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow tree in
+  the forest and drop it into the hollow, which is afterwards filled
+  to the top with earth, leaves, and branches.
+
+M. de la Potherie[42] gives an account of surface burial as practiced by
+the Iroquois of New York:
+
+  Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son séant, on oint ses
+  cheveux et tout son corps d’huile d’animaux, on lui applique du
+  vermillon sur le visage; on lui met toutes sortes de beaux plumages
+  de la rassade de la porcelaine et on le pare des plus beaux habits
+  que l’on peut trouver, pendant que les parens et des vieilles
+  continuent toujours à pleurer. Cette cérémonie finie, les alliez
+  apportent plusieurs présens. Les uns sont pour essuyer les larmes et
+  les autres pour servir de matelas au défunt, on en destine certains
+  pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, disent-ils, que la plague ne
+  l’incommode, on y étend fort proprement des peaux d’ours et de
+  chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui met ses ajustemens avec
+  un sac de farine de bled d’Inde, de la viande, sa cuillière, et
+  généralement tout ce qu’il faut à un homme qui veut faire un long
+  voyage, avec toux les présens qui lui ont été faits á sa mort, et
+  s’il a été guerrier on lui donne ses armes pour s’en servir au pais
+  des morts. L’on couvre ensuite ce cadavre d’écorce d’arbres sur
+  lesquelles on jette de la terre et quantité de pierres, et on
+  l’entoure de pierres pour empêcher que les animaux ne le déterrent.
+  Ces sortes de funérailles ne se font que dans leur village.
+  Lorsqu’ils meurent en campagne on les met dans un cercueil d’écorce,
+  entre les branches des arbres où on les élève sur quatre pilliers.
+
+  On observe ces mêmes funérailles aux femmes et aux filles. Tous ceux
+  qui ont assisté aux obsèques profitent de toute la dépouille du
+  défunt et s’il n’avoit rien, les parens y supléent. Ainsi ils ne
+  pleurent pas en vain. Le deuil consiste à ne se point couper ni
+  graisser les cheveux et de se tenir négligé sans aucune parure,
+  couverts de méchantes hardes. Le père et la mère portent le deuil de
+  leur fils. Si le père meurt les garçons le portent, et les filles de
+  leur mère.
+
+Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to forward
+to the writer an interesting work by J. V. Spencer,[43] containing
+annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and
+partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly
+inhabiting Illinois:
+
+  Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his
+  hands grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow hole in the
+  ground, setting the body in up to the waist, so the most of the body
+  was above ground. The part above ground was then covered by a
+  buffalo robe, and a trench about eight feet square was then dug
+  about the grave. In this trench they set picketing about eight feet
+  high, which secured the grave against wild animals. When I first
+  came here there were quite a number of these high picketings still
+  standing where their chiefs had been buried, and the body of a chief
+  was disposed of in this way while I lived near their village. The
+  common mode of burial was to dig a shallow grave, wrap the body in a
+  blanket, place it in the grave, and fill it nearly full of dirt;
+  then take split sticks about three feet long and stand them in the
+  grave so that their tops would come together in the form of a roof;
+  then they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks in place.
+  I saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their child about
+  a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a blanket and putting
+  a long stick through the blanket, each taking an end of the stick.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Grave Pen.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Grave Pen.]
+
+  I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is done by
+  digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in it, and covering
+  it. I have seen several bodies in one tree. I think when they are
+  disposed of in this way it is by special request, as I knew of an
+  Indian woman who lived with a white family who desired her body
+  placed in a tree, which was accordingly done.[44*] Doubtless there
+  was some peculiar superstition attached to this mode, though I do
+  not remember to have heard what it was.
+
+Judge H. Welch[45] states that “the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies
+buried by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of
+sticks or logs. I think the bodies lay heads to the east.” And C. C.
+Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as follows:
+
+  I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge Welch.
+  * * * In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, Judge Gibson, to Fort
+  Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of an Ottawa or Pottawatomie
+  chief. The body lay on the ground covered with notched poles. It had
+  been there but a few days and the worms were crawling around the
+  body. My special interest in the case was the accusation of
+  witchcraft against a young squaw who was executed for killing him by
+  her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only parts of
+  skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been burned.
+
+W. A. Brice[46] mentions a curious variety of surface burial not
+heretofore met with:
+
+  And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough of a
+  tree, or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the infant of the
+  Indian mother; or a few little log inclosures, where the bodies of
+  adults sat upright, with all their former apparel wrapped about
+  them, and their trinkets, tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be
+  seen at any time for many years by the few pale-faces visiting or
+  sojourning here.
+
+A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may be
+considered under that head is the one employed by some of the Ojibways
+and Swampy Crees of Canada. A small cavity is scooped out, the body
+deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus formed
+being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.
+
+Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River
+exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the
+Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave,
+which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and
+they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and 9.
+
+
+_CAIRN-BURIAL._
+
+The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent
+among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas.
+
+In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries in
+Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen or
+twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the
+side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully
+chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find
+it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have
+been constructed in the following manner: A number of bowlders had been
+removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had been
+obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, with
+weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the mountain
+aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, forming a
+huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the last resting
+place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the graves were
+scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which had been
+sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of the
+graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number of
+articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a
+boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this
+place.
+
+From Dr. O. G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, Indian
+Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was received.
+According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves _Kaw-a-wāh_, the
+Comanches _Nerm_, and the Apaches _Tāh-zee_.
+
+  They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not seem to
+  have any particular rule with regard to the position. Sometimes
+  prone, sometimes supine, but always decumbent. They select a place
+  where the grave is easily prepared, which they do with such
+  implements as they chance to have, viz, a squaw-axe, or hoe. If they
+  are traveling, the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much
+  time is spent in finishing. I was present at the burial of Black
+  Hawk, an Apache chief, some two years ago, and took the body in my
+  light wagon up the side of a mountain to the place of burial. They
+  found a crevice in the rocks about four feet wide and three feet
+  deep. By filling in loose rocks at either end they made a very nice
+  tomb. The body was then put in face downwards, short sticks were put
+  across, resting on projections of rock at the sides, brush was
+  thrown on this, and flat rocks laid over the whole of it.
+
+  The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing, together
+  with all the ornaments most admired by the person when living. The
+  face is painted with any colored paint they may have, mostly red and
+  yellow, as I have observed. The body is then wrapped in skins,
+  blankets, or domestic, with the hands laid across the breast, and
+  the legs placed upon the thighs. They put into the grave their guns,
+  bows and arrows, tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins,
+  and trinkets of various kinds. One or more horses are killed over or
+  near the grave. Two horses and a mule were killed near Black Hawk’s
+  grave. They were led up near and shot in the head. At the death of a
+  Comanche chief, some years ago, I am told about seventy horses were
+  killed, and a greater number than that were said to have been killed
+  at the death of a prominent Kiowa chief a few years since.
+
+  The mourning is principally done by the relatives and immediate
+  friends, although any one of their own tribe, or one of another
+  tribe, who chances to be passing, will stop and moan with the
+  relatives. Their mourning consists in a weird wail, which to be
+  described must be heard, and once heard is never forgotten, together
+  with the scarifying of their faces, arms, and legs with some sharp
+  instrument, the cutting off of the hair, and oftentimes the cutting
+  off of a joint of a finger, usually the little finger (Comanches do
+  not cut off fingers). The length of time and intensity of their
+  mourning depends upon the relation and position of the deceased in
+  the tribe. I have known instances where, if they should be passing
+  along where any of their friends had died, even a year after their
+  death, they would mourn.
+
+The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath heaps
+of rocks, according to H. Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, Nevada,
+although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as reasons
+for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, because
+they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural indolence of
+the Indians--indisposition to work any more than can be helped.
+
+The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as
+did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact,
+a number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom
+prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION.
+
+
+Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common custom
+to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially those
+living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we have
+undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more eastern
+ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from its
+great antiquity, for Tegg[47] informs us that it reached as far back as
+the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the burning
+of Menœacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, eighth
+judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among the
+ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos up
+to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom among
+civilized people.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance of
+this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North America,
+yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be entered upon
+regarding the details of it among the ancients and the origin of the
+ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the country, with
+discursive notes and an account of its origin among the Nishinams of
+California, by Stephen Powers,[48] seem to be all that is required at
+this time:
+
+  The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that
+  exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and
+  women, the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died
+  they should return to the earth after two or three days as he
+  himself does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said
+  this should not be; but that when men died their friends should burn
+  their bodies and once a year make a great mourning for them and the
+  coyote prevailed. So, presently when deer died, they burned his
+  body, as the coyote had decreed and after a year they made a great
+  mourning for him. But the moon created the rattlesnake and caused it
+  to bite the coyote’s son, so that he died. Now, though the coyote
+  had been willing to burn the deer’s relations, he refused to burn
+  his own son. Then the moon said unto him, “This is your own rule.
+  You would have it so, and now your son shall be burned like the
+  others.” So he was burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for
+  him. Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, as he
+  had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.
+
+  This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in
+  that it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not
+  practice cremation, which is also established by other traditions.
+  It hints at the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set
+  great store by the moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred
+  ways and observe its changes for a hundred purposes.
+
+Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in
+Schoolcraft[49] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:
+
+  The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number
+  died the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they
+  thought then. After crawling over the body for a time they took all
+  manner of shapes, some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope,
+  etc. It was discovered however, that great numbers were taking wings
+  and for a while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they
+  would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the
+  earth might become depopulated in this way, concluded to stop it at
+  once and ordered that when one of their people died the body must be
+  burnt. Ever after they continued to burn the bodies of deceased
+  persons.
+
+Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins
+of Oregon:[50]
+
+  The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and quite
+  peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days
+  laid out in his lodge and on the tenth it is buried. For this
+  purpose a rising ground is selected, on which are laid a number of
+  sticks, about 7 feet long, of cypress, neatly split and in the
+  interstices, placed a quantity of gummy wood. During these
+  operations invitations are dispatched to the natives of the
+  neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the ceremony.
+  When the preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on the
+  pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of
+  burning, the bystanders appear to be in a high state of merriment.
+  If a stranger happen to be present they invariably plunder him, but
+  if that pleasure be denied them, they never separate without
+  quarreling among themselves. Whatever property the deceased
+  possessed is placed about the corpse, and if he happened to be a
+  person of consequence, his friends generally purchase a capote,
+  a shirt, a pair of trousers, &c, which articles are also laid around
+  the pile. If the doctor who attended him has escaped uninjured, he
+  is obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last time
+  tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation. Failing in
+  this, he throws on the body a piece of leather, or some other
+  article, as a present, which in some measure appeases the resentment
+  of his relatives, and preserves the unfortunate quack from being
+  maltreated. During the nine days the corpse is laid out, the widow
+  of the deceased is obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to
+  sunrise, and from this custom there is no relaxation even during the
+  hottest days of summer! While the doctor is performing his last
+  operations she must lie on the pile, and after the fire is applied
+  to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her to be removed,
+  which, however, is never done until her body is completely covered
+  with blisters. After being placed on her legs, she is obliged to
+  pass her hands gently through the flame and collect some of the
+  liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which she is permitted
+  to wet her face and body. When the friends of the deceased observe
+  the sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they compel
+  the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint of hard
+  pressing to straighten those members.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Tolkotin cremation.]
+
+  If during her husband’s life time she has been known to have
+  committed any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him
+  savory food or neglected his clothing, &c. she is now made to suffer
+  severely for such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently
+  fling her in the funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her
+  friends, and thus between alternate scorching and cooling she is
+  dragged backwards and forwards until she falls into a state of
+  insensibility.
+
+  After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow
+  collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of
+  birch bark and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to
+  carry on her back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all
+  the laborious duties of cooking, collecting food, &c. devolve on
+  her. She must obey the orders of all the women, and even of the
+  children belonging to the village, and the slightest mistake or
+  disobedience subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment.
+  The ashes of her husband are carefully collected and deposited in a
+  grave which it is her duty to keep free from weeds, and should any
+  such appear, she is obliged to root them out with her fingers.
+  During this operation her husband’s relatives stand by and beat her
+  in a cruel manner until the task is completed or she falls a victim
+  to their brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid this complicated
+  cruelty, frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on
+  for three or four years, the friends of her husband agree to relieve
+  her from the her painful mourning. This is a ceremony of much
+  consequence and the preparations for it occupy a considerable time
+  generally from six to eight months. The hunters proceed to the
+  various districts in which deer and beaver abound and after
+  collecting large quantities of meat and fur return to the village.
+  The skins are immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing,
+  trinkets, &c. Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants of the
+  various friendly villages, and when they have all assembled the
+  feast commences, and presents are distributed to each visitor. The
+  object of their meeting is then explained, and the woman is brought
+  forward, still carrying on her back the bones of her late husband,
+  which are now removed and placed in a covered box, which is nailed
+  or otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her conduct as a
+  faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the ceremony of her
+  manumission is completed by one man powdering on her head the down
+  of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a bladder of oil.
+  She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of single
+  blessedness, but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter the risk
+  attending a second widowhood.
+
+  The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it
+  with equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid
+  the brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of
+  religious rite.
+
+Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the
+description given.
+
+Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted.
+
+It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after death--certainly a
+long period of time, when it is remembered that Indians as a rule
+endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. This may be
+accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the friends and
+relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, and of
+making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the
+verification of the dead person, William Sheldon[51] gives an account of
+a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and
+which seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased
+persons by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this
+is mere hypothesis:
+
+  They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased
+  persons. When one of them died, it was necessary that all his
+  relations should see him and examine the body in order to ascertain
+  that he died a natural death. They acted so rigidly on this
+  principle, that if one relative remained who had not seen the body
+  all the others could not convince that one that the death was
+  natural. In such a case the absent relative considered himself as
+  bound in honor to consider all the other relatives as having been
+  accessories to the death of the kinsman, and did not rest until he
+  had killed one of them to revenge the death of the deceased. If a
+  Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his relations lived
+  in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon them to see the body,
+  and several months sometimes elapsed before it could be finally
+  interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately painted all over
+  with _roucou_, and had his mustachios and the black streaks in his
+  face made with a black paint, which was different from that used in
+  their lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the _carbet_ where
+  he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body was let
+  down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to the knees, and
+  the body was placed in it in a sitting posture, resembling that in
+  which they crouched round the fire or the table when alive, with the
+  elbows on the knees and the palms of the hands against the cheeks.
+  No part of the body touched the outside of the grave, which was
+  covered with wood and mats until all the relations had examined it.
+  When the customary examinations and inspections were ended the hole
+  was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained undisturbed. The hair
+  of the deceased was kept tied behind. In this way bodies have
+  remained several months without any symptoms of decay or producing
+  any disagreeable smell. The _roucou_ not only preserved them from
+  the sun, air, and insects during their lifetime, but probably had
+  the same effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs were placed by
+  them when they were covered over for inspection, and they were
+  finally buried with them.
+
+Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over
+for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be
+remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As
+already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the
+widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but,
+if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable
+to such torments.
+
+It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a husband
+died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her severely.
+Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to take good
+care of their husbands.
+
+George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,[52] states that among the Indians of Clear
+Lake, California, “the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a
+hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered.”
+
+According to Stephen Powers,[53] cremation was common among the Se-nél
+of California. He thus relates it.
+
+  The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of
+  incremation that he once witnessed, which was frightful for its
+  exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that
+  of a wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they
+  placed in his month two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in
+  his ears and hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his
+  feather mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows,
+  painted arrows, &c. When the torch was applied they set up a
+  mournful ululation, chanting and dancing about him, gradually
+  working themselves into a wild and ecstatic raving, which seemed
+  almost a demoniacal possession, leaping, howling, lacerating their
+  flesh. Many seemed to lose all self-control. The younger
+  English-speaking Indians generally lend themselves charily to such
+  superstitious work, especially if American spectators are present,
+  but even they were carried away by the old contagious frenzy of
+  their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, quite new and fine,
+  and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the blazing pile.
+  Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a pile of California
+  blankets, when a white man, to test his sincerity, offend him $16
+  for them, jingling the bright coins before his eyes, but the savage
+  (for such he had become again for the moment) otherwise so
+  avaricious, hurled him away with a yell of execration and ran and
+  threw his offering into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied,
+  wildly flung upon the pyre all they had in the world--their dearest
+  ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings of glittering
+  shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair, beating their
+  breasts in their mad and insensate infatuation, some of them would
+  have cast themselves bodily into the flaming ruins and perished with
+  the chief had they not been restrained by their companions. Then the
+  bright, swift flames, with their hot tongues, licked this “cold
+  obstruction” into chemic change, and the once “delighted spirit” of
+  the savage was borne up. * * *
+
+  It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare’s shudder at the
+  thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of
+  his superstition to think of the soul, of his departed friend set
+  free and purified by the swift purging heat of the flames not
+  dragged down to be clogged and bound in the mouldering body, but
+  borne up in the soft, warm chariots of the smoke toward the
+  beautiful sun, to bask in his warmth and light, and then to fly away
+  to the Happy Western Land. What wonder if the Indian shrinks with
+  unspeakable horror from the thought of _burying his friend’s
+  soul!_--of pressing and ramming down with pitiless clods that inner
+  something which once took such delight in the sweet light of the
+  sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade him to do otherwise
+  and follow our custom! What wonder if even then he does it with sad
+  fears and misgivings! Why not let him keep his custom! In the
+  gorgeous landscapes and balmy climate of California an Indian
+  incremation is as natural to the savage as it is for him to love the
+  beauty of the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian
+  bury their dead if they will; it matters little, the earth is the
+  same above as below; or to them the bosom of the earth may seem even
+  the better; but in California do not blame the savage if he recoils
+  at the thought of going underground! This soft pale halo of the
+  lilac hills--ah, let him console himself if he will with the belief
+  that his lost friend enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by
+  saying that they destroyed full $500 worth of property. “The
+  blankets,” said he with a fine Californian scorn of much absurd
+  insensibility to such a good bargain, “the blankets that the
+  American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money.”
+
+  After death the Se-nél hold that bad Indians return into coyotes.
+  Others fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are
+  hooked off by a raging bull at the further end, while the good
+  escape across. Like the Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it
+  necessary to nourish the spirits of the departed for the space of a
+  year. This is generally done by a squaw, who takes pinole in her
+  blanket, repairs to the scene of the incremation, or to places
+  hallowed by the memory of the dead, when she scatters it over the
+  ground, meantime rocking her body violently to and fro in a dance
+  and chanting the following chorous:
+
+    Hel-lel-li-ly,
+    Hel-lel-lo,
+    Hel-lel-lu.
+
+  This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words
+  have no meaning whatever.
+
+Henry Gillman[54] has published an interesting account of the
+exploration of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant
+evidence that cremation had existed among the former Indian population.
+It is as follows:
+
+  In opening a burial-mound at Cade’s Pond, a small body of water
+  situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fé Lake, Fla., the
+  writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull
+  of the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of
+  his ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human
+  burials, the bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a
+  great number of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in
+  brilliant colors, chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them
+  ornamented with indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in
+  the ceramic art, though they are reduced to fragments. The first of
+  the skulls referred to was exhumed at a depth of 2½ feet. It rested
+  on its apex (base uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half
+  incinerated human bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the
+  sand which invariably sifts into crania under such circumstances.
+  Immediately beneath the skull lay the greater part of a human tibia,
+  presenting the peculiar compression known as a platycnemism to the
+  degree of affording a latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and
+  surrounding it lay the fragments of a large number of human bones,
+  probably constituting an entire individual. In the second instance
+  of this peculiar mode in cremation, the cranium was discovered on
+  nearly the opposite side of the mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and,
+  like the former, resting on its apex. It was filled with a black
+  mass--the residuum of burnt human bones mingled with sand. At three
+  feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a flattened tibia, which
+  presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both the skulls were free
+  from all action of fire, and though subsequently crumbling to pieces
+  on their removal, the writer had opportunity to observe their strong
+  resemblance to the small, orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed
+  from mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was perceptible in the
+  other cranium belonging to this mound. The small narrow, retreating
+  frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather protuberant
+  occipital, which was not in the least compressed, the well defined
+  supraciliary ridges, and the superior border of the orbits,
+  presenting a quadrilateral outline, were also particularly noticed.
+  The lower facial bones, including the maxillaries, were wanting. On
+  consulting such works as are accessible to him, the writer finds no
+  mention of any similar relics having been discovered in mounds in
+  Florida, or elsewhere. For further particulars reference may be had
+  to a paper on the subject read before the Saint Louis meeting of the
+  American Association, August, 1878.
+
+The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use
+of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.
+
+The fact is well-known to archæologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as
+occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E.
+Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account
+of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at
+the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but
+all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had
+served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained
+unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.
+
+A. S. Tiffany[55] describes what he calls a cremation-furnace,
+discovered within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.
+
+  * * * Mound seven miles, below the city, a projecting point known as
+  Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black soil to the depth of
+  from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a burnt indurated clay,
+  resembling in color and texture a medium-burned brick, and about 30
+  inches in depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred
+  human remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged
+  and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor of the
+  pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much
+  decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind
+  were discovered. The furnace appears to have been constructed by
+  excavating the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or
+  skeletons which had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and
+  placing the fuel among and above the bodies, with a covering of
+  poles or split timbers extending over and resting upon the earth,
+  with the clay covering above, which latter we now find resting upon
+  the charred remains. The ends of the timber covering, where they
+  were protected by the earth above and below, were reduced to
+  charcoal, parallel pieces of which were found at right angles to the
+  length of the mound. No charcoal was found among or near the
+  remains, the combustion there having been complete. The porous and
+  softer portions of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black.
+  Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably not
+  been opened after the burning.
+
+This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect.
+
+Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given to
+show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.
+
+
+_PARTIAL CREMATION._
+
+Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of
+North Carolina, and which is thus described by J. W. Foster:[56]
+
+  Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region, when, in
+  pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in
+  the valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell
+  commenced farming. During the first season’s operations the
+  plowshare, in passing over a certain portion of a field, produced a
+  hollow rumbling sound, and in exploring for the cause the first
+  object met with was a shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a
+  slab of burnt clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which,
+  in the attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing
+  beneath this slab was found, but on examining its under side, to his
+  great surprise there was the mould of a naked human figure. Three of
+  these burned-clay sepulchers were thus raised and examined during
+  the first year of his occupancy, since which time none have been
+  found until recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow
+  brought up another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the
+  impress of a plump human arm.
+
+  Col. C. W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which
+  have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus:
+
+  “We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for
+  500 years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles
+  of stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under
+  one pile, but a grave has just been opened of the following
+  construction: A pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face
+  upward; then over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the
+  form and features. On this was built a hot fire, which formed an
+  entire shield of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such
+  tomb gives a perfect cast of the form of the occupant.”
+
+  Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these
+  archeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the
+  exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the mould, which
+  he reached through a layer of charcoal, and then with a trowel
+  excavated beneath it. The clay was not thoroughly baked, and no
+  impression of the corpse was left, except of the forehead and that
+  portion of the limbs between the ankles and the knees, and even
+  these portions of the mould crumbled. The body had been placed east
+  and west, the head toward the east. “I had hoped,” continues Mr.
+  McDowell, “that the cast in the clay would be as perfect as one I
+  found 51 years ago, a fragment of which I presented to Colonel
+  Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on one side and on
+  the other of the fingers, that had pressed down the soft clay upon
+  the body interred beneath it.” The mound-builders of the Ohio
+  valley, as has been shown, often placed a layer of clay over the
+  dead, but not in immediate contact, upon which they builded fires;
+  and the evidence that cremation was often resorted to in their
+  disposition are too abundant to be gainsaid.
+
+This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:[57]
+
+  Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his
+  attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient
+  race of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial
+  places were discovered where the bodies had been placed with the
+  face up and covered with a coating of plastic clay about an inch
+  thick. A pile of wood was then placed on top and fired, which
+  consumed the body and baked the clay, which retained the impression
+  of the body. This was then lightly covered with earth.
+
+It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the cases
+are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in the
+extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of
+burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the
+ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster
+(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.
+
+Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been practiced
+by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who
+
+  Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders
+  nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole
+  of sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head
+  being cut off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows,
+  bead-work, trappings, &c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of
+  food, consisting of dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with
+  the body also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless
+  body; then a bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the grave by
+  the different members of the tribe, and on these fagots the head was
+  placed, the pile fired, and the head consumed to ashes; after this
+  was done the female relatives of the deceased, who had appeared as
+  mourners with their faces blackened with a preparation resembling
+  tar or paint, dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head
+  and made three marks on their right cheek. This constituted the
+  mourning garb, the period of which lasted until this black substance
+  wore off from the face. In addition to this mourning, the blood
+  female relatives of the deceased (who, by the way, appeared to be a
+  man of distinction) had their hair cropped short. I noticed while
+  the head was burning that the old women of the tribe sat on the
+  ground, forming a large circle, inside of which another circle of
+  young girls were formed standing and swaying their bodies to and fro
+  and singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male
+  that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very different,
+  their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins and laid away in
+  caves, with their valuables and in some cases food being placed with
+  them in their mouths. Occasionally money is left to pay for food in
+  the spirit land.
+
+This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E. A. Barber[58] has
+described what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one
+above noted:
+
+  A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice
+  recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New
+  Jersey bank of the Delaware River, a short distance below Gloucester
+  City, the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position,
+  in a high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few
+  inches below the surface the neck bones were found, and below these
+  the remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of
+  the hands and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be
+  determined whether the remains were those of an Indian or of a white
+  man, but in either case the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal.
+  A careful exhumation and critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil
+  disclosed the fact that around the lower extremities of the body had
+  been placed a number of large stones, which revealed traces of fire,
+  in conjunction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had
+  undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes it appear reasonably
+  certain that the subject had been executed, probably as a prisoner
+  of war. A pit had been dug, in which he was placed erect, and a fire
+  kindled around him. Then he had been buried alive, or, at least, if
+  he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the
+  earth, with the exception of his head, which was left protruding
+  above the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it
+  seems probable that the head had either been burned or severed from
+  the body and removed, or else left a prey to ravenous birds. The
+  skeleton, which would have measured fully six feet in height, was
+  undoubtedly that of a man.
+
+Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning.
+The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an
+outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient
+Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with
+the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in
+the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment,
+placed a piece of money in the corpse’s mouth, which was thought to be
+Charon’s fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River.
+Besides this, the corpse’s mouth was furnished with a certain cake,
+composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury of
+Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet
+entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.
+
+
+
+
+AERIAL SEPULTURE.
+
+
+_LODGE-BURIAL._
+
+Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,[59]
+and relates to the Sioux:
+
+  I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to
+  the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our
+  curiosity. There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie,
+  and in them we found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the
+  ground, wrapped in their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles,
+  spears, camp-kettles, and all their accoutrements piled up around
+  them. Some lodges contained three, others only one body, all of
+  which were more or less in a state of decomposition. A short
+  distance apart from these was one lodge which, though small, seemed
+  of rather superior pretensions, and was evidently pitched with great
+  care. It contained the body of a young Indian girl of sixteen or
+  eighteen years, with a countenance presenting quite an agreeable
+  expression: she was richly dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth
+  elaborately ornamented; a new pair of moccasins, beautifully
+  embroidered with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her body was
+  wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner; she had
+  evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our surprise a portion
+  of the upper part of her person was bare, exposing the face and a
+  part of the breast, as if the robes in which she was wrapped had by
+  some means been disarranged, whereas all the other bodies were
+  closely covered up. It was, at the time, the opinion of our
+  mountaineers, that these Indians must have fallen in an encounter
+  with a party of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they had all
+  died of the cholera, and that this young girl, being considered past
+  recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the habiliments of the
+  dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and abandoned to her fate, so
+  fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this to them novel and
+  terrible disease.
+
+It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, and
+due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the homes
+of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was not the
+case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among the same
+tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of their chiefs
+(Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:
+
+  The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the
+  base, converging to a point, at least 30 feet high, covered with
+  buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch,
+  which floats outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The
+  different skins are neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and
+  all painted in seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and
+  yellow, decorated with various lifelike war scenes. Over the small
+  entrance is a large bright cross, the upright being a large stuffed
+  white wolf-skin upon his war lance, and the cross-bar of bright
+  scarlet flannel, containing the quiver of bow and arrows, which
+  nearly all warriors still carry, even when armed with repeating
+  rifles. As the cross is not a pagan but a Christian (which Long
+  Horse was not either by profession or practice) emblem, it was
+  probably placed there by the influence of some of his white friends.
+  I entered, finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war
+  dress, paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about
+  breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A large
+  opening and wind-flap at the top favored ventilation, and though he
+  had lain there in an open coffin a full month, some of which was hot
+  weather, there was but little effluvia; in fact, I have seldom found
+  much in a burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus
+  performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.
+
+This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is
+admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal
+of his article, that the facts are correct.
+
+General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the
+Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small
+scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins
+deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his
+side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then closed up.
+
+Dr. W. J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of the
+Shoshones of Nevada:
+
+  The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known to have
+  at any time practiced cremation. In Independence Valley, under a
+  deserted and demolished _wickeup_ or “brush tent,” I found the
+  dried-up corpse of a boy, about twelve years of age. The body had
+  been here for at least six weeks, according to information received,
+  and presented a shriveled and hideous appearance. The dryness of the
+  atmosphere prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region
+  usually leave the body when life terminates, merely throwing over it
+  such rubbish as may be at hand, or the remains of their primitive
+  shelter tents, which are mostly composed of small branches, leaves,
+  grass, &c.
+
+  The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the eastern banks
+  of the Owyhee River, upper portion of Nevada, did not bury their
+  dead at the time of my visit in 1871. Whenever the person died, his
+  lodge (usually constructed of poles and branches of _Salix_) was
+  demolished and placed in one confused mass over his remains, when
+  the band removed a short distance. When the illness is not too
+  great, or death sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable
+  place, some distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to
+  avoid the necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens, and other
+  carnivores soon remove all the flesh so that there remains nothing
+  but the bones, and even these are scattered by the wolves. The
+  Indians at Tuscarora, Nevada, stated that when it was possible and
+  that they should by chance meet the bony remains of any Shoshone,
+  they would bury it, but in what manner I failed to discover as the
+  were very reticent, and avoided giving any information regarding the
+  dead. One corpse was found totally dried and shrivelled, owing to
+  the dryness of the atmosphere in this region.
+
+Capt. F. W. Beechey[60] describes a curious mode of burial among the
+Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat
+similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a
+good idea of these burial receptacles.
+
+  Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to what we had
+  already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished several examples of the
+  manner in which this tribe of natives dispose of their dead. In some
+  instances a platform was constructed of drift-wood raised about two
+  feet and a quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed,
+  with its head to the westward and a double tent of drift-wood
+  erected over it, the inner one with spars about seven feet long, and
+  the outer one with some that were three times that length. They were
+  placed close together, and at first no doubt sufficiently so to
+  prevent the depredations of foxes and wolves, but they had yielded
+  at last, and all the bodies, and even the hides that covered them,
+  had suffered by these rapacious animals.
+
+  In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks, as at
+  Cape Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock made of eider
+  duck skins, with one of deer skin over it, and were covered with a
+  sea horse hide, such as the natives use for their _baidars_.
+  Suspended to the poles, and on the ground near them, were several
+  Esquimaux implements, consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a
+  tamborine, which, we were informed as well as signs could convey the
+  meaning of the natives, were placed there for the use of the
+  deceased, who, in the next world (pointing to the western sky) ate,
+  drank, and sang songs. Having no interpreter, this was all the
+  information I could obtain, but the custom of placing such
+  instruments around the receptacles of the dead is not unusual, and
+  in all probability the Esquimaux may believe that the soul has
+  enjoyments in the next world similar to those which constitute their
+  happiness in this.
+
+The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the
+Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J. F. Hammond, U.S.A., place
+their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the
+northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in Figure 12.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Burial Houses.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Eskimo lodge burial.]
+
+Bancroft[61] states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a
+death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited
+palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
+attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently
+informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic
+accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the
+Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the
+floors of their houses, a custom which has been followed by the Mosquito
+Indians of Central America and one or two of our own tribes.
+
+
+_BOX-BURIAL._
+
+Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain tribes
+on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead wonderfully
+carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a low platform
+or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small house with an
+angular roof, and each one has an opening through which food may be
+passed to the corpse.
+
+Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did
+the same.
+
+Capt. J. H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following relating
+to the Creeks in Indian Territory.
+
+  * * * are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute made of
+  branches of trees, covered with small branches, leaves, and earth.
+  I have seen several of their graves, which after a few weeks had
+  become uncovered and the remains exposed to view. I saw in one Creek
+  grave (a child’s) a small sum of silver, in another (adult male)
+  some implements of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred
+  with the feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies
+  of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and faces with
+  a composition made of grease and wood ashes, and would remain in
+  that condition for several days, and probably a month.
+
+Josiah Priest[62] gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe
+of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The
+writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an
+example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.
+
+  The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there was no
+  bad smell, they were deposited in large wooden coffins, well
+  constructed, and placed upon benches two feet from the ground. In
+  smaller coffins, and in baskets, the Spaniards found the clothes of
+  the deceased men and women, and so many pearls that they distributed
+  them among the officers and soldiers by handsfulls.
+
+In Bancroft[63] may be found the following account of the burial boxes
+of the Esquimaux.
+
+  The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the body up
+  and place it on the side in a plank box which is elevated three or
+  four feet from the ground and supported by four posts. The grave-box
+  is often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes and animals.
+  Sometimes it is wrapped in skins placed upon an elevated frame and
+  covered with planks or trunks of trees so as to protect it from wild
+  beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are deposited the arms,
+  clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the deceased.
+  Frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where the
+  bodies lie exposed with their heads placed towards the north.
+
+Frederic Whymper[64] describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that
+Territory.
+
+  Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain only the
+  ashes of the dead. These people invariably burn the deceased. On one
+  of the boxes I saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human
+  hair depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of the
+  (happily) deceased one’s ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more
+  esteemed than if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are
+  much ornamented with carved and painted faces and other devices.
+
+W. H. Dall,[65] well known as one of the most experienced and careful of
+American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the Innuits
+of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as follows: Figs.
+13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume noted.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Innuit Grave.]
+
+INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK.
+
+  The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its side in a
+  box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long. This
+  is elevated several feet above the ground on four posts which
+  project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with
+  red chalk in figures of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to
+  the wealth of the dead man, a number of articles which belonged to
+  him are attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them
+  have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even
+  kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably
+  the wooden dish, or “kantág,” from which the deceased was accustomed
+  to eat, is hung on one of the posts.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ingalik grave.]
+
+INNUIT OF YUKON.
+
+  The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner previously
+  described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the sarcophagus,
+  which, in this case, is ornamented with snow-shoes, a reel for
+  seal-lines, a fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kantág. The latter
+  is found with every grave, and usually one is placed in the box with
+  the body. Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is
+  placed in the coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is thus
+  disposed of. Generally the furs, possessions, and clothing (except
+  such as has been worn) are divided among the nearer relatives of the
+  dead, or remain in possession of his family if he has one; such
+  clothing, household utensils, and weapons as the deceased had in
+  daily use are almost invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are
+  many deaths about the same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything
+  belonging to the dead is destroyed. The house in which a death
+  occurs is always deserted and usually destroyed. In order to avoid
+  this, it is not uncommon to take the sick person out of the house
+  and put him in a tent to die. A woman’s coffin may be known by the
+  kettles and other feminine utensils about it. There is no
+  distinction between the sexes in method of burial. On the outside of
+  the coffin, figures are usually drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur
+  animals usually indicate that the dead person was a good trapper; if
+  seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter; representation of
+  parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of his death is also
+  occasionally indicated. For four days after a death the women in the
+  village do no sewing; for five days the men do not cut wood with an
+  axe. The relatives of the dead must not seek birds’ eggs on the
+  overhanging cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under
+  them and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or
+  indicated, except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body,
+  chanting a mournful refrain until he is interred. They seldom
+  suspect that others have brought the death about by shamánism, as
+  the Indians almost invariably do.
+
+  At the end of a year from the death, a festival is given, presents
+  are made to those who assisted in making the coffin, and the period
+  of mourning is over. Their grief seldom seems deep but they indulge
+  for a long time in wailing for the dead at intervals. I have seen
+  several women who refused to take a second husband, and had remained
+  single in spite of repeated offers for many years.
+
+INGALIKS OF ULUKUK.
+
+  As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mikála, one of
+  my men, informed me that it was women lamenting for the dead. On
+  landing, I saw several Indians hewing out the box in which the dead
+  are placed. * * * The body lay on its side on a deer skin, the heels
+  were lashed to the small of the back, and the head bent forward on
+  the chest so that his coffin needed to be only about four feet long.
+
+
+_TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL._
+
+We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the most
+common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite extensively
+practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned the choice
+of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where timber
+abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being employed.
+
+From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has
+been received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the
+Brulé or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are
+called _Sicaugu_, in the Indian tongue _Seechaugas_, or the “burned
+thigh” people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only on
+account of its careful attention to details, but from its known
+truthfulness of description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.
+
+FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+  Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude boxes,
+  either burying them when implements for digging can be had, or, when
+  they have no means of making a grave, placing them on top of the
+  ground on some hill or other slight elevation, yet this is done in
+  imitation of the whites, and their general custom, as a people,
+  probably does not differ in any essential way from that of their
+  forefathers for many generations in the past. In disposing of the
+  dead, they wrap the body tightly in blankets or robes (sometimes
+  both) wind it all over with thongs made of the hide of some animal
+  and place it reclining on the back at full length, either in the
+  branches of some tree or on a scaffold made for the purpose. These
+  scaffolds are about eight feet high and made by planting four forked
+  sticks firmly in the ground, one at each corner and then placing
+  others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the body is
+  securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is placed on the
+  same scaffold, though generally a separate one is made for each
+  occasion. These Indians being in all things most superstitious,
+  attach a kind of sacredness to these scaffolds and all the materials
+  used or about the dead. This superstition is in itself sufficient to
+  prevent any of their own people from disturbing the dead, and for
+  one of another nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered
+  an offense not too severely punished by death. The same feeling also
+  prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or any of the wood which
+  has been used about them, even for firewood, though the necessity
+  may be very great, for fear some evil consequences will follow. It
+  is also the custom, though not universally followed, when bodies
+  have been for two years on the scaffolds to take them down and bury
+  them under ground.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Dakota Scaffold Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Offering Food to the Dead.]
+
+  All the work about winding up the dead, building the scaffold, and
+  placing the dead upon it is done by women only, who, after having
+  finished their labor, return and bring the men, to show them where
+  the body is placed, that they may be able to find it in future.
+  Valuables of all kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.--in
+  short, whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and
+  locks of hair cut from the heads of the mourners at his death, are
+  always bound up with the body. In case the dead was a man of
+  importance, or if the family could afford it, even though he were
+  not, one or several horses (generally, in the former case, those
+  which the departed thought most of) are shot and placed under the
+  scaffold. The idea in this is that the spirit of the horse will
+  accompany and be of use to his spirit in the “happy hunting
+  grounds,” or, as these people express it, “the spirit land.”
+
+  When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death occurs, the
+  friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and begin crying over
+  the departed or departing one. This consists in uttering the most
+  heartrending, almost hideous wails and lamentations, in which all
+  join until exhausted. Then the mourning ceases for a time until some
+  one starts it again, when all join in as before and keep it up until
+  unable to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is removed.
+  This crying is done almost wholly by women, who gather in large
+  numbers on such occasions, and among them a few who are professional
+  mourners. These are generally old women and go whenever a person is
+  expected to die, to take the leading part in the lamentations,
+  knowing that they will be well paid at the distribution of goods
+  which follows. As soon as death takes place, the body is dressed by
+  the women in the best garments and blankets obtainable, new ones if
+  they can be afforded. The crowd gathered near continue wailing
+  piteously, and from time to time cut locks of hair from their own
+  heads with knives, and throw them on the dead body. Those who wish
+  to show their grief most strongly, cut themselves in various places,
+  generally in the legs and arms, with their knives or pieces of
+  flint, more commonly the latter, causing the blood to flow freely
+  over their persons. This custom is followed to a less degree by the
+  men.
+
+  A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the desire to
+  get the dead out of sight, the fear that the disease which caused
+  the death will communicate itself to others of the family causes
+  them to hasten the disposition of it as soon as they are certain
+  that death has actually taken place.
+
+  Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After that is
+  done, connected with which there seems to be no particular ceremony,
+  the few women who attend to it return to the lodge and a
+  distribution is made among them and others, not only of the
+  remaining property of the deceased, but of all the possessions, even
+  to the lodge itself of the family to which he belonged. This custom
+  in some cases has been carried so far as to leave the rest of the
+  family not only absolutely destitute but actually naked. After
+  continuing in this condition for a time, they gradually reach the
+  common level again by receiving gifts from various sources.
+
+  The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the dead,
+  a strict observance of the ten days following the death, as follows:
+  They are to rise at a very early hour and work unusually hard all
+  day, joining in no feast, dance, game, or other diversion, eat but
+  little, and retire late, that they may be deprived of the usual
+  amount of sleep as of food. During this they never paint themselves,
+  but at various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead
+  in loud cries and lamentations for hours together. After the ten
+  days have expired they paint themselves again and engage in the
+  usual amusements of the people as before. The men are expected to
+  mourn and fast for one day and then go on the war-path against some
+  other tribe, or on some long journey alone. If he prefers, he can
+  mourn and fast for two or more days and remain at home. The custom
+  of placing food at the scaffold also prevails to some extent. If but
+  little is placed there it is understood to be for the spirit of the
+  dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If much is provided, it is
+  done with the intention that those of the same sex and age as the
+  deceased shall meet there and consume it. If the dead be a little
+  girl, the young girls meet and eat what is provided; if it be a man,
+  then men assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never mention
+  the name of the dead.
+
+“KEEPING THE GHOST.”
+
+  Still another custom, though at the present day by no means
+  generally followed, is still observed to some extent among them.
+  This is called _wanagee yuhapee_, or “keeping the ghost.” A little
+  of the hair from the head of the deceased being preserved is bound
+  up in calico and articles of value until the roll is about two feet
+  long and ten inches or more in diameter, when it is placed in a case
+  made of hide handsomely ornamented with various designs in different
+  colored paints. When the family is poor, however, they may
+  substitute for this case blue or scarlet blanket or cloth. The roll
+  is then swung lengthwise between two supports made of sticks, placed
+  thus × in front of a lodge which has been set apart for the purpose.
+  In this lodge are gathered presents of all kinds, which are given
+  out when a sufficient quantity is obtained. It is often a year and
+  sometimes several years before this distribution is made. During all
+  this time the roll containing the hair of the deceased is left
+  undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they are brought in
+  are piled in the back part of the lodge, and are not to be touched
+  until given out. No one but men and boys are admitted to the lodge
+  unless it be a wife of the deceased, who may go in if necessary very
+  early in the morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke,
+  eat, and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their
+  pipes in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left
+  undisturbed until after the distribution. When they eat, a portion
+  is always placed first under the roll outside for the spirit of the
+  deceased. No one is allowed to take this unless a large quantity is
+  so placed, in which case it may be eaten by any persons actually in
+  need of food, even though strangers to the dead. When the proper
+  time comes the friends of the deceased and all to whom presents are
+  to be given are called together to the lodge and the things are
+  given out by the man in charge. Generally this is some near relative
+  of the departed. The roll is now undone and small locks of the hair
+  distributed with the other presents, which ends the ceremony.
+
+  Sometimes this “keeping the ghost” is done several times, and it is
+  then looked upon as a repetition of the burial or putting away of
+  the dead. During all the time before the distribution of the hair,
+  the lodge, as well as the roll, is looked upon as in a manner
+  sacred, but after that ceremony it becomes common again and may be
+  used for any ordinary purpose. No relative or near friend of the
+  dead wishes to retain anything in his possession that belonged to
+  him while living, or to see, hear, or own anything which will remind
+  him of the departed. Indeed, the leading idea in all their burial
+  customs in the laying away with the dead their most valuable
+  possessions, the giving to others what is left of his and the family
+  property, the refusal to mention his name, &c., is to put out of
+  mind as soon and as effectual as possible the memory of the
+  departed.
+
+  From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they believe
+  each person to have a spirit which continues to live after the death
+  of the body. They have no idea of a future life in the body, but
+  believe that after death their spirits will meet and recognize the
+  spirits of their departed friends in the spirit land. They deem it
+  essential to their happiness here, however, to destroy as far as
+  practicable their recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of
+  death as a sleep, and of the dead as asleep or having gone to sleep
+  at such a time. These customs are gradually losing their hold upon
+  them, and are much less generally and strictly observed than
+  formerly.
+
+Figure 15 furnishes a good example of scaffold burial. Figure 16,
+offering of food and drink to the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead
+upon the scaffold.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Depositing the Corpse.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Tree-burial.]
+
+A. Delano,[66] mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he
+noticed in Nebraska.
+
+  * * * During the afternoon we passed a Sioux burying-ground, if I
+  may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a hackberry tree, elevated
+  about twenty feet from the ground, a kind of rack was made of broken
+  tent poles, and the body (for there was but one) was placed upon it,
+  wrapped in his blanket, and a tanned buffalo skin, with his tin cup,
+  moccasins, and various things which he had used in life, were placed
+  upon his body, for his use in the land of spirits.
+
+Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend Dr.
+Washington Matthews, United States Army.
+
+John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:
+
+  Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose
+  the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed,
+  closely sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the
+  branches of a tree so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and
+  then left to slowly waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of
+  a squaw or child, it was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where
+  it soon became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes,
+  &c., of men were inclosed, and the small toys of children with them.
+  The ceremonies were equally barbarous, the relatives cutting off,
+  according to the depth of their grief, one or more joints of the
+  fingers, divesting themselves of clothing even in the coldest
+  weather, and filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing
+  up and burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men would
+  not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead body.
+
+The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and
+Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E. H. Alden, United States Indian
+agent at Fort Berthold:
+
+  The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but always on
+  a scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet high, on which the
+  box is placed, or, if no box is used, the body wrapped in red or
+  blue cloth if able, or, if not, a blanket of cheapest white cloth,
+  the tools and weapons being placed directly under the body, and
+  there they remain forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of
+  them. It would be bad medicine to touch the dead or anything so
+  placed belonging to him. Should the body by any means fall to the
+  ground, it is never touched or replaced on the scaffold. As soon as
+  one dies he is immediately buried, sometimes within an hour, and the
+  friends begin howling and wailing as the process of interment goes
+  on, and continue mourning day and night around the grave, without
+  food sometimes three or four days. Those who mourn are always paid
+  for it in some way by the other friends of the deceased, and those
+  who mourn the longest are paid the most. They also show their grief
+  and affection for the dead by a fearful cutting of their own bodies,
+  sometimes only in part, and sometimes all over their whole flesh,
+  and this sometimes continues for weeks. Their hair, which is worn in
+  long braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They seem proud
+  of their mutilations. A young man who had just buried his mother
+  came in boasting of, and showing his mangled legs.
+
+According to Thomas L. McKenney,[67] the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis.,
+buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as
+follows:
+
+  One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place the
+  coffin or box containing their remains on two cross-pieces, nailed
+  or tied with wattap to four poles. The poles are about ten feet
+  high. They plant near these posts the wild hop or some other kind of
+  running vine, which spreads over and covers the coffin. I saw one of
+  these on the island, and as I have described it. It was the coffin
+  of a child about four years old. It was near the lodge of the sick
+  girl. I have a sketch of it. I asked the chief why his people
+  disposed of their dead in that way. He answered they did not like to
+  put them out of their sight so soon by putting them under ground.
+  Upon a platform they could see the box that contained their remains,
+  and that was a comfort to them.
+
+Figure 19 is copied from McKenney’s picture of this form of burial.
+
+Keating[68] thus describes burial scaffolds:
+
+  On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high, corpses
+  were deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair
+  was suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide
+  informed us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by
+  the relatives to testify their grief. In the center, between the
+  four posts which supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the
+  ground, it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human
+  figures, five of which had a design of a petticoat indicating them
+  to be females; the rest amounting to seven, were naked and were
+  intended for male figures; of the latter four were headless, showing
+  that they had been slain, the three other male figures were
+  unmutilated, but held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide
+  informed us designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an
+  usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a warrior’s
+  remains, does not represent the achievements of the deceased, but
+  those of the warriors that assembled near his remains danced the
+  dance of the post, and related their martial exploits. A number of
+  small bones of animals were observed in the vicinity, which were
+  probably left there after a feast celebrated in honor of the dead.
+
+  The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man
+  could not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country
+  where boxes and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the
+  corpses have remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down
+  and burned. Our guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a
+  witness to an interesting, though painful, circumstance that
+  occurred here. An Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing
+  that his son had died at this spot, came up in a canoe to take
+  charge of the remains and convey them down the river to his place of
+  abode but on his arrival he found that the corpse had already made
+  such progress toward decomposition as rendered it impossible for it
+  to be removed. He then undertook with a few friends, to clean off
+  the bones. All the flesh was scraped off and thrown into the stream,
+  the bones were carefully collected into his canoe, and subsequently
+  carried down to his residence.
+
+Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is
+the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis,
+United States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to
+the Cheyennes of Kansas.
+
+  The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of
+  Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by
+  four notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The
+  unusual care manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr.
+  Sternberg to infer that some important chief was inclosed in it.
+  Believing that articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and
+  that their value would be enhanced if the were received at the
+  Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to send the
+  case unopened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Chippewa Scaffold Burial.]
+
+  I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the
+  contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of
+  white willow, about six feet long, three feet broad, and three feet
+  high, with a flooring of buffalo thongs arranged as a net-work. This
+  cradle was securely fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles
+  of ironwood and cottonwood, about twelve feet in length. These poles
+  doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of the vertical poles
+  described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in two buffalo
+  robes of large size and well preserved. On removing these an
+  aperture eighteen inches square was found at the middle of the
+  right-side of the cradle or basket. Within appeared other buffalo
+  robes folded about the remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes.
+  Five robes were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we
+  came to a series of new blankets folded about the remains. There
+  were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one white. These being
+  removed, the next wrappings consisted of a striped white and gray
+  sack, and of a United States Infantry overcoat, like the other
+  coverings nearly new. We had now come apparently upon the immediate
+  envelope of the remains, which it was now evident must be those of a
+  child. These consisted of three robes, with hoods very richly
+  ornamented with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of
+  buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated
+  with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of blue
+  and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow, and the third
+  blue and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass bells
+  attached all about the borders by strings of beads.
+
+  The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that
+  used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and
+  upon a pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red
+  paint, bits of antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &c. The
+  three bead-work hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we
+  successively unwrapped a gray woolen double shawl, five yards of
+  blue cassimere, six yards of red calico, and six yards of brown
+  calico, and finally disclosed the remains of a child, probably about
+  a year old, in an advanced stage of decomposition. The cadaver had a
+  beaver-cap ornamented with disks of copper containing the bones of
+  the cranium, which had fallen apart. About the neck were long wampum
+  necklaces, with _Dentalium_, _Unionidæ_, and _Auriculæ_,
+  interspersed with beads. There were also strings of the pieces of
+  _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so valued by the Indians on
+  this side of the Rocky Mountains. The body had been elaborately
+  dressed for burial, the costume consisting of a red-flannel cloak,
+  a red tunic, and frock-leggins adorned with bead-work, yarn
+  stockings of red and black worsted, and deer-skin beadwork
+  moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets, a porcelain
+  image, a China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a pair of
+  mittens, a fur collar, a pouch of the skin of _Putorius vison_, &c.
+
+Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished by
+Dr. L. S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to
+the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious
+mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the
+entire globe:
+
+  The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be
+  found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay
+  the body, but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more
+  general practice is to lay them upon scaffolds from seven to ten
+  feet high and out of the reach of carnivorous animals, as the wolf.
+  These scaffolds are constructed upon four posts set into the ground
+  something after the manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like
+  all labors of a domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to
+  the women, usually the old women. The work begins as soon as life is
+  extinct. The face, neck, and hands are thickly painted with
+  vermilion, or a species of red earth found in various portions of
+  the Territory when the vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The
+  clothes and personal trinkets of the deceased ornament the body.
+  When blankets are available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts of
+  the body being completely enveloped. Around this a dressed skin of
+  buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the flesh side out, and the
+  whole securely bound with thongs of skins, either raw or dressed;
+  and for ornament, when available, a bright-red blanket envelopes all
+  other coverings, and renders the general scene more picturesque
+  until dimmed by time and the elements. As soon as the scaffold is
+  ready, the body is borne by the women, followed by the female
+  relatives, to the place of final deposit, and left prone in its
+  secure wrappings upon this airy bed of death. This ceremony is
+  accompanied with lamentations wild and weird that one must see and
+  hear in order to appreciate. If the deceased be a brave, it is
+  customary to place upon or beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads
+  which time has rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been
+  brave in war some of his implements of battle are placed on the
+  scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If the deceased has been a
+  chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it is not uncommon to slay
+  his favorite pony and place the body beneath the scaffold, under the
+  superstition, I suppose, that the horse goes with the man. As
+  illustrating the propensity to provide the dead with the things used
+  while living, I may mention that some years ago I loaned to an old
+  man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a young man who was
+  slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made him promise faithfully
+  that he would return it as soon as his son was done using it. Not
+  long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which held the
+  remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been
+  returned I presume the young man is not done using it.
+
+  The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be
+  of universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never
+  cut under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck,
+  and the top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole
+  body, are smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk,
+  moistened with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family
+  possessions except the few shabby articles of apparel worn by the
+  mourners, are given away and the family left destitute. Thus far the
+  custom is universal or nearly so. The wives, mother, and sisters of
+  a deceased man, on the first, second, or third day after the
+  funeral, frequently throw off their moccasins and leggings and gash
+  their legs with their butcher-knives, and march through the camp and
+  to the place of burial with bare and bleeding extremities, while
+  they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. The men likewise
+  often gash themselves in many places, and usually seek the solitude
+  of the higher point on the distant prairie, where they remain
+  fasting, smoking, and wailing out their lamentations for two or
+  three days. A chief who had lost a brother once came to me after
+  three or four days of mourning in solitude almost exhausted from
+  hunger and bodily anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both
+  lower extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from the
+  ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed from
+  exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me that he had not
+  slept for several days or nights. I dressed his wounds with a
+  soothing ointment, and gave him a full dose of an effective anodyne,
+  after which he slept long and refreshingly, and awoke to express his
+  gratitude and shake my hand in a very cordial and sincere manner.
+  When these harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the mourners
+  usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial, toward
+  the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until it is apparently
+  assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up for more than
+  four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at intervals,
+  for weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the bereft.
+  I have seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle of an
+  old father going daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows
+  are lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would move
+  a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when, silent
+  and solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect of
+  this observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a
+  grown-up son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of
+  the scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence.
+  The foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during
+  a period of more than six years’ constant intercourse with several
+  subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory
+  has failed to recall upon a brief consideration.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Scarification at Burial.]
+
+Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for the
+dead.
+
+Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner’s narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.
+
+Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to
+have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation,
+and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., were
+thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles supposed or
+known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also consumed. The
+Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, Caribs, and many of
+the tribes of North American Indians followed these customs. The cutting
+of hair as a mourning observance is of very great antiquity, and Tegg
+relates that among the ancients whole cities and countries were shaved
+(_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians not only shaved themselves
+on such occasions, but extended the same process to their domestic
+animals, and Alexander, at the death of Hephæstin, not only cut off the
+manes of his horses and mules, but took down the battlements from the
+city walls, that even towns might seem in mourning and look bald.
+Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed from a remote period of
+time, having possibly replaced, in the process of evolution, to a
+certain extent, the more barbarous practice of absolute personal
+sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human sacrifices have taken
+place to only a limited extent, but formerly many victims were
+immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida and Carolina
+Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for the reason,
+according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun
+descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as all other
+members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only persons of
+an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among some tribes
+of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by
+no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans,
+and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutré,
+in France, the writer saw horses’ bones exhumed from the graves examined
+in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this
+subject, and they have invariably informed him that when horses were
+slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the band.
+
+Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+Colchians enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to trees;
+the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to the use
+of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it seems
+somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the eastern
+portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in this way,
+which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much easier
+method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living in
+sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that the
+Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, the
+fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to the
+supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the
+desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This
+desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.
+
+The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in loud
+cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a greater
+significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and on this
+point Bruhier[69] seems quite positive, his interpretation being that
+such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some
+interesting examples, which may be admitted here:
+
+  The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with
+  comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to
+  leave this world, having everything to make life comfortable. They
+  place the corpse on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five
+  feet deep, and for ten days they bring food, requesting the corpse
+  to eat. Finally, being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor
+  return to life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and
+  fill up the grave.
+
+When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the body,
+closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received the
+last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased
+by name was known as the _conclamation_, and was a custom anterior even
+to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately
+removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater
+propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves
+on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the
+Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number,
+performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village
+church steeple and again at the grave[70*]. This custom, however, was
+probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to
+prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad
+spirits.
+
+W. L. Hardisty[71] gives a curious example of log-burial in trees,
+relating to the Loucheux of British America:
+
+  They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure
+  it to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A log about
+  eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts
+  carefully hollowed out to the required size. The body is then
+  inclosed and the two pieces well lashed together, preparatory to
+  being finally secured, as before stated, to the trees.
+
+The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing
+scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood[72] gives a number
+of examples of this mode of burial.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Australian Scaffold Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Preparing the Dead.]
+
+  In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the
+  body by fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a
+  peculiarly conspicuous object. Should a tree grow favorably for
+  their purpose, they will employ it as the final resting place for
+  the dead body. Lying in its canoe coffin, and so covered over with
+  leaves and grass that its shape is quite disguised, the body is
+  lifted into a convenient fork of the tree and lashed to the boughs,
+  by native ropes. No farther care is taken of it, and if in process
+  of time it should be blown out of the tree, no one will take the
+  trouble of replacing it.
+
+  Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial
+  platform is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches
+  in the ground and connecting them at their tops by smaller
+  horizontal branches. Such are the curious tombs which are
+  represented in the illustration. * * * These strange tombs are
+  mostly placed among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful
+  than the sound of the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch
+  in which the corpse is lying. The object of this aerial tomb is
+  evident enough, namely, to protect the corpse from the dingo, or
+  native dog. That the ravens and other carrion-eating birds should
+  make a banquet upon the body of the dead man does not seem to
+  trouble the survivors in the least, and it often happens that the
+  traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed ravens that the body
+  of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over his head.
+
+  The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who
+  have died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in
+  battle the body is treated in a very different manner. A moderately
+  high platform is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the
+  dead warrior with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are
+  crossed and the arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is
+  then removed, and after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over
+  the body, which has previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is
+  done in the ceremony of initiation. The legs and arms are covered
+  with zebra-like stripes of red, white, and yellow, and the weapons
+  of the dead man are laid across his lap.
+
+  The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform,
+  and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the
+  friends and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to
+  speak. Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their
+  duty being to see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to
+  keep the flies away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu
+  feathers. When a body has been treated in this manner it becomes
+  hard and mummy-like, and the strongest point is that the wild dogs
+  will not touch it after it has been so long smoked. It remains
+  sitting on the platform for two months or so, and is then taken down
+  and buried, with the exception of the skull, which is made into a
+  drinking-cup for the nearest relative. * * *
+
+This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as the
+process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from decomposition.
+
+Figs. 21 and 22 represent the Australian burials described, and are
+after the original engravings in Wood’s work. The one representing
+scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of our own Indians.
+
+With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead,
+the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are given:
+
+  If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead
+  bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds
+  resembling trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning
+  them and preserving their ashes in urns, I think we can answer the
+  inquiry by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American
+  Indians, as well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed
+  that the human soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and
+  nature of a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their
+  habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the soul-bird would
+  have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place if it was
+  placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the earth;
+  moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest
+  secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard
+  like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.
+
+This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the writer’s
+possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct without
+farther investigation.
+
+
+_PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES._
+
+Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by
+writers “bone-houses.” Roman[73] relates the following concerning the
+Choctaws:
+
+  The following treatment of the dead is very strange. * * * As soon
+  as the deceased is departed, a stage is erected (as in the annexed
+  plate is represented) and the corpse is laid on it and covered with
+  a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it is decorated, and the poles
+  painted red with vermillion and bear’s oil; if a child, it is put
+  upon stakes set across; at this stage the relations come and weep,
+  asking many questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did
+  not his wife serve him well? was he not contented with his children?
+  had he not corn enough? did not his land produce sufficient of
+  everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c., and this accompanied
+  by loud howlings; the women will be there constantly, and sometimes,
+  with the corrupted air and heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige
+  the bystanders to carry them home; the men will also come and mourn
+  in the same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable times
+  when they are least likely to be discovered.
+
+  The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain
+  time, but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or
+  four months, but seldom more than half that time. A certain set of
+  venerable old Gentlemen, who wear very long nails as a
+  distinguishing badge on the thumb, fore, and middle finger of each
+  hand, constantly travel through the nation (when I was there I was
+  told there were but five of this respectable order) that one of them
+  may acquaint those concerned, of the expiration of this period,
+  which is according to their own fancy; the day being come, the
+  friends and relations assemble near the stage, a fire is made, and
+  the respectable operator, after the body is taken down, with his
+  nails tears the remaining flesh off the bones, and throws it with
+  the entrails into the fire, where it is consumed; then he scrapes
+  the bones and burns the scrapings likewise; the head being painted
+  red with vermillion is with the rest of the bones put into a neatly
+  made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and deposited in the
+  loft of a hut built for that purpose, and called bone house; each
+  town has one of these; after remaining here one year or thereabouts,
+  if he be a man of any note, they take the chest down, and in an
+  assembly of relations and friends they weep once more over him,
+  refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him
+  to lasting oblivion.
+
+  An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as
+  one to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial
+  obsequies and mourning.
+
+Jones[74] quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the
+Natchez tribe:
+
+  Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs.
+  These tombs were located within or very near their temples. They
+  rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were
+  raised some three feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a
+  foot and a half wide, they were prepared for the reception of a
+  single corpse. After the body was placed upon it, a basket-work of
+  twigs was woven around and covered with mud, an opening being left
+  at the head, through which food was presented to the deceased. When
+  the flesh had all rotted away, the bones were taken out, placed in a
+  box made of canes, and then deposited in the temple. The common dead
+  were mourned and lamented for a period of three days. Those who fell
+  in battle were honored with a more protracted and grievous
+  lamentation.
+
+Bartram[75] gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial
+among the Choctaws of Carolina:
+
+  The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a
+  very different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a
+  scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where
+  they lay the corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is
+  suffered to remain, visited and protected by the friends and
+  relations, until the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from
+  the bones; then undertakers, who make it their business, carefully
+  strip the flesh from the bones, wash and cleanse them, and when dry
+  and purified by the air, having provided a curiously-wrought chest
+  or coffin, fabricated of bones and splints, they place all the bones
+  therein, which is deposited in the bone-house, a building erected
+  for that purpose in every town; and when this house is full a
+  general solemn funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or
+  friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the
+  bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following one
+  another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and connections
+  attending their respective corps, and the multitude following after
+  them, all as one family, with united voice of alternate allelujah
+  and lamentation, slowly proceeding on to the place of general
+  interment, when they place the coffins in order, forming a
+  pyramid;[76*] and, lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a
+  conical hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn
+  procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is called the
+  feast of the dead.
+
+Morgan[77] also alludes to this mode of burial:
+
+  The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding erected
+  upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to
+  waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of
+  decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the
+  former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house by its side,
+  prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the
+  whole family were preserved from generation to generation by the
+  filial or parental affection of the living. After the lapse of a
+  number of years, or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve
+  of abandoning a settlement, it was customary to collect these
+  skeletons from the whole community around and consign them to a
+  common resting-place.
+
+  To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless
+  to be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which have been found in
+  such numbers in various parts of the country. On opening these
+  mounds the skeletons are usually found arranged in horizontal
+  layers, a conical pyramid, those in each layer radiating from a
+  common center. In other cases they are found placed promiscuously.
+
+Dr. D. G. Brinton[78] likewise gives an account of the interment of
+collected bones:
+
+  East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated
+  periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to collect and clean
+  the osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the
+  intervening time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with
+  choice furs, and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such
+  is the origin of those immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains
+  of nations and generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent
+  curiosity, so frequently chances upon in all portions of our
+  territory. Throughout Central America the same usage obtained in
+  various localities, as early writers and existing monuments
+  abundantly testify. Instead of interring the bones, were they those
+  of some distinguished chieftain, they were deposited in the temples
+  or the council-houses, usually in small chests of canes or splints.
+  Such were the charnel-houses which the historians of De Soto’s
+  expedition so often mention, and these are the “arks” Adair and
+  other authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians
+  from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient Israelites bore
+  with them in their migration.
+
+  A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her
+  deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them
+  in such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc.
+  Exp., p. 200). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for
+  all, without exception. About a year after death the bones were
+  cleaned, bleached, painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a
+  wicker basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling
+  (Gumilla Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity
+  of these heirlooms became burdensome they were removed to some
+  inaccessible cavern and stowed away with reverential care.
+
+George Catlin[79] describes what he calls the “Golgothas” of the
+Mandans:
+
+  There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty
+  feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a
+  little mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo
+  skulls (a male and female), and in the center of the little mound is
+  erected “a medicine pole,” of about twenty feet high, supporting
+  many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they
+  suppose have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred
+  arrangement.
+
+  Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to
+  evince their further affections for the dead, not in groans and
+  lamentations, however, for several years have cured the anguish, but
+  fond affection and endearments are here renewed, and conversations
+  are here held and cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls
+  is placed upon a bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and
+  placed under it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the
+  skull of her husband or her child which lies in this group, and
+  there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it with a dish of
+  the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, which she sets before
+  the skull at night, and returns for the dish in the morning. As soon
+  as it is discovered that the sage on which the skull rests is
+  beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and places the
+  skull carefully upon it, removing that which was under it.
+
+  Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this
+  spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold
+  converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a
+  pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or
+  lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the
+  most pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as they were
+  wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Canoe Burial.]
+
+From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which have
+been described by the authors cited were not confined to any special
+tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have prevailed
+among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.
+
+
+_SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES._
+
+The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.
+
+The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington Territory,
+and may be found in Swan.[80]
+
+  In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a celebrated doctor,
+  were the chief mourners, probably from being the smartest scamps
+  among the relatives. Their duty was to prepare the canoe for the
+  reception of the body. One of the largest and best the deceased had
+  owned was then hauled into the woods, at some distance back of the
+  lodge, after having been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two
+  large square holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and
+  stern, for the twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for
+  further use, and therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the
+  whites (who are but too apt to help themselves to these depositories
+  for the dead), and also to allow any rain to pass off readily.
+
+  When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets, was
+  brought out, and laid in it on mats previously spread. All the
+  wearing apparel was next put in beside the body, together with her
+  trinkets, beads, little baskets, and various trifles she had prized.
+  More blankets were then covered over the body, and mats smoothed
+  over all. Next, a small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was
+  placed, bottom up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with
+  mats. The canoe was then raised up and placed on two parallel bars,
+  elevated four or five feet from the ground, and supported by being
+  inserted through holes mortised at the top of four stout posts
+  previously firmly planted in the earth. Around these holes were then
+  hung blankets, and all the cooking utensils of the deceased, pots,
+  kettles, and pans, each with a hole punched through it, and all her
+  crockery-ware, every piece of which was first cracked or broken, to
+  render it useless; and then, when all was done, they left her to
+  remain for one year, when the bones would be buried in a box in the
+  earth directly under the canoe; but that, with all its appendages,
+  would never be molested, but left to go to gradual decay.
+
+  They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and would
+  no more think of using one than we would of using our own graveyard
+  relics; and it is, in their view, as much of a desecration for a
+  white man to meddle or interfere with these, to them, sacred
+  mementoes, as it would be to us to have an Indian open the graves of
+  our relatives. Many thoughtless white men have done this, and
+  animosities have been thus occasioned.
+
+Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.
+
+From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the Twanas,
+and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency,
+Washington Territory, is selected:
+
+  The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age,
+  dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I
+  went to the house to attend the funeral. She had then been placed in
+  a Hudson’s Bay Company’s box for a coffin, which was about 3½
+  feet long, 1½ wide, and 1½ high. She was very poor when she died,
+  owing to her disease, or she could not have been put in this box.
+  A fire was burning near by, where a large number of her things had
+  been consumed, and the rest was in three boxes near the coffin. Her
+  mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with others, and often
+  saying, “My daughter, my daughter, why did you die?” and similar
+  words. The burial did not take place until the next day, and I was
+  invited to go. It was an aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was
+  about 25 feet long. The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were
+  about a foot wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were
+  placed, on which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this
+  was done which was new to me, but the significance of which I did
+  not learn. As fast as the holes were cut in the posts, green leaves
+  were gathered and placed over the holes until the posts were put in
+  the ground. The coffin-box and the three others containing her
+  things were placed in the canoe and a roof of boards made over the
+  central part, which was entirely covered with white cloth. The head
+  part and the foot part of her bedstead were then nailed on to the
+  posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed on each of these.
+  After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull and went to the
+  beach except her father, mother, and brother, who remained ten or
+  fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning. They then came
+  down and made a present to those persons who were there--a gun to
+  one, a blanket to each of two or three others, and a dollar and a
+  half to each of the rest, including myself, there being about
+  fifteen persons present. Three or four of them then made short
+  speeches, and we came home.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Twana Canoe-Burial.]
+
+  The reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a
+  prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected
+  that there will be a “_pot-latch_” or distribution of money near
+  this place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation
+  of two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at the
+  grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried in the
+  ground. Shortly after her death both her father and mother cut off
+  their hair as a sign of their grief.
+
+Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and represents
+the burial mentioned in his narrative.
+
+The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed
+canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by
+Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of
+the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized
+by painstaking attention to detail:
+
+  I divide this subject into five periods, varying according to time,
+  though they are somewhat intermingled.
+
+  (_a_) There are places where skulls and skeletons have been plowed
+  up or still remain in the ground and near together, in such a way as
+  to give good ground for the belief which is held by white residents
+  in the region, that formerly persons were buried in the ground and
+  in irregular cemeteries. I know of such places in Duce Waillops
+  among the Twanas, and at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the
+  Clallams. These graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the
+  present day profess to have no knowledge as to who is buried in
+  them, except that they believe, undoubtedly, that they are the
+  graves of their ancestors. I do not know that any care has ever been
+  exercised by any one in exhuming these skeletons so as to learn any
+  particulars about them. It is possible, however, that these persons
+  were buried according to the (_b_) or canoe method, and that time
+  has buried them where they now are.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Posts for Burial Canoes.]
+
+  (_b_) Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the forks
+  of two trees and left there. There was no particular cemetery, but
+  the person was generally left near the place where the death
+  occurred. The Skokomish Valley is said to have been full of canoes
+  containing persons thus buried. What their customs were while
+  burying, or what they placed around the dead, I am not informed but
+  am told that they did not take as much care then of their dead as
+  they do now. I am satisfied, however, that they then left some
+  articles around the dead. An old resident informs me that the
+  Clallam Indians always bury their dead in a sitting posture.
+
+  (_c_) About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in British
+  Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region, unprincipled white
+  men took many of the canoes in which the Indian dead had been left,
+  emptying them of their contents. This incensed the Indians and they
+  changed their mode of burial somewhat by burying the dead in one
+  place, placing them in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by
+  building scaffolds for them instead of placing them in forks of
+  trees, and in cutting their canoes so as to render them useless,
+  when they were used as coffins or left by the side of the dead. The
+  ruins of one such graveyard now remain about two miles from this
+  agency. Nearly all the remains were removed a few years ago.
+
+  With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I have
+  drawn. Fig. 25 shows that at present only one pair of posts remains.
+  I have supplied the other pair as they evidently were.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tent on Scaffold.]
+
+  Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part which is
+  covered with board and cloth incloses the coffin which is on a
+  scaffold.
+
+  As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites they have
+  learned to bury in the ground, and this is the most common method at
+  the present time. There are cemeteries everywhere where Indians have
+  resided any length of time. After a person has died a coffin is made
+  after the cheaper kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it,
+  and also with it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes,
+  though occasionally money. I lately heard of a child being buried
+  with a twenty-dollar gold piece in each hand and another in its
+  month, but I am not able to vouch for the truth of it. As a general
+  thing, money is too valuable with them for this purpose and there is
+  too much temptation for some one to rob the grave when this is left
+  in it.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.--House-Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.--House-Burial.]
+
+  (_d_) The grave is dug after the style of the whites and the coffin
+  then placed in it. After it has been covered it is customary though
+  not universal, to build some kind of an inclosure over it or around
+  it in the shape of a small house, shed, lodge or fence. These are
+  from 2 to 12 feet high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet
+  long. Some of these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to
+  see within and some are quite open. Occasionally a window is placed
+  in the front side. Sometimes these enclosures are covered with
+  cloth, which is generally white, sometimes partly covered, and some
+  have none. Around the grave, both outside and inside of the
+  inclosure, various articles are placed, as guns, canoes, dishes,
+  pails, cloth, sheets, blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and
+  occasionally a roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said
+  that around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few
+  years ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of these
+  articles are cut or broken so as to render them valueless to man and
+  to prevent their being stolen. Poles are also often erected, from 10
+  to 30 feet long, on which American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes,
+  and cloths of various colors are hung. A few graves have nothing of
+  this kind. On some graves these things are renewed every year or
+  two. This depends mainly on the number of relatives living and the
+  esteem in which they hold the deceased.
+
+  The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it away
+  particle by particle to the spirit of the deceased in the spirit
+  land, and also as these articles decay they are also carried away in
+  a similar manner. I have never known of the placing food near a
+  grave. Figures 27 and 28 will give you some idea of this class of
+  graves. Figure 27 has a paling fence 12 feet square around it.
+  Figure 28 is simply a frame over a grave where there is no
+  enclosure.
+
+  (_e_) _Civilized mode._--A few persons, of late, have fallen almost
+  entirely into the American custom of burying, building a simple
+  paling fence around it, but placing no articles around it; this is
+  more especially true of the Clallams.
+
+FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
+
+  In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances of
+  sections (_a_) and (_b_) of the preceding subject I know nothing. In
+  regard to (_c_) and (_d_), they begin to mourn, more especially the
+  women, as soon as a person dies. Their mourning song consists
+  principally of the sounds represented by the three English notes mi
+  mi, do do, la la; those who attend the funeral are expected to bring
+  some articles to place in the coffin or about the grave as a token
+  of respect for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this
+  purpose have been cloth of some kind; a small piece of cloth is
+  returned by the mourners to the attendants as a token of
+  remembrance. They bury much sooner after death than white persons
+  do, generally as soon as they can obtain a coffin. I know of no
+  other native funeral ceremonies. Occasionally before being taken to
+  the grave, I have held Christian funeral ceremonies over them, and
+  these services increase from year to year. One reason which has
+  rendered them somewhat backward about having these funeral services
+  is, that they are quite superstitions about going near the dead,
+  fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased will enter
+  the living and kill them also. Especially are they afraid of having
+  children go near, being much more fearful of the effect of the evil
+  spirit on them than on older persons.
+
+MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+  They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning, but
+  often continue it after the burial, though I do not know that they
+  often visit the grave. If they feel the loss very much, sometimes
+  they will mourn nearly every day for several weeks; especially is
+  this true when they meet an old friend who has not been seen since
+  the funeral, or when they see an article owned by the deceased which
+  they have not seen for a long time. The only other thing of which I
+  think, which bears on this subject, is an idea they have, that
+  before a person dies--it may be but a short time or it may be
+  several months--a spirit from the spirit land comes and carries off
+  the spirit of the individual to that place. There are those who
+  profess to discover when this is done, and if by any of their
+  incantations they can compel that spirit to return, the person will
+  not die, but if they are not able, then the person will become dead
+  at heart and in time die, though it may not be for six months or
+  even twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a
+  pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has recently
+  been published by the Department of the Interior, under Prof. F. V.
+  Hayden, United States Geologist.
+
+George Gibbs[81] gives a most interesting account of the burial
+ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, which is
+here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples of other
+modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative
+would destroy the thread of the story:
+
+  The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes
+  was in canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some
+  prominent point a short distance from the village, and sometimes
+  placed between the forks of trees or raised from the ground on
+  posts. Upon the Columbia River the Tsinūk had in particular two very
+  noted cemeteries, a high isolated bluff about three miles below the
+  mouth of the Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance
+  above, called Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been
+  very ancient. Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver’s lieutenants, who
+  explored the river, makes mention only of _several_ canoes at this
+  place; and Lewis and Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of
+  them at all, but at the time of Captain Wilkes’s expedition it is
+  conjectured that there were at least 3,000. A fire caused by the
+  carelessness of one of his party destroyed the whole, to the great
+  indignation of the Indians.
+
+  Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river
+  in 1839, remarks: “In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great
+  ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague.
+  Consequently Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent
+  shores, were studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our
+  visit the skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all
+  directions.” This method generally prevailed on the neighboring
+  coasts, as at Shoal Water Bay, &c. Farther up the Columbia, as at
+  the Cascades, a different form was adopted, which is thus described
+  by Captain Clarke:
+
+  “About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the
+  woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight
+  vaults, made of pine cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet
+  square and 6 in height, the top securely covered with wide boards,
+  sloping a little, so as to convey off the rain. The direction of all
+  these is east and west, the door being on the eastern side, and
+  partially stopped with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of
+  men and other animals. On entering we found in some of them four
+  dead bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of grass
+  and bark, lying on a mat in a direction east and west; the other
+  vaults contained only bones, which in some of them were piled to a
+  height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults and on poles attached to
+  them hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in their bottoms,
+  baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of
+  trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection,
+  which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity of war
+  or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of
+  the walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures
+  cut and painted on them, and besides these were several wooden
+  images of men, some of them so old and decayed as to have almost
+  lost their shape, which were all placed against the sides of the
+  vault. These images, as well as those in the houses we have lately
+  seen, do not appear to be at all the objects of adoration in this
+  place; they were most probably intended as resemblances of those
+  whose decease they indicate, and when we observe them in houses they
+  occupy the most conspicuous part, but are treated more like
+  ornaments than objects of worship. Near the vaults which are still
+  standing are the remains of others on the ground, completely rotted
+  and covered with moss; and as they are formed of the most durable
+  pine and cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a very
+  long series of years this retired spot has been the depository for
+  the Indians near this place.”
+
+  Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few
+  miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The _Watlala_, a
+  tribe of the Upper Tsinūk, whose burial place is here described, are
+  now nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in
+  different states of preservation. The position of the body, as
+  noticed by Clarke, is, I believe, of universal observance, the head
+  being always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that
+  the road to the _mé-mel-ūs-illa-hee_, the country of the dead, is
+  toward the west, and if they place them otherwise they would be
+  confused. East of the Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are
+  equestrian, and who use canoes only for ferriage or transportation
+  purposes, bury their dead, usually heaping over them piles of
+  stones, either to mark the spot or to prevent the bodies from being
+  exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many of their
+  graves placed in conspicuous points of the basaltic walls which line
+  the lower valleys, and designated by a clump of poles planted over
+  them, from which fluttered various articles of dress. Formerly these
+  prairie tribes killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling
+  into disuse in consequence of the teachings of the whites.
+
+  Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among
+  the Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of
+  box, rudely constructed of boards, and elsewhere on the Sound the
+  same method is adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are
+  placed on elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the
+  Indians upon the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a
+  distance from it buried them. Most of the graves are surrounded with
+  strips of cloth, blankets, and other articles of property. Mr.
+  Cameron, an English gentleman residing at Esquimalt Harbor,
+  Vancouver Island, informed me that on his place there were graves
+  having at each corner a large stone, the interior space filled with
+  rubbish. The origin of these was unknown to the present Indians.
+
+  The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked;
+  persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little
+  care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly
+  attracted to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that
+  at Port Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing
+  the skeletons of young children, and, what is not easily explained,
+  small square boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think
+  that any of these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor
+  have I been able to learn from living Indians that they formerly
+  followed that practice. What he took for such I do not understand.
+  He also mentions seeing in the same place a cleared space recently
+  burned over, in which the skulls and bones of a number lay among the
+  ashes. The practice of burning the dead exists in parts of
+  California and among the Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also
+  pursued by the “Carriers” of New California, but no intermediate
+  tribes, to my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the Sound do
+  not at present.
+
+  It is clear from Vancouver’s narrative that some great epidemic had
+  recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity
+  of human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit,
+  and very probably the Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in
+  which the inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is
+  frequently done. They almost invariably remove from any place where
+  sickness has prevailed, generally destroying the house also.
+
+  At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver’s officers, noticed
+  several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them
+  were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied
+  up in baskets. The smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed,
+  but not one of the limb bones was found, which gave rise to an
+  opinion that these, by the living inhabitants of the neighborhood,
+  were appropriated to useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows,
+  spears, or other weapons.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Canoe Burial.]
+
+  It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether
+  foreign to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably
+  been removed and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are
+  variously disposed of; sometimes by suspending them, at others by
+  placing in the hollows of trees. A cemetery devoted to infants is,
+  however, an unusual occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note
+  much pomp was used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes
+  were of great size and value--the war or state canoes of the
+  deceased. Frequently one was inverted over that holding the body,
+  and in one instance, near Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited
+  in a small canoe, which again was placed in a larger one and covered
+  with a third. Among the _Tsinūk_ and _Tsìhalis_ the _tamahno-ūs_
+  board of the owner was placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do
+  not make these _tamahno-ūs_ boards, but they sometimes constructed
+  effigies of their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as
+  possible, dressed in his usual costume, and wearing the articles of
+  which he was fond. One of these, representing the Skagit chief
+  Sneestum, stood very conspicuously upon a high bank on the eastern
+  side of Whidbey Island. The figures observed by Captain Clarke at
+  the Cascades were either of this description or else the carved
+  posts which had ornamented the interior of the houses of the
+  deceased, and were connected with the superstition of the
+  _tamahno-ūs_. The most valuable articles of property were put into
+  or hung up around the grave, being first carefully rendered
+  unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped to do
+  honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have been practiced in
+  parting with articles so precious, but those interested frequently
+  had the least to say on the subject. The graves of women were
+  distinguished by a cap, a Kamas stick, or other implement of their
+  occupation, and by articles of dress.
+
+  Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
+  deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied
+  to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this
+  practice has been almost entirely given up, but till within a very
+  few years it was not uncommon. A case which occurred in 1850 has
+  been already mentioned. Still later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsinūk chief
+  living at Shoalwater Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging
+  to his daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be
+  done. The woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the woods
+  half starved. Her master attempted to reclaim her, but was soundly
+  thrashed and warned against another attempt.
+
+  It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a
+  considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of the
+  burial-place. With the common class of persons family pride or
+  domestic affection was satisfied with the gathering together of the
+  bones after the flesh had decayed and wrapping them in a new mat.
+  The violation of the grave was always regarded as an offense of the
+  first magnitude and provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher
+  remarks: “Great secrecy is observed in all their burial ceremonies,
+  partly from fear of Europeans, and as among themselves they will
+  instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb or wage war if
+  perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate and tenaceously
+  bent on revenge should they discover that any act of the kind has
+  been perpetrated by a white man. It is on record that part of the
+  crew of a vessel on her return to this port (the Columbia) suffered
+  because a person who belonged to her (but not then in her) was known
+  to have taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had
+  become an object of curiosity.” He adds, however, that at the period
+  of his visit to the river “the skulls and skeletons were scattered
+  about in all directions; and as I was on most of their positions
+  unnoticed by the natives, I suspect the feeling does not extend much
+  beyond their relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body,
+  goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as their
+  canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care taken by placing
+  them in sequestered spots.”
+
+  The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of
+  death will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas.
+  Wailing for the dead is continued for a long time, and it seems to
+  be rather a ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief.
+  The duty, of course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is
+  usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a
+  little distant from the lodge or camp and in a loud, sobbing voice
+  repeat a sort of stereotyped formula; as, for instance, a mother, on
+  the loss of her child, “_A seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud!
+  ad-de-dah_,” “Ah chief!” “My child dead, alas!” When in dreams they
+  see any of their deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.
+
+With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned by
+Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing to
+die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom
+has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the
+individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states
+that--
+
+  In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died,
+  those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved
+  ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed
+  themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that
+  they might wait upon him in the land of spirits.
+
+It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this
+revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATIC BURIAL.
+
+
+As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead has
+never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes.
+Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are
+informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy,
+living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed
+their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred
+to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans,
+with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or
+about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder “the
+beautiful,” it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which
+was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The
+Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to
+Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of
+room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of
+thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee “seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the
+river.”
+
+The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of
+sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their
+bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J. G. Wood[82] states that the
+Obongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the
+course of which has been previously diverted. A deep grave is dug in the
+bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over carefully.
+Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so that all
+traces of the grave are soon lost.
+
+The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply
+sinking the body in some stream.
+
+Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to that
+employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosença, a town of Calabria, the
+Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and having made a
+grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most rapid, they
+interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and riches. They
+then caused the river to resume its regular course, and destroyed all
+persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic grave.
+
+A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De
+Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well
+weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the
+Mississippi.
+
+After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have
+been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes,
+and is by Capt. J. H. Simpson:[83]
+
+  Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and
+  which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this
+  route last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls
+  which have been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom
+  of the Goshute Indians burying their dead in springs, which they
+  sank with stones or keep down with sticks. He says he has actually
+  seen the Indians bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo,
+  where he resides.
+
+As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in another
+part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they were
+obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the bottom
+before using the water.
+
+This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned,
+especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is
+quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or
+springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a
+reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to
+attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to
+poison the springs for white persons.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Mourning Cradle.]
+
+The second example is by George Catlin,[84] and relates to the Chinook:
+
+  * * * This little cradle has a strap which passes over the woman’s
+  forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if the child dies
+  during its subjection to this rigid mode, its cradle becomes its
+  coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it lies floating on the
+  water in some sacred pool, where they are often in the habit of
+  fastening their canoes containing the dead bodies of the old and
+  young, or, which in often the case, elevated into the branches of
+  trees, where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry
+  whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed in their
+  canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale them out, and
+  provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they are performing their
+  “long journey after death to their contemplated hunting grounds,”
+  which these people think is to be performed in their canoes.
+
+Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle.
+Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her
+dead child to the mercy of the elements.
+
+
+
+
+LIVING SEPULCHERS.
+
+
+This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to express
+the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving friends
+and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has already
+been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is not
+believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, although
+cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true that a
+few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered apochryphal
+in character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how
+credulous were the early writers on American natives.
+
+That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is
+somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies
+been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the
+statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a
+number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.
+
+For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the Massagetics,
+Padæans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously
+strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and
+Tertullian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the
+dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did the
+same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to be
+preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms.
+
+J. G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of Africa
+devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the common
+people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.
+
+The following extract is from Lafitau:[85]
+
+  Dans l’Amérique Méridionale quelque Peuples décharnent les corps de
+  leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi que je viens de
+  le dire, et après les avoir consumées, ils conservent pendant
+  quelque temps leurs cadavres avec respect dans leurs Cabanes, et il
+  portent ces squeletes dans les combats en guise d’Etendard, pour
+  ranimer leur courage par cette vue et inspirer de la terreur à leurs
+  ennemis. * * *
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Launching the Burial Cradle.]
+
+  Il est vrai qu’il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de leurs
+  parens; mais il est faux qu’elles les mettent à mort dans leur
+  vieillesse, pour avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de leur chair, et
+  d’en faire un repas. Quelques Nations de l’Amérique Méridionale, qui
+  ont encore cette coutume de manger les corps morts de leurs parens,
+  n’en usent ainsi que par piété, piété mal entenduë à la verité, mais
+  piété colorée néanmoins par quelque ombre de raison; car ils croyent
+  leur donner une sépulture bien plus honorable.
+
+To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is
+not believed to have been practiced by them.
+
+
+
+
+MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,
+AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.
+
+
+The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper,
+yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples,
+under separate heads.
+
+
+_MOURNING._
+
+One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of a
+chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,[86] who for
+many years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction
+as a warrior.
+
+  I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head
+  chief’s death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we
+  slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the
+  contemplation of the scenes that would be enacted at my arrival.
+  When we drew in sight of the village, we found every lodge laid
+  prostrate. We entered amid shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was
+  streaming from every conceivable part of the bodies of all who were
+  old enough to comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were
+  dismembered; hair torn from the head lay in profusion about the
+  paths; wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where
+  unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This fearful
+  mourning lasted until evening of the next day. * * *
+
+  A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint
+  them with the death of our head chief, and request them to assemble
+  at the Rose Bud, in order to meet our village and devote themselves
+  to a general time of mourning, there met, in conformity to the
+  summons, over ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a
+  scene of disorderly, vociferous mourning, no imagination can
+  conceive nor any pen portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his
+  hair; a thing he was never known to do before. The cutting and
+  hacking of human flesh exceeded all my previous experience; fingers
+  were dismembered as readily as twigs, and blood was poured out like
+  water. Many of the warriors would cut two gashes nearly the entire
+  length of their arm; then, separating the skin from the flesh at one
+  end, would grasp it in their other hand, and rip it asunder to the
+  shoulder. Others would carve various devices upon their breasts and
+  shoulders, and raise the skin in the same manner to make the scars
+  show to advantage after the wound was healed. Some of their
+  mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at them, but
+  they would not appear to receive any pain from them.
+
+It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth’s statements are to be
+taken _cum grana salis_.
+
+From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of Lake
+Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received:
+
+  There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for
+  their dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her
+  husband; by day as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a
+  constant visitor to the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance
+  will she follow the raised camp. The friends and relatives of the
+  young mourner will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind
+  from the thought of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment, but
+  as nature is exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake of food; the
+  supply is scant, but on every occasion the best and largest
+  proportion is deposited upon the grave of her husband. In the mean
+  time the female relatives of the deceased have, according to custom,
+  submitted to her charge a parcel made up of different cloths
+  ornamented with bead-work and eagle’s feathers, which she is charged
+  to keep by her side--the place made vacant by the demise of her
+  husband--a reminder of her widowhood. She is therefore for a term of
+  twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery, neither is she
+  permitted to slicken up and comb her head; this to avoid attracting
+  attention. Once in a while a female relative of deceased,
+  commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will visit her and
+  voluntarily proceed to comb out the long-neglected and matted hair.
+  With a jealous eye a vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during
+  the term of her widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to
+  marry, any time during her widowhood, an unmarried brother or
+  cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her
+  husband.
+
+  At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully
+  performed and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and,
+  with greetings commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her
+  face, comb her hair, and attire her person with new apparel, and
+  otherwise demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint.
+  Still she has not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to
+  marry a relative of the deceased and will marry another, she then
+  has to purchase her freedom by giving a certain amount of goods and
+  whatever else she might have manufactured during her widowhood in
+  anticipation of the future now at hand. Frequently, though, during
+  widowhood the vows are disregarded and an inclination to flirt and
+  play courtship or form an alliance of marriage outside of the
+  relatives of the deceased is being indulged, and when discovered the
+  widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick braided hair is
+  shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her apparel and trinkets
+  are torn from her person, and a quarrel frequently results fatally
+  to some member of one or the other side.
+
+Thomas L. McKenney[87] gives a description of the Chippewa widow which
+differs slightly from the one above:
+
+  I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls of
+  clothing. On inquiring what these imported, I learn that they _are
+  widows_ who carry them, and that these are badges of mourning. It is
+  indispensable, when a woman of the Chippeway Nation loses her
+  husband, for her to take of her best apparel--and the whole of it is
+  not worth a dollar--and roll it up, and confine it by means of her
+  husband’s sashes; and if he had ornaments, these are generally put
+  on the top of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth.
+  This bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is
+  never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it with her;
+  if she sits down in her lodge, she places it by her side. This badge
+  of widowhood and of mourning the widow is compelled to carry with
+  her until some of her late husband’s family shall call and take it
+  away, which is done when they think she has mourned long enough, and
+  which is generally at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not
+  before, released from her mourning, and at liberty to marry again.
+  She has the privilege to take this husband to the family of the
+  deceased and leave it, but this is considered indecorous, and is
+  seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the deceased takes the widow for
+  his wife at the grave of her husband, which is done by a ceremony of
+  walking her over it. And this he has a right to do; and when this is
+  done she is not required to go into mourning; or, if she chooses,
+  she has the right _to go to him_, and he is _bound_ to support her.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Chippewa Widow.]
+
+  I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges. The size
+  varies according to the quantity of clothing which the widow may
+  happen to have. It is expected of her to put up her _best_ and wear
+  her _worst_. The “_husband_” I saw just now was 30 inches high and
+  18 inches in circumference.
+
+  I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had been left
+  to mourn after this fashion for years, none of her husband’s family
+  calling for the badge or token of her grief. At a certain time it
+  was told her that some of her husband’s family were passing, and she
+  was advised to speak to them on the subject. She did so, and told
+  them she had mourned long and was poor; that she had no means to buy
+  clothes, and her’s being all in the mourning badge, and sacred,
+  could not be touched. She expressed a hope that her request might
+  not be interpreted into a wish to marry; it was only made that she
+  might be placed in a situation to get some clothes. She got for
+  answer, that “they were going to Mackinac, and would think of it.”
+  They left her in this state of uncertainty, but on returning, and
+  finding her faithful still, they took her “husband” and presented
+  her with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded for her
+  constancy and made comfortable.
+
+  The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the term of
+  their grief, which is generally about a year. The Chippeway men
+  mourn by painting their faces black.
+
+  I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the badge
+  of mourning, this “_husband_” comes in for an equal share, as if it
+  were the living husband.
+
+  A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image of it in
+  the best manner she is able, and dresses it as she did her living
+  child, and fixes it in the kind of cradle I have referred to, and
+  goes through the ceremonies of nursing it as if it were alive, by
+  dropping little particles of food in the direction of its mouth, and
+  giving it of whatever the living child partook. This ceremony also
+  is generally observed for a year.
+
+Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the
+substitute for the dead husband.
+
+The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other
+tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged
+to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle containing
+the bones of the deceased consort.
+
+Similar observances, according to Bancroft,[88] were followed by some of
+the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and
+Mosquitos being as follows:
+
+  The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a year,
+  after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for
+  another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and
+  then only was she allowed to marry again.
+
+  On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is
+  destroyed, the cocoa palms being cut down, and all who have taken
+  part in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut
+  off the hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape
+  of the neck to the forehead. Widows, according to some old writers,
+  after supplying the grave with food for a year take up the bones and
+  carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night
+  for another year, after which they are placed at the door or upon
+  the house-top. On the anniversary of deaths, friends of the deceased
+  hold a feast, called _seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor
+  are drained to his memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on
+  an occasion of this kind, says that males and females were dressed
+  in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and white, while their
+  faces were correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they
+  performed a slow walk around, prostrating themselves at intervals
+  and calling loudly upon the dead and tearing the ground with their
+  hands. At no other time is the departed referred to, the very
+  mention of his name being superstitiously avoided. Some tribes
+  extend a thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in
+  a straight line over every obstacle. Fröebel states that among the
+  Woolwas all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that
+  both husband and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of
+  either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.
+
+Benson[89] gives the following account of the Choctaws’ funeral
+ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and
+dance:
+
+  Their funeral is styled by them “the last cry.”
+
+  When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and
+  place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and
+  arrows, hatchet, and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are
+  planted at the head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the
+  grave is then inclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral
+  ceremonies now begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night
+  and morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous
+  cries and wailings. It is not important that any other member of the
+  family should take any very active part in the “cry,” though they do
+  participate to some extent.
+
+  The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the
+  grave during one entire moon from the date when the death occurred.
+  On the evening of the last day of the moon the friends all assemble
+  at the cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions for a
+  sumptuous feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled
+  together in a kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved
+  wife goes to the grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her
+  bitter wailings and lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked
+  the kettle is taken from the fire and placed in the center of the
+  cabin, and the friends gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn
+  spoon from hand to hand and from mouth to mouth till all have been
+  bountifully supplied. While supper is being served, two of the
+  oldest men of the company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and
+  fill it up, taking down the flags. All then join in a dance, which
+  not unfrequently is continued till morning; the widow does not fail
+  to unite in the dance, and to contribute her part to the festivities
+  of the occasion. This is the “_last cry_,” the days of mourning are
+  ended, and the widow is now ready to form another matrimonial
+  alliance. The ceremonies are precisely the same when a man has lost
+  his wife, and they are only slightly varied when any other member of
+  the family has died. (Slaves were buried without ceremonies.)
+
+
+_SACRIFICE._
+
+Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in connection
+with another subject, but it is thought others might prove interesting.
+The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.[90]
+
+  When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by his
+  wives and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns took care to
+  follow the same custom. The law likewise condemned every Natchez to
+  death who had married a girl of the blood of the Suns as soon as she
+  was expired. On this occasion I must tell you the history of an
+  Indian who was noways willing to submit to this law. His name was
+  _Elteacteal_; he contracted an alliance with the Suns, but the
+  consequences which this honor brought along with it had like to have
+  proved very unfortunate to him. His wife fell sick; as soon as he
+  saw her at the point of death he fled, embarked in a piragua on the
+  _Mississippi_, and came to New Orleans. He put himself under the
+  protection of M. de Bienville, the then governor, and offered to be
+  his huntsman. The governor accepted his services, and interested
+  himself for him with the Natchez, who declared that he had nothing
+  more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he was accordingly
+  no longer a lawful prize.
+
+  _Elteacteal_, being thus assured, ventured to return to his nation,
+  and, without settling among them, he made several voyages thither.
+  He happened to be there when the Sun called the _Stung Serpent_,
+  brother to the Great Sun, died. He was a relative of the late wife
+  of _Elteacteal_, and they resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de
+  Bienville had been recalled to France, and the sovereign of the
+  Natchez thought that the protector’s absence had annulled the
+  reprieve granted to the protected person, and accordingly he caused
+  him to be arrested. As soon as the poor fellow found himself in the
+  hut of the grand chief of war, together with the other victims
+  destined to be sacrificed to the _Stung Serpent_, he gave vent to
+  the excess of his grief. The favorite wife of the late Son, who was
+  likewise to be sacrificed, and who saw the preparations for her
+  death with firmness, and seemed impatient to rejoin her husband,
+  hearing _Elteacteal’s_ complaints and groans, said to him: “Art thou
+  no warrior?” He answered, “Yes: I am one.” “However,” said she,
+  “thou cryest; life is dear to thee, and as that is the case, it is
+  not good that thou shouldst go along with us; go with the women.”
+  _Elteacteal_ replied: “True; life is dear to me. It would be well if
+  I walked yet on earth till to the death of the Great Sun, and I
+  would die with him.” “Go thy way,” said the favorite, “it is not fit
+  thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart should remain behind on
+  earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee no more.”
+
+  _Elteacteal_ did not stay to hear this order repeated to him; he
+  disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of which were his
+  relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age and their infirmities
+  had disgusted them of life; none of them had been able to use their
+  legs for a great while. The hair of the two that were related to
+  _Elteacteal_ was no more gray than those of women of fifty-five
+  years in France. The other old woman was a hundred and twenty years
+  old, and had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among
+  the Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin. They were
+  dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the _Stung Serpent_,
+  and the other two upon the place before the temple. * * * A cord is
+  fastened round their necks with a slip-knot, and eight men of their
+  relations strangle them by drawing, four one way and four the other.
+  So many are not necessary, but as they acquire nobility by such
+  executions, there are always more than are wanting, and the
+  operation is performed in an instant. The generosity of these women
+  gave _Elteacteal_ life again, acquired him the degree of
+  _considered_, and cleared his honor, which he had sullied by fearing
+  death. He remained quiet after that time, and taking advantage of
+  what he had learned during his stay among the French, he became a
+  juggler and made use of his knowledge to impose upon his countrymen.
+
+  The morning after this execution they made everything ready for the
+  convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of the ceremonies
+  appeared at the door of the hut, adorned suitably to his quality.
+  The victims who were to accompany the deceased prince into the
+  mansion of the spirits came forth; they consisted of the favorite
+  wife of the deceased, of his second wife, his chancellor, his
+  physician, his hired man, that is, his first servant, and of some
+  old women.
+
+  The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were several
+  Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for the Suns of
+  both sexes that were her children to appear, and spoke to the
+  following effect:
+
+  “Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from you
+  (_sic_) arms and to follow your father’s steps, who waits for me in
+  the country of the spirits; if I were to yield to your tears I would
+  injure my love and fail in my duty. I have done enough for you by
+  bearing you next to my heart, and by suckling you with my breasts.
+  You that are descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought you to
+  shed tears? Rejoice rather that you are _Suns_ and warriors; you are
+  bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the whole nation:
+  go, my children, I have provided for all your wants, by procuring
+  you friends; my friends and those of your father are yours too;
+  I leave you amidst them; they are the French; they are
+  tender-hearted and generous; make yourselves worthy of their esteem
+  by not degenerating from your race; always act openly with them and
+  never implore them with meanness.
+
+  “And you, Frenchmen,” added she, turning herself towards our
+  officers, “I recommend my orphan children to you; they will know no
+  other fathers than you; you ought to protect them.”
+
+  After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned to her
+  husband’s hut with a surprising firmness.
+
+  A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims of her
+  own accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore the _Stung
+  Serpent_ to follow him into the other world. The Europeans called
+  her the _haughty_ lady, on account of her majestic deportment and
+  her proud air, and because she only frequented the company of the
+  most distinguished Frenchmen. They regretted her much, because she
+  had the knowledge of several simples with which she had saved the
+  lives of many of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with
+  grief and horror. The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and
+  spoke to them with a smiling countenance: “I die without fear;” said
+  she, “grief does not embitter my last hours. I recommend my children
+  to you; whenever you see them, noble Frenchmen, remember that you
+  have loved their father, and that he was till death a true and
+  sincere friend of your nation, whom he loved more than himself. The
+  disposer of life has been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go
+  and join him; I shall tell him that I have seen your hearts moved at
+  the sight of his corps; do not be grieved; we shall be longer
+  friends in the _country of the spirits_ than here, because we do not
+  die there again.”[91*]
+
+  These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French; they were
+  obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great Sun from killing
+  himself, for he was inconsolable at the death of his brother, upon
+  whom he was used to lay the weight of government, he being great
+  chief of war of the Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies;
+  that prince grew furious by the resistance he met with; he held his
+  gun by the barrel, and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by the
+  lock, and caused the powder to fall out of the pan; the hut was full
+  of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables[92*] but the French raised their
+  spirits again, by hiding all the arms belonging to the sovereign,
+  and filling the barrel of his gun with water, that it might be unfit
+  for use for some time.
+
+  As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign’s life in safety, they
+  thanked the French, by squeezing their hands, but without speaking;
+  a most profound silence reigned throughout, for grief and awe kept
+  in bounds the multitude that were present.
+
+  The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this
+  transaction. She was asked whether she was ill, and she answered
+  aloud, “Yes, I am”; and added with a lower voice, “If the Frenchmen
+  go out of this hut, my husband dies and all the Natches will die
+  with him; stay, then, brave Frenchmen, because your words are as
+  powerful as arrows; besides, who could have ventured to do what you
+  have done? But you are his true friends and those of his brother.”
+  Their laws obliged the Great Sun’s wife to follow her husband in the
+  grave; this was doubtless the cause of her fears; and likewise the
+  gratitude towards the French, who interested themselves in behalf of
+  his life, prompted her to speak in the above-mentioned manner.
+
+  The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to them: “My
+  friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief that, though my eyes
+  were open, I have not taken notice that you have been standing all
+  this while, nor have I asked you to sit down; but pardon the excess
+  of my affliction.”
+
+  The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that they
+  were going to leave him alone, but that they would cease to be his
+  friends unless he gave orders to light the fires again,[93*]
+  lighting his own before them; and that they should not leave him
+  till his brother was buried.
+
+  He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: “Since all the
+  chiefs and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I will do it;
+  I will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted again immediately,
+  and I’ll wait till death joins me to my brother; I am already old,
+  and till I die I shall walk with the French; had it not been for
+  them I should have gone with my brother, and all the roads would
+  have been covered with dead bodies.”
+
+Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been credited
+by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, and its
+seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of similar
+ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.
+
+An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice is
+described by Miss A. J. Allen,[94] and refers to the Wascopums, of
+Oregon.
+
+  At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words, it was
+  found that the chief had determined that the deceased boy’s friend,
+  who had been his companion in hunting the rabbit, snaring the
+  pheasant, and fishing in the streams, was to be his companion to the
+  spirit land; his son should not be deprived of his associate in the
+  strange world to which he had gone; that associate should perish by
+  the hand of his father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house.
+  This receptacle was built on a long, black rock in the center of the
+  Columbia River, around which, being so near the falls, the current
+  was amazingly rapid. It was thirty feet in length, and perhaps half
+  that in breadth, completely enclosed and sodded except at one end,
+  where was a narrow aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse
+  through. The council overruled, and little George, instead of being
+  slain, was conveyed living to the dead-house about sunset. The dead
+  were piled on each side, leaving a narrow aisle between, and on one
+  of these was placed the deceased boy; and, bound tightly till the
+  purple, quivering flesh puffed above the strong bark cords, that he
+  might die very soon, the living was placed by his side, his face to
+  his till the very lips met, and extending along limb to limb and
+  foot to foot, and nestled down into his couch of rottenness, to
+  impede his breathing as far as possible and smother his cries.
+
+Bancroft[95] states that--
+
+  The slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and Tarascos were
+  selected from various trades and professions, and took with them the
+  most cherished articles of the master and the implements of their
+  trade wherewith to supply his wants--
+
+while among certain of the Central American tribe death was voluntary,
+wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing themselves
+by means of a vegetable poison.
+
+To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that self-murder
+is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, if he so
+wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or friend to the
+“happy other world;” and when this is remembered we need not feel
+astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self immolations
+are related. It is quite likely that among our own people similar
+customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down such
+proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us,
+notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place
+on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.
+
+
+_FEASTS._
+
+In Beltrami[96] an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of
+the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took
+place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:
+
+  I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the
+  manes of _Cloudy Weather’s_ son-in-law, whose body had remained with
+  the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their repasts.
+  What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in this
+  funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific
+  lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others
+  were singing and dancing with all their might.
+
+  At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand Medicine_,
+  and at which as _a man of another world_ I was permitted to attend,
+  the same practice occurred. But at the feast which took place on
+  that occasion an allowance was served up for the deceased out of
+  every article of which it consisted, while others were beating,
+  wounding, and torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow
+  both over the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that
+  this was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they
+  could possibly supply. His wife furnished out an entertainment
+  present for him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with
+  his arms, his provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine
+  bag, he was wrapped up in the skin which had been his last covering
+  when alive. He was then tied round with the bark of some particular
+  trees which they use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm
+  texture and hold (the only ones indeed which they have), and instead
+  of being buried in the earth was hung up to a large oak. The reason
+  of this was that, as his favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit
+  would be enabled more easily from such a situation to fly with him
+  to Paradise.
+
+Hind[97] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which
+occurred among the Hurons of New York:
+
+  The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the
+  “feasts of the dead” at the village of Ossosane, before the
+  dispersion of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in
+  the presence of 2,000 Indians, who offered 1,300 presents at the
+  common tomb, in testimony of their grief. The people belonging to
+  five large villages deposited the bones of their dead in a gigantic
+  shroud, composed of forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten
+  beaver skins. After being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they
+  were placed between moss and bark. A wall of stones was built around
+  this vast ossuary to preserve it from profanation. Before covering
+  the bones with earth a few grains of Indian corn were thrown by the
+  women upon the sacred relics. According to the superstitious belief
+  of the Hurons the souls of the dead remain near the bodies until the
+  “feast of the dead”; after which ceremony they become free, and can
+  at once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe to be
+  situated in the regions of the setting sun.
+
+Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom of
+exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting
+them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in
+Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of
+Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a slatted pen containing the remains of
+hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and
+preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris
+afford examples of burial ossuaries.
+
+
+_SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS._
+
+The following account is by Dr. S. G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:--
+
+  Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still adhere
+  to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed
+  friends; the object is to feast with the departed; that is, they
+  believe that while they partake of the visible material the departed
+  spirit partakes at the same time of the spirit that dwells in the
+  food. From ancient time it was customary to bury with the dead
+  various articles, such especially as were most valued in lifetime.
+  The idea was that there was a spirit dwelling in the article
+  represented by the material article; thus the war-club contained a
+  spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, which could be used
+  by the departed in another world. These several spiritual implements
+  were supposed, of course, to accompany the soul, to be used also on
+  the way to its final abode. This habit has now ceased.
+
+
+_FOOD._
+
+This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an
+almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to
+place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.
+
+
+_DANCES._
+
+Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan:[98]
+
+  An occasional and very singular figure was called the “dance for the
+  dead.” It was known as the _O-hé-wä._ It was danced by the women
+  alone. The music was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being
+  stationed in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which
+  they sang the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and
+  mournful music. This dance was usually separate from all councils
+  and the only dance of the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon
+  after and continued until towards morning, when the shades of the
+  dead who were believed to be present and participate in the dance
+  were supposed to disappear. The dance was had whenever a family
+  which had lost a member called for it, which was usually a year
+  after the event. In the spring and fall it was often given for all
+  the dead indiscriminately, who were believed then to revisit the
+  earth and join in the dance.
+
+The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers[99] and
+relates to the Yo-kaí-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial:
+
+  I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding
+  there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine
+  it, but was not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence
+  of the old sexton by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver
+  half dollar. The pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5
+  feet deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the interior
+  was damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was
+  provided with a tunnel-like entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet
+  high, and leading down to a level with the floor of the pit. The
+  mouth of the tunnel was closed with brush, and the venerable sexton
+  would not remove it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several
+  times to and fro before the entrance.
+
+  Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled
+  poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude
+  devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat,
+  which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the
+  tribe, lately deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the
+  Senèl come up to condole with the Yo-kaí-a on the loss of their
+  chief, and a dance or series of dances was held which lasted three
+  days. During this time of course the Senèl were the guests of the
+  Yo-kaí-a, and the latter were subjected to a considerable expense.
+  I was prevented by other engagements from being present, and shall
+  be obliged to depend on the description of an eye-witness, Mr. John
+  Tenney, whose account is here given with a few changes:
+
+  There are four officials connected with the building, who are
+  probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They
+  are the assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from
+  one of them, and admission was given by the same. These four wore
+  black vests trimmed with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief
+  made no special display on the occasion. In addition to these four,
+  who were officers of the assembly-chamber, there were an old man and
+  a young woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The young
+  woman was dressed differently from any other, the rest dressing in
+  plain calico dresses. Her dress was white covered with spots of red
+  flannel, cut in neat figure, ornamented with shells. It looked
+  gorgeous and denoted some office, the name of which I could not
+  ascertain. Before the visitors were ready to enter, the older men of
+  the tribe were reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As
+  the ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and young woman
+  were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the entrance, they
+  inaugurated the exercises by a brief service, which seemed to be a
+  dedication of the house to the exercises about to commence. Each of
+  them spoke a few words, joined in a brief chant, and the house was
+  thrown open for their visitors. They staid at their post until the
+  visitors entered and were seated on one side of the room. After the
+  visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all, though
+  there was plenty of room in the center for the dancing.
+
+  Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe made a
+  brief speech in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief
+  of the Yo-kaí-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss.
+  As he spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out,
+  and with difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I presume that he
+  proposed a few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole
+  assemblage burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if
+  in agony. The whole thing created such a din that I was compelled to
+  stop my ears. The air was rent and pierced with their cries. This
+  wailing and shedding of tears lasted about three or five minutes,
+  though it seemed to last a half hour. At a given signal they ceased,
+  wiped their eyes, and quieted down.
+
+  Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was
+  set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors wens five men, who
+  were muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint
+  and feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies.
+  They were girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors,
+  sometimes with variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the
+  shoulder, reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the
+  neck, while their heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers.
+  They had whistles in their months as they danced, swaying their
+  heads, bending and whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be
+  exercised, and the feather ornaments quivered with light. They were
+  agile and graceful as they bounded about in the sinuous course of
+  the dance.
+
+  The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only
+  marked time by stepping up and down with short step. They always
+  took their places first and disappeared first, the men making their
+  exit gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable
+  for the occasion. They were white dresses, trimmed heavily with
+  black velvet. The stripes were about three inches wide, some plain
+  and others edged like saw teeth. This was an indication of their
+  mourning for the dead chief, in whose honor they had prepared that
+  style of dancing. Strings of haliotis and pachydesma shell beads
+  encircled their necks, and around their waists were belts heavily
+  loaded with the same material. Their head-dresses were more showy
+  than those of the men. The head was encircled with a bandeau of
+  otters’ or beavers’ fur, to which were attached short wires standing
+  out in all directions, with glass or shell beads strung on them, and
+  at the tips little feather flags and quail plumes. Surmounting all
+  was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray, and scarlet, the top
+  generally being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and tossing very
+  beautifully. All these combined gave their heads a very brilliant
+  and spangled appearance.
+
+  The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the
+  Yo-kaí-a chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful
+  and simple, being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were
+  used, accompanied with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a
+  hollow slab. The second day the dance was more lively on the part of
+  the men, the music was better, employing airs which had a greater
+  range of tune, and the women generally joined in the chorus. The
+  dress of the women was not so beautiful, as they appeared in
+  ordinary calico. The third day, if observed in accordance with
+  Indian custom, the dancing was still more lively and the proceedings
+  more gay, just as the coming home from a Christian funeral is apt to
+  be much more jolly than the going out.
+
+  A Yo-kaí-a widow’s style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the
+  usual evidences of grief, she mingles the ashes of her dead husband
+  with pitch, making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a
+  band about two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is
+  previously cut off close to the head), so that at a little distance
+  she appears to be wearing a white chaplet.
+
+  It is their custom to “feed the spirits of the dead” for the space
+  of one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to
+  frequent while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground.
+  A Yo-kaí-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to
+  some place where her little one played when alive, or to the spot
+  where the body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This
+  is accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling
+  upon her little one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and
+  melancholy chant, and dances with a wild static swaying of the body.
+
+
+_SONGS._
+
+It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals,
+but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these chants may no
+doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful ejaculation.
+A writer[100] mentions it as follows:
+
+  At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing,
+  with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same
+  melody at the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song
+  and at the same time, but each begins and finishes when he or she
+  may wish. Often for weeks, or even months, after the decease of a
+  dear friend, a living one, usually a woman, will sit by her house
+  and sing or cry by the hour, and they also sing for a short time
+  when they visit the grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have
+  not seen since the decease. At the funeral both men and women sing.
+  No. 11 I have heard more frequently some time after the funeral, and
+  No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by the Twanas. (For song see
+  p. 251 of the magazine quoted.) The words are simply an exclamation
+  of grief, as our word “alas,” but they also have other words which
+  they use, and sometimes they use merely the syllable _la_. Often the
+  notes are sung in this order, and sometimes not, but in some order
+  the notes _do_ and _la_, and occasionally _mi_, are sung.
+
+Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a peculiar
+death dirge sung by the Senèl of California, as related by Mr. Powers.
+It is as follows:
+
+  Hel-lel-li-ly,
+  Hel-lel-lo,
+  Hel-lel-lo.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Ghost Gamble.]
+
+Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the attention
+of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for instance,
+the Basques of Spain ululate thus:
+
+  Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,
+  Lelo il Lelo,
+  Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,
+  Il Lelon killed Lelo.
+
+This was called the “ululating Lelo.” Mr. Campbell says:
+
+  This again connects with the Linus or Ailinus of the Greeks and
+  Egyptians * * * which Wilkinson connects with the Coptic “ya
+  lay-lee-ya lail.” The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard the South
+  Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek verb
+  ὀλολύζω and the Latin ululare, with an English howl and wail,
+  are probably derived from this ancient form of lamentation.
+
+In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks
+describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he
+inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost
+tribes of Israel.
+
+
+_GAMES._
+
+It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a
+practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct.
+Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed among
+the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and interesting
+account of what is called the “ghost gamble.” This is played with marked
+wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to the Sioux.
+Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in which this
+game is played.
+
+  After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge
+  of the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the time of the
+  first feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair--they
+  are divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians
+  invited to play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is
+  selected to represent the ghost and he plays against all the others,
+  who are not required to stake anything on the result, but simply
+  invited to take part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the
+  lodge of the dead person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing
+  the lock of hair. In cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy
+  the stakes are furnished by his rich friends, should he have any.
+  The players are called in one at a time, and play singly against the
+  ghost’s representative, the gambling being done in recent years by
+  means of cards. If the invited player succeeds in beating the ghost,
+  he takes one of the piles of goods and passes out, when another is
+  invited to play, &c., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases
+  of men only the men play, and in cases of women the women only take
+  part in the ceremony.
+
+  Before white men came among these Indians and taught them many of
+  his improved vices, this game was played by means of figured
+  plum-seeds, the men using eight and the women seven seeds, figured
+  as follows, and shown in Figure 34.
+
+  Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse containing
+  nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a small spot of the
+  color of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a
+  black spot in the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a
+  buffalo’s head on one side and the reverse simply two crossed black
+  lines. There is but one seed of this kind in the set used by the
+  women. Two seeds have half of one side blackened and the rest left
+  plain, so as to represent a half moon; the reverse has a black
+  longitudinal line crossed at right angles by six small ones. There
+  are six throws whereby the player can win, and five that entitle him
+  to another throw. The winning throws are as follows, each winner
+  taking a pile of the ghost’s goods:
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Auxiliary throw No 5.]
+
+  Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo’s head up,
+  and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two
+  black with natural spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and
+  the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones
+  up, two black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the
+  transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two
+  black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo’s
+  head up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two
+  longitudinally crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up
+  wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, buffalo’s
+  head up, and two long crossed up wins a pile. The following
+  auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to win: two plain ones
+  up, two with black spots up, one half moon up, one longitudinally
+  crossed one up, and buffalo’s head up gives another throw, and on
+  this throw, if the two plain ones up and two with black spots with
+  either of the half moons or buffalo’s head up, the player takes a
+  pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons up,
+  and the transversely crossed one up entitles to another throw, when,
+  if all of the black sides come up, excepting one, the throw wins.
+  One of the plain ones up and all the rest with black sides up gives
+  another throw, and the same then turning up wins. One of the plain
+  black ones up with that side up of all the others having the least
+  black on gives another throw, when the same turning up again wins.
+  One half moon up, with that side up of all the others having the
+  least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is then
+  duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men, has its place
+  in their game whenever its facings are mentioned above. I transmit
+  with this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can be used to
+  illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a
+  hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Figured Plum Stones.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Winning Throw No. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Winning Throw No. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Winning Throw No. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Winning Throw No. 4.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Winning Throw No. 5.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Winning Throw No. 6.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Auxiliary Throw No. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Auxiliary Throw No. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Auxiliary Throw No. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Auxiliary Throw No. 4.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Grave Posts.]
+
+For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Dr. C. C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian
+Agency.
+
+Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the
+different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones
+sent by Dr. McChesney.
+
+
+_POSTS._
+
+These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, and
+have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family,
+certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the
+achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and danced
+at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently plant poles
+near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, horses’ tails,
+&c. The custom among the present Indians does not exist to any extent.
+Beltrami[101] speaks of it as follows:
+
+  Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted
+  by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was
+  raised, covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies
+  slain by the tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary
+  Manitous.
+
+The following extract from Schoolcraft[102] relates to the burial posts
+used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 46 is after the picture given by
+this author in connection with the account quoted:
+
+  Among the Sioux and Western Chippewas, after the body had been
+  wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a
+  scaffold or in a tree until the flesh is entirely decayed, after
+  which the bones are buried and grave-posts fixed. At the head of the
+  grave a tubular piece of cedar or other wood, called the
+  _adjedatig_, is set. This grave-board contains the symbolic or
+  representative figure, which records, if it be a warrior, his totem,
+  that is to say the symbol of his family, or surname, and such
+  arithmetical or other devices as seem to denote how many times the
+  deceased has been in war parties, and how many scalps he has taken
+  from the enemy--two facts from which his reputation is essentially
+  to be derived. It is seldom that more is attempted in the way of
+  inscription. Often, however, distinguished chiefs have their war
+  flag, or, in modern days, a small ensign of American fabric,
+  displayed on a standard at the head of their graves, which is left
+  to fly over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps
+  of their enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the
+  swallow-tailed falcon, or some carnivorous bird, are also placed, in
+  such instances, on the _adjedatig_, or suspended, with offerings of
+  various kinds, on a separate staff. But the latter are
+  superadditions of a religious character, and belong to the class of
+  the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig (_ante_, No. 4). The building of a funeral
+  fire on recent graves is also a rite which belongs to the
+  consideration of their religious faith.
+
+
+_FIRES._
+
+It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building fires
+on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the soul
+thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that demons
+were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford light to
+the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer states
+that--
+
+  The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the grave
+  was to light the spirit on its journey. By a coincidence to be
+  explained by the universal sacredness of the number, both Algonkins
+  and Mexicans maintained it for four nights consecutively. The former
+  related the tradition that one of their ancestors returned from the
+  spirit land and informed their nation that the journey thither
+  consumed just four days, and that collecting fuel every night added
+  much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered, all of which
+  could be spared it.
+
+So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also
+intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.
+
+Stephen Powers[103] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires:
+
+  After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity
+  of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the “Big Indians” do,
+  that the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely
+  attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the
+  debatable land, and that they require the fire to light them on
+  their darksome journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker
+  than a wicked one, hence they regulate the number of nights for
+  burning a light according to the character for goodness or the
+  opposite which the deceased possessed in this world.
+
+Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that a
+somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.
+
+Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one of
+the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Grave Fire.]
+
+
+_SUPERSTITIONS._
+
+An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,[104]
+and relates to the Hidatsa:
+
+  When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around the camp
+  or village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his
+  departed kindred in the “village of the dead.” When he has arrived
+  there he is rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on
+  earth by receiving the same regard in the one place as in the other,
+  for there as here the brave man is honored and the coward despised.
+  Some say that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a
+  separate part of the village, but that their condition differs in no
+  wise from that of the others. In the next world human shades hunt
+  and live in the shades of buffalo and other animals that have here
+  died. There, too there are four seasons, but they come in an inverse
+  order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four nights that the
+  ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who
+  disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from the
+  shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins which they leave at
+  the door of the lodge. The smell of the burning leather they claim
+  keeps the ghost out; but the true friends of the dead man take no
+  such precautions.
+
+From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the
+spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather
+should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to
+speculate on.
+
+The next account, by Keating,[105] relating to the Chippewas, shows a
+slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already alluded to:
+
+  The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely
+  distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag_, and appear to
+  supply to it the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe
+  that it quits the body it the time of death, and repairs to what
+  they term _Chekechekchekawe_; this region is supposed to be situated
+  to the south, and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to
+  arriving there they meet with a stream which they are obliged to
+  cross upon a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those
+  who die from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream; they are
+  thrown into it and remain there forever. Some souls come to the edge
+  of the stream, but are prevented from passing by the snake, which
+  threatens to devour them; these are the souls of the persons in a
+  lethargy or trance. Being refused a passage these souls return to
+  their bodies and reanimate them. They believe that animals have
+  souls, and even that inorganic substances, such as kettles, &c.,
+  have in them a similar essence.
+
+  In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits.
+  Those who have been good men are free from pain; they have no duties
+  to perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing, and they
+  feed upon mushrooms, which are very abundant. The souls of bad men
+  are haunted by the phantom of the persons or things that they have
+  injured; thus, if a man has destroyed much property the phantoms of
+  the wrecks of this property obstruct his passage wherever he goes;
+  if he has been cruel to his dogs or horses they also torment him
+  after death. The ghosts of those whom during his lifetime he wronged
+  are there permitted to avenge their injuries. They think that when a
+  soul has crossed the stream it cannot return to its body, yet they
+  believe in apparitions, and entertain the opinion that the spirits
+  of the departed will frequently revisit the abodes of their friends
+  in order to invite them to the other world, and to forewarn them of
+  their approaching dissolution.
+
+Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of
+examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California:
+
+  How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is
+  shown by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the
+  _pet-chi-é-ri_ the mere mention of the dead relative’s name. It is a
+  deadly insult to the survivors, and can be atoned for only by the
+  same amount of blood-money paid for willful murder. In default of
+  that they will have the villain’s blood. * * * At the mention of his
+  name the mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do
+  not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. * * * They
+  believe that the soul of a good Karok goes to the “happy western
+  land” beyond the great ocean. That they have a well-grounded
+  assurance of an immortality beyond the grave is proven, if not
+  otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical custom of whispering a
+  message in the ear of the dead. * * * Believe that dancing will
+  liberate some relative’s soul from bonds of death, and restore him
+  to earth.
+
+According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies away
+with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk will
+catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he was
+good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that--
+
+  The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of
+  the dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes. When I
+  asked the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for “father”
+  and “mother” and certain others similar, he shook his head
+  mournfully and said, “All dead,” “All dead,” “No good.” They are
+  forbidden to mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult
+  to the relatives, * * * and that the Mat-tóal hold that the good
+  depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but
+  the soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which
+  they consider, of all animals, the cousin-german of sin.
+
+The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows
+regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:
+
+  * * * It has always been one of the most passionate desires among
+  the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the Shastika, to live, die,
+  and be buried where they were born. Some of their usages in regard
+  to the dead and their burial may be gathered from an incident that
+  occurred while the captives of 1873 were on their way from the Lava
+  Beds to Fort Klamath, as it was described by an eye-witness.
+  Curly-headed Jack, a prominent warrior, committed suicide with a
+  pistol. His mother and female friends gathered about him and set up
+  a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood and
+  endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life. The mother
+  took his head in her lap and scooped the blood from his ear, another
+  old woman placed her hand upon his heart, and a third blew in his
+  face. The sight of the group--these poor old women, whose grief was
+  unfeigned, and the dying man--was terrible in its sadness. Outside
+  the tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim, Steamboat
+  Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had been the dying man’s
+  companions from childhood, all affected to tears. When he was
+  lowered into the grave, before the soldiers began to cover the body,
+  Huka Jim was seen running eagerly about the camp trying to exchange
+  a two-dollar bill of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior
+  that amount of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency
+  would be of any use to him in the other world--sad commentary on our
+  national currency!--and desired to have the coin instead. Procuring
+  it from one of the soldiers he cast it in and seemed greatly
+  relieved. All the dead man’s other effects, consisting of clothing,
+  trinkets, and a half dollar, were interred with him, together with
+  some root-flour as victual for the journey to the spirit land.
+
+The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead
+may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.[106] It regards
+the natives of Washington Territory:
+
+  My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is this: It is
+  the universal custom with these Indians never to live in a lodge
+  where a person has died. If a person of importance dies, the lodge
+  is usually burned down, or taken down and removed to some other part
+  of the bay; and it can be readily seen that in the case of the Palux
+  Indians, who had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before
+  stated, their relatives chose at once to leave for some other place.
+  This objection to living in a lodge where a person has died is the
+  reason why their sick slaves are invariably carried out into the
+  woods, where they remain either to recover or die. There is,
+  however, no disputing the fact that an immense mortality has
+  occurred among these people, and they are now reduced to a mere
+  handful.
+
+  The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead person,
+  and their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes give rise to a
+  difficulty as to who shall perform the funeral ceremonies; for any
+  person who handles a dead body must not eat of salmon or sturgeon
+  for thirty days. Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I have known them
+  leave the corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in two
+  instances that came to my knowledge, the whites had to burn the
+  lodges, with the bodies in them, to prevent infection.
+
+  So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had buried
+  Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could be seen. All
+  kept in their lodges, singing and drumming to keep away the spirits
+  of the dead.
+
+According to Bancroft[107]--
+
+  The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after death
+  transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while the nobler
+  became stars and beautiful birds.
+
+The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously
+avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those
+of our own country.
+
+Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, to
+enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed
+final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and
+while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on
+hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire
+for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper,
+that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of
+the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to
+induce further investigation and contribution from careful and
+conscientious observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and
+correspondence given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in
+short, most of them may serve as copies for preparation of similar
+material.
+
+To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are also
+given.
+
+_1st._ NAME OF THE TRIBE; present appellation; former, if differing any;
+and that used by the Indians themselves.
+
+_2d._ LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range
+of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+_3d._ DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and
+characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse
+prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it
+spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the character
+of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food
+put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an
+ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried together; and is the
+clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever prevail?
+
+_4th._ MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF
+THE GRAVES; CREMATION.--Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are
+scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction
+of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in
+skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are
+suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the
+water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be
+given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial
+posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of
+position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation,
+or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of
+remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if
+any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been
+used, describe them.
+
+_5th._ MOURNING OBSERVANCES.--Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?
+
+_6th._ BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS.--Give in full all that can
+be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.
+
+In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.
+
+One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the “why” and “wherefore” for every rite and custom; for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it.
+
+Any material the result of careful observation will be most gratefully
+received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer must here
+confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have already
+contributed, a number so large that limited space precludes a mention of
+their individual names.
+
+Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested
+in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general.
+Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious
+forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.
+
+The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos.
+Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made by
+Mr. W. H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended their
+preparation.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+    [Footnote 1: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1853, pt. 3, p. 193.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p. 270.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Voy. dans l’Arizona, in Bull. Soc. de Géographie,
+    1877.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. 1, p. 555.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: L’incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1,
+    p. 439.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States,
+    1853, Pt. 3, p. 140.]
+
+    [Footnote 12: U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.]
+
+    [Footnote 13: Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841,
+    p. 252.]
+
+    [Footnote 14: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.]
+
+    [Footnote 15: Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to
+    Knowledge. No. 259, 1876. Pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55, 82.]
+
+    [Footnote 16: Pop. Sc. Month., Sept., 1877, p. 577.]
+
+    [Footnote 17: Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i,
+    p. 780.]
+
+    [Footnote 18: A detailed account of this exploration, with many
+    illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
+    Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.]
+
+    [Footnote 19: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 _et
+    seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 20: American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.]
+
+    [Footnote 21: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 513.]
+
+    [Footnote 23: Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 515.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida,
+    1775.]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp.
+    241-243.]
+
+    [Footnote 26: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i,
+    p. 464.]
+
+    [Footnote 27: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.]
+
+    [Footnote 28: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 62.]
+
+    [Footnote 29: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.]
+
+    [Footnote 30: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.]
+
+    [Footnote 31: Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp.
+    155 _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.]
+
+    [Footnote 33: Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll.
+    Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 318.]
+
+    [Footnote 34: A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age,
+    discovered in Kentucky, is now in the cabinet of the American
+    Antiquarian Society. It is a female. Several human bodies were
+    found enwrapped carefully in skins and cloths. They were inhumed
+    below the floor of the cave; _inhumed_, and not lodged in
+    catacombs.]
+
+    [Footnote 35: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.]
+
+    [Footnote 36: Billings’ Exped., 1802, p. 161.]
+
+    [Footnote 37: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.]
+
+    [Footnote 38: Rawlinson’s Herodotus, Book i, chap. 198, _note_.]
+
+    [Footnote 39: Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 455 et seq.]
+
+    [Footnote 40: Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians,
+    1844, vol. ii, p. 5.]
+
+    [Footnote 41: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i,
+    p. 483.]
+
+    [Footnote 42: Hist. de l’Amérique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii,
+    p. 43.]
+
+    [Footnote 43: Pioneer Life, 1872.]
+
+    [Footnote 44: I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was
+    undoubtedly an exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island)
+    the bluffs on the peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River
+    (three miles distant) were thickly studded with Indian grave
+    mounds, showing conclusively that subterranean was the usual mode
+    of burial. In making roads, streets, and digging foundations,
+    skulls, bones, trinkets, beads, etc., in great numbers, were
+    exhumed, proving that many things (according to the wealth or
+    station of survivors) were deposited in the graves. In 1836 I
+    witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner stated.
+    --P. GREGG.]
+
+    [Footnote 45: Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist.
+    Soc. (1879?), p. 107.]
+
+    [Footnote 46: Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.]
+
+    [Footnote 47: The Last Act, 1876.]
+
+    [Footnote 48: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.]
+
+    [Footnote 49: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part
+    IV, p. 224.]
+
+    [Footnote 50: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii,
+    p. 387.]
+
+    [Footnote 51: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.]
+
+    [Footnote 52: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part
+    iii, p. 112.]
+
+    [Footnote 53: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.]
+
+    [Footnote 54: Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.]
+
+    [Footnote 55: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-’76, p. 64.]
+
+    [Footnote 56: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 149.]
+
+    [Footnote 57: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874, p. 168.]
+
+    [Footnote 58: Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.]
+
+    [Footnote 59: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of
+    Utah, 1852, p. 43.]
+
+    [Footnote 60: Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol. i,
+    p. 332.]
+
+    [Footnote 61: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. i, p. 780.]
+
+    [Footnote 62: Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p. 286.]
+
+    [Footnote 63: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol. i, p. 69.]
+
+    [Footnote 64: Travels in Alaska, 1869, p. 100.]
+
+    [Footnote 65: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145.]
+
+    [Footnote 66: Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.]
+
+    [Footnote 67: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.]
+
+    [Footnote 68: Long’s Exped. to the St. Peter’s River, 1824,
+    p. 332.]
+
+    [Footnote 69: L’incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome i,
+    p. 475, _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 70: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that
+    the custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the
+    Moravian settlement of Salem, N.C.]
+
+    [Footnote 71: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319.]
+
+    [Footnote 72: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. ii, p. 774,
+    _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 73: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.]
+
+    [Footnote 74: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.]
+
+    [Footnote 75: Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 516.]
+
+    [Footnote 76: “Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have
+    given it as their opinion that all those pyramidal artificial
+    hills, usually called Indian mounds, were raised on this occasion,
+    and are generally sepulchers. However, I am of different
+    opinion.”]
+
+    [Footnote 77: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.]
+
+    [Footnote 78: Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.]
+
+    [Footnote 79: Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.]
+
+    [Footnote 80: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.]
+
+    [Footnote 81: Cont. N. A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p. 200.]
+
+    [Footnote 82: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i,
+    p. 483.]
+
+    [Footnote 83: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859,
+    p. 48.]
+
+    [Footnote 84: Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii,
+    p. 141.]
+
+    [Footnote 85: Mœurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.]
+
+    [Footnote 86: Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.]
+
+    [Footnote 87: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.]
+
+    [Footnote 88: Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731,
+    744.]
+
+    [Footnote 89: Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.]
+
+    [Footnote 90: Bossu’s Travels (Forster’s translation), 1771,
+    p. 38.]
+
+    [Footnote 91: At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the
+    victims swallow little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make
+    them giddy, and as it were to take the sensation of pain from
+    them; after that they were all strangled and put upon mats, the
+    favorite on the right, the other wife on the left, and the others
+    according to their rank.]
+
+    [Footnote 92: The established distinctions among these Indians
+    were as follows: The Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the
+    highest rank; next come the Nobles; after them the Honorables; and
+    last of all the common people, who were very much despised. As the
+    nobility was propagated by the women, this contributed much to
+    multiply it.]
+
+    [Footnote 93: The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the
+    fires, which is only done at the death of the sovereign.]
+
+    [Footnote 94: Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.]
+
+    [Footnote 95: Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.]
+
+    [Footnote 96: Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.]
+
+    [Footnote 97: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii,
+    p. 164.]
+
+    [Footnote 98: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.]
+
+    [Footnote 99: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.]
+
+    [Footnote 100: Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.]
+
+    [Footnote 101: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.]
+
+    [Footnote 102: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851,
+    part i, p. 356.]
+
+    [Footnote 103: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.]
+
+    [Footnote 104: Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S.
+    Geol. Surv. of Terr., 1877, p. 409.]
+
+    [Footnote 105: Long’s Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.]
+
+    [Footnote 106: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.]
+
+    [Footnote 107: Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abiquiu, Ancient cemetery of  111
+  Acaxers and Yaquis, cairn burial  143
+  “Adjedatig”  197
+  Aerial burial in canoes, Chinooks  171
+  ---- sepulture,  152
+  Alaric’s burial  181
+  Alaska cave burial  129
+  Alaskan mummies  134, 135
+  Alden, E. H., Scaffold burial  161
+  Aleutian Islanders, embalmment  135, 136
+  Algonkins, Burial fires of the  198
+  Alibamans, Aquatic burial of suicides by  180
+  Allen, Miss A. J., Burial sacrifice  189
+  Ancient burial customs of barbaric tribes  152
+  ---- cemetery of Abiquiu  111
+  ---- nations, Tree burial of  165, 166
+  Ancients, Curious mourning observances  165, 166
+  Antiquity of cremation  143
+  Apingi burial  125, 126
+  Aquatic burial, Alibamans, of suicides  180
+  ---- Cherokees  180
+  ---- Chinooks  180
+  ---- Gosh-Utes  181
+  ---- Hyperboreans  180
+  ---- Ichthyophagi  180
+  ---- Itzas  180
+  ---- Kavague  180
+  ---- Lotophagians  180
+  ---- Obongo  180
+  Ascena or Timber Indians  103
+  Atwater, Caleb, Burial mounds  117
+  Australian scaffold burial  167
+  Aztecs and Taracos, Burial sacrifice  190
+  Baldwin, C. C., Pottawatomie surface burial  141
+  Balearic Islanders, Cairn burial  143
+  Bancroft, H. H., Burial sacrifice  190
+  ----, Canoe burial in ground  112
+  ----, Costa Rica hut burial  154
+  ----, Doracho cist burial  115
+  ----, Esquimaux burial boxes  155
+  ----, Mourning, Central Americans  185
+  ----, Pima burial  98
+  ----, Superstitions regarding dead  201
+  Barbaric tribes, Ancient burial customs of  152
+  Barber, E. A., Burial urns  138
+  ----, Partial cremation  151
+  Bari of Africa, burial  125
+  Bartram, John, Cabin burial  122
+  ----, Choctaw ossuary  120
+  ----, Partial scaffold burial  169
+  Bechuana burial  126
+  Beckwourth, James, Crow mourning  183
+  Beechey, Capt. F. W., Lodge burial  154
+  Beltrami, J. C., Burial feast  190
+  ----, Burial posts  197
+  Benson, H. C., Choctaw burial  186
+  Bessels, Dr. Emil, Esquimaux superstition  198
+  Beverly, Robert, Virginia mummies  131
+  Birgan, Meaning of word  93
+  Blackbird’s burial  139
+  Blackfeet burial lodges  154
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  ---- tree burial  161
+  Bonaks, Cremation  144
+  Bone cleaning of the dead  168
+  Boner, J. H., Moravian mourning  166
+  Bossu, M., Burial denied to suicides  180
+  Boteler, Dr. W. C., Oto burial ceremonies  96
+  Box burial, Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee  155
+  ----, Esquimaux  155, 156
+  ----, Indians of Talomeco River  155
+  ----, Innuits and Ingaliks  156, 158
+  ----, Kalosh  156
+  Bransford, Dr. J. C., U.S.N., Burial urns discovered by  138
+  Brebeuf, Pere de, Burial feast  191
+  Brice, W. A., Surface burial  141
+  Brinton, Dr. D. G., Burial of collected bones  170
+  Bruhier, J. J., Corsican customs  147
+  ---- Persian burial  103
+  Brule Sioux, tree and scaffold burial  158, 160
+  Burchard, J. L., Pit burial  124
+  Butterfield, H., Shoshone cairn burial  143
+  Burial, Apingi  125, 126
+  ----, Aquatic  180
+  ---- canoes and houses  177-179
+  ----, Bari of Africa  125
+  ----, Bechuanas  126
+  ---- beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses  122
+  ----, Box  155
+  ----, Carolina tribes  93
+  ----, Caddos  103
+  ----, Cairn  142
+  ----, Cairn, Ute  142
+  ---- case, Cheyenne  162, 163
+  ----, Cave  126
+  ----, Chieftain, of the  110, 111
+  ----, Classification of  92-93
+  ----, Damara  126
+  ---- dance, Yo-kaí-a  192, 194
+  ---- dances  193
+  ---- feast, Description of, by Beltrami  190, 191
+  ---- ----, Hurons, of the  191
+  ---- feasts  190
+  ---- ----, superstitions regarding  191
+  ---- fires, Algonkins  198
+  ---- ----, Yurok  198
+  ---- ----, Esquimaux  198
+  ---- food  192
+  ---- games  195
+  ----, Grave  101
+  ----, Ground, in canoes  112
+  ---- in logs  138, 139
+  ---- in mounds  115
+  ---- in standing posture  151, 152
+  ----, Indians of Virginia  125
+  ----, Iroquois  140
+  ----, Kaffir  126
+  ----, Klamath and Trinity Indians  106, 107
+  ----, Latookas  126
+  ----, Lodge  152
+  ---- lodges, Blackfeet  154
+  ---- ----, Cheyenne  154
+  ---- ----, Shoshone  153, 154
+  ----, Muscogulges  122, 123
+  ----, Meaning and derivation of word  93
+  ----, Moquis,  114
+  ----, Navajo,  123
+  ----, Obongo,  139, 140
+  ---- of Alaric,  181
+  ---- of Blackbird,  139
+  ---- of De Soto,  181
+  ---- of Long Horse,  153
+  ---- of Ouray,  128
+  ----, Parsee,  105, 106
+  ----, Pit,  93
+  ----, Pitt River Indians,  151
+  ---- posts, Sioux and Chippewa,  197, 198
+  ----, Round Valley Indians,  124
+  ---- sacrifice, Aztecs and Tarascos,  190
+  ---- ----, Indians of Northwest,  180
+  ---- ----, Indians of Panama,  180
+  ---- ----, Natchez,  187, 189
+  ---- ----, Tsinūk,  179
+  ---- ----, Wascopums,  189, 190
+  ----, Sacs and Foxes,  94, 95
+  ---- scaffolds,  162
+  ---- song, Schiller’s,  110, 111
+  ---- ---- of Basques and others,  195
+  ---- superstitions, Chippewas,  199, 200
+  ---- ----, Indians of Washington Territory,  201
+  ---- ----, Karok,  200
+  ---- ----, Kelta,  200
+  ---- ----, Modocs,  200, 201
+  ---- ----, Mosquito Indians,  201
+  ---- ----, Tlascaltecs,  201
+  ---- ----, Tolowa,  200
+  ----, Surface,  138, 139
+  ----, Urn,  137
+  ---- ---- and cover, Georgia,  138
+  ---- ----, New Mexico,  138
+
+  Cabins, wigwams, or houses, Burial beneath or in,  122
+  Caddos, Burial,  103
+  Cairn burial, Acaxers and Yaquis,  143
+  ----, Balearic Islanders,  143
+  ----, Blackfeet,  143
+  ----, Esquimaux,  143
+  ----, Kiowas and Comanches,  142, 143
+  ----, Pi-Utes,  143
+  ----, Reasons for,  143
+  ----, Shoshonis,  143
+  Calaveras Cave,  128, 129
+  California steatite burial urn,  138
+  Campbell, John, Burial songs,  195
+  Canes sepulchrales,  104
+  Canoe burial in ground,  112
+  ---- ----, Mosquito Indians,  112, 113
+  ---- ----, Santa Barbara,  112
+  ----, Clallam,  173, 174
+  ----, Twana,  171, 173
+  Canoes and houses, Burial,  177-179
+  Canoes, Superterrene and aerial burial in,  171
+  Caraibs, Verification of death,  146
+  Carolina tribes, Burial among,  93
+  Catlin, George, Burial of Blackbird,  139
+  ----, Golgotha of Mandans,  170
+  ----, Mourning cradle,  181
+  Cave burial,  126
+  ----, Alaska,  129
+  ----, Calaveras,  128, 129
+  ----, Utes,  127, 128
+  Cherokee aquatic burial,  180
+  Cheyenne burial case,  162, 163
+  ---- lodges,  154
+  Chillicothe mound,  117, 118
+  Chinook aerial burial in canoes,  171
+  ---- aquatic burial,  180
+  ---- mourning cradle,  181, 182
+  Chippewa burial superstitions,  199, 200
+  ---- mourning,  184
+  ---- scaffold burial,  161, 162
+  ---- widow,  184, 185
+  Choctaw mound burial,  120
+  ---- scaffold burial,  169
+  Choctaws funeral ceremonies,  186
+  Cist burial, Doracho,  115
+  ---- graves, Kentucky,  114, 115
+  ---- ----, Indians of Illinois,  114
+  Cists or stone graves,  113
+  ----, Solutré,  113
+  ----, Tennessee,  113
+  Clallam canoe burial,  173, 174
+  ---- house burial,  175
+  Classification of burial,  92
+  Cleveland, Wm. J., Tree and scaffold burial,  158
+  Collected bones, Interment of,  170
+  Comanche inhumation,  99, 100
+  Congaree and Santee Indians, embalmment  132, 133
+  Corsican funeral custom  147
+  Cox, Ross, Cremation  144
+  Coyotero Apaches, Inhumation  111, 112
+  Cradle, mourning, Illustration of  181
+  Crock, Choctaw, and Cherokee box burial  155
+  Creeks and Seminoles, Inhumation  95, 96
+  ----, “Hallelujah” of the  195
+  Cremation, Antiquity of  143
+  ----, Bonaks  144
+  ---- furnace  149
+  ----, Indians of Clear Lake  147
+  ----, Indians of Southern Utah  149
+  ---- mound, Florida  148, 149
+  ----, Nishinams  144
+  ----, Partial  150, 151
+  ----, Se-nél  147, 148
+  ----, Tolkotins  144-146
+  Crow lodge burial  153
+  ---- mourning  183, 184
+  Curious mourning observances of ancients  165, 166
+  Curtiss, E., Exploration by  115, 116
+
+  Dakhnias  104
+  Dall, W. H., Burial boxes  156
+  ----, Cave burial  129
+  ----, Mummies  134
+  Damara burial  126
+  Dance for the dead  192
+  Dances, Burial  192
+  Danish burial logs  139
+  Dead, Dance for the  192
+  Delano, A., Tree burial  161
+  Description of burial feast  190, 191
+  De Soto’s burial  181
+  Devouring the dead, Fans of Africa  182
+  ----, Indians of South America  182, 183
+  ----, Massageties, Padæns, and others  182
+  Dolmens in Japan  115
+  Doracho cist burial  115
+  Drew, Benjamin, Schiller’s burial song  110
+  Dumont, M. Butel de, House burial  124
+
+  Eells, Rev. M., Canoe burial  171
+  Embalmment, Aleutian Islanders  135, 136
+  ----, Congaree and Santee Indians  132, 133
+  ----, or mummification  130
+  Engelhardt, Prof. C.  139
+  Esquimaux box burial  155, 156
+  ---- burial fires  198
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  ---- lodge burial  154
+  European ossuaries  191
+  Excavation of Indian mound, North Carolina  120-122
+
+  Fans of Africa devour the dead  182
+  Feasts, Burial  190
+  Fires, Burial  198
+  Fiske, Moses, Cists  113
+  Florida cremation mound  148, 149
+  ---- mound burial  119, 120
+  Food, Burial  192
+  Ford, Lieut. Geo. E., U.S.A., Cabin burial  123
+  Foreman, Dr. E., Burial urns  138
+  ---- Cremation  149
+  Foster, J. W., Urn burial  137
+  ---- Cremation  150
+  Funeral ceremonies, Choctaws  186
+  ----, Twanas and Clallams  176
+  ---- custom, Corsican  147
+  Furnace, Cremation  149
+
+  Gageby, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Box burial  155
+  Games, Burial  195
+  Gardner, Dr. W., U.S.A., Theory of scaffold burial  167
+  Ghost gamble  195-197
+  Gianque, Florian, Mound burial  120
+  Gibbs, George  106
+  ----, Burial canoes and houses  177
+  Gilbert, G. K., Klamath burial  147
+  ---- Moquis burial  114
+  Gillman, Henry, Exploration of mound  148
+  Given, Dr. O. G., Cairn burial  142
+  “Golgothas,” Mandans  170
+  Gosh-Utes, Aquatic burial amongst  181
+  Grave burial  101
+  Gregg, Dr. P., Surface burial  140
+  Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce, Comanche inhumation  99
+  ---- Wichita burial customs  102
+  Grossman, Capt. F. E., Pima burial  98
+  Gros Ventres and Mandans, Scaffold burial  161
+
+  “Hallelujah” of the Creeks  195
+  Hammond, Dr. J. F., Burial lodges  154
+  Hardisty, W. L., Log burial in trees  166
+  Hidatsa superstitions  199
+  Hind, Henry Youle, Burial feast  191
+  Hoffman, Dr. W. J.  99
+  ---- Drawing of Pima burial  111, 153
+  Holbrook, W. C., Burial mounds  118
+  Holmes, W. H., Drawings by  106, 203
+  Hough, Franklin B., Canoe burial in the ground  112
+  House burial, Clallams  175
+  ----, Paskagoulas and Billoxis  124, 125
+  Hurons, Burial feast of  191
+  Hyperboreans, aquatic burial  180
+
+  Ichthyophagi, aquatic burial  180
+  Illinois mounds  118
+  Indian mound in North Carolina, Excavation of  120-122
+  Indians of Bellingham Bay, lodge burial  154
+  ---- of Clear Lake, cremation  147
+  ---- of Costa Rica, lodge burial  154
+  ---- of Illinois, cist burial  114
+  ---- of Northwest, burial sacrifice  180
+  ---- of Panama, burial sacrifice  180
+  ---- of South America devour the dead  182, 183
+  ---- of Southern Utah, cremation  149
+  ---- of Talomeco River, box burial  155
+  ---- of Taos, inhumation  101, 102
+  ---- of Virginia, burial  125
+  ---- of Washington Territory, burial superstition  201
+  Inhumation  93
+  ----, Comanches  99, 100
+  ----, Coyotero Apaches  111, 112
+  ----, Creeks and Seminoles  95, 96
+  ----, Indians of Taos  101, 102
+  ----, Mohawks  93
+  ----, Otoe and Missouri Indians.  96, 97, 98
+  ----, Pimas  98, 99
+  ----, Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux  107-110
+  ----, Wichitas  102, 103
+  ----, Yuki  99
+  Innuit and Ingalik box burial  156-158
+  Interment of collected bones  170
+  Iroquois scaffold burial  169, 170
+  ---- surface burial  140
+  Itzas, Aquatic burial  180
+
+  Japan dolmens  115
+  Jenkes, Col. C. W., Partial cremation  150
+  Johnston, Adam, Cremation myth  144
+  Jones, Dr. Charles C., Stone graves of Tennessee  114
+  ---- Natchez burial  169
+  Joseph, Judge Anthony, Inhumation of Taos Indians  101
+
+  Kaffir burial  126
+  Kalosh box burial  156
+  Kavague aquatic burial  180
+  Kaw-a-wāh  142
+  Keating, William H., Burial scaffolds  162
+  ----, Burial superstitions  199
+  “Keeping the Ghost”  160
+  Kent, M. B., Sac and Fox burial  94
+  Kentucky cist graves  114, 115
+  ---- mummies  133
+  Kiowa and Comanche cairn burial  142, 143
+  Kitty-ka-tats  102
+  Klamath and Trinity Indians, burial  106, 107
+  Klingbeil, William, Partial cremation  151
+
+  Lafitau, J. F.  182
+  “Last cry”  186
+  Latookas burial  126
+  Lawson, John, Partial embalmment  132
+  ----, Pit burial  93
+  List of illustrations, Burial customs  87
+  Living sepulchers  182
+  Lodge burial  152
+  ----, Crow  153
+  ----, Esquimaux  154
+  ----, Indians of Bellingham Bay  154
+  ----, Indians of Costa Rica  154
+  ----, Sioux  152, 153
+  Log burial  138, 139
+  ----, Danish  139
+  ---- in trees, Loucheux  166
+  Long Horse, burial of  153
+  Lotophagians, Aquatic burial  180
+  Loucheux, log burial in trees  166
+
+  McChesney, Dr. Charles E.  107-111
+  ----, “Ghost gamble”  195
+  McDonald, Dr. A. J., Rock fissure burial  127
+  McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial  161
+  ----, Chippewa widow  184
+  Macrobrian Ethiopians, Preservation of the dead  136, 137
+  Mahan, I. L., Chippewa mourning  184
+  Mandan “Golgothas”  170
+  Matthews, Dr. Washington, U.S.A., Hidatsa superstition  199
+  ----, Tree burial  161
+  Menard, Dr. John, Navajo burial  123
+  Miami Valley mound burial  120
+  Midawan, a ceremony of initiation  122
+  Miller, Dr. C. C., Assistance from  197
+  Mitchell, Dr. Samuel L., Kentucky mummies  133, 134
+  Mohawks, Inhumation  93
+  Monotheism defined  30, 32, 142
+  Moquis burial  114
+  Moravian mourning  166
+  Morgan, Lewis H., Burial dance  192
+  ----, Partial scaffold burial  169
+  Morse, E. S., Dolmens in Japan  115
+  Mortuary customs of Parthians, Medes, etc.  104
+  ---- Persians  103, 104
+  Mosquito Indians, Burial superstition of  201
+  ----, canoe burial in ground  112, 113
+  Mound burial  115
+  ----, Choctaws  120
+  ----, Florida  119, 120
+  ----, Miami Valley  120
+  ----, Ohio  117, 118
+  Mounds, Illinois  118, 119
+  ---- of stone  118
+  Mourning ceremonies, Sioux  109, 110
+  ----, Chippewa  184
+  ---- cradle, Chinook  181, 182
+  ---- ----, engraving of  181
+  ---- Crows  183, 184
+  ---- customs of widows  185, 186
+  ----, Indians of Northwest  179
+  ---- Moravian  166
+  ---- observances, Twana and Clallams  176
+  ---- sacrifice, feasts, food, etc  183
+  Mummies, Alaskan  134, 135
+  ----, Kentucky  133
+  ----, Northwest coast  135
+  ----, Virginia  131, 132
+  Mummification or embalmment  130
+  Mummification, Theories regarding  130
+  Muret, Pierre, Living sepulchres  182
+  ----, Persian mortuary customs  103
+  Muscogulge burial  122, 123
+  Natchez burial sacrifice  187-189
+  ---- scaffold burial  169
+  Navajo burial  123
+  Norm  142
+  New Mexico burial urn  138
+  Nishinams, Cremation among the  144
+  Norris, P. W., lodge burial  153
+  North Carolina Indians, Partial cremation  150, 151
+  Northwest coast mummies  135
+  ----, Indians of, mourning  179
+
+  Obongo aquatic burial  180
+  ---- surface burial  139, 140
+  Observers, Queries for, regarding burial  202, 203
+  Ohio mound burial  117
+  Oh-sah-ke-uck  94
+  Ojibwa and Cree surface burial  141
+  Ossuaries, European  191
+  Otis, Dr. George A., U.S.A., Burial case  162
+  Oto and Missouri Indians, Inhumation  96-98
+  Ouray, Burial of  128
+  Owsley, Dr. W. J., Cist graves  114
+
+  Partial cremation  150
+  ---- ----, North Carolina Indians  150, 151
+  ---- scaffold burial and ossuaries  168
+  Parsee burial  105, 106
+  Paskagoulas and Billoxis, House burial  124, 125
+  Persians, Mortuary customs of the  103, 104
+  Pimas, Inhumation among  98, 99
+  Pinart, M. Alphonse, Pima burial  98
+  Pinkerton, John, Virginia mummies  131
+  Piros  101
+  Pit burial  93
+  Pitt River Indians, Burial and cremation  151
+  Pi-Ute cairn burial  143
+  Posts, Burial  197
+  Potherie, De la M., Surface burial  140
+  Powell, J. W., Stone graves or cists  113
+  Powers, Stephen, Burial dance  192
+  ----, Burial song  194
+  ----, Origin of cremation  144
+  ----, Se-nél cremation  147
+  ----, Yuki burial  99
+  Preparation of dead,
+  ---- Similarity of, between Comanches and African tribes  100
+  Preservation of dead, Macrobrian Ethiopians  136, 137
+  ----, Werowance of Virginia  131, 132
+  Priest, Josiah, Box burial  155
+  Putnam, F. W., Stone graves or cists  115, 116
+
+  Queries for observers regarding burial  202, 203
+  Quiogozon or ossuary  94
+
+  Reason for cairn burial  143
+  Remarks, Final  203
+  Review of Turner’s narrative  165
+  Robertson, R. S., Surface burial  139
+  Roman, Bernard, Choctaw hone houses  168
+  ----, Funeral customs of Chickasaws  123
+  Round Valley Indians, burial among  124
+
+  Sacrifice  187
+  Sacs and Foxes, burial among  94, 95
+  ----, surface burial  140, 141
+  Sauer, Martin, Aleutian mummies  135
+  Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies, surface burial among  151
+  Scaffold burial, Australia  167
+  ---- ----, Chippewas  161, 162
+  ---- ----, Choctaw  169
+  ---- ----, Gros-Ventres and Mandans  161
+  ---- ----, Iroquois  169, 170
+  ---- ----, Natchez  169
+  ---- ----, Sioux  163, 164
+  ----, Tent burial on  174
+  Scaffolds, Theory regarding  167, 168
+  Schiller’s burial song  110
+  Schoolcraft, Henry R., Burial posts  197
+  ----, Cremation myth  144
+  ----, Mohawk burial  93, 95
+  ----, Partial embalmment  132
+  Seechaugas  158
+  Sellers, George Escoll, Cist burial  114
+  Se-nél, Cremation among the  147, 148
+  Sepulture, Aerial  152
+  Sheldon, William, Caraib burial customs  146
+  Shoshone burial lodges  153, 154
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  Sicaugu  158
+  Simpson, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Aquatic burial  181
+  Sioux and Chippewa burial posts  197, 198
+  ---- lodge burial  152, 153
+  ---- mourning ceremonies  109, 110
+  Sioux, scaffold burial of the  163, 164
+  ----, tree burial of the  161
+  Solutré cists  113
+  Songs, Burial  194
+  ---- ----, of Basques and others  195
+  Southern Indians, Urn burial among  137
+  Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason, Curious burial  120
+  Spencer, J. W., Partial surface burial  140
+  Standing posture, Burial in  151, 152
+  Stansbury, Capt. H., U.S.A., Lodge burial  152
+  Steatite burial urn, California  138
+  Sternberg, Dr. George M., U.S.A., Grave mounds  119
+  ----, Burial case discovered  162
+  Stone graves or cists  113
+  ---- mounds  118
+  Superstition, Hidatsa  199
+  ---- regarding burial feasts  191
+  Superstitions, Burial  199
+  Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes  171
+  Surface burial  138, 139
+  ----, Ojibways and Crees  141
+  ----, Sacs and Foxes  140, 141
+  ----, Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies  141
+  Swan, James G., Canoe burial  171
+  ----, Klamath burial  106
+  ----, Superstitions  201
+
+  Tāh-zee  142
+  Tegg, William, Antiquity of cremation  143
+  ----, Towers of silence  104
+  Tennessee cists  113
+  Tent burial on scaffold  174
+  Theories regarding mummification or embalmment  130
+  ---- regarding use of scaffolds  176, 168
+  Tiffany, A. S., Cremation furnace  149
+  Timberlake, H., Aquatic burial  180
+  Tolkotin cremation  144, 146
+  Tompkins, Gen. Chas. H., U.S.A., Partial cremation  151
+  Towers of silence, Description of  104-106
+  Tree and scaffold burial  158
+  ---- ----, Brulé Sioux  158, 160
+  ---- burial, ancient nations  165, 166
+  ---- ----, Blackfeet  101
+  ---- ----, Sioux  101
+  Tsinūk burial sacrifice  179
+  Turner, Dr. L. S., Scaffold burial  163
+  Turner’s narrative, Review of  165
+  Twana and Clallam mourning observances  176
+  ---- canoe burial  171-173
+  Twanas and Clallams, funeral ceremonies  176
+
+  Urn burial by Southern Indians  137
+  Ute cairn burial  142
+  ---- cave burial  127, 128
+
+  Van Camper, Moses. Mode of burial of Indians inhabiting
+      Pennsylvania  112
+  Van Vliet, Gen. Stewart, U.S.A., Tree and scaffold burial  153
+  Verification of death, Caraibs  146
+  Virginia mummies  131, 132
+
+  Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux, Inhumation among  107-110
+  Wascopums, Burial sacrifice of  189, 190
+  Wee-ka-nahs  101
+  Welch, H., Surface burial  141
+  Werowance of Virginia, preservation of the dead  131, 132
+  Whitney, J. D., burial cave, Description of a  128
+  Whymper, Frederic, Burial boxes  156
+  Wichitas, Inhumation among the  102, 103
+  Widow, Chippewa  184, 185
+  Widows, Mourning customs of  185, 186
+  Wilcox, E., Partial cremation  150
+  Wilkins, Charles, Kentucky mummies  133
+  Williams, Monier, Parsee burial  104
+  Wood, Rev. J. G., African surface burial  139
+  ----, Bari burial  125
+  ----, Fans of Africa devour the dead  182
+  ----, Obongo aquatic burial  180
+  Wright, Dr. S. G., Superstitions regarding burial feasts  191
+
+  Yo-kaí-a burial dance  192-194
+  Young, John, Tree burial  161
+  Yuki inhumation  99
+  Yurok burial fires  198
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Errata_
+
+Unless otherwise noted, spelling and punctuation are unchanged.
+Differences in punctuation or hyphenization between the List of
+Illustrations and the captions themselves are not noted.
+
+  [List of Illustrations]
+  1.--Quiogozon or dead house  [Quiogozeon]
+
+  two small arroyas
+    [_spelling “arroya” consistent throughout the quoted passage_]
+  chanting the following chorous:
+    [_spelling in quoted passage unchanged_]
+  the Colchians enveloped their dead  [Colchiens]
+  these are considered apochryphal  [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Horace and Tertullian both affirm  [Tertulian]
+  cum grana salis  [_error unchanged: correct form is “grano”_]
+  the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her husband.
+    [_bracketed “sic” in original_]
+  Fröebel states that among the Woolwas
+    [_spelling unchanged: probably error for “Froebel” (two letters)
+    or “Fröbel” (o-umlaut alone)_]
+  tear myself from you (_sic_) arms
+    [_error unchanged; parenthetical “sic” in original_]
+
+  [Footnote 54]
+  Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.  [1878.]
+
+  [Index]
+  [Missing commas within entries or before sub-entries have been
+  silently supplied.]
+  McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial  [Scafford]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of the
+mortuary customs of the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North American Indians
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 87-204
+
+Author: H. C. Yarrow
+
+Posting Date: March 24, 2010 [EBook #11398]
+Release Date: March 2, 2004
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Anne Folland, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Canadian Institute for
+Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org) and The
+Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org).)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+This e-text comes in three forms: Unicode (UTF-8), Latin-1 and ASCII.
+Use the one that works best on your text reader.
+
+  --In the UTF-8 (best) version, a small group of words will appear
+  with a macron ("long" mark) on a or u:
+    Tsin�k (six times), tamahno-�s (three times), m�-mel-�s-illa-hee,
+    Kaw-a-w�h, T�h-zee (twice each)
+  There is also a single Greek word. The letter "oe" displays as a
+  single character, and apostrophes and quotation marks are "curly"
+  or angled. If any part of this paragraph displays as garbage, try
+  changing your text reader's "character set" or "file encoding". If
+  that doesn't work, proceed to:
+
+  --In the Latin-1 version, the words listed above will have a
+  circumflex (� or �) instead of a macron, the Greek word will be
+  transliterated and shown between #marks#, and the form "oe" is two
+  letters. The three long French passages still have the appropriate
+  accents, but apostrophes and quotation marks will be straight
+  ("typewriter" form). Again, if you see any garbage in this
+  paragraph and can't get it to display properly, use:
+
+  --The ASCII-7 or rock-bottom version. In this version, all diacritics
+  (accents) are gone, _including accents on all French words_.
+
+Much of this article is quoted from other published sources. The
+resulting inconsistencies in spelling and punctuation are unchanged.
+Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text.
+
+The Table of Contents and Index were supplied from the beginning and end
+of the Annual Report volume. The List of Illustrations was printed with
+the article.
+
+Most footnotes are purely bibliographic. Asterisks after a few footnote
+numbers [44*] were added by the transcriber to identify those notes
+that give further information.]
+
+
+
+
+  SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+  J. W. Powell, Director
+
+
+  A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION
+
+  to the
+
+  STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS
+
+  of the
+
+  NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
+
+
+  by
+
+  Dr. H. C. YARROW,
+
+  Act. Asst. Surg., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  List of illustrations                                   89
+  Introductory                                            91
+  Classification of burial                                92
+  Inhumation                                              93
+    Pit burial                                            93
+    Grave burial                                         101
+    Stone graves or cists                                113
+    Burial in mounds                                     115
+    Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses      122
+    Cave burial                                          126
+  Embalmment or mummification                            130
+  Urn burial                                             137
+  Surface burial                                         138
+    Cairn burial                                         142
+  Cremation                                              143
+    Partial cremation                                    150
+  Aerial sepulture                                       152
+    Lodge burial                                         152
+    Box burial                                           155
+    Tree and scaffold burial                             158
+    Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries                168
+    Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes             171
+  Aquatic burial                                         180
+  Living sepulchers                                      182
+  Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc.                      183
+    Mourning                                             183
+    Sacrifice                                            187
+    Feasts                                               190
+    Superstition regarding burial feasts                 191
+    Food                                                 192
+    Dances                                               192
+    Songs                                                194
+    Games                                                195
+    Posts                                                197
+    Fires                                                198
+    Superstitions                                        199
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+[In the original, Figure 12 was printed before Figure 11 (both full-page
+Plates). Figure 45 (_on_ page 196) was printed before the group of
+plates 34-44 (_between_ pages 196 and 197).]
+
+
+   1.--Quiogozon or dead house                            94
+   2.--Pima burial                                        98
+   3.--Towers of silence                                 105
+   4.--Towers of silence                                 106
+   5.--Alaskan mummies                                   135
+   6.--Burial urns                                       138
+   7.--Indian cemetery                                   139
+   8.--Grave pen                                         141
+   9.--Grave pen                                         141
+  10.--Tolkotin cremation                                145
+  11.--Eskimo lodge burial                               154
+  12.--Burial houses                                     154
+  13.--Innuit grave                                      156
+  14.--Ingalik grave                                     157
+  15.--Dakota scaffold burial                            158
+  16.--Offering food to the dead                         159
+  17.--Depositing the corpse                             160
+  18.--Tree-burial                                       161
+  19.--Chippewa scaffold burial                          162
+  20.--Scarification at burial                           164
+  21.--Australian scaffold burial                        166
+  22.--Preparing the dead                                167
+  23.--Canoe-burial                                      171
+  24.--Twana canoe-burial                                172
+  25.--Posts for burial canoes                           173
+  26.--Tent on scaffold                                  174
+  27.--House burial                                      175
+  28.--House burial                                      175
+  29.--Canoe-burial                                      178
+  30.--Mourning-cradle                                   181
+  31.--Launching the burial cradle                       182
+  32.--Chippewa widow                                    185
+  33.--Ghost gamble                                      195
+  34.--Figured plum stones                               196
+  35.--Winning throw, No. 1                              196
+  36.--Winning throw, No. 2                              196
+  37.--Winning throw, No. 3                              196
+  38.--Winning throw, No. 4                              196
+  39.--Winning throw, No. 5                              196
+  40.--Winning throw, No. 6                              196
+  41.--Auxiliary throw, No. 1                            196
+  42.--Auxiliary throw, No. 2                            196
+  43.--Auxiliary throw, No. 3                            196
+  44.--Auxiliary throw, No. 4                            196
+  45.--Auxiliary throw, No. 5                            196
+  46.--Burial posts                                      197
+  47.--Grave fire                                        198
+
+
+
+
+  A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION
+
+  to the
+
+  STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
+
+  By H. C. Yarrow.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many
+readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen
+the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to
+reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an
+introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate
+study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and
+more important.
+
+The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously,
+while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable.
+This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an
+almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and
+the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing.
+A�wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably seconded
+the efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, from
+the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of
+scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press,
+too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever on the alert to scatter
+broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of
+well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry,
+and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is
+the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North
+American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it
+be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already
+contributed.
+
+It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed
+more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of
+supererogation to continue a further examination of the subject, for
+nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention
+of burial observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on
+the sea of this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless
+supported by corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely
+unreliable. To bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and
+arrange collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer's
+task, and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method
+of securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and
+need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present
+to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to
+the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies,
+the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples,
+and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding
+the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be
+done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough
+analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and
+from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be
+considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer
+having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the
+accounts furnished.
+
+It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions
+to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. J.�W.
+Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,
+from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant encouragement
+and advice has been received, and to whom all American ethnologists owe
+a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.
+
+Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the
+subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies
+among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost
+analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.
+
+For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of burials
+may be adopted, although further study may lead to some modifications.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.
+
+
+1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, or holes in the ground, stone graves
+or cists, in mounds, beneath or in cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or
+in caves.
+
+2d. By EMBALMMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being
+afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in
+charnel-houses.
+
+3d. By DEPOSITION of remains in urns.
+
+4th. By SURFACE BURIAL, the remains being placed in hollow trees or
+logs, pens, or simply covered with earth, or bark, or rocks forming
+cairns.
+
+5th. By CREMATION, or partial burning, generally on the surface of the
+earth, occasionally beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed
+in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns,
+sometimes scattered.
+
+6th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being left in lodges, houses,
+cabins, tents, deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the
+two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the
+ground. Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of
+children, these being hung to trees.
+
+7th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were
+turned adrift.
+
+These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.
+
+The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be understood
+in its literal significance, the word being derived from the Teutonic
+Anglo-Saxon "_birgan_," to conceal or hide away.
+
+In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, it
+has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, in
+order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the
+relator's language been changed except to correct manifest
+unintentional, errors of spelling.
+
+
+
+
+INHUMATION.
+
+
+_PIT BURIAL._
+
+The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been that
+of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of
+different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of
+the process:
+
+One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:[1]
+
+  The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body
+  was placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered
+  with timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby
+  kept the body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a
+  round hill over it. They always dressed the corpse in all its
+  finery, and put wampum and other things into the grave with it; and
+  the relations suffered not grass nor any wood to grow upon the
+  grave, and frequently visited it and made lamentation.
+
+In Jones[2] is the following interesting account from Lawson[3] of the
+burial customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:
+
+  Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was accompanied
+  with special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon
+  the funeral according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was
+  first placed in a cane hurdle and deposited in an outhouse made for
+  the purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night,
+  guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with disheveled
+  hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral go into the town,
+  and from the backs of the first young men they meet strip such
+  blankets and matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In
+  these the dead body is wrapped and then covered with two or three
+  mats made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or
+  hollow canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared for
+  the interment, the corpse is carried from the house in which it has
+  been lying into the orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in
+  another hurdle. Seated upon mats are there congregated the family
+  and tribe of the deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or
+  conjurer, having enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral
+  oration, during which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his
+  valor, skill, love of country, property, and influence; alludes to
+  the void caused by his death, and counsels those who remain to
+  supply his place by following in his footsteps; pictures the
+  happiness he will enjoy in the land of spirits to which he has gone,
+  and concludes his address by an allusion to the prominent traditions
+  of his tribe.
+
+Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the
+opinion of many, "more honored in the breach than in the observance."
+
+  At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from that
+  Hurdle to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the Relations,
+  the King, old Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the
+  Sepulcre, which is about six foot deep and eight foot long, having
+  at each end (that is, at the Head and Foot) a�Light-Wood or
+  Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down the sides of the Grave firmly into
+  the Ground (these two Forks are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you
+  shall understand presently), before they lay the Corps into the
+  Grave, they cover the bottom two or three time over with the Bark of
+  Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two Belts that the
+  _Indians_ carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely upon the said
+  Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the two Forks,
+  and having a great many Pieces of Pitch-Pine Logs about two Foot and
+  a half long, they stick them in the sides of the Grave down each End
+  and near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the
+  Ridge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of a House.
+  These being very thick plac'd, they cover them [many times double]
+  with Bark; then they throw the Earth thereon that came out of the
+  Grave and beat it down very firm. By this Means the dead Body lies
+  in a Vault, nothing touching him.
+
+After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in
+an ossuary called the Quiogozon.
+
+Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers
+called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to
+it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair
+greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited,
+another dried bodies.
+
+It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M. B. Kent,
+relating to the Sacs and Foxes (_Oh-sak-ke-uck_) of the Nehema Agency,
+Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead to
+prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom has
+been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by
+examples given further�on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Quiogozon or Dead House.]
+
+  _Ancient burial._--The body was buried in a grave made about 2�
+  feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards the east, the
+  burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave was
+  prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse was
+  deposited, a�plank covering made and secured some distance above the
+  body. The plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse with
+  the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse was
+  always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a long journey in
+  life, no coffin being used.
+
+  _Modern burial._--This tribe now usually bury in coffins, rude ones
+  constructed by themselves, still depositing the body in the grave
+  with the head towards the east.
+
+  _Ancient funeral ceremonies._--Every relative of the deceased had to
+  throw some article in the grave, either food, clothing, or other
+  material. There was no rule stating the nature of what was to be
+  added to the collection, simply a requirement that something must be
+  deposited, if it were only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After
+  the corpse was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead,
+  instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would soon
+  discover moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he came to a
+  great river, which is the river of death; when there he would find a
+  pole across the river, which, if he has been honest, upright, and
+  good, will be straight, upon which he could readily cross to the
+  other side; but if his life had been one of wickedness and sin, the
+  pole would be very crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he
+  would be precipitated into the turbulent stream and lost forever.
+  The brave also told him if he crossed the river in safety the Great
+  Father would receive him, take out his old brains, give him new
+  ones, and then he would have reached the happy hunting grounds,
+  always be happy and have eternal life. After burial a feast was
+  always called, and a portion of the food of which each and every
+  relative was partaking was burned to furnish subsistence to the
+  spirit upon its journey.
+
+  _Modern funeral ceremonies._--Provisions are rarely put into the
+  grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast subsequent
+  to burial is burned, although the feast is continued. All the
+  address delivered by the brave over the corpse after being deposited
+  in the grave is omitted. A�prominent feature of all ceremonies,
+  either funeral or religious, consists of feasting accompanied with
+  music and dancing.
+
+  _Ancient mourning observances._--The female relations allowed their
+  hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed themselves in the most
+  unpresentable attire, the latter of which the males also do. Men
+  blacked the whole face for a period of ten days after a death in the
+  family, while the women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the
+  children were blacked for three months; they were also required to
+  fast for the same length of time, the fasting to consist of eating
+  but one meal per day, to be made entirely of hominy, and partaken of
+  about sunset. It was believed that this fasting would enable the
+  child to dream of coming events and prophesy what was to happen in
+  the future. The extent and correctness of prophetic vision depended
+  upon how faithfully the ordeal of fasting had been observed.
+
+  _Modern mourning observances._--Many of those of the past are
+  continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing uncouth
+  apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children, and they are
+  adhered to with as much tenacity as many of the professing
+  Christians belonging to the evangelical churches adhere to their
+  practices, which constitute mere forms, the intrinsic value of which
+  can very reasonably be called in question.
+
+The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,[4] made
+the graves of their dead as follows:
+
+  When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse about
+  four feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the cabin or rock
+  wherever he died. The corpse is placed in the hole in a sitting
+  posture, with a blanket wrapped about it, and the legs bent under
+  and tied together. If a warrior, he is painted, and his pipe,
+  ornaments, and warlike appendages are deposited with him. The grave
+  is then covered with canes tied to a hoop round the top of the hole,
+  then a firm layer of clay, sufficient to support the weight of a
+  man. The relations howl loudly and mourn publicly for four days. If
+  the deceased has been a man of eminent character, the family
+  immediately remove from the house in which he is buried and erect a
+  new one, with a belief that where the bones of their dead are
+  deposited the place is always attended by goblins and chimeras dire.
+
+Dr. W. C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County,
+Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most
+interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it
+may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those
+already mentioned:
+
+  The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in southern
+  Gage County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000 acres, unsurpassed
+  in beauty of location, natural resources, and adaptability for
+  prosperous agriculture. This pastoral people, though in the midst of
+  civilization, have departed but little from the rude practice and
+  customs of a nomadic life, and here may be seen and studied those
+  interesting dramas as vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote
+  frontier.
+
+  During my residence among this people on different occasions, I�have
+  had the opportunity of witnessing the Indian burials and many quaint
+  ceremonies pertaining thereto.
+
+  When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe
+  subject, the preparation of the burial costume is immediately began.
+  The near relatives of the dying Indian surround the humble bedside,
+  and by loud lamentations and much weeping manifest a grief which is
+  truly commensurate with the intensity of Indian devotion and
+  attachment.
+
+  While thus expressing before the near departed their grief at the
+  sad separation impending, the Indian women, or friendly braves, lose
+  no time in equipping him or her with the most ornate clothes and
+  ornaments that are available or in immediate possession. It is thus
+  that the departed Otoe is enrobed in death, in articles of his own
+  selection and by arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his
+  own tongue. It is customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere his
+  departure, the propriety or impropriety of the accustomed
+  sacrifices. In some cases there is a double and in others no
+  sacrifice at all. The Indian women then prepare to cut away their
+  hair; it is accomplished with scissors, cutting close to the scalp
+  at the side and behind.
+
+  The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with great
+  solemnity and care. Bead-work, the most ornate, expensive blankets
+  and ribbons comprise the funeral shroud. The dead, being thus
+  enrobed, is placed in a recumbent posture at the most conspicuous
+  part of the lodge and viewed in rotation by the mourning relatives
+  previously summoned by a courier, all preserving uniformity in the
+  piercing screams which would seem to have been learned by rote.
+
+  An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the tribe,
+  arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge around one of
+  their number, keeping time upon a drum or some rude cooking-utensil.
+
+  At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance
+  excitedly around the central person, vociferating, and with wild
+  gesture, tomahawk in hand, imprecate the evil spirit, which he
+  drives to the land where the sun goes down. The evil spirit being
+  thus effectually banished, the mourning gradually subsides, blending
+  into succeeding scenes of feasting and refreshment. The burial feast
+  is in every respect equal in richness to its accompanying
+  ceremonies. All who assemble are supplied with cooked venison, hog,
+  buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing alike hot cakes
+  soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case may�be.
+
+  Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged Indian
+  present will sit in the central circle, and in a continuous and
+  doleful tone narrate the acts of valor in the life of the departed,
+  enjoining fortitude and bravery upon all sitting around as an
+  essential qualification for admittance to the land where the Great
+  Spirit reigns. When the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is
+  customary for the surviving friends to present the bereaved family
+  with useful articles of domestic needs, such as calico in bolt,
+  flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or horses. After
+  the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the body is carefully
+  placed in a wagon and, with an escort of all friends, relatives, and
+  acquaintances, conveyed to the grave previously prepared by some
+  near relation or friend. When a wagon is used, the immediate
+  relatives occupy it with the corpse, which is propped in a
+  semi-sitting posture; before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it
+  was necessary to bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then
+  convey him to his last resting place among his friends. In past days
+  when buffalo were more available, and a tribal hunt was more
+  frequently indulged in, it is said that those dying on the way were
+  bound upon horses and thus frequently carried several hundred miles
+  for interment at the burial places of their friends.
+
+  At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a double
+  nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel, and upon the
+  other blended with the deepest grief and most heartfelt sorrow.
+  Before the interment of the dead the chattels of the deceased are
+  unloaded from the wagons or unpacked from the backs of ponies and
+  carefully arranged in the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is
+  wider than the top (graves here being dug like an inverted funnel),
+  is spread with straw or grass matting, woven generally by the Indian
+  women of the tribe or some near neighbor. The sides are then
+  carefully hung with handsome shawls or blankets, and trunks, with
+  domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less importance, are piled
+  around in abundance. The sacrifices are next inaugurated. A�pony,
+  first designated by the dying Indian, is led aside and strangled by
+  men hanging to either end of a rope. Sometimes, but not always,
+  a�dog is likewise strangled, the heads of both animals being
+  subsequently laid upon the Indian's grave. The body, which is now
+  often placed in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if a
+  coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the deceased
+  before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a�saddle and bridle,
+  blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon it, the mourning ceases, and
+  the Indians prepare to close the grave. It should be remembered,
+  among the Otoe and Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in upon the
+  body, but simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs that
+  are accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the
+  burying is completed, a�distribution of the property of the deceased
+  takes place, the near relatives receiving everything, from the
+  merest trifle to the tent and homes, leaving the immediate family,
+  wife and children or father out-door pensioners.
+
+  Although the same generosity is not observed towards the whites
+  assisting in funeral rites, it is universally practiced as regards
+  Indians, and poverty's lot is borne by the survivors with a
+  fortitude and resignation which in them amounts to duty, and marks a
+  higher grade of intrinsic worth than pervades whites of like
+  advantages and conditions. We are told in the Old Testament
+  Scriptures, "four days and four nights should the fires burn," &c.
+  In fulfillment of this sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil
+  carefully kept by these Indians four days and four nights at the
+  graves of their departed. A�small fire is kindled for the purpose
+  near the grave at sunset, where the nearest relatives convene and
+  maintain a continuous lamentation till the morning dawn. There was
+  an ancient tradition that at the expiration of this time the Indian
+  arose, and mounting his spirit pony, galloped off to the happy
+  hunting-ground beyond.
+
+  Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these superstitions
+  have faded, and the living sacrifices are partially continued only
+  from a belief that by parting with their most cherished and valuable
+  goods they propitiate the Great Spirit for the sins committed during
+  the life of the deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find
+  was the practice of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt
+  offerings the lamb or the ox; hence we cannot censure this people,
+  but, from a comparison of conditions, credit them with a more strict
+  observance of our Holy Book than pride and seductive fashions permit
+  of�us.
+
+  From a careful review of the whole of their attendant ceremonies a
+  remarkable similarity can be marked. The arrangement of the corpse
+  preparatory to interment, the funeral feast, the local service by
+  the aged fathers, are all observances that have been noted among
+  whites, extending into times that are in the memory of those still
+  living.
+
+The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that led
+the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with the
+corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F.�E.
+Grossman,[5] and the account is corroborated by M.�Alphonse Pinart[6]
+and Bancroft.[7]
+
+Captain Grossman's account follows:
+
+  The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the
+  latter around their neck and under the knees, and then drawing them
+  tight until the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting
+  position. They dig the graves from four to five feet deep and
+  perfectly round (about two feet in diameter), and then hollow out to
+  one side of the bottom of this grave a sort of vault large enough to
+  contain the body. Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up
+  level with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber placed
+  upon the grave to protect the remains from coyotes.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pima burial.]
+
+  Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The
+  mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The
+  bodies of their dead are buried if possible, immediately after death
+  has taken place and the graves are generally prepared before the
+  patients die. Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had
+  already been dug) recover. In such cases the graves are left open
+  until the persons for whom they are intended die. Open graves of
+  this kind can be seen in several of their burial grounds. Places of
+  burial are selected some distance from the village, and, if
+  possible, in a grove of mesquite trees.
+
+  Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house and
+  personal effects of the deceased are burned and his horses and
+  cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast for the mourners.
+  The nearest relatives of the deceased as a sign of their sorrow
+  remain within their village for weeks, and sometimes months; the men
+  cut off about six inches of their long hair, while the women cut
+  their hair quite short. *�*�*
+
+  The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he
+  dies impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of
+  stock. The women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor
+  should their husbands die, and that then they will have to provide
+  for their children by their own exertions, do not care to have many
+  children, and infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to
+  a great extent. This is not considered a crime, and old women of the
+  tribe practice it. A�widow may marry again after a year's mourning
+  for her first husband; but having children no man will take her for
+  a wife and thus burden himself with her children. Widows generally
+  cultivate a small piece of ground, and friends and relatives (men)
+  plow the ground for them.
+
+Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman's description by my friend Dr. W.�J.
+Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.
+
+Stephen Powers[8] describes a similar mode of grave preparation among
+the Yuki of California:
+
+  The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a hole six
+  feet deep sometimes and at the bottom of it "_coyote_" under, making
+  a little recess in which the corpse is deposited.
+
+The Comanches of Indian Territory (_Nem_, _we, or us, people_),
+according to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, Indian
+Territory, go to the opposite extreme, so far as the protection of the
+dead from the surrounding earth is concerned. The account as received is
+given entire, as much to illustrate this point as others of interest.
+
+  When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be faintly
+  heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not departed from
+  the body, the knees are strongly bent upon the chest, and the legs
+  flexed upon the thighs. The arms are also flexed upon each side of
+  the chest, and the head bent forward upon the knees. A�lariat, or
+  rope, is now used to firmly bind the limbs and body in this
+  position. A�blanket is then wrapped around the body, and this again
+  tightly corded, so that the appearance when ready for burial is that
+  of an almost round and compact body, very unlike the composed pall
+  of his Wichita or Caddo brother. The body is then taken and placed
+  in a saddle upon a pony, in a sitting posture; a�squaw usually
+  riding behind, though sometimes one on either side of the horse,
+  holds the body in position until the place of burial is reached,
+  when the corpse is literally tumbled into the excavation selected
+  for the purpose. The deceased is only accompanied by two or three
+  squaws, or enough to perform the little labor bestowed upon the
+  burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge or village of the
+  bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes or heads of ca�ons in
+  which the Comanche country abounds is selected, and the body thrown
+  in, without special reference to position. With this are deposited
+  the bows and arrows; these, however, are first broken. The saddle is
+  also placed in the grave, together with many of the personal
+  valuables of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks
+  and earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.
+
+  _Funeral ceremonies._--the best pony owned by the deceased is
+  brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may appear well
+  mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the other world.
+  Formerly, if the deceased were a chief or man of consequence and had
+  large herds of ponies, many were killed, sometimes amounting to 200
+  or 300 head in number.
+
+  The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good pony for
+  the convoy of the deceased to the happy-grounds by the following
+  story, which is current among both Comanches and Wichitas:
+
+  "A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no relatives and
+  who was quite poor. Some of the tribe concluded that almost any kind
+  of a pony would serve to transport him to the next world. They
+  therefore killed at his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared
+  horse. But a few weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo
+  and behold he returned, riding this same old worn-out horse, weary
+  and hungry. He first appeared at the Wichita camps, where he was
+  well known, and asked for something to eat, but his strange
+  appearance, with sunken eyes and hollow cheeks, filled with
+  consternation all who saw him, and they fled from his presence.
+  Finally one bolder than the rest placed a piece of meat on the end
+  of a lodge-pole and extended it to him. He soon appeared at his own
+  camp, creating, if possible, even more dismay than among the
+  Wichitas, and this resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving
+  their villages and moving _en masse_ to a place on Rush Creek, not
+  far distant from the present site of Fort Sill.
+
+  "When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was questioned
+  why he thus appeared among the inhabitants of earth, he made reply
+  that when he came to the gates of paradise the keepers would on no
+  account permit him to enter upon such an ill-conditioned beast as
+  that which bore him, and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the
+  homes of those whose stinginess and greed permitted him no better
+  equipment. Since this no Comanche has been permitted to depart with
+  the sun to his chambers in the west without a steed which in
+  appearance should do honor alike to the rider and his friends."
+
+  The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that the
+  spirit may accompany the setting sun to the world beyond. The spirit
+  starts on its journey the following night after death has taken
+  place; if this occur at night, the journey is not begun until the
+  next night.
+
+  _Mourning observances._--All the effects of the deceased, the tents,
+  blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of value, aside from the
+  articles which have been buried with the body, are burned, so that
+  the family is left in poverty. This practice has extended even to
+  the burning of wagons and harness since some of the civilized habits
+  have been adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the
+  smoke, and will thus be of service to the owner in the other world.
+  Immediately upon the death of a member of the household, the
+  relatives begin a peculiar wailing, and the immediate members of the
+  family take off their customary apparel and clothe themselves in
+  rags and cut themselves across the arms, breast, and other portions
+  of the body, until sometimes a fond wife or mother faints from loss
+  of blood. This scarification is usually accomplished with a knife,
+  or, as in earlier days, with a flint. Hired mourners are employed at
+  times who are in no way related to the family, but who are
+  accomplished in the art of crying for the dead. These are invariably
+  women. Those nearly related to the departed, cut off the long locks
+  from the entire head, while those more distantly related, or special
+  friends, cut the hair only from one side of the head. In case of the
+  death of a chief, the young warriors also cut the hair, usually from
+  the left side of the head.
+
+  After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is
+  conducted more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the Comanches
+  venerate the sun; and the mourning at these seasons is kept up, if
+  the death occurred in summer, until the leaves fall, or, if in the
+  winter, until they reappear.
+
+It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the
+corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the
+burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body
+with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The
+hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from
+remotest periods of time.
+
+
+_GRAVE BURIAL._
+
+The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians of
+San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph,
+will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon
+those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo
+people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian
+Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.
+
+According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves _Wee-ka-nahs_.
+
+  These are commonly known to the whites as _Piros_. The manner of
+  burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern, as far as I can
+  ascertain from information obtained from the most intelligent of the
+  tribe, is that the body of the dead is and has been always buried in
+  the ground in a horizontal position with the flat bottom of the
+  grave. The grave is generally dug out of the ground in the usual and
+  ordinary manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7�feet long, and about 2
+  feet wide. It is generally finished after receiving its occupant by
+  being leveled with the hard ground around it, never leaving, as is
+  customary with the whites, a�mound to mark the spot. This tribe of
+  Pueblo Indians never cremated their dead, as they do not know, even
+  by tradition, that it was ever done or attempted. There are no
+  utensils or implements placed in the grave, but there are a great
+  many Indian ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells,
+  hawk-bells, round looking-glasses, and a profusion of ribbons of all
+  imaginable colors; then they paint the body with red vermilion and
+  white chalk, giving it a most fantastic as well as ludicrous
+  appearance. They also place a variety of food in the grave as a wise
+  provision for its long journey to the happy hunting-ground beyond
+  the clouds.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar. First, after
+  death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo robe spread out on
+  the ground, then they dress the body in the best possible manner in
+  their style of dress; if a male, they put on his beaded leggins and
+  embroidered _saco_, and his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large
+  brass or shell ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or
+  dress, tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her
+  fancy dancing-moccasins; her _rosario_ around her neck, her brass or
+  shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed black hair tied up
+  with red tape or ribbon, this completes her wardrobe for her long
+  and happy chase. When they get through dressing the body, they place
+  about a dozen lighted candles around it, and keep them burning
+  continually until the body is buried. As soon as the candles are
+  lighted, the _veloris_, or wake, commences; the body lies in state
+  for about twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends,
+  relatives, and neighbors of the deceased or "_difunti_" visit the
+  wake, chant, sing, and pray for the soul of the same, and tell one
+  another of the good deeds and traits of valor and courage manifested
+  by the deceased during his earthly career, and at intervals in their
+  praying, singing, &c., some near relative of the deceased will step
+  up to the corpse and every person in the room commences to cry
+  bitterly and express aloud words of endearment to the deceased and
+  of condolence to the family of the same in their untimely
+  bereavement.
+
+  At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in
+  attendance marches out into another room and partakes of a frugal
+  Indian meal, generally composed of wild game; Chil� Colorado or
+  red-pepper tortillas, and guayaves, with a good supply of mush and
+  milk, which completes the festive board of the _veloris_ or wake.
+  When the deceased is in good circumstances, the crowd in attendance
+  is treated every little while during the wake to alcoholic
+  refreshments. This feast and feasting is kept up until the Catholic
+  priest arrives to perform the funeral rites.
+
+  When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather baled up in
+  a large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around tight with a
+  rope or lasso made for the purpose; then six or eight men act as
+  pall-bearers, conducting the body to the place of burial, which is
+  in front of their church or chapel. The priest conducts the funeral
+  ceremonies in the ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings
+  observed by the Catholic church all over the world. While the
+  grave-diggers are filling up the grave, the friends, relatives,
+  neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that attend the funeral, give
+  vent to their sad feelings by making the whole pueblo howl; after
+  the tremendous uproar subsides, they disband and leave the body to
+  rest until Gabriel blows his trumpet. When the ceremonies are
+  performed with all the pomp of the Catholic church, the priest
+  receives a fair compensation for his services; otherwise he
+  officiates for the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo
+  pay him, which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.
+
+  These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning observance,
+  which last for one year after the demise of the deceased. While in
+  mourning for the dead, the mourners do not participate in the
+  national festivities of the tribe, which are occasions of state with
+  them, but they retire into a state of sublime quietude which makes
+  more civilized people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning
+  ceases, at the end of the year, they have high mass said for the
+  benefit of the soul of the departed; after this they again appear
+  upon the arena of their wild sports and continue to be gay and happy
+  until the next mortal is called from this terrestrial sphere to the
+  happy hunting-ground, which is their pictured celestial paradise.
+  The above cited facts, which are the most interesting points
+  connected with the burial customs of the Indians of the pueblo San
+  Geronimo de Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but are the
+  absolute facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances for
+  a period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a short
+  distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer of their
+  peculiar burial customs, am able to give you this true and
+  undisguised information relative to your circular on "burial
+  customs."
+
+Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth coming
+in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the burial of
+the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. Fordyce
+Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection with the
+Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves _Kitty-ka-tats_, or those
+of the tattooed eyelids.
+
+  When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the
+  village and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made
+  for the burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave
+  prepared for its reception. If the grave is some distance from the
+  village, the body is carried thither on the back of a pony, being
+  first wrapped in blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle,
+  one person walking on either side to support it. The grave is dug
+  from three to four feet deep and of sufficient length for the
+  extended body. First blankets and buffalo-robes are laid in the
+  bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken from the horse and
+  unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and with ornaments is
+  placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the head towards the
+  west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging to the
+  deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are
+  deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+  utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are
+  placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when
+  the earth is filled in, it need not come in contact with the body or
+  its trappings. After the grave is filled with earth, a�pen of poles
+  is built around it, or as is frequently the case, stakes are driven
+  so that they cross each other from either side about midway over the
+  grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild
+  animals. After all this is done, the grass or other _debris_ is
+  carefully scraped from about the grave for several feet, so that the
+  ground is left smooth and clean. It is seldom the case that the
+  relatives accompany the remains to the grave, but they more often
+  employ others to bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is
+  similar in this tribe, as in others, and it consists in cutting off
+  the hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave.
+
+The Caddoes, _Ascena_, or Timber Indians, as they call themselves,
+follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but one custom
+prevailing is worthy of mention:
+
+  If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is
+  left to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and the condition of
+  such individuals in the other world is considered to be far better
+  than that of persons dying a natural death.
+
+In a work by Bruhier[9] the following remarks, freely translated by the
+writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the
+exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:
+
+  The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the
+  roads, and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was
+  esteemed a great honor, a�misfortune if not. Sometimes they
+  interred, always wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor.
+
+M. Pierre Muret,[10] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his
+information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar
+method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:
+
+  It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_ have ever
+  had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the
+  world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous
+  customs about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some
+  Historians; and the rather because at this day there are still to be
+  seen among them those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie
+  us, that their Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet
+  nevertheless, if we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_,
+  the _Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far
+  were they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them: But, as
+  these Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in the open
+  fields, which is the greatest shame our Laws do allot to the most
+  infamous Criminals, by laying them open to the view of all upon the
+  highways: Yea, in their opinion it was a great unhappiness, if
+  either Birds or Beasts did not devour their Carcases; and they
+  commonly made an estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies,
+  according as they were sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning
+  these, they resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed,
+  since even the beasts themselves would not touch them; which caused
+  an extream sorrow to their Relations, they taking it for an ill
+  boding to their Family, and an infallible presage of some great
+  misfortune hanging over their heads; for they persuaded themselves,
+  that the Souls which inhabited those Bodies being dragg'd into Hell,
+  would not fail to come and trouble them; and that being always
+  accompanied with the Devils, their Tormentors, they would certainly
+  give them a great deal of disturbance.
+
+  And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured,
+  their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the
+  Deceased; every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to
+  congratulate their relations on that account: For as they believed
+  assuredly, that they were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so they
+  were persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all those
+  of their family.
+
+  They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered
+  up and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see
+  those of Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane
+  Bodies, (the sight whereof gives us so much horror, that we
+  presently bury them out of our sight, whenever we find them
+  elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or Church-yards) were the occasion
+  of their greatest joy; beecause they concluded from thence the
+  happiness of those that had been devoured, wishing after their Death
+  to meet with the like good luck.
+
+The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that the
+Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and
+of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the
+open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a�part of their belief being
+that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy at
+least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite
+probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians
+trained dogs for this special purpose, called _Canes sepulchrales_,
+which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper
+that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to
+dwell�in.
+
+The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead on
+top of high rocks.
+
+According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London Times
+of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta regarding
+the "Towers of Silence," so called, of the Parsees, who, it is well
+known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from Persia
+by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 years
+since. This gentleman's narrative is freely made use of to show how the
+custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has continued up to
+the present time.
+
+  The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a garden on
+  the highest point of Malabar Hill, a�beautiful, rising ground on one
+  side of Black Bay, noted for the bungalows and compounds of the
+  European and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every
+  direction over its surface.
+
+  The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private road, all
+  access to which, except to Parsees, is barred by strong iron gates.
+
+The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:
+
+  No English nobleman's garden could be better kept, and no pen could
+  do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses, and
+  palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred
+  silence, but of peaceful rest.
+
+The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about 40
+feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as almost
+to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest of the
+towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees first
+settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next
+oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next
+century. A�sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only used
+for criminals.
+
+The writer proceeds as follows:
+
+  Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest
+  moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an extraordinary
+  coping, which instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a
+  coping formed not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These
+  birds, on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves side by
+  side in perfect order and in a complete circle around the parapets
+  of the towers, with their heads pointing inwards, and so lazily did
+  they sit there, and so motionless was their whole mien, that except
+  for their color, they might have been carved out of the stonework.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Parsee Towers of Silence (interior).]
+
+No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor is
+any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. A�model
+was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this description:
+
+  Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet high and
+  at least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of solid stone except
+  in the center, where a well, 5�or 6 feet across, leads down to an
+  excavation under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles
+  to each other, terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the
+  upper surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely hiding
+  the interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12 feet in height.
+  This it is which, when viewed from the outside, appears to form one
+  piece with the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered with
+  chunam, gives the whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper
+  surface of the solid stone column is divided into 72 compartments,
+  or open receptacles, radiating like the spokes of a wheel from the
+  central well, and arranged in three concentric rings, separated from
+  each other by narrow ridges of stone, which are grooved to act as
+  channels for conveying all moisture from the receptacles into the
+  well and into the lower drains. It should be noted that the number
+  "3" is emblematical of Zoroaster's three precepts, and the number
+  "72" of the chapters of his Yasna, a�portion of the Zend-Avest�.
+
+  Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next by a
+  pathway, so that there are three circular pathways, the last
+  encircling the central well, and these three pathways are crossed by
+  another pathway conducting from the solitary door which admits the
+  corpse-bearers from the exterior. In the outermost circle of the
+  stone coffins are placed the bodies of males, in the middle those of
+  the females, and in the inner and smallest circle nearest the well
+  those of children.
+
+  While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the model,
+  a�sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our heads. At least a
+  hundred birds collected round one of the towers began to show
+  symptoms of excitement, while others swooped down from neighboring
+  trees. The cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy
+  soon revealed itself. A�funeral was seen to be approaching. However
+  distant the house of a deceased person, and whether he be rich or
+  poor, high or low in rank, his body is always carried to the towers
+  by the official corpse-bearers, called _Nasasal�r_, who form a
+  distinct class, the mourners walking behind.
+
+  Before they remove the body from the house where the relatives are
+  assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and the corpse is exposed to
+  the gaze of a dog, regarded by the Parsees as a sacred animal. This
+  latter ceremony is called _sagdid_.
+
+  Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a curved metal
+  trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed in pure
+  white garments, proceed with it towards the towers. They are
+  followed by the mourners at a distance of at least 30 feet, in
+  pairs, also dressed in white, and each couple joined by holding a
+  white handkerchief between them. The particular funeral I witnessed
+  was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers reached the path
+  leading by a steep incline to the door of the tower, the mourners,
+  about eight in number, turned back and entered one of the
+  prayer-houses. "There," said the secretary, "they repeat certain
+  g�th�s, and pray that the spirit of the deceased may be safely
+  transported, on the fourth day after death, to its final
+  resting-place."
+
+  The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which other
+  members of the same family had before been laid. The two bearers
+  speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed the body of the
+  child into the interior, and, unseen by any one, laid it uncovered
+  in one of the open stone receptacles nearest the central well. In
+  two minutes they reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and
+  scarcely had they closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down
+  upon the body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes
+  more we saw the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again
+  upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind but a skeleton.
+  Meanwhile, the bearers were seen to enter a building shaped like a
+  high barrel. There, as the secretary informed me, they changed their
+  clothes and washed themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come
+  out and deposit their cast-off funeral garments in a stone
+  receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden, lest it
+  should carry defilement into the city. Perfectly new garments are
+  supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or, at most, four weeks,
+  the same bearers return, and, with gloved hands and implements
+  resembling tongs, place the dry skeleton in the central well. There
+  the bones find their last resting-place, and there the dust of whole
+  generations of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for
+  centuries.
+
+  The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my back on
+  the towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I�asked the secretary how
+  it was possible to become reconciled to such usage. His reply was
+  nearly in the following words: "Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived
+  6,000 years ago, taught us to regard the elements as symbols of the
+  Deity. Earth, fire, water, he said, ought never, under any
+  circumstances, to be defiled by contact with putrefying flesh.
+  Naked, he said, came we into the world and naked we ought to leave
+  it. But the decaying particles of our bodies should be dissipated as
+  rapidly as possible and in such a way that neither Mother Earth nor
+  the beings she supports should be contaminated in the slightest
+  degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest of health officers,
+  and, following his sanitary laws, we build our towers on the tops of
+  the hills, above all human habitations. We spare no expense in
+  constructing them of the hardest materials, and we expose our
+  putrescent bodies in open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen
+  feet of solid granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures,
+  but to be dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without
+  the possibility of polluting the earth or contaminating a single
+  being dwelling thereon. God, indeed, sends the vultures, and, as a
+  matter of fact, these birds do their appointed work much more
+  expeditiously than millions of insects would do if we committed our
+  bodies to the ground. In a sanitary point of view, nothing can be
+  more perfect than our plan. Even the rain-water which washes our
+  skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying charcoal. Here in
+  these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees that have lived
+  in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We form a united body in
+  life and we are united in death."
+
+It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of
+disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with
+the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which
+allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat
+similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the
+North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees,
+but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care
+is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the
+corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes
+or thongs.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence,
+drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Parsee Towers of Silence.]
+
+George Gibbs[11] gives the following account of burial among the Klamath
+and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been
+originally furnished him by James G. Swan.
+
+  The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses,
+  exhibit very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are
+  inclosed in rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the
+  body, and covered with earth to some depth; a�heavy plank, often
+  supported by upright head and foot stones, is laid upon the top, or
+  stones are built up into a wall about a foot above the ground, and
+  the top flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are surrounded
+  by neat wooden palings, each pale ornamented with a feather from the
+  tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are usually staked down by the side,
+  according to the wealth or popularity of the individual, and
+  sometimes other articles for ornament or use are suspended over
+  them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three days, during which the
+  soul of the deceased is in danger from _O-mah-�_, or the devil. To
+  preserve it from this peril, a�fire is kept up at the grave, and the
+  friends of the deceased howl around it to scare away the demon.
+  Should they not be successful in this the soul is carried down the
+  river, subject, however, to redemption by _P�h-ho-wan_ on payment of
+  a big knife. After the expiration of three days it is all well with
+  them.
+
+The question may well be asked, is the big knife a "sop to Cerberus"?
+
+To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States
+Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer
+is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary
+customs of the
+
+WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.
+
+  A large proportion of these Indians being members of the
+  Presbyterian church (the missionaries of which church have labored
+  among them for more than forty years past), the dead of their
+  families are buried after the customs of that church, and this
+  influence is felt to a great extent among those Indians who are not
+  strict church members, so that they are dropping one by one the
+  traditional customs of their tribe, and but few can now be found who
+  bury their dead in accordance with their customs of twenty or more
+  years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to their
+  modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated below.
+
+  _Warrior._--After death they paint a warrior red across the mouth,
+  or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb on one side of
+  the mouth and the fingers separated on the other cheek, the rest of
+  the face being painted red. (This latter is only done as a mark of
+  respect to a specially brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the
+  medicine-bag of the deceased when alive are buried with the body,
+  the medicine-bag being placed on the bare skin over the region of
+  the heart. There is not now, nor has there been, among these Indians
+  any special preparation of the grave. The body of a warrior is
+  generally wrapped in a blanket or piece of cloth (and frequently in
+  addition is placed in a box) and buried in the grave prepared for
+  the purpose, always, as the majority of these Indians inform me,
+  with the head towards the _south_. (I�have, however, seen many
+  graves in which the head of the occupant had been placed to the
+  _east_. It may be that these graves were those of Indians who
+  belonged to the church; and a few Indians inform me that the head is
+  sometimes placed towards the _west_, according to the occupant's
+  belief when alive as to the direction from which his guiding
+  medicine came, and I am personally inclined to give credence to this
+  latter as sometimes occurring.) In all burials, when the person has
+  died a natural death, or had not been murdered, and whether man,
+  woman, or child, the body is placed in the grave with the face _up_.
+  In cases, however, when a man or woman has been murdered by one of
+  their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the grave
+  with the face _down_, head to the _south_, and a piece of fat (bacon
+  or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of fat is placed in the
+  mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent the spirit of the murdered
+  person driving or scaring the game from that section of country.
+  Those Indians who state that their dead are always buried with the
+  head towards the south say they do so in order that the spirit of
+  the deceased may go to the south, the land from which these Indians
+  believe they originally came.
+
+  _Women and children._--Before death the face of the person expected
+  to die is often painted in a red color. When this is not done before
+  death it is done afterwards; the body being then buried in a grave
+  prepared for its reception, and in the manner described for a
+  warrior, cooking-utensils taking the place of the warrior's weapons.
+  In cases of boys and girls a kettle of cooked food is sometimes
+  placed at the head of the grave after the body is covered. Now, if
+  the dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go up
+  and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls do
+  likewise. This, however, has never obtained as a custom, but is
+  sometimes done in cases of warriors and women also.
+
+  Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is now, and
+  always has been, a�custom among them to remove a lock of hair from
+  the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or from the left side of the
+  head of a woman, which is carefully preserved by some near relative
+  of the deceased, wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in
+  the lodge of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the dead
+  person. To the bundle is attached a tin cup or other vessel, and in
+  this is placed some food for the spirit of the dead person. Whenever
+  a stranger happens in at meal time, this food, however, is not
+  allowed to go to waste; if not consumed by the stranger to whom it
+  is offered, some of the occupants of the lodge eat it. They seem to
+  take some pains to please the ghost of the deceased, thinking
+  thereby they will have good luck in their family so long as they
+  continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they smoke to
+  offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time asking it to confer
+  some favor on them, or aid them in their work or in hunting,�&c.
+
+  There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost of the
+  deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This feast may be at
+  any time, and is not at any particular time, occurring, however,
+  generally as often as once a year, unless, at the time of the first
+  feast, the friends designate a particular time, such, for instance,
+  as when the leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle
+  is never permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the dead
+  person, except to be buried in the grave of one of them. Much of the
+  property of the deceased person is buried with the body, a�portion
+  being placed under the body and a portion over it. Horses are
+  sometimes killed on the grave of a warrior, but this custom is
+  gradually ceasing, in consequence of the value of their ponies.
+  These animals are therefore now generally given away by the person
+  before death, or after death disposed of by the near relatives. Many
+  years ago it was customary to kill one or more ponies at the grave.
+  In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an Indian, much of his
+  personal property is now, and has ever been, reserved from burial
+  with the body, and forms the basis for a gambling party, which will
+  be described hereafter. No food is ever buried in the grave, but
+  some is occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case it is
+  consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the method that
+  was in vogue with these Indians twenty years ago, and which is still
+  adhered to, with more or less exactness, by the majority of them,
+  the exceptions being those who are strict church members and those
+  very few families who adhere to their ancient customs.
+
+  Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as the oldest
+  members of these tribes can remember, and with the usual tribal
+  traditions handed down from generation to generation, in regard to
+  this as well as to other things, for these Indians to bury in a tree
+  or on a platform, and in those days an Indian was only buried in the
+  ground as a mark of disrespect in consequence of the person having
+  been murdered, in which case the body would be buried in the ground,
+  _face down_, head toward the south and with a piece of fat in the
+  mouth. *�*�* The platform upon which the body was deposited was
+  constructed of four crotched posts firmly set in the ground, and
+  connected near the top by cross-pieces, upon which was placed
+  boards, when obtainable, and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so
+  as to give a firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an
+  elevation of from six to eight or more feet, and never contained but
+  one body, although frequently having sufficient surface to
+  accommodate two or three. In burying in the crotch of a tree and on
+  platforms, the head of the dead person was always placed towards the
+  south; the body was wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely
+  tied, and many of the personal effects of the deceased were buried
+  with it; as in the case of a warrior, his bows and arrows,
+  war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the body, the Indians
+  saying he would need such things in the next world.
+
+  I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before their
+  outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near relative whom they
+  held in great respect with them on their moves, for a greater or
+  lesser time, often as long as two or three years before burial.
+  This, however, never obtained generally among them, and some of them
+  seem to know nothing about it. It has of late years been entirely
+  dropped, except when a person dies away from home, it being then
+  customary for the friends to bring the body home for burial.
+
+  _Mourning ceremonies._--The mourning ceremonies before the year 1860
+  were as follows: After the death of a warrior the whole camp or
+  tribe would be assembled in a circle, and after the widow had cut
+  herself on the arms, legs, and body with a piece of flint, and
+  removed the hair from her head, she would go around the ring any
+  number of times she chose, but each time was considered as an oath
+  that she would not marry for a year, so that she could not marry for
+  as many years as times she went around the circle. The widow would
+  all this time keep up a crying and wailing. Upon the completion of
+  this the friends of the deceased would take the body to the platform
+  or tree where it was to remain, keeping up all this time their
+  wailing and crying. After depositing the body, they would stand
+  under it and continue exhibiting their grief, the squaws by hacking
+  their arms and legs with flint and cutting off the hair from their
+  head. The men would sharpen sticks and run them through the skin of
+  their arms and legs, both men and women keeping up their crying
+  generally for the remainder of the day, and the near relatives of
+  the deceased for several days thereafter. As soon as able, the
+  warrior friends of the deceased would go to a near tribe of their
+  enemies and kill one or more of them if possible, return with their
+  scalps, and exhibit them to the deceased person's relatives, after
+  which their mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as
+  properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when their
+  enemies were within reasonable striking distance, such, for
+  instance, as the Chippewas and the Arickarees, Gros Ventres and
+  Mandan Indians. In cases of women and children, the squaws would cut
+  off their hair, hack their persons with flint, and sharpen sticks
+  and run them through the skin of the arms and legs, crying as for a
+  warrior.
+
+  It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for a squaw
+  when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by hanging herself
+  with a lariat over the limb of a tree. This could not have prevailed
+  to any great extent, however, although the old men recite several
+  instances of its occurrence, and a very few examples within recent
+  years. Such was their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since
+  which time it has gradually died out, and at the present time these
+  ancient customs are adhered to by but a single family, known as the
+  seven brothers, who appear to retain all the ancient customs of
+  their tribe. At the present time, as a mourning observance, the
+  squaws hack themselves on their legs with knives, cut off their
+  hair, and cry and wail around the grave of the dead person, and the
+  men in addition paint their faces, but no longer torture themselves
+  by means of sticks passed through the skin of the arms and legs.
+  This cutting and painting is sometimes done before and sometimes
+  after the burial of the body. I�also observe that many of the women
+  of these tribes are adopting so much of the customs of the whites as
+  prescribes the wearing of black for certain periods. During the
+  period of mourning these Indians never wash their face, or comb
+  their hair, or laugh. These customs are observed with varying degree
+  of strictness, but not in many instances with that exactness which
+  characterized these Indians before the advent of the white man among
+  them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of the person
+  practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That mutilation of a
+  finger by removing one or more joints, so generally observed among
+  the Minnetarree Indians at the Fort Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not
+  here seen, although the old men of these tribes inform me that it
+  was an ancient custom among their women, on the occasion of the
+  burial of a husband, to cut off a portion of a finger and have it
+  suspended in the tree above his body. I�have, however, yet to see an
+  example of this having been done by any of the Indians now living,
+  and the custom must have fallen into disuse more than seventy years
+  ago.
+
+  In regard to the period of mourning, I�would say that there does not
+  now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never was, any fixed
+  period of mourning, but it would seem that, like some of the whites,
+  they mourn when the subject is brought to their minds by some remark
+  or other occurrence. It is not unusual at the present time to hear a
+  man or woman cry and exclaim, "O, my poor husband!" "O, my poor
+  wife!" or "O, my poor child!" as the case may be, and, upon
+  inquiring, learn that the event happened several years before.
+  I�have elsewhere mentioned that in some cases much of the personal
+  property of the deceased was and is reserved from burial with the
+  body, and forms the basis of a gambling party. I�shall conclude my
+  remarks upon the burial customs, &c., of these Indians by an account
+  of this, which they designate as the "ghost's gamble."
+
+The account of the game will be found in another part of this paper.
+
+As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the
+tomb, a�translation of Schiller's beautiful burial song is here given.
+It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:
+
+BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.
+
+  See on his mat, as if of yore,
+    How lifelike sits he here;
+  With the same aspect that he wore
+    When life to him was dear.
+  But where the right arm's strength, and where
+    The breath he used to breathe
+  To the Great Spirit aloft in air,
+    The peace-pipe's lusty wreath?
+  And where the hawk-like eye, alas!
+    That wont the deer pursue
+  Along the waves of rippling grass,
+    Or fields that shone with dew?
+  Are these the limber, bounding feet
+    That swept the winter snows?
+  What startled deer was half so fleet,
+    Their speed outstripped the roe's.
+  These hands that once the sturdy bow
+    Could supple from its pride,
+  How stark and helpless hang they now
+    Adown the stiffened side!
+  Yet weal to him! at peace he strays
+    Where never fall the snows,
+  Where o'er the meadow springs the maize
+    That mortal never sows;
+  Where birds are blithe in every brake,
+    Where forests teem with deer,
+  Where glide the fish through every lake,
+    One chase from year to year!
+  With spirits now he feasts above;
+    All left us, to revere
+  The deeds we cherish with our love,
+    The rest we bury here.
+  Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill
+    Wail death-dirge of the brave
+  What pleased him most in life may still
+    Give pleasure in the grave.
+  We lay the axe beneath his head
+    He swung when strength was strong,
+  The bear on which his hunger fed--
+    The way from earth is long!
+  And here, new-sharpened, place the knife
+    Which severed from the clay,
+  From which the axe had spoiled the life,
+    The conquered scalp away.
+  The paints that deck the dead bestow,
+    Aye, place them in his hand,
+  That red the kingly shade may glow
+    Amid the spirit land.
+
+The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. McChesney,
+face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of Indians,
+is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a cemetery
+belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near Abiquiu,
+N.�Mex., a�number of bodies, all of which had been buried face downward.
+The account originally appeared in Field and Forest, 1877, vol. iii,
+No. 1, p.�9.
+
+  On each side of the town were noticed two small arroyas or water
+  washed ditches, within 30 feet of the walls, and a careful
+  examination of these revealed the objects of our search. At the
+  bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly formed subsequent to the
+  occupation of the village, we found portions of human remains, and
+  following up the walls of the ditch soon had the pleasure of
+  discovering several skeletons _in situ_. The first found was in the
+  eastern arroya, and the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the
+  surface of the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face
+  downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the
+  skeleton were two shining black earthen vases, containing small bits
+  of charcoal, the bones of mammals, birds, and partially consumed
+  corn, and above these "_ollas_" the earth to the surface was filled
+  with pieces of charcoal. Doubtless the remains found in the vases
+  served at a funeral feast prior to the inhumation. We examined very
+  carefully this grave, hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or
+  weapons, but none rewarded our search. In all of the graves examined
+  the bodies were found in similar positions and under similar
+  circumstances in both arroyas, several of the skeletons being those
+  of children. No information could be obtained as to the probable age
+  of these interments, the present Indians considering them as dating
+  from the time when their ancestors with Moctezuma came from the
+  _north_.
+
+The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman,[12] in disposing
+of their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any
+needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner:
+
+  The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially
+  wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the
+  removal of a small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has
+  been crammed into the smallest possible space the rock or stump is
+  again rolled into its former position, when a number of stones are
+  placed around the base to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin
+  usually mourn for the period of one month, during that time giving
+  utterance at intervals to the most dismal lamentations, which are
+  apparently sincere. During the day this obligation is frequently
+  neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of his duty
+  he renews his howling with evident interest. This custom of mourning
+  for the period of thirty days corresponds to that formerly observed
+  by the Natchez.
+
+Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in the
+life of Moses Van Campen,[13] which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:
+
+  Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen
+  in battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and
+  laying the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a
+  little earth.
+
+As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:
+
+CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.
+
+  Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians
+  plant a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury
+  them in a bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring
+  provisions to the place where their fathers are buried. One of the
+  graves had fallen in, and we observed in the soil some sticks for
+  stretching skins, the remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps
+  for carrying it, and near the place where the head lay were the
+  traces of a fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased
+  to come and warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited
+  near�it.
+
+  These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the
+  north shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the
+  country being claimed by the Oneidas.
+
+It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was
+discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may
+have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his
+vocation--nets, fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was
+only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians,
+that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were
+employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of
+skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the
+only example of the kind.
+
+Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus
+described:
+
+  The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan
+  which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and
+  drown their grief in _mushla_, the women giving vent to their sorrow
+  by dashing themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and
+  inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As
+  it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of
+  the body, musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while
+  preparations are made for its removal. All at once four naked men,
+  who have disguised themselves with paint so as not to be recognized
+  and punished by _Wulasha_, rush out from a neighboring hut, and,
+  seizing a rope attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods,
+  followed by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into
+  the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to
+  serve the departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the
+  boat is placed over the body. A�rude hut is constructed over the
+  grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other
+  articles placed there from time to time by relatives.
+
+
+_STONE GRAVES OR CISTS._
+
+These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in
+the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the
+class of graves previously described.
+
+A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus described
+by Moses Fiske:[14]
+
+  There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular
+  graves. They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the
+  bottom ends and sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after
+  laying in the body, covered it over with earth.
+
+It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a
+number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutr�, in France,
+and they were almost identical in construction with those described by
+Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, this,
+however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a deposition
+of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which have
+elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer in
+1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom and
+sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were none
+directly over the skeletons.
+
+The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his own
+observation in Tennessee.
+
+  The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant throughout
+  the State. Often hundreds of graves may be found on a single
+  hillside. The same people sometimes bury in scattered graves and in
+  mounds--the mounds being composed of a large number of cist graves.
+  The graves are increased by additions from time to time. The
+  additions are sometimes placed above and sometimes at the sides of
+  the others. In the first burials there is a tendency to a concentric
+  system with the feet towards the center, but subsequent burials are
+  more irregular, so that the system is finally abandoned before the
+  place is desired for cemetery purposes.
+
+  Some other peculiarities are of interest. A�larger number of
+  interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before
+  the decay of the flesh, and in many instances collections of bones
+  are buried. Sometimes these bones are placed in some order about the
+  crania, and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of
+  bones had been emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers,
+  knives, arrowheads, &c., were usually found, with women, pottery,
+  rude beads, shells, &c., with children, toys of pottery, beads,
+  curious pebbles,�&c.
+
+  Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous
+  burial was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists
+  were covered with slabs.
+
+Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work[15] the reader is referred for a
+more detailed account of this mode of burial.
+
+G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the
+writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to
+their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a
+receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the
+hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the
+dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave
+by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground
+after the grave is filled�in.
+
+The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George Escoll
+Sellers,[16] inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which is
+as follows:
+
+  Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about 30�, it
+  has been terraced and the terrace as well as the crown of the spur
+  have been used as a cemetery; portions of the terraces are still
+  perfect; all the burials appear to have been made in rude stone
+  cists, that vary in size from 13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4
+  feet, and from 18 inches to 2 feet deep. They are made of
+  thin-bedded sandstone slabs, generally roughly shaped, but some of
+  them have been edged and squared with considerable care,
+  particularly the covering slabs. The slope below the terraces was
+  thickly strewed with these slabs, washed out as the terraces have
+  worn away, and which have since been carried off for door-steps and
+  hearth-stones. I�have opened many of these cists; they nearly all
+  contain fragments of human bones far gone in decay, but I have never
+  succeeded in securing a perfect skull; even the clay vessels that
+  were interred with the dead have disintegrated, the portions
+  remaining being almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some of the
+  cists that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water shells,
+  but most generally with the fragments of the great salt-pans, which
+  in every case are so far gone in decay as to have lost the outside
+  markings. This seems conclusively to couple the tenants of these
+  ancient graves with the makers and users of these salt-pans. The
+  great number of graves and the quantity of slabs that have been
+  washed out prove either a dense population or a long occupancy, or
+  both.
+
+W. J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a
+description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from
+other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.
+
+  I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some twenty-five
+  years ago, of seeing what was called "Indian graves," and those that
+  I examined were close to small streams of water, and were buried in
+  a sitting or squatting posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones,
+  and were then buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves
+  which I examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to
+  be isolated, no two being found in the same locality. When the
+  burials took place I could hardly conjecture, but it must have been,
+  from appearances, from fifty to one hundred years. The bones that I
+  took out on first appearance seemed tolerably perfect, but on short
+  exposure to the atmosphere crumbled, and I was unable to save a
+  specimen. No implements or relics were observed in those examined by
+  me, but I have heard of others who have found such. In that State,
+  Kentucky, there are a number of places where the Indians buried
+  their dead and left mounds of earth over the graves, but I have not
+  examined them myself. *�*�*
+
+According to Bancroft,[17] the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central
+America, also followed the cist form of burial.
+
+  In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the
+  principal men, constructed with flat stones laid together with much
+  care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food
+  and wine for the dead. Those for the plebians were merely trenches,
+  in which were deposited some gourds of maize and wine, and the place
+  filled with stones. In some parts of Panama and Darien only the
+  chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the common people a
+  person feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led to
+  the woods by his wife, family, or friends, who, supplying him with
+  some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, then left him to die
+  alone or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others, with more respect
+  for their dead, buried them in sepulchers made with niches, where
+  they placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some,
+  a�mother dying while suckling her infant, the living child was
+  placed at her breast and buried with her, in order that in her
+  future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk.
+
+
+_BURIAL IN MOUNDS._
+
+In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote
+any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting
+examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.
+
+The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F.�W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Arch�ology,
+Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is
+published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:
+
+  *�*�* He then stated that it would be of interest to the members, in
+  connection with the discovery of dolmens in Japan, as described by
+  Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four hours there had
+  been received at the Peabody Museum a small collection of articles
+  taken from rude dolmens (or�chambered barrows, as they would be
+  called in England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now
+  engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody Museum.
+
+  These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay
+  County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the
+  Missouri River. The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr.
+  Curtiss, about 8 feet square, and from 4� to 5 feet high, each
+  chamber having a passage-way several feet in length and 2 in width,
+  leading from the southern side and opening on the edge of the mound
+  formed by covering the chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls
+  of the chambered passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and
+  well made of stones, which were evenly laid without clay or mortar
+  of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a covering of large,
+  flat rocks, but the others seem to have been closed over with wood.
+  The chambers were filled with clay which had been burnt, and
+  appeared as if it had fallen in from above. The inside walls of the
+  chambers also showed signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each
+  chamber, were found the remains of several human skeletons, all of
+  which had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small
+  fragments of the bones, which were mixed with the ashes and
+  charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in one chamber he found the
+  remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these skeletons there
+  were a few flint implements and minute fragments of vessels of clay.
+
+  A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this
+  no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This
+  mound proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also
+  contained well-made pottery and a peculiar "gorget" of red stone.
+  The connection of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in
+  the stone chambers with those who buried their dead in the earth
+  mounds is, of course, yet to be determined.
+
+It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used for
+secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.
+
+In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same investigator
+gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the
+preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:
+
+  Mr. F.�W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account of
+  his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the
+  Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.
+
+  The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr.
+  Edwin Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody
+  Museum at Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds
+  had been thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular
+  stone graves of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully
+  opened. *�*�* Mr. Putnam's remarks were illustrated by drawings of
+  several hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds,
+  particularly to show the great variety of articles of pottery and
+  several large and many unique forms of implements of chipped flint.
+  He also exhibited and explained in detail a map of a walled town of
+  this old nation. This town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a
+  bend of Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying
+  ditch, encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this inclosure
+  there was one large mound with a flat top, 15 feet high, 130 feet
+  long, and 90 feet wide, which was found not to be a burial mound.
+  Another mound near the large one, about 50 feet in diameter, and
+  only a few feet high, contained 60 human skeletons, each in a
+  carefully-made stone grave, the graves being arranged in two rows,
+  forming the four sides of a square, and in three layers. *�*�* The
+  most important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of
+  finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived in this
+  old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located on the map by
+  Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr. Putnam.
+  Under the floors of hard clay, which was in places much burnt, Mr.
+  Putnam found the graves of children. As only the bodies of adults
+  had been placed in the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly
+  every site of a house he explored had from one to four graves of
+  children under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a
+  regular custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that
+  the children had undoubtedly been treated with affection, as in
+  their small graves were found many of the best pieces of pottery he
+  obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several large pearls,
+  and many other objects which were probably the playthings of the
+  little ones while living.[18]
+
+This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it is
+frequently mentioned by writers on North American arch�ology.
+
+The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part
+used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless common.
+
+Caleb Atwater[19] gives this description of the
+
+BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.
+
+  Near the center of the round fort *�*�* was a tumulus of earth about
+  10 feet in height and several rods in diameter at its base. On its
+  eastern side, and extending 6 rods from it, was a semicircular
+  pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in the bed of the
+  Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been brought. The
+  summit of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was
+  a raised way to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike.
+  The summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement and
+  the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this mound was
+  entirely removed several years since. The writer was present at its
+  removal and carefully examined the contents. It contained--
+
+  1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the original
+  surface of the earth.
+
+  2d. A�great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as
+  to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.
+
+  3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made of an
+  elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a
+  ferule of silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time.
+  Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted,
+  yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and
+  size.
+
+  4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were
+  surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared
+  to have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost
+  consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a
+  little to the south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet
+  to the north of it was another, with which were--
+
+  5th. A�large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1� inches in
+  thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica membranacea_), and
+  on�it--
+
+  6th. A�plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was
+  disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour
+  answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This
+  skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal
+  and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A�part of the mirrour is
+  in my possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at
+  the time. The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum,
+  at Philadelphia.
+
+  To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another,
+  more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate
+  representing these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears
+  to be artificial. This must have been the common cemetery, as it
+  contains an immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages.
+  The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads generally
+  towards the center and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus.
+  A�considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, except by
+  time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and
+  knives, and several ornaments, with holes through them, by means of
+  which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they could be
+  worn by their owners. On the south side of this tumulus, and not far
+  from it, was a semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw it, was 6
+  feet deep. On opening it was discovered at the bottom a great
+  quantity of human bones, which I am inclined to believe were the
+  remains of those who had been slain in some great and destructive
+  battle: first, because they belonged to persons who had attained
+  their full size, whereas in the mound adjoining were found the
+  skeletons of persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were here in
+  the utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not conjecture
+  that they belonged to the people who resided in the town, and who
+  were victorious in the engagement? Otherwise they would not have
+  been thus honorably buried in the common cemetery.
+
+  _Chillicothe mound._--Its perpendicular height was about 15 feet,
+  and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was composed of sand
+  and contained human bones belonging to skeletons which were buried
+  in different parts of it. It was not until this pile of earth was
+  removed and the original surface exposed to view that a probable
+  conjecture of its original design could be formed. About 20 feet
+  square of the surface had been leveled and covered with bark. On the
+  center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been spread a
+  mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the breast lay what
+  had been a piece of copper, in the form of a cross, which had now
+  become verdigris. On the breast also lay a stone ornament with two
+  perforations, one near each end, through which passed a string, by
+  means of which it was suspended around the wearer's neck. On this
+  string, which was made of sinews, and very much injured by time,
+  were placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I cannot
+  certainly say which. *�*�*
+
+  _Mounds of stone._--Two such mounds have been described already in
+  the county of Perry. Others have been found in various parts of the
+  country. There is one at least in the vicinity of Licking River, not
+  many miles from Newark. There is another on a branch of Hargus's
+  Creek, a�few miles to the northeast of Circleville. There were
+  several not very far from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds
+  were sometimes used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they
+  were also used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the
+  recollection of some great transaction or event. In the former not
+  more generally than one or two skeletons are found; in the latter
+  none. These mounds are like those of earth, in form of a cone,
+  composed of small stones on which no marks of tools were visible. In
+  them some of the most interesting articles are found, such as urns,
+  ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal, as
+  well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; *�*�* works of
+  this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they are none
+  of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of
+  Circleville, which belong to the first class. I�saw one of these
+  stone tumuli which had been piled on the surface of the earth on the
+  spot where three skeletons had been buried in stone coffins, beneath
+  the surface. It was situated on the western edge of the hill on
+  which the "walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to
+  have been dug to about the depth of ours in the present times. After
+  the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat stones, the corpses
+  were placed in these graves in an eastern and western direction, and
+  large flat stones were laid over the graves; then the earth which
+  had been dug out of the graves was thrown over them. A�huge pile of
+  stones was placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however,
+  that this was a work of our present race of Indians. Such graves are
+  more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except the skeletons,
+  was found in these graves; and the skeletons resembled very much the
+  present race of Indians.
+
+The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C.
+Holbrook[20] as follows:
+
+  I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian mounds
+  found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first
+  one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and
+  7 feet high. In the interior of this I found a _dolmen_ or
+  quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long, 4�feet high, and 4� feet
+  wide. It had been built of lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was
+  covered with large flat stones. No mortar or cement had been used.
+  The whole structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
+  interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the chamber.
+  Inside of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed remains of eight
+  human skeletons, two very large teeth of an unknown animal, two
+  fossils, one of which is not found in this place, and a plummet. One
+  of the long bones had been splintered; the fragments had united, but
+  there remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several
+  places. One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the
+  size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during life,
+  for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. I later examined three
+  circular mounds, but in them I found no dolmens. The first mound
+  contained three adult human skeletons, a�few fragments of the
+  skeleton of a child, the lower maxillary of which indicated it to be
+  about six years old. I�also found claws of some carnivorous animal.
+  The surface of the soil had been scooped out and the bodies laid in
+  the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth; fires had
+  then been made upon the grave and the mound afterwards completed.
+  The bones had not been charred. No charcoal was found among the
+  bones, but occurred in abundance in a stratum about one foot above
+  them. Two other mounds, examined at the same time, contain no
+  remains.
+
+  Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4
+  feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on
+  an elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the
+  top of this mound one might view the country for many miles in
+  almost any direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long
+  and 4� wide. It was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which
+  had been burned red, some portions having been almost converted into
+  lime. On and about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the
+  sides of the altar were fragments of human bones, some of which had
+  been charred. It was covered by a natural growth of vegetable mold
+  and sod, the thickness of which was about 10 inches. Large trees had
+  once grown in this vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed
+  I could not tell with certainty; to what species they belonged.
+  Another large mound was opened which contained nothing.
+
+The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
+was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army:[21]
+
+  Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were
+  buried in it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his
+  head. This idea was based upon some superficial explorations which
+  had been made from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their
+  excavations had, indeed, brought to light pots containing fragments
+  of skulls, but not buried in the position they imagined. Very
+  extensive explorations, made at different times by myself, have
+  shown that only fragments of skulls and of the long bones of the
+  body are to be found in the mound, and that these are commonly
+  associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but more frequently
+  broken fragments only. In some instances portions of the skull were
+  placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited in its immediate
+  vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand, and fragments of
+  bones would be found near them. The most successful "find" I�made
+  was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all in a
+  good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of skull,
+  which I take, from its small size, to have been that of a female.
+  Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried
+  in the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains
+  because of her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason
+  of the unusual wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter
+  of conjecture. I�found, altogether, fragments of skulls and
+  thigh-bones belonging to at least fifty individuals, but in no
+  instance did I find anything like a complete skeleton. There were no
+  vertebr�, no ribs, no pelvic bones, and none of the small bones of
+  the hands and feet. Two or three skulls, nearly perfect, were found,
+  but they were so fragile that it was impossible to preserve them. In
+  the majority of instances, only fragments of the frontal and
+  parietal bones were found, buried in pots or in fragments of pots
+  too small to have ever contained a complete skull. The conclusion
+  was irresistible that this was not a burial-place for _the bodies_
+  of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been gathered from some
+  other locality for burial in this mound, or that cremation was
+  practiced before burial, and the fragments of bone not consumed by
+  fire were gathered and deposited in the mound. That the latter
+  supposition is the correct one I deem probable from the fact that in
+  digging in the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places,
+  but without any regularity as to depth and position. These evidences
+  consist in strata of from one to four inches in thickness, in which
+  the sand is of a dark color and has mixed with it numerous small
+  fragments of charcoal.
+
+  My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the
+  following manner: That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was
+  erected on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the
+  body was consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered,
+  placed in a pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were
+  covered by a layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for
+  that purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that only
+  the shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded extremities,
+  which would be most easily consumed, having disappeared; also, by
+  the fact that no bones of children were found. Their bones being
+  smaller, and containing a less proportion of earthy matter, would be
+  entirely consumed. *�*�*
+
+  At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I
+  found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved
+  skulls. *�*�* The bodies were not, apparently, deposited upon any
+  regular system, and I found no objects of interest associated with
+  the remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the
+  skeletons found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in
+  which they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the fact
+  that they were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of
+  ante-mortem injuries which must have been of a fatal character.
+
+Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,[22] in alluding to the ossuary, or
+bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation
+takes place, in this manner:
+
+  Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of
+  the deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one
+  upon another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth
+  heaped above.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of a
+  festival called the feast of the dead.
+
+Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a somewhat
+curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley of Ohio:
+
+  A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a
+  central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons
+  buried around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture, but leaning
+  against one another, tipped over towards the right, facing inwards.
+  I�did not see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many
+  ornaments, awls, &c., said to have been found near the central body.
+  The parties informing me are trustworthy.
+
+As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting as
+being _sui generis_, the following description by Dr. J. Mason
+Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11,
+1871, on the farm of R.�V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke
+County, N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer
+of undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:
+
+EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.
+
+  In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he
+  informed me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was
+  formerly of considerable height, but had gradually been plowed down;
+  that several mounds in the neighborhood had been excavated, and
+  nothing of interest found in them. I�asked permission to examine
+  this mound, which was granted, and upon investigation the following
+  facts were revealed:
+
+  Upon reaching the place, I�sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length
+  and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a
+  rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was
+  found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth,
+  about 18 inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length,
+  and 16 inches in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with
+  the corners rounded.
+
+  Not finding anything under this rock, I�then made an excavation in
+  the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which, upon
+  examination, proved to be in front of the remains of a human
+  skeleton in a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right
+  hand were resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a
+  small stone about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian
+  hatchet. Upon a further examination many of the bones were found,
+  though in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air
+  soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a�considerable
+  portion of the skull, maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the
+  vertebra, were in their proper places, though the weight of the
+  earth above them had driven them down, yet the entire frame was so
+  perfect that it was an easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones
+  of the cranium were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the
+  neck were found coarse beads that seemed to be of some hard
+  substance and resembled chalk. A�small lump of red paint about the
+  size of an egg was found near the right side of this skeleton. The
+  sutures of the cranium indicated the subject to have been 25 or 28
+  years of age, and its top rested about 12 inches below the mark of
+  the plow.
+
+  I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave and found
+  another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing
+  the east. A�rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right
+  hand were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been
+  about 7 inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was
+  much better finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck
+  of this one, but were much smaller and of finer quality than those
+  on the neck of the first. The material, however, seems to be the
+  same. A�much larger amount of paint was found by the side of this
+  than the first. The bones indicated a person of large frame, who,
+  I�think, was about 50 years of age. Everything about this one had
+  the appearance of superiority over the first. The top of the skull
+  was about 6 inches below the mark of the plane.
+
+  I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found
+  nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east,
+  found another skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing
+  the west. On the right side of this was a rock on which the bones of
+  the right hand were resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk,
+  which had been about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
+  pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better
+  finished than the others. Beads were also found on the neck of this,
+  but much smaller and finer than those of the others. A�larger amount
+  of paint than both of the others was found near this one. The top of
+  the cranium had been moved by the plow. The bones indicated a person
+  of 40 years of age.
+
+  There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller
+  bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken
+  from their bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with
+  the fact that the farm on which this grave was found was the first
+  settled in that part of the country, the date of the first deed made
+  from Lord Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years
+  (the land still belonging to the descendants of the same family that
+  first occupied�it), would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old
+  grave.
+
+  The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet,
+  the line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of
+  the soil. It was dug in rich, black loam, and filled around the
+  bodies with white or yellow sand, which I suppose was carried from
+  the river-bank, 200 yards distant. The skeletons approximated the
+  walls of the grave, and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth,
+  and so decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both in
+  quality and odor, that the line of the bodies could be readily
+  traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had been flesh, was
+  similar to clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when compressed
+  in the hand.
+
+  This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots
+  made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the
+  warrior had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need,
+  in the "hunting-grounds beyond," his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and
+  scalping-knife.
+
+  The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will
+  carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the
+  American Indians were in possession of at least some of the
+  mysteries of our order, and that it was evidently the grave of
+  Masons, and the three highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave
+  was situated due east and west; an altar was erected in the center;
+  the south, west, and east were occupied--_the north was not_;
+  implements of authority were near each body. The difference in the
+  quality of the beads, the tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces,
+  and the difference in distance that the bodies were placed from the
+  surface, indicate beyond doubt that these three persons had been
+  buried by Masons, and those, too, that understood what they were
+  doing.
+
+  Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the Masonic
+  world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic information?
+
+  The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other
+  bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at
+  Washington, D.C., to be placed among the archives of that
+  institution for exhibition, at which place they may be seen.
+
+Should Dr. Spainhour's inferences be incorrect, there is still a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.
+
+In support of this gentleman's views, attention is called to the
+description of the _Midawan_--a ceremony of initiation for would-be
+medicine men--in Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of the
+United States, 1855, p.�428, relating to the Sioux and Chippewas. In
+this account are found certain forms and resemblances which have led
+some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of Masonry.
+
+
+_BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES._
+
+While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--they
+differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial burial,
+and must consequently fall under another caption. The narratives which
+are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former kinds of burial.
+
+Bartram[23] relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the
+Carolinas:
+
+  The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a
+  four-foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the
+  deceased laid on in his house, lining the grave with cypress bark,
+  when they place the corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were
+  alive, depositing with him his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other
+  matters as he had the greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest
+  wife, or the queen dowager, has the second choice of his
+  possessions, and the remaining effects are divided among his other
+  wives and children.
+
+According to Bernard Roman,[24] the "funeral customs of the Chickasaws
+did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred
+the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired."
+
+The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:
+
+  The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the
+  house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case
+  the body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown
+  in, and stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body
+  first takes off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with
+  water before putting them on or mingling with the living. When a
+  body is removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and
+  the place in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the devil
+  comes to the place of death and remains where a dead body is. Wild
+  animals frequently (indeed, generally) get the bodies, and it is a
+  very easy matter to pick up skulls and bones around old camping
+  grounds, or where the dead are laid. In case it is not desirable to
+  abandon a place, the sick person is left out in some lone spot
+  protected by brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or
+  food brought to them until they die. This is done only when all hope
+  is gone. I�have found bodies thus left so well inclosed with brush
+  that wild animals were unable to get at them; and one so left to die
+  was revived by a cup of coffee from our house and is still living
+  and well.
+
+Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal
+communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr.
+Menard, as follows:
+
+  This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a reservation in the
+  extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona.
+  The funeral ceremonies of the Navajos are of the most simple
+  character. They ascribe the death of an individual to the direct
+  action of _Chinde_, or the devil, and believe that he remains in the
+  vicinity of the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the
+  tribe dies a shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by
+  one of the near male relatives, and into this the corpse is
+  unceremoniously tumbled by the relatives, who have previously
+  protected themselves from the evil influence by smearing their naked
+  bodies with tar from the pi�on tree. After the body has thus been
+  disposed of, the hogan (composed of logs and branches of trees
+  covered with earth) is pulled down over it and the place deserted.
+  Should the deceased have no near relatives or was of no importance
+  in the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed with,
+  the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This carelessness does
+  not appear to arise from want of natural affection for the dead, but
+  fear of the evil influence of _Chinde_ upon the surviving relatives
+  causes them to avoid doing anything that might gain for them his
+  ill-will. A�Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the logs
+  of a fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have been
+  years in that condition. There are no mourning observances other
+  than smearing the forehead and under the eyes with tar, which is
+  allowed to remain until worn off, and then not renewed. The deceased
+  is apparently forgotten, as his name is never spoken by the
+  survivors for fear of giving offense to _Chinde_.
+
+J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the Navajos:
+
+  When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the
+  ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body
+  into as small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with
+  cords, place them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing,
+  everything owned by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all
+  gathered around the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their
+  faces with their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks,
+  pull out their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These
+  burials were generally made under their thatch houses or very near
+  thereto. The house where one died was always torn down, removed,
+  rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks, &c., were in their own
+  jargon; none else could understand, and they seemingly knew but
+  little of its meaning (if�there was any meaning in�it); it simply
+  seemed to be the promptings of grief, without sufficient
+  intelligence to direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out his own
+  impulse.
+
+The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,[25] relating to the
+Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example
+of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to
+consider the receptacles as temples.
+
+  Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n'enterent point leur Chef,
+  lorsqu'il est d�c�d�; mais-ils font s�cher son cadavre au feu et �
+  la fum�e de fa�on qu'ils en font un vrai squelette. Apr�s l'avoir
+  r�duit en cet �tat, ils le portent au Temple (car ils en ont un
+  ainsi que les Natchez), et le mettent � la place de son
+  pr�d�cesseur, qu'ils tirent de l'endroit qu'il occupoit, pour le
+  porter avec les corps de leurs autres Chefs dans le fond du Temple
+  o� ils sont tous rang�s de suite dress�s sur leurs pieds comme des
+  statues. A�l'�gard du dernier mort, il est expos� � l'entr�e de ce
+  Temple sur une esp�ce d'autel ou de table faite de cannes, et
+  couverte d'une natte tr�s-fine travaill�e fort proprement en
+  quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces m�mes cannes. Le
+  cadavre du Chef est expos� au milieu de cette table droit sur ses
+  pieds, soutenu par derri�re par une longue perche peinte en rouge
+  dont le bout passe au dessus de sa t�te, et � laquelle il est
+  attach� par le milieu du corps avec une liane. D'une main il tient
+  un casse-t�te ou une petite hache, de l'autre un pipe; et au-dessus
+  de sa t�te, est attach� au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le
+  Calumet le plus fameux de tous ceux qui lui ont �t� pr�sent�s
+  pendant sa vie. Du reste cette table n'est gu�res �lev�e de terre
+  que d'un demi-pied; mais elle a au moins six pieds de large et dix
+  de longueur.
+
+  C'est sur cette table qu'on vient tous les jours servir � manger �
+  ce Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de sagamit�, du bled
+  grol� ou boucan�, &c. C'est-l� aussi qu'au commencement de toutes
+  les r�coltes ses Sujets vont lui offrir les premiers de tous les
+  fruits qu'ils peuvent recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est pr�sent� de la
+  sorte reste sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est
+  toujours ouverte, qu'il n'y a personne pr�pos� pour y veiller, que
+  par cons�quent y entre qui veut, et que d'ailleurs il est �loign� du
+  Village d'un grand quart de lieue, il arrive que ce sont
+  ordinairement des Etrangers, Chasseurs ou Sauvages, qui profitent de
+  ces mets et de ces fruits, ou qu'ils sont consomm�s par les animaux.
+  Mais cela est �gal � ces sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu'ils
+  retournent le lendemain, plus ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur
+  Chef a bien mang�, et que par cons�quent il est content d'eux
+  quoiqu'il les ait abandonn�s. Pour leur ouvrir les yeux sur
+  l'extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur repr�senter ce
+  qu'ils ne peuvent s'emp�cher de voir eux-m�mes, que ce n'est point
+  ce mort qui mange; ils r�pondent que si ce n'est pas lui, c'est
+  toujours lui au moins qui offre � qui il lui pla�t ce qui a �t� mis
+  sur la table; qu'apr�s tout c'�toit l� la pratique de leur p�re, de
+  leur m�re, de leurs parens; qu'ils n'ont pas plus d'esprit qu'eux,
+  et qu'ils ne sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.
+
+  C'est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la veuve
+  du Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent de tems en
+  tems lui rendre visite et lui faire leur harangue, comme s'il �toit
+  en �tat de les entendre. Les uns lui demandent pourquoi il s'est
+  laiss� mourir avant eux? d'autres lui disent que s'il est mort ce
+  n'est point leur faute; que c'est lui m�me qui s'est tu� par telle
+  d�bauche on par tel effort; enfin s'il y a eu quelque d�faut dans
+  son gouvernement, on prend ce tems-l� pour le lui reprocher.
+  Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui disant de
+  n'�tre pas f�ch� contre eux, de bien manger, et qu'ils auront
+  toujours bien soin de lui.
+
+Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the
+publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p.�89, taken from Strachey's
+Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early writer on
+American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess as a
+truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of
+Virginia:
+
+  Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the
+  cenotaphies or the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes, so soon
+  as they be dead, they embowell, and, scraping the flesh from off the
+  bones, they dry the same upon hurdells into ashes, which they put
+  into little potts (like the anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the
+  bones they bind together or case up in leather, hanging braceletts,
+  or chaines of copper, beads, pearle, or such like, as they used to
+  wear about most of their joints and neck, and so repose the body
+  upon a little scaffold (as�upon a tomb), laying by the dead bodies'
+  feet all his riches in severall basketts, his apook, and pipe, and
+  any one toy, which in his life he held most deare in his fancy;
+  their inwards they stuff with pearle, copper, beads, and such trash,
+  sowed in a skynne, which they overlapp againe very carefully in whit
+  skynnes one or two, and the bodyes thus dressed lastly they rowle in
+  matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay them orderly one by one, as
+  they dye in their turnes, upon an arche standing (as�aforesaid) for
+  the tomb, and thes are all the ceremonies we yet can learne that
+  they give unto their dead. We heare of no sweet oyles or oyntments
+  that they use to dresse or chest their dead bodies with; albeit they
+  want not of the pretious rozzin running out of the great cedar,
+  wherewith in the old time they used to embalme dead bodies, washing
+  them in the oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the priests the care
+  of these temples and holy interments are committed, and these
+  temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or ministers to
+  exercise themselves in contemplation, for they are seldome out of
+  them, and therefore often lye in them and maynteyne contynuall fier
+  in the same, upon a hearth somewhat neere the east end.
+
+  For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the earth with
+  sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in skynns and matts with
+  their jewells, they laye uppon sticks in the ground, and soe cover
+  them with earth; the buryall ended, the women (being painted all
+  their faces with black coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in
+  their howses, mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling
+  and howling as may expresse their great passions.
+
+While this description brings the subject under the head before
+given--house burial--at the same time it might also afford an example of
+embalmment or mummifying.
+
+Figure 1 may be referred to as a probable representation of the temple
+or charnel-house described.
+
+The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be
+considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices
+prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the
+Rev. J.�G. Wood,[26] bury their dead within the inclosure of the
+home-stead, fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems.
+The Apingi, according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in
+its dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and
+deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas
+bury within the inclosure of a man's house, although the bones are
+subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside
+the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle
+inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the
+Bechuanas follow the same general plan.
+
+The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted above
+(p.�314), is added as containing an account of certain details which
+resemble somewhat those followed by North American Indians. In the
+narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed only if
+specially desired by the expiring person:
+
+  When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar fashion.
+  As soon as life is extinct--some say even before the last breath is
+  drawn--the bystanders break the spine by a blow from a large stone.
+  They then unwind the long rope that encircles the loins, and lash
+  the body together in a sitting posture, the head being bent over the
+  knees. Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its
+  face to the north, as already described when treating of the
+  Bechuanas. Cattle are then slaughtered in honor of the dead chief,
+  and over the grave a post is erected, to which the skulls and hair
+  are attached as a trophy. The bow, arrows, assagai, and clubs of the
+  deceased are hung on the same post. Large stones are pressed into
+  the soil above and around the grave, and a large pile of thorns is
+  also heaped over it, in order to keep off the hyenas, who would be
+  sure to dig up and devour the body before the following day. The
+  grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. Now and then a
+  chief orders that his body shall be left in his own house, in which
+  case it is laid on an elevated platform, and a strong fence of
+  thorns and stakes built round the hut.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief forsakes the
+  place and takes the whole of the people under his command. He
+  remains at a distance for several years, during which time he wears
+  the sign of mourning, i.e., a�dark-colored conical cap, and round
+  the neck a thong, to the ends of which are hung two small pieces of
+  ostrich-shell. When the season of mourning is over, the tribe
+  return, headed by the chief, who goes to the grave of his father,
+  kneels over it, and whispers that he has returned, together with the
+  cattle and wives which his father gave him. He then asks for his
+  parent's aid in all his undertakings, and from that moment takes the
+  place which his father filled before him. Cattle are then
+  slaughtered, and a feast held to the memory of the dead chief and in
+  honor of the living one, and each person present partakes of the
+  meat, which is distributed by the chief himself. The deceased chief
+  symbolically partakes of the banquet. A�couple of twigs cut from the
+  tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased belonged are
+  considered as his representative, and with this emblem each piece of
+  meat is touched before the guests consume it. In like manner, the
+  first pail of milk that is drawn is taken to the grave and poured
+  over�it.
+
+
+_CAVE BURIAL._
+
+Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only
+the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation
+and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of
+artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have
+actuated this mode of burial, a�discussion would be out of place at this
+time, except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so far
+as can be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient
+resting places for their deceased relatives and friends.
+
+In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a�few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.
+
+While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a natural
+cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to which
+resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had
+deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was
+quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination
+made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the
+same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the
+Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it,
+which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian,
+a�Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of his
+tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the
+party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted
+in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew
+a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if
+an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some
+years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent
+game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it
+was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full
+extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many
+refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A�rough ride of over an hour and
+the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of
+a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
+pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This entrance
+was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As the
+Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones and
+roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of uninterrupted,
+faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. The guide was
+asked if many bodies were therein, and replied "Heaps, heaps," moving
+the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There is no reason to
+doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it was voluntarily
+imparted.
+
+In a communication received from Dr. A. J. McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a�description is given of crevice or
+rock-fissure burial, which follows:
+
+  As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the
+  medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged
+  in preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long;
+  whatever articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time
+  of death are not removed. The dead man's limbs are straightened out,
+  his weapons of war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets
+  wrapped securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready
+  for burial. It is the custom to secure if possible, for the purpose
+  of wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in which the
+  Indian died. At the same time that the body is being fitted for
+  internment, the squaws having immediate care of it, together with
+  all the other squaws in the neighborhood, keep up a continued chant
+  or dirge, the dismal cadence of which may, when the congregation of
+  women is large, be heard for quite a long distance. The death song
+  is not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces expressions
+  eulogistic in character, but whether or not any particular formula
+  of words is adopted on such occasion is a question which I am
+  unable, with the materials at my disposal, to determine with any
+  degree of certainty.
+
+  The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing
+  the dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot
+  chosen for burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as
+  can be ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to
+  select sepulchers of this character. From descriptions given by Mr.
+  Harris, who has several times been fortunate enough to discover
+  remains, it would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by
+  this tribe with respect to the position in which the body is placed,
+  the space accommodation of the sepulcher probably regulating this
+  matter; and from the same source I learn that it is not usual to
+  find the remains of more than one Indian deposited in one grave.
+  After the body has been received into the cleft, it is well covered
+  with pieces of rock, to protect it against the ravages of wild
+  animals. The chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the burial
+  ceremonies are at an end. The men during all this time have not been
+  idle, though they have in no way participated in the preparation of
+  the body, have not joined the squaws in chanting praises to the
+  memory of the dead, and have not even as mere spectators attended
+  the funeral, yet they have had their duties to perform. In
+  conformity with a long-established custom, all the personal property
+  of the deceased is immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle
+  are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The performance of
+  this part of the ceremonies is assigned to the men; a�duty quite in
+  accord with their taste and inclinations. Occasionally the
+  destruction of horses and other properly is of considerable
+  magnitude, but usually this is not the case, owing to a practice
+  existing with them of distributing their property among their
+  children while they are of a very tender age, retaining to
+  themselves only what is necessary to meet every-day requirements.
+
+  The widow "goes into mourning" by smearing her face with a substance
+  composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once,
+  and is allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only
+  mourning observance of which I have any knowledge.
+
+  The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as
+  those in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property
+  takes place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse.
+  Should a youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the
+  Indians will not as a role have anything to do with the interment of
+  the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this agency some
+  time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the usual manner; the men
+  of the tribe selected a spot for the burial, and the employee at the
+  agency, after digging a grave and depositing the corpse therein,
+  filled it up according to the fashion of civilized people, and then
+  at the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks on
+  top. Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have the employes
+  perform the service as expeditiously as possible.
+
+Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos
+agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock
+fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.
+
+An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been used
+for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J.�D. Whitney:[27]
+
+  The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now
+  in the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is near the Stanislaus
+  River, in Calaveras County, on a nameless creek, about two miles
+  from Abbey's Ferry, on the road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr.
+  Robinson. There were two or three persons with me, who had been to
+  the place before and knew that the skulls in question were taken
+  from it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and since that the
+  condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing to some
+  alteration in the road, mining operations, or some other cause which
+  I could not ascertain, there has accumulated on the formerly clean
+  stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface
+  earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which could not be
+  removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet
+  deep at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet
+  in diameter. It is the general opinion of those who have noticed
+  this cave and saw it years ago that it was a burying-place of the
+  present Indians. Dr. Jones said he found remains of bows and arrows
+  and charcoal with the skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed
+  at the time the village of Murphy's was burned. All the people spoke
+  of the skulls as lying on the surface and not as buried in the
+  stalagmite.
+
+The next description of cave burial, by W. H. Dall,[28] is so remarkable
+that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to
+the Innuits of Alaska.
+
+  The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of
+  writing I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are
+  some crania found by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave
+  and a cranium obtained at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of
+  Islands. These were deposited in a remarkable manner, precisely
+  similar to that adopted by most of the continental Innuit, but
+  equally different from the modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave
+  we found what at first appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which
+  proved to be made of the very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of
+  some large cetacean. These were arranged so as to form a rude
+  rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces of bone. This
+  was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2�feet wide, and 18 inches deep.
+  The bottom was formed of flat pieces of stone. Three such were found
+  close together, covered with and filled by an accumulation of fine
+  vegetable and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton in
+  the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in the
+  Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all the bones,
+  with the exception of the skull, were minced to a soft paste, or
+  even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted me to dig into a small
+  knoll near the ancient shell-heap, and here we found, in a precisely
+  similar sarcophagus, the remains of a skeleton, of which also only
+  the cranium retained sufficient consistency to admit of
+  preservation. This inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty
+  mass not reduced to mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous
+  growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly 2 feet above the
+  remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness of this kind
+  of growth in these northern regions, attested by numerous Arctic
+  travelers, the antiquity of the remains becomes evident.
+
+It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments
+were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many
+mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles
+were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary
+skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.
+
+
+
+
+EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.
+
+
+Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying
+or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind
+have generally been found in such repositories.
+
+It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss
+the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain
+processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh
+must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of
+this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories
+advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians.
+Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their
+dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on
+this point no definite information has been procured. In the final
+volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification
+among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.
+
+The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time of
+the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more
+than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by
+others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. "They did not
+inter them," says he, "for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched." According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief,
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived,
+provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the
+ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising
+that this theory has obtained many believers. M.�Gannal believes
+embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our
+nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains of
+loved ones; but MM.�Volney and Pariset think it was intended to obviate,
+in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being primarily a
+cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; and the
+Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from the
+finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had
+hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is
+thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction
+to embalmment in North America.
+
+From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it
+appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly,[29] being as follows:
+
+  The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of their Kings
+  and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following manner:
+  First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can, slitting
+  it only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from the Bones
+  as clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that
+  they may preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in
+  the Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean time
+  has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed
+  right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very
+  fine white Sand. After this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body
+  looks as if the Flesh had not been removed. They take care to keep
+  the Skin from shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease,
+  which saves it also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar'd,
+  they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, upon a large Shelf
+  rais'd above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with Mats, for the
+  Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the same, to keep it from
+  the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and
+  when it is thoroughly dried, it is sewed up in a Basket, and set at
+  the Feet of the Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also they
+  set up a _Quioccos_, or Idol, which they believe will be a Guard to
+  the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the Priests must
+  give his Attendance, to take care of the dead Bodies. So great an
+  Honour and Veneration have these ignorant and unpolisht People for
+  their Princes even after they are dead.
+
+It should be added that, in the writer's opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.
+
+According to Pinkerton,[30] who took the account from Smith's Virginia,
+the Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:
+
+  In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the Devil's] image
+  euill favouredly carved, and then painted and adorned with chaines
+  of copper, and beads, and covered with a skin, in such manner as the
+  deformitie may well suit with such a God. By him is commonly the
+  sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then
+  dried upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of
+  their ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of copper,
+  pearle, and such like, as they use to wear. Their inwards they
+  stuffe with copper beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lappe they
+  them very carefully in white skins, and so rowle them in mats for
+  their winding-sheets. And in the Tombe, which is an arch made of
+  mats, they lay them orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth
+  their Kings have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples
+  and bodies are kept by their Priests.
+
+  For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the earth with
+  sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with
+  their Jewels they lay them upon stickes in the ground, and so cover
+  them with earth. The buriale ended, the women being painted all
+  their faces with blacke cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in
+  the houses mourning and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and
+  howling as may expresse their great passions. *�*�*
+
+  Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three
+  great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and the
+  tombes of their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in
+  length, built harbourwise after their building. This place they
+  count so holey as that but the priests and Kings dare come into
+  them; nor the savages dare not go up the river in boates by it, but
+  that they solemnly cast some piece of copper, white beads or pocones
+  into the river for feare their Okee should be offended and revenged
+  of them.
+
+  They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteeme
+  quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond the mountains
+  towards the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of
+  their Okee, with their bedes paynted rede with oyle and pocones,
+  finely trimmed with feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets,
+  copper, and tobacco, doing nothing but dance and sing with all their
+  predecessors. But the common people they suppose shall not live
+  after deth, but rot in their graves like dede dogges.
+
+This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former
+page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding
+truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.
+
+Figure 1 may again be referred to as an example of the dead-house
+described.
+
+The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson,
+used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the subjoined
+extract from Schoolcraft;[31] but instead of laying away the remains in
+caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched
+sticks.
+
+  The manner of their interment is thus: A�mole or pyramid of earth is
+  raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even,
+  sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity of the person
+  whose monument it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made
+  ridgeways, like the roof of a house. This in supported by nine
+  stakes or small posts, the grave being about 6 to 8 feet in length
+  and 4 feet in breadth, about which is hung gourds, feathers, and
+  other such like trophies, placed there by the dead man's relations
+  in respect to him in the grave. The other parts of the funeral rites
+  are thus: As soon as the party is dead they lay the corpse upon a
+  piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or embalming it with a small
+  root beaten to powder, which looks as red as vermillion; the same is
+  mixed with bear's oil to beautify the hair. After the carcass has
+  laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and lay it upon crotches
+  cut on purpose for the support thereof from the earth; then they
+  anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients of the powder
+  of this root and bear's oil. When it is so done they cover it over
+  very exactly with the bark or pine of the cypress tree to prevent
+  any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean all about
+  it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal estate he was
+  possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads,
+  feathers, match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being
+  clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty for
+  three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch
+  pine mixed with bear's oil. All the while he tells the dead man's
+  relations and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was,
+  and of the great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks
+  tending to the praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows
+  mellow and will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it,
+  making the bones very clean, then anoint them with the ingredients
+  aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very carefully) in a cloth
+  artificially woven of opossum's hair. The bones they carefully
+  preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and cleansing them. By
+  these means they preserve them for many ages, that you may see an
+  Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or some of his
+  relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs, as
+  when an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of
+  stones (or�sticks where stones are not to be found); to this
+  memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the
+  heap in respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of
+  light wood or pitch-pine over the graves of the more distinguished,
+  covering it with bark and then with earth, leaving the body thus in
+  a subterranean vault until the flesh quits the bones. The bones are
+  then taken up, cleaned, jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins,
+  and laid away in the _Quiogozon_, which is the royal tomb or
+  burial-place of their kings and war-captains, being a more
+  magnificent cabin reared at the public expense. This Quiogozon is an
+  object of veneration, in which the writer says he has known the
+  king, old men, and conjurers to spend several days with their idols
+  and dead kings, and into which he could never gain admittance.
+
+Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt
+with arch�ologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve
+these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with
+certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens
+were found. Charles Wilkins[32] thus describes one:
+
+  *�*�* An exsiccated body of a female[33] *�*�* was found at the
+  depth of about 10 feet from the surface of the cave bedded in clay
+  strongly impregnated with nitre, placed in a sitting posture,
+  incased in broad stones standing on their edges, with a flat atone
+  covering the whole. It was enveloped in coarse clothes, *�*�* the
+  whole wrapped in deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the
+  manner in which the Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the
+  stone coffin were the working utensils, beads, feathers, and other
+  ornaments of dress which belonged to her.
+
+The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.[34*]
+
+  AUG. 24th, 1815.
+
+  DEAR SIR: I offer you some observations on a curious piece of
+  American antiquity now in New York. It is a human body: found in one
+  of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect desiccation;
+  all the fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other firm parts
+  are in a state of entire preservation. I�think it enough to have
+  puzzled Bryant and all the arch�ologists.
+
+  This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of
+  Glasgow for saltpetre.
+
+  These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract
+  and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash; and
+  probably the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good
+  proportion of calcareous carbonate. Amidst them drying and
+  antiseptick ingredients, it may be conceived that putrefaction would
+  be stayed, and the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope
+  of the body is a deer-skin, probably dried in the usual way, and
+  perhaps softened before its application by rubbing. The next
+  covering is a deer's skin, whose hair had been cut away by a sharp
+  instrument resembling a batter's knife. The remnant of the hair and
+  the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a sheared pelt of beaver. The
+  next wrapper is of cloth made of twine doubled and twisted. But the
+  thread does not appear to have been formed by the wheel, nor the web
+  by the loom. The warp and filling seem to have been crossed and
+  knotted by an operation like that of the fabricks of the northwest
+  coast, and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the lamented
+  Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the fibrous
+  material.
+
+  The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the preceding, but
+  furnished with large brown feathers, arranged and fashioned with
+  great art, so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from
+  wet and cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole
+  bears a near similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the
+  nations of the northwestern coast of America. A�Wilson might tell
+  from what bird they were derived.
+
+  The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm reclining
+  forward, and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs
+  down, with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual,
+  who was a male, did not probably exceed the age of fourteen at his
+  death. There is near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of
+  the skull, which probably killed him. The skin has sustained little
+  injury; it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be
+  decided with exactness, from its present appearance. The scalp, with
+  small exceptions, is covered with sorrel or foxey hair. The teeth
+  are white and sound. The hands and feet, in their shrivelled state,
+  are slender and delicate. All this is worthy the investigation of
+  our acute and perspicacious colleague, Dr. Holmes.
+
+  There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like
+  the Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except
+  the several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of
+  a suture or incision about the belly; whence it seems that the
+  viscera were not removed.
+
+  It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as to the
+  antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.
+
+  First, then, I�am satisfied that it does not belong to that class of
+  white men of which we are members.
+
+  2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of
+  Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled
+  up the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this
+  head I should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious
+  friend, Noah Webster.
+
+  3dly. I�am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged to
+  any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting Kentucky.
+
+  4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted
+  threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash
+  and the Pacifick Islands, that I refer this individual to that era
+  of time, and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of
+  the Green River, and of the place where these relicks were found.
+  This conclusion is strengthened by the consideration that such
+  manufactures are not prepared by the actual and resident red men of
+  the present day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him,
+  he would have thought of the people who constructed those ancient
+  forts and mounds, whose exact history no man living can give. But I
+  forbear to enlarge; my intention being merely to manifest my respect
+  to the society for having enrolled me among its members, and to
+  invite the attention of its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a
+  subject of such curiousity.
+
+  With respect, I remain yours,
+
+    SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.
+
+It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that the
+natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W.�H. Dall,[35] the description
+of the mummies being as follows:
+
+  We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment
+  in their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already
+  described; second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or
+  stones in some convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss,
+  covered by matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or
+  carvings associated with them. We found only three or four specimens
+  in all in these places, of which we examined a great number. This
+  was apparently the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and
+  one which more recently was still pursued in the case of poor or
+  unpopular individuals.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Alaskan Mummies.]
+
+  Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few
+  centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was
+  adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The
+  bodies were eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running
+  water, dried, and usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of
+  fur and fine grass matting. The body was usually doubled up into the
+  smallest compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of
+  children, was usually suspended (so�as not to touch the ground) in
+  some convenient rock shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body
+  was placed in a lifelike position, dressed and armed. They were
+  placed as if engaged in some congenial occupation, such as hunting,
+  fishing, sewing, &c. With them were also placed effigies of the
+  animals they were pursuing, while the hunter was dressed in his
+  wooden armor and provided with an enormous mask all ornamented with
+  feathers, and a countless variety of wooden pendants, colored in gay
+  patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the weapons even were only
+  fac-similes in wood of the original articles. Among the articles
+  represented were drums, rattles, dishes, weapons, effigies of men,
+  birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of rods or scales of wood,
+  and remarkable masks, so arranged that the wearer when erect could
+  only see the ground at his feet. These were worn at their religious
+  dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to animate a
+  temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look upon it while so
+  occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the masking of those
+  who had gone into the land of spirits.
+
+  The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the
+  whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit--has
+  erroneously been confounded with the one now described. The latter
+  included women as well as men, and all those whom the living desired
+  particularly to honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the
+  bodies of males, and they were not associated with the paraphernalia
+  of those I have described. Indeed, the observations I have been able
+  to make show the bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with
+  stone weapons and actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the
+  meanest apparel, and no carvings of consequence. These details, and
+  those of many other customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear
+  no testimony *�*�* do not come within my line.
+
+Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.
+
+Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings' Expedition,[36] speaks of the
+Aleutian Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:
+
+  They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they
+  embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in
+  their best attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their
+  darts and instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured
+  mats, embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less
+  ceremony. A�mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut
+  for some months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it
+  begins to smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with�it.
+
+Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account:
+
+  The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial
+  Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the
+  mummified remains of Indians who lived on an island north of
+  Ounalaska one hundred and fifty years ago. This contribution to
+  science was secured by Captain Henning, an agent of the company who
+  has long resided at Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians
+  he learned that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the
+  island in question, as the last resting-place of a great chief,
+  known as Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the
+  neighborhood of Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and other furs, and
+  he bore up for the island, with the intention of testing the truth
+  of the tradition he had heard. He had more difficulty in entering
+  the cave than in finding it, his schooner having to beat on and off
+  shore for three days. Finally he succeeded in affecting a landing,
+  and clambering up the rocks he found himself in the presence of the
+  dead chief, his family and relatives.
+
+  The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care
+  the mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments
+  scattered around were also taken away.
+
+  In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have
+  as yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large
+  basket-like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the
+  wrappings are finely wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in
+  texture, and skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of
+  thinly cut wood, and adjoining the center portions are pieces of
+  body armor composed of reeds bound together. The body is covered
+  with the fine skin of the sea-otter, always a mark of distinction in
+  the interments of the Aleuts, and round the whole package are
+  stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the sinews of the sea
+  lion; also those of a bird-net. There are evidently some bulky
+  articles inclosed with the chief's body, and the whole package
+  differs very much from the others, which more resemble, in their
+  brown-grass matting, consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich
+  Islands than the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose
+  and of a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon
+  after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet of the
+  latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The remaining mummies are
+  of adults.
+
+  One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man's body in
+  tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face
+  decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by
+  severing some of the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending
+  the limbs downward horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most
+  peculiar package, next to that of the chief, is one which incloses
+  in a single matting, with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and
+  woman. The collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and
+  female, which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The hair
+  has changed its color to a brownish red. The relics obtained with
+  the bodies include a few wooden vessels scooped out smoothly:
+  a�piece of dark, greenish, flat stone, harder than the emerald,
+  which the Indians use to tan skins; a�scalp-lock of jet-black hair;
+  a�small rude figure, which may have been a very ugly doll or an
+  idol; two or three tiny carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very
+  neatly executed; a�comb, a�necklet made of bird's claws inserted
+  into one another, and several specimens of little bags, and a cap
+  plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.
+
+In Cary's translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following passage
+occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the Macrobrian
+Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a matter of
+curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved have ever
+been discovered.
+
+  After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which are
+  said to be prepared from crystal in the following manner. When they
+  have dried the body, either as the Egyptians do, or in some other
+  way, they plaster it all over with gypsum, and paint it, making it
+  as much as possible resemble real life; they then put round it a
+  hollow column made of crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and
+  is easily wrought. The body being in the middle of the column is
+  plainly seen, nor does it emit an unpleasant smell, nor is it in any
+  way offensive, and it is all visible as the body itself. The nearest
+  relations keep the column in their houses for a year, offering to it
+  the first-fruits of all, and performing sacrifices; after that time
+  they carry it out and place it somewhere near the city.
+
+  NOTE.--The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back
+  being covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen
+  all round, as the column of glass was transparent.
+
+With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil
+of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.
+
+
+
+
+URN-BURIAL.
+
+
+To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster[37] may be added:
+
+  Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the
+  mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the
+  mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S.C., according to Dr.
+  Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human
+  remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small
+  the skull is placed with the face downward in the opening,
+  constituting a sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in
+  which urn-burial alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was
+  accidentally discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine's
+  Island, off the coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that
+  from a mound at New Madrid, Mo., he obtained a human skull inclosed
+  in an earthen jar, the lips of which were too small to admit of its
+  extraction. It must therefore have been molded on the head after
+  death.
+
+  A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the
+  funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to
+  admit of the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either
+  the clay must have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or
+  the neck of the jar must have been added subsequently to the other
+  rites of interment.[38]
+
+It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but
+_to a very limited extent_, in North America, except as a secondary
+interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or
+ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of
+ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as
+the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply
+tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been
+that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the
+fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in
+urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution,
+furnishes the following account of urns used for burial:
+
+  I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover,
+  Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received
+  from Mr. William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on
+  his plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of
+  the Oconee River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes,
+  tall grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same
+  source one of the covers, of which the ornamentation was different
+  but more entire. A�portion of a similar cover has been received also
+  from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. McKinley ascribes the use of these urns
+  and covers to the Muscogees, a�branch of the Creek Nation.
+
+These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was
+a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around
+the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented
+scroll ornamentations.
+
+The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:[39]
+
+  Burial-urns *�*�* comprise vessels or ollas without handles, for
+  cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height, with broad,
+  open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a laminated exterior
+  (partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the indentations
+  extend simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion being plain.
+
+So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J.�C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of possibility
+that future researches in regions not far distant from that which he
+explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents different
+forms of burial-urns, _a_, _b_, and _e_, after Foster, are from Laporte,
+Ind. _f_, after Foster, is from Greenup County, Kentucky; _d_ is from
+Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian collection, No. 27976; and _c_ is one
+of the peculiar shoe-shaped urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake
+Nicaragua, by Surgeon J.�C. Bransford, U.S.N.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Burial Urns.]
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Cemetery.]
+
+SURFACE BURIAL.
+
+
+This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far as
+can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was
+employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for
+time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees,
+the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead
+being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the
+Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently
+large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and
+permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen
+was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by R.�S.
+Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a communication received
+in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial in two different ways:
+
+  *�*�* 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have been found
+  in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split and the two halves
+  hollowed out to receive the body, when it was either closed with
+  withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes; and sometimes
+  a hollow tree is used by closing the ends.
+
+  2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs
+  laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they
+  meet in a single log at the top.
+
+The writer has recently received from Prof. C. Engelhardt, of
+Copenhagen, Denmark, a�brochure describing the oak coffins of
+Borum-�shoei. From an engraving in this volume it would appear that the
+manner employed by the ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins
+has its analogy among the North American Indians.
+
+Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent
+in accordance with the _ante mortem_ wishes of the dead, were the
+obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is
+given by George Catlin:[40]
+
+  He requested them to take his body down the river to this his
+  favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury
+  him on the back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried
+  alive under him, from whence he could see, as he said, "the
+  Frenchmen passing up and down the river in their boats." He owned,
+  amongst many horses, a�noble white steed, that was led to the top of
+  the grass-covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the
+  presence of the whole nation and several of the fur-traders and the
+  Indian agent, he was placed astride of his horse's back, with his
+  bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver slung, with his pipe and
+  his medicine bag, with his supply of dried meat, and his
+  tobacco-pouch replenished to last him through the journey to the
+  beautiful hunting grounds of the shades of his fathers, with his
+  flint, his steel, and his tinder to light his pipe by the way; the
+  scalps he had taken from his enemies' heads could be trophies for
+  nobody else, and were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in
+  full dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved to the last
+  moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles' plumes. In this
+  plight, and the last funeral honors having been performed by the
+  medicine-men, every warrior of his band painted the palm and fingers
+  of his right hand with vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly
+  impressed on the milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This all
+  done, turfs were brought and placed around the feet and legs of the
+  horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over the back
+  and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of all over the head
+  and even the eagle plumes of its valiant rider, where all together
+  have smouldered and remained undisturbed to the present day.
+
+Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a
+high bluff of the Missouri River.
+
+According to the Rev. J. G. Wood,[41] the Obongo, an African tribe,
+buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of
+the Seminoles:
+
+  When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow tree in
+  the forest and drop it into the hollow, which is afterwards filled
+  to the top with earth, leaves, and branches.
+
+M. de la Potherie[42] gives an account of surface burial as practiced by
+the Iroquois of New York:
+
+  Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son s�ant, on oint ses
+  cheveux et tout son corps d'huile d'animaux, on lui applique du
+  vermillon sur le visage; on lui met toutes sortes de beaux plumages
+  de la rassade de la porcelaine et on le pare des plus beaux habits
+  que l'on peut trouver, pendant que les parens et des vieilles
+  continuent toujours � pleurer. Cette c�r�monie finie, les alliez
+  apportent plusieurs pr�sens. Les uns sont pour essuyer les larmes et
+  les autres pour servir de matelas au d�funt, on en destine certains
+  pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, disent-ils, que la plague ne
+  l'incommode, on y �tend fort proprement des peaux d'ours et de
+  chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui met ses ajustemens avec
+  un sac de farine de bled d'Inde, de la viande, sa cuilli�re, et
+  g�n�ralement tout ce qu'il faut � un homme qui veut faire un long
+  voyage, avec toux les pr�sens qui lui ont �t� faits � sa mort, et
+  s'il a �t� guerrier on lui donne ses armes pour s'en servir au pais
+  des morts. L'on couvre ensuite ce cadavre d'�corce d'arbres sur
+  lesquelles on jette de la terre et quantit� de pierres, et on
+  l'entoure de pierres pour emp�cher que les animaux ne le d�terrent.
+  Ces sortes de fun�railles ne se font que dans leur village.
+  Lorsqu'ils meurent en campagne on les met dans un cercueil d'�corce,
+  entre les branches des arbres o� on les �l�ve sur quatre pilliers.
+
+  On observe ces m�mes fun�railles aux femmes et aux filles. Tous ceux
+  qui ont assist� aux obs�ques profitent de toute la d�pouille du
+  d�funt et s'il n'avoit rien, les parens y supl�ent. Ainsi ils ne
+  pleurent pas en vain. Le deuil consiste � ne se point couper ni
+  graisser les cheveux et de se tenir n�glig� sans aucune parure,
+  couverts de m�chantes hardes. Le p�re et la m�re portent le deuil de
+  leur fils. Si le p�re meurt les gar�ons le portent, et les filles de
+  leur m�re.
+
+Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to forward
+to the writer an interesting work by J.�V. Spencer,[43] containing
+annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and
+partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly
+inhabiting Illinois:
+
+  Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his
+  hands grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow hole in the
+  ground, setting the body in up to the waist, so the most of the body
+  was above ground. The part above ground was then covered by a
+  buffalo robe, and a trench about eight feet square was then dug
+  about the grave. In this trench they set picketing about eight feet
+  high, which secured the grave against wild animals. When I first
+  came here there were quite a number of these high picketings still
+  standing where their chiefs had been buried, and the body of a chief
+  was disposed of in this way while I lived near their village. The
+  common mode of burial was to dig a shallow grave, wrap the body in a
+  blanket, place it in the grave, and fill it nearly full of dirt;
+  then take split sticks about three feet long and stand them in the
+  grave so that their tops would come together in the form of a roof;
+  then they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks in place.
+  I�saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their child about
+  a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a blanket and putting
+  a long stick through the blanket, each taking an end of the stick.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Grave Pen.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Grave Pen.]
+
+  I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is done by
+  digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in it, and covering
+  it. I�have seen several bodies in one tree. I�think when they are
+  disposed of in this way it is by special request, as I knew of an
+  Indian woman who lived with a white family who desired her body
+  placed in a tree, which was accordingly done.[44*] Doubtless there
+  was some peculiar superstition attached to this mode, though I do
+  not remember to have heard what it was.
+
+Judge H. Welch[45] states that "the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies
+buried by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of
+sticks or logs. I�think the bodies lay heads to the east." And C.�C.
+Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as follows:
+
+  I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge Welch.
+  *�*�* In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, Judge Gibson, to Fort
+  Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of an Ottawa or Pottawatomie
+  chief. The body lay on the ground covered with notched poles. It had
+  been there but a few days and the worms were crawling around the
+  body. My special interest in the case was the accusation of
+  witchcraft against a young squaw who was executed for killing him by
+  her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only parts of
+  skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been burned.
+
+W. A. Brice[46] mentions a curious variety of surface burial not
+heretofore met with:
+
+  And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough of a
+  tree, or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the infant of the
+  Indian mother; or a few little log inclosures, where the bodies of
+  adults sat upright, with all their former apparel wrapped about
+  them, and their trinkets, tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be
+  seen at any time for many years by the few pale-faces visiting or
+  sojourning here.
+
+A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may be
+considered under that head is the one employed by some of the Ojibways
+and Swampy Crees of Canada. A�small cavity is scooped out, the body
+deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus formed
+being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.
+
+Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River
+exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the
+Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave,
+which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and
+they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and�9.
+
+
+_CAIRN-BURIAL._
+
+The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent
+among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas.
+
+In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries in
+Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen or
+twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the
+side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully
+chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find
+it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have
+been constructed in the following manner: A�number of bowlders had been
+removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had been
+obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, with
+weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the mountain
+aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, forming a
+huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the last resting
+place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the graves were
+scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which had been
+sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of the
+graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number of
+articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a
+boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this
+place.
+
+From Dr. O. G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, Indian
+Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was received.
+According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves _Kaw-a-w�h_, the
+Comanches _Nerm_, and the Apaches _T�h-zee_.
+
+  They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not seem to
+  have any particular rule with regard to the position. Sometimes
+  prone, sometimes supine, but always decumbent. They select a place
+  where the grave is easily prepared, which they do with such
+  implements as they chance to have, viz, a�squaw-axe, or hoe. If they
+  are traveling, the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much
+  time is spent in finishing. I�was present at the burial of Black
+  Hawk, an Apache chief, some two years ago, and took the body in my
+  light wagon up the side of a mountain to the place of burial. They
+  found a crevice in the rocks about four feet wide and three feet
+  deep. By filling in loose rocks at either end they made a very nice
+  tomb. The body was then put in face downwards, short sticks were put
+  across, resting on projections of rock at the sides, brush was
+  thrown on this, and flat rocks laid over the whole of�it.
+
+  The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing, together
+  with all the ornaments most admired by the person when living. The
+  face is painted with any colored paint they may have, mostly red and
+  yellow, as I have observed. The body is then wrapped in skins,
+  blankets, or domestic, with the hands laid across the breast, and
+  the legs placed upon the thighs. They put into the grave their guns,
+  bows and arrows, tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins,
+  and trinkets of various kinds. One or more horses are killed over or
+  near the grave. Two horses and a mule were killed near Black Hawk's
+  grave. They were led up near and shot in the head. At the death of a
+  Comanche chief, some years ago, I�am told about seventy horses were
+  killed, and a greater number than that were said to have been killed
+  at the death of a prominent Kiowa chief a few years since.
+
+  The mourning is principally done by the relatives and immediate
+  friends, although any one of their own tribe, or one of another
+  tribe, who chances to be passing, will stop and moan with the
+  relatives. Their mourning consists in a weird wail, which to be
+  described must be heard, and once heard is never forgotten, together
+  with the scarifying of their faces, arms, and legs with some sharp
+  instrument, the cutting off of the hair, and oftentimes the cutting
+  off of a joint of a finger, usually the little finger (Comanches do
+  not cut off fingers). The length of time and intensity of their
+  mourning depends upon the relation and position of the deceased in
+  the tribe. I�have known instances where, if they should be passing
+  along where any of their friends had died, even a year after their
+  death, they would mourn.
+
+The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath heaps
+of rocks, according to H.�Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, Nevada,
+although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as reasons
+for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, because
+they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural indolence of
+the Indians--indisposition to work any more than can be helped.
+
+The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as
+did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact,
+a�number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom
+prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION.
+
+
+Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common custom
+to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially those
+living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we have
+undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more eastern
+ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from its
+great antiquity, for Tegg[47] informs us that it reached as far back as
+the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the burning
+of Menoeacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, eighth
+judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among the
+ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos up
+to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom among
+civilized people.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance of
+this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North America,
+yet, did space admit, a�discussion might profitably be entered upon
+regarding the details of it among the ancients and the origin of the
+ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the country, with
+discursive notes and an account of its origin among the Nishinams of
+California, by Stephen Powers,[48] seem to be all that is required at
+this time:
+
+  The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that
+  exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and
+  women, the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died
+  they should return to the earth after two or three days as he
+  himself does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said
+  this should not be; but that when men died their friends should burn
+  their bodies and once a year make a great mourning for them and the
+  coyote prevailed. So, presently when deer died, they burned his
+  body, as the coyote had decreed and after a year they made a great
+  mourning for him. But the moon created the rattlesnake and caused it
+  to bite the coyote's son, so that he died. Now, though the coyote
+  had been willing to burn the deer's relations, he refused to burn
+  his own son. Then the moon said unto him, "This is your own rule.
+  You would have it so, and now your son shall be burned like the
+  others." So he was burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for
+  him. Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, as he
+  had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.
+
+  This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in
+  that it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not
+  practice cremation, which is also established by other traditions.
+  It hints at the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set
+  great store by the moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred
+  ways and observe its changes for a hundred purposes.
+
+Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in
+Schoolcraft[49] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:
+
+  The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number
+  died the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they
+  thought then. After crawling over the body for a time they took all
+  manner of shapes, some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope,
+  etc. It was discovered however, that great numbers were taking wings
+  and for a while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they
+  would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the
+  earth might become depopulated in this way, concluded to stop it at
+  once and ordered that when one of their people died the body must be
+  burnt. Ever after they continued to burn the bodies of deceased
+  persons.
+
+Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins
+of Oregon:[50]
+
+  The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and quite
+  peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days
+  laid out in his lodge and on the tenth it is buried. For this
+  purpose a rising ground is selected, on which are laid a number of
+  sticks, about 7 feet long, of cypress, neatly split and in the
+  interstices, placed a quantity of gummy wood. During these
+  operations invitations are dispatched to the natives of the
+  neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the ceremony.
+  When the preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on the
+  pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of
+  burning, the bystanders appear to be in a high state of merriment.
+  If a stranger happen to be present they invariably plunder him, but
+  if that pleasure be denied them, they never separate without
+  quarreling among themselves. Whatever property the deceased
+  possessed is placed about the corpse, and if he happened to be a
+  person of consequence, his friends generally purchase a capote,
+  a�shirt, a�pair of trousers, &c, which articles are also laid around
+  the pile. If the doctor who attended him has escaped uninjured, he
+  is obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last time
+  tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation. Failing in
+  this, he throws on the body a piece of leather, or some other
+  article, as a present, which in some measure appeases the resentment
+  of his relatives, and preserves the unfortunate quack from being
+  maltreated. During the nine days the corpse is laid out, the widow
+  of the deceased is obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to
+  sunrise, and from this custom there is no relaxation even during the
+  hottest days of summer! While the doctor is performing his last
+  operations she must lie on the pile, and after the fire is applied
+  to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her to be removed,
+  which, however, is never done until her body is completely covered
+  with blisters. After being placed on her legs, she is obliged to
+  pass her hands gently through the flame and collect some of the
+  liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which she is permitted
+  to wet her face and body. When the friends of the deceased observe
+  the sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they compel
+  the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint of hard
+  pressing to straighten those members.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Tolkotin cremation.]
+
+  If during her husband's life time she has been known to have
+  committed any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him
+  savory food or neglected his clothing, &c. she is now made to suffer
+  severely for such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently
+  fling her in the funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her
+  friends, and thus between alternate scorching and cooling she is
+  dragged backwards and forwards until she falls into a state of
+  insensibility.
+
+  After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow
+  collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of
+  birch bark and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to
+  carry on her back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all
+  the laborious duties of cooking, collecting food, &c. devolve on
+  her. She must obey the orders of all the women, and even of the
+  children belonging to the village, and the slightest mistake or
+  disobedience subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment.
+  The ashes of her husband are carefully collected and deposited in a
+  grave which it is her duty to keep free from weeds, and should any
+  such appear, she is obliged to root them out with her fingers.
+  During this operation her husband's relatives stand by and beat her
+  in a cruel manner until the task is completed or she falls a victim
+  to their brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid this complicated
+  cruelty, frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on
+  for three or four years, the friends of her husband agree to relieve
+  her from the her painful mourning. This is a ceremony of much
+  consequence and the preparations for it occupy a considerable time
+  generally from six to eight months. The hunters proceed to the
+  various districts in which deer and beaver abound and after
+  collecting large quantities of meat and fur return to the village.
+  The skins are immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing,
+  trinkets, &c. Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants of the
+  various friendly villages, and when they have all assembled the
+  feast commences, and presents are distributed to each visitor. The
+  object of their meeting is then explained, and the woman is brought
+  forward, still carrying on her back the bones of her late husband,
+  which are now removed and placed in a covered box, which is nailed
+  or otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her conduct as a
+  faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the ceremony of her
+  manumission is completed by one man powdering on her head the down
+  of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a bladder of oil.
+  She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of single
+  blessedness, but few of them, I�believe, wish to encounter the risk
+  attending a second widowhood.
+
+  The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it
+  with equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid
+  the brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of
+  religious rite.
+
+Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the
+description given.
+
+Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted.
+
+It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after death--certainly a
+long period of time, when it is remembered that Indians as a rule
+endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. This may be
+accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the friends and
+relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, and of
+making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the
+verification of the dead person, William Sheldon[51] gives an account of
+a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and
+which seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased
+persons by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this
+is mere hypothesis:
+
+  They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased
+  persons. When one of them died, it was necessary that all his
+  relations should see him and examine the body in order to ascertain
+  that he died a natural death. They acted so rigidly on this
+  principle, that if one relative remained who had not seen the body
+  all the others could not convince that one that the death was
+  natural. In such a case the absent relative considered himself as
+  bound in honor to consider all the other relatives as having been
+  accessories to the death of the kinsman, and did not rest until he
+  had killed one of them to revenge the death of the deceased. If a
+  Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his relations lived
+  in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon them to see the body,
+  and several months sometimes elapsed before it could be finally
+  interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately painted all over
+  with _roucou_, and had his mustachios and the black streaks in his
+  face made with a black paint, which was different from that used in
+  their lifetime. A�kind of grave was then dug in the _carbet_ where
+  he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body was let
+  down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to the knees, and
+  the body was placed in it in a sitting posture, resembling that in
+  which they crouched round the fire or the table when alive, with the
+  elbows on the knees and the palms of the hands against the cheeks.
+  No part of the body touched the outside of the grave, which was
+  covered with wood and mats until all the relations had examined it.
+  When the customary examinations and inspections were ended the hole
+  was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained undisturbed. The hair
+  of the deceased was kept tied behind. In this way bodies have
+  remained several months without any symptoms of decay or producing
+  any disagreeable smell. The _roucou_ not only preserved them from
+  the sun, air, and insects during their lifetime, but probably had
+  the same effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs were placed by
+  them when they were covered over for inspection, and they were
+  finally buried with them.
+
+Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over
+for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be
+remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As
+already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the
+widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but,
+if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable
+to such torments.
+
+It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a husband
+died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her severely.
+Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to take good
+care of their husbands.
+
+George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,[52] states that among the Indians of Clear
+Lake, California, "the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a
+hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered."
+
+According to Stephen Powers,[53] cremation was common among the Se-n�l
+of California. He thus relates�it.
+
+  The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of
+  incremation that he once witnessed, which was frightful for its
+  exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that
+  of a wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they
+  placed in his month two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in
+  his ears and hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his
+  feather mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows,
+  painted arrows, &c. When the torch was applied they set up a
+  mournful ululation, chanting and dancing about him, gradually
+  working themselves into a wild and ecstatic raving, which seemed
+  almost a demoniacal possession, leaping, howling, lacerating their
+  flesh. Many seemed to lose all self-control. The younger
+  English-speaking Indians generally lend themselves charily to such
+  superstitious work, especially if American spectators are present,
+  but even they were carried away by the old contagious frenzy of
+  their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, quite new and fine,
+  and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the blazing pile.
+  Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a pile of California
+  blankets, when a white man, to test his sincerity, offend him $16
+  for them, jingling the bright coins before his eyes, but the savage
+  (for such he had become again for the moment) otherwise so
+  avaricious, hurled him away with a yell of execration and ran and
+  threw his offering into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied,
+  wildly flung upon the pyre all they had in the world--their dearest
+  ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings of glittering
+  shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair, beating their
+  breasts in their mad and insensate infatuation, some of them would
+  have cast themselves bodily into the flaming ruins and perished with
+  the chief had they not been restrained by their companions. Then the
+  bright, swift flames, with their hot tongues, licked this "cold
+  obstruction" into chemic change, and the once "delighted spirit" of
+  the savage was borne up. *�*�*
+
+  It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare's shudder at the
+  thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of
+  his superstition to think of the soul, of his departed friend set
+  free and purified by the swift purging heat of the flames not
+  dragged down to be clogged and bound in the mouldering body, but
+  borne up in the soft, warm chariots of the smoke toward the
+  beautiful sun, to bask in his warmth and light, and then to fly away
+  to the Happy Western Land. What wonder if the Indian shrinks with
+  unspeakable horror from the thought of _burying his friend's
+  soul!_--of pressing and ramming down with pitiless clods that inner
+  something which once took such delight in the sweet light of the
+  sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade him to do otherwise
+  and follow our custom! What wonder if even then he does it with sad
+  fears and misgivings! Why not let him keep his custom! In the
+  gorgeous landscapes and balmy climate of California an Indian
+  incremation is as natural to the savage as it is for him to love the
+  beauty of the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian
+  bury their dead if they will; it matters little, the earth is the
+  same above as below; or to them the bosom of the earth may seem even
+  the better; but in California do not blame the savage if he recoils
+  at the thought of going underground! This soft pale halo of the
+  lilac hills--ah, let him console himself if he will with the belief
+  that his lost friend enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by
+  saying that they destroyed full $500 worth of property. "The
+  blankets," said he with a fine Californian scorn of much absurd
+  insensibility to such a good bargain, "the blankets that the
+  American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money."
+
+  After death the Se-n�l hold that bad Indians return into coyotes.
+  Others fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are
+  hooked off by a raging bull at the further end, while the good
+  escape across. Like the Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it
+  necessary to nourish the spirits of the departed for the space of a
+  year. This is generally done by a squaw, who takes pinole in her
+  blanket, repairs to the scene of the incremation, or to places
+  hallowed by the memory of the dead, when she scatters it over the
+  ground, meantime rocking her body violently to and fro in a dance
+  and chanting the following chorous:
+
+    Hel-lel-li-ly,
+    Hel-lel-lo,
+    Hel-lel-lu.
+
+  This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words
+  have no meaning whatever.
+
+Henry Gillman[54] has published an interesting account of the
+exploration of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant
+evidence that cremation had existed among the former Indian population.
+It is as follows:
+
+  In opening a burial-mound at Cade's Pond, a�small body of water
+  situated about two miles northeastward of Santa F� Lake, Fla., the
+  writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull
+  of the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of
+  his ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human
+  burials, the bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a
+  great number of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in
+  brilliant colors, chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them
+  ornamented with indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in
+  the ceramic art, though they are reduced to fragments. The first of
+  the skulls referred to was exhumed at a depth of 2� feet. It rested
+  on its apex (base uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half
+  incinerated human bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the
+  sand which invariably sifts into crania under such circumstances.
+  Immediately beneath the skull lay the greater part of a human tibia,
+  presenting the peculiar compression known as a platycnemism to the
+  degree of affording a latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and
+  surrounding it lay the fragments of a large number of human bones,
+  probably constituting an entire individual. In the second instance
+  of this peculiar mode in cremation, the cranium was discovered on
+  nearly the opposite side of the mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and,
+  like the former, resting on its apex. It was filled with a black
+  mass--the residuum of burnt human bones mingled with sand. At three
+  feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a flattened tibia, which
+  presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both the skulls were free
+  from all action of fire, and though subsequently crumbling to pieces
+  on their removal, the writer had opportunity to observe their strong
+  resemblance to the small, orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed
+  from mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was perceptible in the
+  other cranium belonging to this mound. The small narrow, retreating
+  frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather protuberant
+  occipital, which was not in the least compressed, the well defined
+  supraciliary ridges, and the superior border of the orbits,
+  presenting a quadrilateral outline, were also particularly noticed.
+  The lower facial bones, including the maxillaries, were wanting. On
+  consulting such works as are accessible to him, the writer finds no
+  mention of any similar relics having been discovered in mounds in
+  Florida, or elsewhere. For further particulars reference may be had
+  to a paper on the subject read before the Saint Louis meeting of the
+  American Association, August, 1878.
+
+The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use
+of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.
+
+The fact is well-known to arch�ologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as
+occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E.
+Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account
+of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at
+the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but
+all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had
+served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained
+unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.
+
+A. S. Tiffany[55] describes what he calls a cremation-furnace,
+discovered within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.
+
+  *�*�* Mound seven miles, below the city, a�projecting point known as
+  Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black soil to the depth of
+  from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a burnt indurated clay,
+  resembling in color and texture a medium-burned brick, and about 30
+  inches in depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred
+  human remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged
+  and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor of the
+  pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much
+  decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind
+  were discovered. The furnace appears to have been constructed by
+  excavating the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or
+  skeletons which had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and
+  placing the fuel among and above the bodies, with a covering of
+  poles or split timbers extending over and resting upon the earth,
+  with the clay covering above, which latter we now find resting upon
+  the charred remains. The ends of the timber covering, where they
+  were protected by the earth above and below, were reduced to
+  charcoal, parallel pieces of which were found at right angles to the
+  length of the mound. No charcoal was found among or near the
+  remains, the combustion there having been complete. The porous and
+  softer portions of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black.
+  Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably not
+  been opened after the burning.
+
+This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect.
+
+Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given to
+show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.
+
+
+_PARTIAL CREMATION._
+
+Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of
+North Carolina, and which is thus described by J.�W. Foster:[56]
+
+  Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region, when, in
+  pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in
+  the valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell
+  commenced farming. During the first season's operations the
+  plowshare, in passing over a certain portion of a field, produced a
+  hollow rumbling sound, and in exploring for the cause the first
+  object met with was a shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a
+  slab of burnt clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which,
+  in the attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing
+  beneath this slab was found, but on examining its under side, to his
+  great surprise there was the mould of a naked human figure. Three of
+  these burned-clay sepulchers were thus raised and examined during
+  the first year of his occupancy, since which time none have been
+  found until recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow
+  brought up another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the
+  impress of a plump human arm.
+
+  Col. C.�W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which
+  have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus:
+
+  "We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for
+  500 years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles
+  of stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under
+  one pile, but a grave has just been opened of the following
+  construction: A�pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face
+  upward; then over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the
+  form and features. On this was built a hot fire, which formed an
+  entire shield of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such
+  tomb gives a perfect cast of the form of the occupant."
+
+  Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these
+  archeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the
+  exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the mould, which
+  he reached through a layer of charcoal, and then with a trowel
+  excavated beneath it. The clay was not thoroughly baked, and no
+  impression of the corpse was left, except of the forehead and that
+  portion of the limbs between the ankles and the knees, and even
+  these portions of the mould crumbled. The body had been placed east
+  and west, the head toward the east. "I�had hoped," continues Mr.
+  McDowell, "that the cast in the clay would be as perfect as one I
+  found 51 years ago, a�fragment of which I presented to Colonel
+  Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on one side and on
+  the other of the fingers, that had pressed down the soft clay upon
+  the body interred beneath it." The mound-builders of the Ohio
+  valley, as has been shown, often placed a layer of clay over the
+  dead, but not in immediate contact, upon which they builded fires;
+  and the evidence that cremation was often resorted to in their
+  disposition are too abundant to be gainsaid.
+
+This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:[57]
+
+  Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his
+  attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient
+  race of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial
+  places were discovered where the bodies had been placed with the
+  face up and covered with a coating of plastic clay about an inch
+  thick. A�pile of wood was then placed on top and fired, which
+  consumed the body and baked the clay, which retained the impression
+  of the body. This was then lightly covered with earth.
+
+It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the cases
+are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in the
+extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of
+burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the
+ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster
+(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.
+
+Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been practiced
+by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who
+
+  Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders
+  nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole
+  of sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head
+  being cut off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows,
+  bead-work, trappings, &c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of
+  food, consisting of dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with
+  the body also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless
+  body; then a bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the grave by
+  the different members of the tribe, and on these fagots the head was
+  placed, the pile fired, and the head consumed to ashes; after this
+  was done the female relatives of the deceased, who had appeared as
+  mourners with their faces blackened with a preparation resembling
+  tar or paint, dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head
+  and made three marks on their right cheek. This constituted the
+  mourning garb, the period of which lasted until this black substance
+  wore off from the face. In addition to this mourning, the blood
+  female relatives of the deceased (who, by the way, appeared to be a
+  man of distinction) had their hair cropped short. I�noticed while
+  the head was burning that the old women of the tribe sat on the
+  ground, forming a large circle, inside of which another circle of
+  young girls were formed standing and swaying their bodies to and fro
+  and singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male
+  that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very different,
+  their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins and laid away in
+  caves, with their valuables and in some cases food being placed with
+  them in their mouths. Occasionally money is left to pay for food in
+  the spirit land.
+
+This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E.�A. Barber[58] has
+described what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one
+above noted:
+
+  A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice
+  recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New
+  Jersey bank of the Delaware River, a�short distance below Gloucester
+  City, the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position,
+  in a high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A�few
+  inches below the surface the neck bones were found, and below these
+  the remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of
+  the hands and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be
+  determined whether the remains were those of an Indian or of a white
+  man, but in either case the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal.
+  A�careful exhumation and critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil
+  disclosed the fact that around the lower extremities of the body had
+  been placed a number of large stones, which revealed traces of fire,
+  in conjunction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had
+  undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes it appear reasonably
+  certain that the subject had been executed, probably as a prisoner
+  of war. A�pit had been dug, in which he was placed erect, and a fire
+  kindled around him. Then he had been buried alive, or, at least, if
+  he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the
+  earth, with the exception of his head, which was left protruding
+  above the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it
+  seems probable that the head had either been burned or severed from
+  the body and removed, or else left a prey to ravenous birds. The
+  skeleton, which would have measured fully six feet in height, was
+  undoubtedly that of a man.
+
+Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning.
+The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an
+outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient
+Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with
+the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in
+the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment,
+placed a piece of money in the corpse's mouth, which was thought to be
+Charon's fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River.
+Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a certain cake,
+composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury of
+Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet
+entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.
+
+
+
+
+AERIAL SEPULTURE.
+
+
+_LODGE-BURIAL._
+
+Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,[59]
+and relates to the Sioux:
+
+  I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to
+  the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our
+  curiosity. There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie,
+  and in them we found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the
+  ground, wrapped in their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles,
+  spears, camp-kettles, and all their accoutrements piled up around
+  them. Some lodges contained three, others only one body, all of
+  which were more or less in a state of decomposition. A�short
+  distance apart from these was one lodge which, though small, seemed
+  of rather superior pretensions, and was evidently pitched with great
+  care. It contained the body of a young Indian girl of sixteen or
+  eighteen years, with a countenance presenting quite an agreeable
+  expression: she was richly dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth
+  elaborately ornamented; a�new pair of moccasins, beautifully
+  embroidered with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her body was
+  wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner; she had
+  evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our surprise a portion
+  of the upper part of her person was bare, exposing the face and a
+  part of the breast, as if the robes in which she was wrapped had by
+  some means been disarranged, whereas all the other bodies were
+  closely covered up. It was, at the time, the opinion of our
+  mountaineers, that these Indians must have fallen in an encounter
+  with a party of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they had all
+  died of the cholera, and that this young girl, being considered past
+  recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the habiliments of the
+  dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and abandoned to her fate, so
+  fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this to them novel and
+  terrible disease.
+
+It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, and
+due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the homes
+of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was not the
+case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among the same
+tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of their chiefs
+(Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:
+
+  The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the
+  base, converging to a point, at least 30 feet high, covered with
+  buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch,
+  which floats outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The
+  different skins are neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and
+  all painted in seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and
+  yellow, decorated with various lifelike war scenes. Over the small
+  entrance is a large bright cross, the upright being a large stuffed
+  white wolf-skin upon his war lance, and the cross-bar of bright
+  scarlet flannel, containing the quiver of bow and arrows, which
+  nearly all warriors still carry, even when armed with repeating
+  rifles. As the cross is not a pagan but a Christian (which Long
+  Horse was not either by profession or practice) emblem, it was
+  probably placed there by the influence of some of his white friends.
+  I�entered, finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war
+  dress, paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about
+  breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A�large
+  opening and wind-flap at the top favored ventilation, and though he
+  had lain there in an open coffin a full month, some of which was hot
+  weather, there was but little effluvia; in fact, I�have seldom found
+  much in a burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus
+  performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.
+
+This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is
+admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal
+of his article, that the facts are correct.
+
+General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the
+Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small
+scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins
+deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his
+side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then closed�up.
+
+Dr. W. J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of the
+Shoshones of Nevada:
+
+  The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known to have
+  at any time practiced cremation. In Independence Valley, under a
+  deserted and demolished _wickeup_ or "brush tent," I�found the
+  dried-up corpse of a boy, about twelve years of age. The body had
+  been here for at least six weeks, according to information received,
+  and presented a shriveled and hideous appearance. The dryness of the
+  atmosphere prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region
+  usually leave the body when life terminates, merely throwing over it
+  such rubbish as may be at hand, or the remains of their primitive
+  shelter tents, which are mostly composed of small branches, leaves,
+  grass,�&c.
+
+  The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the eastern banks
+  of the Owyhee River, upper portion of Nevada, did not bury their
+  dead at the time of my visit in 1871. Whenever the person died, his
+  lodge (usually constructed of poles and branches of _Salix_) was
+  demolished and placed in one confused mass over his remains, when
+  the band removed a short distance. When the illness is not too
+  great, or death sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable
+  place, some distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to
+  avoid the necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens, and other
+  carnivores soon remove all the flesh so that there remains nothing
+  but the bones, and even these are scattered by the wolves. The
+  Indians at Tuscarora, Nevada, stated that when it was possible and
+  that they should by chance meet the bony remains of any Shoshone,
+  they would bury it, but in what manner I failed to discover as the
+  were very reticent, and avoided giving any information regarding the
+  dead. One corpse was found totally dried and shrivelled, owing to
+  the dryness of the atmosphere in this region.
+
+Capt. F. W. Beechey[60] describes a curious mode of burial among the
+Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat
+similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a
+good idea of these burial receptacles.
+
+  Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to what we had
+  already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished several examples of the
+  manner in which this tribe of natives dispose of their dead. In some
+  instances a platform was constructed of drift-wood raised about two
+  feet and a quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed,
+  with its head to the westward and a double tent of drift-wood
+  erected over it, the inner one with spars about seven feet long, and
+  the outer one with some that were three times that length. They were
+  placed close together, and at first no doubt sufficiently so to
+  prevent the depredations of foxes and wolves, but they had yielded
+  at last, and all the bodies, and even the hides that covered them,
+  had suffered by these rapacious animals.
+
+  In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks, as at
+  Cape Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock made of eider
+  duck skins, with one of deer skin over it, and were covered with a
+  sea horse hide, such as the natives use for their _baidars_.
+  Suspended to the poles, and on the ground near them, were several
+  Esquimaux implements, consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a
+  tamborine, which, we were informed as well as signs could convey the
+  meaning of the natives, were placed there for the use of the
+  deceased, who, in the next world (pointing to the western sky) ate,
+  drank, and sang songs. Having no interpreter, this was all the
+  information I could obtain, but the custom of placing such
+  instruments around the receptacles of the dead is not unusual, and
+  in all probability the Esquimaux may believe that the soul has
+  enjoyments in the next world similar to those which constitute their
+  happiness in this.
+
+The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the
+Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J.�F. Hammond, U.S.A., place
+their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the
+northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in Figure�12.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Burial Houses.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Eskimo lodge burial.]
+
+Bancroft[61] states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a
+death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited
+palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
+attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently
+informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic
+accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the
+Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the
+floors of their houses, a�custom which has been followed by the Mosquito
+Indians of Central America and one or two of our own tribes.
+
+
+_BOX-BURIAL._
+
+Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain tribes
+on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead wonderfully
+carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a low platform
+or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small house with an
+angular roof, and each one has an opening through which food may be
+passed to the corpse.
+
+Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did
+the same.
+
+Capt. J. H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following relating
+to the Creeks in Indian Territory.
+
+  *�*�* are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute made of
+  branches of trees, covered with small branches, leaves, and earth.
+  I�have seen several of their graves, which after a few weeks had
+  become uncovered and the remains exposed to view. I�saw in one Creek
+  grave (a�child's) a�small sum of silver, in another (adult male)
+  some implements of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred
+  with the feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies
+  of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and faces with
+  a composition made of grease and wood ashes, and would remain in
+  that condition for several days, and probably a month.
+
+Josiah Priest[62] gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe
+of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The
+writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an
+example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.
+
+  The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there was no
+  bad smell, they were deposited in large wooden coffins, well
+  constructed, and placed upon benches two feet from the ground. In
+  smaller coffins, and in baskets, the Spaniards found the clothes of
+  the deceased men and women, and so many pearls that they distributed
+  them among the officers and soldiers by handsfulls.
+
+In Bancroft[63] may be found the following account of the burial boxes
+of the Esquimaux.
+
+  The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the body up
+  and place it on the side in a plank box which is elevated three or
+  four feet from the ground and supported by four posts. The grave-box
+  is often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes and animals.
+  Sometimes it is wrapped in skins placed upon an elevated frame and
+  covered with planks or trunks of trees so as to protect it from wild
+  beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are deposited the arms,
+  clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the deceased.
+  Frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where the
+  bodies lie exposed with their heads placed towards the north.
+
+Frederic Whymper[64] describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that
+Territory.
+
+  Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain only the
+  ashes of the dead. These people invariably burn the deceased. On one
+  of the boxes I saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human
+  hair depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of the
+  (happily) deceased one's ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more
+  esteemed than if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are
+  much ornamented with carved and painted faces and other devices.
+
+W. H. Dall,[65] well known as one of the most experienced and careful of
+American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the Innuits
+of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as follows: Figs.
+13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume noted.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Innuit Grave.]
+
+INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK.
+
+  The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its side in a
+  box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long. This
+  is elevated several feet above the ground on four posts which
+  project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with
+  red chalk in figures of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to
+  the wealth of the dead man, a�number of articles which belonged to
+  him are attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them
+  have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even
+  kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably
+  the wooden dish, or "kant�g," from which the deceased was accustomed
+  to eat, is hung on one of the posts.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ingalik grave.]
+
+INNUIT OF YUKON.
+
+  The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner previously
+  described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the sarcophagus,
+  which, in this case, is ornamented with snow-shoes, a�reel for
+  seal-lines, a�fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kant�g. The latter
+  is found with every grave, and usually one is placed in the box with
+  the body. Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is
+  placed in the coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is thus
+  disposed of. Generally the furs, possessions, and clothing (except
+  such as has been worn) are divided among the nearer relatives of the
+  dead, or remain in possession of his family if he has one; such
+  clothing, household utensils, and weapons as the deceased had in
+  daily use are almost invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are
+  many deaths about the same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything
+  belonging to the dead is destroyed. The house in which a death
+  occurs is always deserted and usually destroyed. In order to avoid
+  this, it is not uncommon to take the sick person out of the house
+  and put him in a tent to die. A�woman's coffin may be known by the
+  kettles and other feminine utensils about it. There is no
+  distinction between the sexes in method of burial. On the outside of
+  the coffin, figures are usually drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur
+  animals usually indicate that the dead person was a good trapper; if
+  seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter; representation of
+  parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of his death is also
+  occasionally indicated. For four days after a death the women in the
+  village do no sewing; for five days the men do not cut wood with an
+  axe. The relatives of the dead must not seek birds' eggs on the
+  overhanging cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under
+  them and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or
+  indicated, except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body,
+  chanting a mournful refrain until he is interred. They seldom
+  suspect that others have brought the death about by sham�nism, as
+  the Indians almost invariably�do.
+
+  At the end of a year from the death, a�festival is given, presents
+  are made to those who assisted in making the coffin, and the period
+  of mourning is over. Their grief seldom seems deep but they indulge
+  for a long time in wailing for the dead at intervals. I�have seen
+  several women who refused to take a second husband, and had remained
+  single in spite of repeated offers for many years.
+
+INGALIKS OF ULUKUK.
+
+  As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mik�la, one of
+  my men, informed me that it was women lamenting for the dead. On
+  landing, I�saw several Indians hewing out the box in which the dead
+  are placed. *�*�* The body lay on its side on a deer skin, the heels
+  were lashed to the small of the back, and the head bent forward on
+  the chest so that his coffin needed to be only about four feet long.
+
+
+_TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL._
+
+We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the most
+common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite extensively
+practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned the choice
+of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where timber
+abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being employed.
+
+From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has
+been received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the
+Brul� or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are
+called _Sicaugu_, in the Indian tongue _Seechaugas_, or the "burned
+thigh" people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only on
+account of its careful attention to details, but from its known
+truthfulness of description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.
+
+FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+  Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude boxes,
+  either burying them when implements for digging can be had, or, when
+  they have no means of making a grave, placing them on top of the
+  ground on some hill or other slight elevation, yet this is done in
+  imitation of the whites, and their general custom, as a people,
+  probably does not differ in any essential way from that of their
+  forefathers for many generations in the past. In disposing of the
+  dead, they wrap the body tightly in blankets or robes (sometimes
+  both) wind it all over with thongs made of the hide of some animal
+  and place it reclining on the back at full length, either in the
+  branches of some tree or on a scaffold made for the purpose. These
+  scaffolds are about eight feet high and made by planting four forked
+  sticks firmly in the ground, one at each corner and then placing
+  others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the body is
+  securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is placed on the
+  same scaffold, though generally a separate one is made for each
+  occasion. These Indians being in all things most superstitious,
+  attach a kind of sacredness to these scaffolds and all the materials
+  used or about the dead. This superstition is in itself sufficient to
+  prevent any of their own people from disturbing the dead, and for
+  one of another nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered
+  an offense not too severely punished by death. The same feeling also
+  prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or any of the wood which
+  has been used about them, even for firewood, though the necessity
+  may be very great, for fear some evil consequences will follow. It
+  is also the custom, though not universally followed, when bodies
+  have been for two years on the scaffolds to take them down and bury
+  them under ground.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Dakota Scaffold Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Offering Food to the Dead.]
+
+  All the work about winding up the dead, building the scaffold, and
+  placing the dead upon it is done by women only, who, after having
+  finished their labor, return and bring the men, to show them where
+  the body is placed, that they may be able to find it in future.
+  Valuables of all kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.--in
+  short, whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and
+  locks of hair cut from the heads of the mourners at his death, are
+  always bound up with the body. In case the dead was a man of
+  importance, or if the family could afford it, even though he were
+  not, one or several horses (generally, in the former case, those
+  which the departed thought most�of) are shot and placed under the
+  scaffold. The idea in this is that the spirit of the horse will
+  accompany and be of use to his spirit in the "happy hunting
+  grounds," or, as these people express it, "the spirit land."
+
+  When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death occurs, the
+  friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and begin crying over
+  the departed or departing one. This consists in uttering the most
+  heartrending, almost hideous wails and lamentations, in which all
+  join until exhausted. Then the mourning ceases for a time until some
+  one starts it again, when all join in as before and keep it up until
+  unable to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is removed.
+  This crying is done almost wholly by women, who gather in large
+  numbers on such occasions, and among them a few who are professional
+  mourners. These are generally old women and go whenever a person is
+  expected to die, to take the leading part in the lamentations,
+  knowing that they will be well paid at the distribution of goods
+  which follows. As soon as death takes place, the body is dressed by
+  the women in the best garments and blankets obtainable, new ones if
+  they can be afforded. The crowd gathered near continue wailing
+  piteously, and from time to time cut locks of hair from their own
+  heads with knives, and throw them on the dead body. Those who wish
+  to show their grief most strongly, cut themselves in various places,
+  generally in the legs and arms, with their knives or pieces of
+  flint, more commonly the latter, causing the blood to flow freely
+  over their persons. This custom is followed to a less degree by the
+  men.
+
+  A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the desire to
+  get the dead out of sight, the fear that the disease which caused
+  the death will communicate itself to others of the family causes
+  them to hasten the disposition of it as soon as they are certain
+  that death has actually taken place.
+
+  Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After that is
+  done, connected with which there seems to be no particular ceremony,
+  the few women who attend to it return to the lodge and a
+  distribution is made among them and others, not only of the
+  remaining property of the deceased, but of all the possessions, even
+  to the lodge itself of the family to which he belonged. This custom
+  in some cases has been carried so far as to leave the rest of the
+  family not only absolutely destitute but actually naked. After
+  continuing in this condition for a time, they gradually reach the
+  common level again by receiving gifts from various sources.
+
+  The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the dead,
+  a�strict observance of the ten days following the death, as follows:
+  They are to rise at a very early hour and work unusually hard all
+  day, joining in no feast, dance, game, or other diversion, eat but
+  little, and retire late, that they may be deprived of the usual
+  amount of sleep as of food. During this they never paint themselves,
+  but at various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead
+  in loud cries and lamentations for hours together. After the ten
+  days have expired they paint themselves again and engage in the
+  usual amusements of the people as before. The men are expected to
+  mourn and fast for one day and then go on the war-path against some
+  other tribe, or on some long journey alone. If he prefers, he can
+  mourn and fast for two or more days and remain at home. The custom
+  of placing food at the scaffold also prevails to some extent. If but
+  little is placed there it is understood to be for the spirit of the
+  dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If much is provided, it is
+  done with the intention that those of the same sex and age as the
+  deceased shall meet there and consume it. If the dead be a little
+  girl, the young girls meet and eat what is provided; if it be a man,
+  then men assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never mention
+  the name of the dead.
+
+"KEEPING THE GHOST."
+
+  Still another custom, though at the present day by no means
+  generally followed, is still observed to some extent among them.
+  This is called _wanagee yuhapee_, or "keeping the ghost." A�little
+  of the hair from the head of the deceased being preserved is bound
+  up in calico and articles of value until the roll is about two feet
+  long and ten inches or more in diameter, when it is placed in a case
+  made of hide handsomely ornamented with various designs in different
+  colored paints. When the family is poor, however, they may
+  substitute for this case blue or scarlet blanket or cloth. The roll
+  is then swung lengthwise between two supports made of sticks, placed
+  thus � in front of a lodge which has been set apart for the purpose.
+  In this lodge are gathered presents of all kinds, which are given
+  out when a sufficient quantity is obtained. It is often a year and
+  sometimes several years before this distribution is made. During all
+  this time the roll containing the hair of the deceased is left
+  undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they are brought in
+  are piled in the back part of the lodge, and are not to be touched
+  until given out. No one but men and boys are admitted to the lodge
+  unless it be a wife of the deceased, who may go in if necessary very
+  early in the morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke,
+  eat, and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their
+  pipes in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left
+  undisturbed until after the distribution. When they eat, a�portion
+  is always placed first under the roll outside for the spirit of the
+  deceased. No one is allowed to take this unless a large quantity is
+  so placed, in which case it may be eaten by any persons actually in
+  need of food, even though strangers to the dead. When the proper
+  time comes the friends of the deceased and all to whom presents are
+  to be given are called together to the lodge and the things are
+  given out by the man in charge. Generally this is some near relative
+  of the departed. The roll is now undone and small locks of the hair
+  distributed with the other presents, which ends the ceremony.
+
+  Sometimes this "keeping the ghost" is done several times, and it is
+  then looked upon as a repetition of the burial or putting away of
+  the dead. During all the time before the distribution of the hair,
+  the lodge, as well as the roll, is looked upon as in a manner
+  sacred, but after that ceremony it becomes common again and may be
+  used for any ordinary purpose. No relative or near friend of the
+  dead wishes to retain anything in his possession that belonged to
+  him while living, or to see, hear, or own anything which will remind
+  him of the departed. Indeed, the leading idea in all their burial
+  customs in the laying away with the dead their most valuable
+  possessions, the giving to others what is left of his and the family
+  property, the refusal to mention his name, &c., is to put out of
+  mind as soon and as effectual as possible the memory of the
+  departed.
+
+  From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they believe
+  each person to have a spirit which continues to live after the death
+  of the body. They have no idea of a future life in the body, but
+  believe that after death their spirits will meet and recognize the
+  spirits of their departed friends in the spirit land. They deem it
+  essential to their happiness here, however, to destroy as far as
+  practicable their recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of
+  death as a sleep, and of the dead as asleep or having gone to sleep
+  at such a time. These customs are gradually losing their hold upon
+  them, and are much less generally and strictly observed than
+  formerly.
+
+Figure 15 furnishes a good example of scaffold burial. Figure 16,
+offering of food and drink to the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead
+upon the scaffold.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Depositing the Corpse.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Tree-burial.]
+
+A. Delano,[66] mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he
+noticed in Nebraska.
+
+  *�*�* During the afternoon we passed a Sioux burying-ground, if I
+  may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a hackberry tree, elevated
+  about twenty feet from the ground, a�kind of rack was made of broken
+  tent poles, and the body (for there was but one) was placed upon it,
+  wrapped in his blanket, and a tanned buffalo skin, with his tin cup,
+  moccasins, and various things which he had used in life, were placed
+  upon his body, for his use in the land of spirits.
+
+Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend Dr.
+Washington Matthews, United States Army.
+
+John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:
+
+  Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose
+  the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed,
+  closely sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the
+  branches of a tree so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and
+  then left to slowly waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of
+  a squaw or child, it was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where
+  it soon became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes,
+  &c., of men were inclosed, and the small toys of children with them.
+  The ceremonies were equally barbarous, the relatives cutting off,
+  according to the depth of their grief, one or more joints of the
+  fingers, divesting themselves of clothing even in the coldest
+  weather, and filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing
+  up and burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men would
+  not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead body.
+
+The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and
+Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E.�H. Alden, United States Indian
+agent at Fort Berthold:
+
+  The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but always on
+  a scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet high, on which the
+  box is placed, or, if no box is used, the body wrapped in red or
+  blue cloth if able, or, if not, a�blanket of cheapest white cloth,
+  the tools and weapons being placed directly under the body, and
+  there they remain forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of
+  them. It would be bad medicine to touch the dead or anything so
+  placed belonging to him. Should the body by any means fall to the
+  ground, it is never touched or replaced on the scaffold. As soon as
+  one dies he is immediately buried, sometimes within an hour, and the
+  friends begin howling and wailing as the process of interment goes
+  on, and continue mourning day and night around the grave, without
+  food sometimes three or four days. Those who mourn are always paid
+  for it in some way by the other friends of the deceased, and those
+  who mourn the longest are paid the most. They also show their grief
+  and affection for the dead by a fearful cutting of their own bodies,
+  sometimes only in part, and sometimes all over their whole flesh,
+  and this sometimes continues for weeks. Their hair, which is worn in
+  long braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They seem proud
+  of their mutilations. A�young man who had just buried his mother
+  came in boasting of, and showing his mangled legs.
+
+According to Thomas L. McKenney,[67] the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis.,
+buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as
+follows:
+
+  One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place the
+  coffin or box containing their remains on two cross-pieces, nailed
+  or tied with wattap to four poles. The poles are about ten feet
+  high. They plant near these posts the wild hop or some other kind of
+  running vine, which spreads over and covers the coffin. I�saw one of
+  these on the island, and as I have described it. It was the coffin
+  of a child about four years old. It was near the lodge of the sick
+  girl. I�have a sketch of it. I�asked the chief why his people
+  disposed of their dead in that way. He answered they did not like to
+  put them out of their sight so soon by putting them under ground.
+  Upon a platform they could see the box that contained their remains,
+  and that was a comfort to them.
+
+Figure 19 is copied from McKenney's picture of this form of burial.
+
+Keating[68] thus describes burial scaffolds:
+
+  On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high, corpses
+  were deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair
+  was suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide
+  informed us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by
+  the relatives to testify their grief. In the center, between the
+  four posts which supported the scaffold, a�stake was planted in the
+  ground, it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human
+  figures, five of which had a design of a petticoat indicating them
+  to be females; the rest amounting to seven, were naked and were
+  intended for male figures; of the latter four were headless, showing
+  that they had been slain, the three other male figures were
+  unmutilated, but held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide
+  informed us designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an
+  usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a warrior's
+  remains, does not represent the achievements of the deceased, but
+  those of the warriors that assembled near his remains danced the
+  dance of the post, and related their martial exploits. A�number of
+  small bones of animals were observed in the vicinity, which were
+  probably left there after a feast celebrated in honor of the dead.
+
+  The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man
+  could not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country
+  where boxes and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the
+  corpses have remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down
+  and burned. Our guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a
+  witness to an interesting, though painful, circumstance that
+  occurred here. An Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing
+  that his son had died at this spot, came up in a canoe to take
+  charge of the remains and convey them down the river to his place of
+  abode but on his arrival he found that the corpse had already made
+  such progress toward decomposition as rendered it impossible for it
+  to be removed. He then undertook with a few friends, to clean off
+  the bones. All the flesh was scraped off and thrown into the stream,
+  the bones were carefully collected into his canoe, and subsequently
+  carried down to his residence.
+
+Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is
+the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis,
+United States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to
+the Cheyennes of Kansas.
+
+  The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of
+  Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by
+  four notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The
+  unusual care manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr.
+  Sternberg to infer that some important chief was inclosed in it.
+  Believing that articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and
+  that their value would be enhanced if the were received at the
+  Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to send the
+  case unopened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Chippewa Scaffold Burial.]
+
+  I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the
+  contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of
+  white willow, about six feet long, three feet broad, and three feet
+  high, with a flooring of buffalo thongs arranged as a net-work. This
+  cradle was securely fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles
+  of ironwood and cottonwood, about twelve feet in length. These poles
+  doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of the vertical poles
+  described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in two buffalo
+  robes of large size and well preserved. On removing these an
+  aperture eighteen inches square was found at the middle of the
+  right-side of the cradle or basket. Within appeared other buffalo
+  robes folded about the remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes.
+  Five robes were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we
+  came to a series of new blankets folded about the remains. There
+  were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one white. These being
+  removed, the next wrappings consisted of a striped white and gray
+  sack, and of a United States Infantry overcoat, like the other
+  coverings nearly new. We had now come apparently upon the immediate
+  envelope of the remains, which it was now evident must be those of a
+  child. These consisted of three robes, with hoods very richly
+  ornamented with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of
+  buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated
+  with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of blue
+  and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow, and the third
+  blue and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass bells
+  attached all about the borders by strings of beads.
+
+  The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that
+  used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and
+  upon a pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red
+  paint, bits of antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &c. The
+  three bead-work hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we
+  successively unwrapped a gray woolen double shawl, five yards of
+  blue cassimere, six yards of red calico, and six yards of brown
+  calico, and finally disclosed the remains of a child, probably about
+  a year old, in an advanced stage of decomposition. The cadaver had a
+  beaver-cap ornamented with disks of copper containing the bones of
+  the cranium, which had fallen apart. About the neck were long wampum
+  necklaces, with _Dentalium_, _Unionid�_, and _Auricul�_,
+  interspersed with beads. There were also strings of the pieces of
+  _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so valued by the Indians on
+  this side of the Rocky Mountains. The body had been elaborately
+  dressed for burial, the costume consisting of a red-flannel cloak,
+  a�red tunic, and frock-leggins adorned with bead-work, yarn
+  stockings of red and black worsted, and deer-skin beadwork
+  moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets, a�porcelain
+  image, a�China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a�pair of
+  mittens, a�fur collar, a�pouch of the skin of _Putorius vison_,�&c.
+
+Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished by
+Dr. L.�S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to
+the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious
+mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the
+entire globe:
+
+  The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be
+  found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay
+  the body, but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more
+  general practice is to lay them upon scaffolds from seven to ten
+  feet high and out of the reach of carnivorous animals, as the wolf.
+  These scaffolds are constructed upon four posts set into the ground
+  something after the manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like
+  all labors of a domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to
+  the women, usually the old women. The work begins as soon as life is
+  extinct. The face, neck, and hands are thickly painted with
+  vermilion, or a species of red earth found in various portions of
+  the Territory when the vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The
+  clothes and personal trinkets of the deceased ornament the body.
+  When blankets are available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts of
+  the body being completely enveloped. Around this a dressed skin of
+  buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the flesh side out, and the
+  whole securely bound with thongs of skins, either raw or dressed;
+  and for ornament, when available, a�bright-red blanket envelopes all
+  other coverings, and renders the general scene more picturesque
+  until dimmed by time and the elements. As soon as the scaffold is
+  ready, the body is borne by the women, followed by the female
+  relatives, to the place of final deposit, and left prone in its
+  secure wrappings upon this airy bed of death. This ceremony is
+  accompanied with lamentations wild and weird that one must see and
+  hear in order to appreciate. If the deceased be a brave, it is
+  customary to place upon or beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads
+  which time has rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been
+  brave in war some of his implements of battle are placed on the
+  scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If the deceased has been a
+  chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it is not uncommon to slay
+  his favorite pony and place the body beneath the scaffold, under the
+  superstition, I�suppose, that the horse goes with the man. As
+  illustrating the propensity to provide the dead with the things used
+  while living, I�may mention that some years ago I loaned to an old
+  man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a�young man who was
+  slowly dying of a wasting disease. I�made him promise faithfully
+  that he would return it as soon as his son was done using it. Not
+  long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which held the
+  remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been
+  returned I presume the young man is not done using�it.
+
+  The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be
+  of universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never
+  cut under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck,
+  and the top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole
+  body, are smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk,
+  moistened with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family
+  possessions except the few shabby articles of apparel worn by the
+  mourners, are given away and the family left destitute. Thus far the
+  custom is universal or nearly so. The wives, mother, and sisters of
+  a deceased man, on the first, second, or third day after the
+  funeral, frequently throw off their moccasins and leggings and gash
+  their legs with their butcher-knives, and march through the camp and
+  to the place of burial with bare and bleeding extremities, while
+  they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. The men likewise
+  often gash themselves in many places, and usually seek the solitude
+  of the higher point on the distant prairie, where they remain
+  fasting, smoking, and wailing out their lamentations for two or
+  three days. A�chief who had lost a brother once came to me after
+  three or four days of mourning in solitude almost exhausted from
+  hunger and bodily anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both
+  lower extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from the
+  ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed from
+  exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me that he had not
+  slept for several days or nights. I�dressed his wounds with a
+  soothing ointment, and gave him a full dose of an effective anodyne,
+  after which he slept long and refreshingly, and awoke to express his
+  gratitude and shake my hand in a very cordial and sincere manner.
+  When these harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the mourners
+  usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial, toward
+  the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until it is apparently
+  assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up for more than
+  four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at intervals,
+  for weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the bereft.
+  I�have seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle of an
+  old father going daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows
+  are lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would move
+  a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when, silent
+  and solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect of
+  this observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a
+  grown-up son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of
+  the scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence.
+  The foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during
+  a period of more than six years' constant intercourse with several
+  subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory
+  has failed to recall upon a brief consideration.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Scarification at Burial.]
+
+Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for the
+dead.
+
+Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner's narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.
+
+Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to
+have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation,
+and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., were
+thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles supposed or
+known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also consumed. The
+Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, Caribs, and many of
+the tribes of North American Indians followed these customs. The cutting
+of hair as a mourning observance is of very great antiquity, and Tegg
+relates that among the ancients whole cities and countries were shaved
+(_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians not only shaved themselves
+on such occasions, but extended the same process to their domestic
+animals, and Alexander, at the death of Heph�stin, not only cut off the
+manes of his horses and mules, but took down the battlements from the
+city walls, that even towns might seem in mourning and look bald.
+Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed from a remote period of
+time, having possibly replaced, in the process of evolution, to a
+certain extent, the more barbarous practice of absolute personal
+sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human sacrifices have taken
+place to only a limited extent, but formerly many victims were
+immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida and Carolina
+Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for the reason,
+according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun
+descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as all other
+members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only persons of
+an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among some tribes
+of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by
+no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans,
+and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutr�,
+in France, the writer saw horses' bones exhumed from the graves examined
+in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this
+subject, and they have invariably informed him that when horses were
+slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the band.
+
+Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+Colchians enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to trees;
+the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to the use
+of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it seems
+somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the eastern
+portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in this way,
+which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much easier
+method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living in
+sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that the
+Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, the
+fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to the
+supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the
+desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This
+desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.
+
+The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in loud
+cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a greater
+significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and on this
+point Bruhier[69] seems quite positive, his interpretation being that
+such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some
+interesting examples, which may be admitted here:
+
+  The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with
+  comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to
+  leave this world, having everything to make life comfortable. They
+  place the corpse on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five
+  feet deep, and for ten days they bring food, requesting the corpse
+  to eat. Finally, being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor
+  return to life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and
+  fill up the grave.
+
+When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the body,
+closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received the
+last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased
+by name was known as the _conclamation_, and was a custom anterior even
+to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately
+removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater
+propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves
+on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the
+Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number,
+performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village
+church steeple and again at the grave[70*]. This custom, however, was
+probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to
+prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad
+spirits.
+
+W. L. Hardisty[71] gives a curious example of log-burial in trees,
+relating to the Loucheux of British America:
+
+  They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure
+  it to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A�log about
+  eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts
+  carefully hollowed out to the required size. The body is then
+  inclosed and the two pieces well lashed together, preparatory to
+  being finally secured, as before stated, to the trees.
+
+The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing
+scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood[72] gives a number
+of examples of this mode of burial.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Australian Scaffold Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Preparing the Dead.]
+
+  In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the
+  body by fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a
+  peculiarly conspicuous object. Should a tree grow favorably for
+  their purpose, they will employ it as the final resting place for
+  the dead body. Lying in its canoe coffin, and so covered over with
+  leaves and grass that its shape is quite disguised, the body is
+  lifted into a convenient fork of the tree and lashed to the boughs,
+  by native ropes. No farther care is taken of it, and if in process
+  of time it should be blown out of the tree, no one will take the
+  trouble of replacing�it.
+
+  Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial
+  platform is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches
+  in the ground and connecting them at their tops by smaller
+  horizontal branches. Such are the curious tombs which are
+  represented in the illustration. *�*�* These strange tombs are
+  mostly placed among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful
+  than the sound of the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch
+  in which the corpse is lying. The object of this aerial tomb is
+  evident enough, namely, to protect the corpse from the dingo, or
+  native dog. That the ravens and other carrion-eating birds should
+  make a banquet upon the body of the dead man does not seem to
+  trouble the survivors in the least, and it often happens that the
+  traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed ravens that the body
+  of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over his head.
+
+  The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who
+  have died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in
+  battle the body is treated in a very different manner. A�moderately
+  high platform is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the
+  dead warrior with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are
+  crossed and the arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is
+  then removed, and after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over
+  the body, which has previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is
+  done in the ceremony of initiation. The legs and arms are covered
+  with zebra-like stripes of red, white, and yellow, and the weapons
+  of the dead man are laid across his lap.
+
+  The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform,
+  and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the
+  friends and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to
+  speak. Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their
+  duty being to see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to
+  keep the flies away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu
+  feathers. When a body has been treated in this manner it becomes
+  hard and mummy-like, and the strongest point is that the wild dogs
+  will not touch it after it has been so long smoked. It remains
+  sitting on the platform for two months or so, and is then taken down
+  and buried, with the exception of the skull, which is made into a
+  drinking-cup for the nearest relative. *�*�*
+
+This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as the
+process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from decomposition.
+
+Figs. 21 and 22 represent the Australian burials described, and are
+after the original engravings in Wood's work. The one representing
+scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of our own Indians.
+
+With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead,
+the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are given:
+
+  If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead
+  bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds
+  resembling trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning
+  them and preserving their ashes in urns, I�think we can answer the
+  inquiry by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American
+  Indians, as well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed
+  that the human soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and
+  nature of a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their
+  habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the soul-bird would
+  have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place if it was
+  placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the earth;
+  moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest
+  secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard
+  like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.
+
+This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the writer's
+possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct without
+farther investigation.
+
+
+_PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES._
+
+Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by
+writers "bone-houses." Roman[73] relates the following concerning the
+Choctaws:
+
+  The following treatment of the dead is very strange. *�*�* As soon
+  as the deceased is departed, a�stage is erected (as�in the annexed
+  plate is represented) and the corpse is laid on it and covered with
+  a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it is decorated, and the poles
+  painted red with vermillion and bear's oil; if a child, it is put
+  upon stakes set across; at this stage the relations come and weep,
+  asking many questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did
+  not his wife serve him well? was he not contented with his children?
+  had he not corn enough? did not his land produce sufficient of
+  everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c., and this accompanied
+  by loud howlings; the women will be there constantly, and sometimes,
+  with the corrupted air and heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige
+  the bystanders to carry them home; the men will also come and mourn
+  in the same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable times
+  when they are least likely to be discovered.
+
+  The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain
+  time, but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or
+  four months, but seldom more than half that time. A�certain set of
+  venerable old Gentlemen, who wear very long nails as a
+  distinguishing badge on the thumb, fore, and middle finger of each
+  hand, constantly travel through the nation (when I was there I was
+  told there were but five of this respectable order) that one of them
+  may acquaint those concerned, of the expiration of this period,
+  which is according to their own fancy; the day being come, the
+  friends and relations assemble near the stage, a�fire is made, and
+  the respectable operator, after the body is taken down, with his
+  nails tears the remaining flesh off the bones, and throws it with
+  the entrails into the fire, where it is consumed; then he scrapes
+  the bones and burns the scrapings likewise; the head being painted
+  red with vermillion is with the rest of the bones put into a neatly
+  made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and deposited in the
+  loft of a hut built for that purpose, and called bone house; each
+  town has one of these; after remaining here one year or thereabouts,
+  if he be a man of any note, they take the chest down, and in an
+  assembly of relations and friends they weep once more over him,
+  refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him
+  to lasting oblivion.
+
+  An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as
+  one to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial
+  obsequies and mourning.
+
+Jones[74] quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the
+Natchez tribe:
+
+  Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs.
+  These tombs were located within or very near their temples. They
+  rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were
+  raised some three feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a
+  foot and a half wide, they were prepared for the reception of a
+  single corpse. After the body was placed upon it, a�basket-work of
+  twigs was woven around and covered with mud, an opening being left
+  at the head, through which food was presented to the deceased. When
+  the flesh had all rotted away, the bones were taken out, placed in a
+  box made of canes, and then deposited in the temple. The common dead
+  were mourned and lamented for a period of three days. Those who fell
+  in battle were honored with a more protracted and grievous
+  lamentation.
+
+Bartram[75] gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial
+among the Choctaws of Carolina:
+
+  The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a
+  very different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a
+  scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where
+  they lay the corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is
+  suffered to remain, visited and protected by the friends and
+  relations, until the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from
+  the bones; then undertakers, who make it their business, carefully
+  strip the flesh from the bones, wash and cleanse them, and when dry
+  and purified by the air, having provided a curiously-wrought chest
+  or coffin, fabricated of bones and splints, they place all the bones
+  therein, which is deposited in the bone-house, a�building erected
+  for that purpose in every town; and when this house is full a
+  general solemn funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or
+  friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the
+  bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following one
+  another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and connections
+  attending their respective corps, and the multitude following after
+  them, all as one family, with united voice of alternate allelujah
+  and lamentation, slowly proceeding on to the place of general
+  interment, when they place the coffins in order, forming a
+  pyramid;[76*] and, lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a
+  conical hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn
+  procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is called the
+  feast of the dead.
+
+Morgan[77] also alludes to this mode of burial:
+
+  The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding erected
+  upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to
+  waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of
+  decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the
+  former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house by its side,
+  prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the
+  whole family were preserved from generation to generation by the
+  filial or parental affection of the living. After the lapse of a
+  number of years, or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve
+  of abandoning a settlement, it was customary to collect these
+  skeletons from the whole community around and consign them to a
+  common resting-place.
+
+  To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless
+  to be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which have been found in
+  such numbers in various parts of the country. On opening these
+  mounds the skeletons are usually found arranged in horizontal
+  layers, a�conical pyramid, those in each layer radiating from a
+  common center. In other cases they are found placed promiscuously.
+
+Dr. D. G. Brinton[78] likewise gives an account of the interment of
+collected bones:
+
+  East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated
+  periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to collect and clean
+  the osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the
+  intervening time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with
+  choice furs, and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such
+  is the origin of those immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains
+  of nations and generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent
+  curiosity, so frequently chances upon in all portions of our
+  territory. Throughout Central America the same usage obtained in
+  various localities, as early writers and existing monuments
+  abundantly testify. Instead of interring the bones, were they those
+  of some distinguished chieftain, they were deposited in the temples
+  or the council-houses, usually in small chests of canes or splints.
+  Such were the charnel-houses which the historians of De Soto's
+  expedition so often mention, and these are the "arks" Adair and
+  other authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians
+  from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient Israelites bore
+  with them in their migration.
+
+  A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her
+  deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them
+  in such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc.
+  Exp., p.�200). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for
+  all, without exception. About a year after death the bones were
+  cleaned, bleached, painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a
+  wicker basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling
+  (Gumilla Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity
+  of these heirlooms became burdensome they were removed to some
+  inaccessible cavern and stowed away with reverential care.
+
+George Catlin[79] describes what he calls the "Golgothas" of the
+Mandans:
+
+  There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty
+  feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a
+  little mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo
+  skulls (a�male and female), and in the center of the little mound is
+  erected "a�medicine pole," of about twenty feet high, supporting
+  many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they
+  suppose have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred
+  arrangement.
+
+  Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to
+  evince their further affections for the dead, not in groans and
+  lamentations, however, for several years have cured the anguish, but
+  fond affection and endearments are here renewed, and conversations
+  are here held and cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls
+  is placed upon a bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and
+  placed under it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the
+  skull of her husband or her child which lies in this group, and
+  there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it with a dish of
+  the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, which she sets before
+  the skull at night, and returns for the dish in the morning. As soon
+  as it is discovered that the sage on which the skull rests is
+  beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and places the
+  skull carefully upon it, removing that which was under�it.
+
+  Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this
+  spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold
+  converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a
+  pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or
+  lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the
+  most pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as�they were
+  wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Canoe Burial.]
+
+From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which have
+been described by the authors cited were not confined to any special
+tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have prevailed
+among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.
+
+
+_SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES._
+
+The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.
+
+The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington Territory,
+and may be found in Swan.[80]
+
+  In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a�celebrated doctor,
+  were the chief mourners, probably from being the smartest scamps
+  among the relatives. Their duty was to prepare the canoe for the
+  reception of the body. One of the largest and best the deceased had
+  owned was then hauled into the woods, at some distance back of the
+  lodge, after having been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two
+  large square holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and
+  stern, for the twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for
+  further use, and therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the
+  whites (who are but too apt to help themselves to these depositories
+  for the dead), and also to allow any rain to pass off readily.
+
+  When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets, was
+  brought out, and laid in it on mats previously spread. All the
+  wearing apparel was next put in beside the body, together with her
+  trinkets, beads, little baskets, and various trifles she had prized.
+  More blankets were then covered over the body, and mats smoothed
+  over all. Next, a�small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was
+  placed, bottom up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with
+  mats. The canoe was then raised up and placed on two parallel bars,
+  elevated four or five feet from the ground, and supported by being
+  inserted through holes mortised at the top of four stout posts
+  previously firmly planted in the earth. Around these holes were then
+  hung blankets, and all the cooking utensils of the deceased, pots,
+  kettles, and pans, each with a hole punched through it, and all her
+  crockery-ware, every piece of which was first cracked or broken, to
+  render it useless; and then, when all was done, they left her to
+  remain for one year, when the bones would be buried in a box in the
+  earth directly under the canoe; but that, with all its appendages,
+  would never be molested, but left to go to gradual decay.
+
+  They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and would
+  no more think of using one than we would of using our own graveyard
+  relics; and it is, in their view, as much of a desecration for a
+  white man to meddle or interfere with these, to them, sacred
+  mementoes, as it would be to us to have an Indian open the graves of
+  our relatives. Many thoughtless white men have done this, and
+  animosities have been thus occasioned.
+
+Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.
+
+From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the Twanas,
+and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency,
+Washington Territory, is selected:
+
+  The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age,
+  dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I
+  went to the house to attend the funeral. She had then been placed in
+  a Hudson's Bay Company's box for a coffin, which was about 3�
+  feet long, 1� wide, and 1� high. She was very poor when she died,
+  owing to her disease, or she could not have been put in this box.
+  A�fire was burning near by, where a large number of her things had
+  been consumed, and the rest was in three boxes near the coffin. Her
+  mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with others, and often
+  saying, "My daughter, my daughter, why did you die?" and similar
+  words. The burial did not take place until the next day, and I was
+  invited to go. It was an aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was
+  about 25 feet long. The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were
+  about a foot wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were
+  placed, on which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this
+  was done which was new to me, but the significance of which I did
+  not learn. As fast as the holes were cut in the posts, green leaves
+  were gathered and placed over the holes until the posts were put in
+  the ground. The coffin-box and the three others containing her
+  things were placed in the canoe and a roof of boards made over the
+  central part, which was entirely covered with white cloth. The head
+  part and the foot part of her bedstead were then nailed on to the
+  posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed on each of these.
+  After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull and went to the
+  beach except her father, mother, and brother, who remained ten or
+  fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning. They then came
+  down and made a present to those persons who were there--a gun to
+  one, a�blanket to each of two or three others, and a dollar and a
+  half to each of the rest, including myself, there being about
+  fifteen persons present. Three or four of them then made short
+  speeches, and we came home.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Twana Canoe-Burial.]
+
+  The reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a
+  prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected
+  that there will be a "_pot-latch_" or distribution of money near
+  this place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation
+  of two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at the
+  grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried in the
+  ground. Shortly after her death both her father and mother cut off
+  their hair as a sign of their grief.
+
+Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and represents
+the burial mentioned in his narrative.
+
+The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed
+canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by
+Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of
+the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized
+by painstaking attention to detail:
+
+  I divide this subject into five periods, varying according to time,
+  though they are somewhat intermingled.
+
+  (_a_) There are places where skulls and skeletons have been plowed
+  up or still remain in the ground and near together, in such a way as
+  to give good ground for the belief which is held by white residents
+  in the region, that formerly persons were buried in the ground and
+  in irregular cemeteries. I�know of such places in Duce Waillops
+  among the Twanas, and at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the
+  Clallams. These graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the
+  present day profess to have no knowledge as to who is buried in
+  them, except that they believe, undoubtedly, that they are the
+  graves of their ancestors. I�do not know that any care has ever been
+  exercised by any one in exhuming these skeletons so as to learn any
+  particulars about them. It is possible, however, that these persons
+  were buried according to the (_b_) or canoe method, and that time
+  has buried them where they now are.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Posts for Burial Canoes.]
+
+  (_b_) Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the forks
+  of two trees and left there. There was no particular cemetery, but
+  the person was generally left near the place where the death
+  occurred. The Skokomish Valley is said to have been full of canoes
+  containing persons thus buried. What their customs were while
+  burying, or what they placed around the dead, I�am not informed but
+  am told that they did not take as much care then of their dead as
+  they do now. I�am satisfied, however, that they then left some
+  articles around the dead. An old resident informs me that the
+  Clallam Indians always bury their dead in a sitting posture.
+
+  (_c_) About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in British
+  Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region, unprincipled white
+  men took many of the canoes in which the Indian dead had been left,
+  emptying them of their contents. This incensed the Indians and they
+  changed their mode of burial somewhat by burying the dead in one
+  place, placing them in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by
+  building scaffolds for them instead of placing them in forks of
+  trees, and in cutting their canoes so as to render them useless,
+  when they were used as coffins or left by the side of the dead. The
+  ruins of one such graveyard now remain about two miles from this
+  agency. Nearly all the remains were removed a few years ago.
+
+  With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I have
+  drawn. Fig. 25 shows that at present only one pair of posts remains.
+  I�have supplied the other pair as they evidently were.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tent on Scaffold.]
+
+  Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part which is
+  covered with board and cloth incloses the coffin which is on a
+  scaffold.
+
+  As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites they have
+  learned to bury in the ground, and this is the most common method at
+  the present time. There are cemeteries everywhere where Indians have
+  resided any length of time. After a person has died a coffin is made
+  after the cheaper kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it,
+  and also with it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes,
+  though occasionally money. I�lately heard of a child being buried
+  with a twenty-dollar gold piece in each hand and another in its
+  month, but I am not able to vouch for the truth of it. As a general
+  thing, money is too valuable with them for this purpose and there is
+  too much temptation for some one to rob the grave when this is left
+  in�it.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.--House-Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.--House-Burial.]
+
+  (_d_) The grave is dug after the style of the whites and the coffin
+  then placed in it. After it has been covered it is customary though
+  not universal, to build some kind of an inclosure over it or around
+  it in the shape of a small house, shed, lodge or fence. These are
+  from 2 to 12 feet high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet
+  long. Some of these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to
+  see within and some are quite open. Occasionally a window is placed
+  in the front side. Sometimes these enclosures are covered with
+  cloth, which is generally white, sometimes partly covered, and some
+  have none. Around the grave, both outside and inside of the
+  inclosure, various articles are placed, as guns, canoes, dishes,
+  pails, cloth, sheets, blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and
+  occasionally a roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said
+  that around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few
+  years ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of these
+  articles are cut or broken so as to render them valueless to man and
+  to prevent their being stolen. Poles are also often erected, from 10
+  to 30 feet long, on which American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes,
+  and cloths of various colors are hung. A�few graves have nothing of
+  this kind. On some graves these things are renewed every year or
+  two. This depends mainly on the number of relatives living and the
+  esteem in which they hold the deceased.
+
+  The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it away
+  particle by particle to the spirit of the deceased in the spirit
+  land, and also as these articles decay they are also carried away in
+  a similar manner. I�have never known of the placing food near a
+  grave. Figures 27 and 28 will give you some idea of this class of
+  graves. Figure 27 has a paling fence 12 feet square around it.
+  Figure 28 is simply a frame over a grave where there is no
+  enclosure.
+
+  (_e_) _Civilized mode._--A few persons, of late, have fallen almost
+  entirely into the American custom of burying, building a simple
+  paling fence around it, but placing no articles around it; this is
+  more especially true of the Clallams.
+
+FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
+
+  In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances of
+  sections (_a_) and (_b_) of the preceding subject I know nothing. In
+  regard to (_c_) and (_d_), they begin to mourn, more especially the
+  women, as soon as a person dies. Their mourning song consists
+  principally of the sounds represented by the three English notes mi
+  mi, do do, la la; those who attend the funeral are expected to bring
+  some articles to place in the coffin or about the grave as a token
+  of respect for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this
+  purpose have been cloth of some kind; a�small piece of cloth is
+  returned by the mourners to the attendants as a token of
+  remembrance. They bury much sooner after death than white persons
+  do, generally as soon as they can obtain a coffin. I�know of no
+  other native funeral ceremonies. Occasionally before being taken to
+  the grave, I�have held Christian funeral ceremonies over them, and
+  these services increase from year to year. One reason which has
+  rendered them somewhat backward about having these funeral services
+  is, that they are quite superstitions about going near the dead,
+  fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased will enter
+  the living and kill them also. Especially are they afraid of having
+  children go near, being much more fearful of the effect of the evil
+  spirit on them than on older persons.
+
+MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+  They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning, but
+  often continue it after the burial, though I do not know that they
+  often visit the grave. If they feel the loss very much, sometimes
+  they will mourn nearly every day for several weeks; especially is
+  this true when they meet an old friend who has not been seen since
+  the funeral, or when they see an article owned by the deceased which
+  they have not seen for a long time. The only other thing of which I
+  think, which bears on this subject, is an idea they have, that
+  before a person dies--it may be but a short time or it may be
+  several months--a spirit from the spirit land comes and carries off
+  the spirit of the individual to that place. There are those who
+  profess to discover when this is done, and if by any of their
+  incantations they can compel that spirit to return, the person will
+  not die, but if they are not able, then the person will become dead
+  at heart and in time die, though it may not be for six months or
+  even twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a
+  pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has recently
+  been published by the Department of the Interior, under Prof. F.�V.
+  Hayden, United States Geologist.
+
+George Gibbs[81] gives a most interesting account of the burial
+ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, which is
+here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples of other
+modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative
+would destroy the thread of the story:
+
+  The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes
+  was in canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some
+  prominent point a short distance from the village, and sometimes
+  placed between the forks of trees or raised from the ground on
+  posts. Upon the Columbia River the Tsin�k had in particular two very
+  noted cemeteries, a�high isolated bluff about three miles below the
+  mouth of the Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance
+  above, called Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been
+  very ancient. Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver's lieutenants, who
+  explored the river, makes mention only of _several_ canoes at this
+  place; and Lewis and Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of
+  them at all, but at the time of Captain Wilkes's expedition it is
+  conjectured that there were at least 3,000. A�fire caused by the
+  carelessness of one of his party destroyed the whole, to the great
+  indignation of the Indians.
+
+  Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river
+  in 1839, remarks: "In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great
+  ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague.
+  Consequently Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent
+  shores, were studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our
+  visit the skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all
+  directions." This method generally prevailed on the neighboring
+  coasts, as at Shoal Water Bay, &c. Farther up the Columbia, as at
+  the Cascades, a�different form was adopted, which is thus described
+  by Captain Clarke:
+
+  "About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the
+  woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight
+  vaults, made of pine cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet
+  square and 6 in height, the top securely covered with wide boards,
+  sloping a little, so as to convey off the rain. The direction of all
+  these is east and west, the door being on the eastern side, and
+  partially stopped with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of
+  men and other animals. On entering we found in some of them four
+  dead bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of grass
+  and bark, lying on a mat in a direction east and west; the other
+  vaults contained only bones, which in some of them were piled to a
+  height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults and on poles attached to
+  them hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in their bottoms,
+  baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of
+  trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection,
+  which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity of war
+  or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of
+  the walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures
+  cut and painted on them, and besides these were several wooden
+  images of men, some of them so old and decayed as to have almost
+  lost their shape, which were all placed against the sides of the
+  vault. These images, as well as those in the houses we have lately
+  seen, do not appear to be at all the objects of adoration in this
+  place; they were most probably intended as resemblances of those
+  whose decease they indicate, and when we observe them in houses they
+  occupy the most conspicuous part, but are treated more like
+  ornaments than objects of worship. Near the vaults which are still
+  standing are the remains of others on the ground, completely rotted
+  and covered with moss; and as they are formed of the most durable
+  pine and cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a very
+  long series of years this retired spot has been the depository for
+  the Indians near this place."
+
+  Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few
+  miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The _Watlala_, a
+  tribe of the Upper Tsin�k, whose burial place is here described, are
+  now nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in
+  different states of preservation. The position of the body, as
+  noticed by Clarke, is, I�believe, of universal observance, the head
+  being always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that
+  the road to the _m�-mel-�s-illa-hee_, the country of the dead, is
+  toward the west, and if they place them otherwise they would be
+  confused. East of the Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are
+  equestrian, and who use canoes only for ferriage or transportation
+  purposes, bury their dead, usually heaping over them piles of
+  stones, either to mark the spot or to prevent the bodies from being
+  exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many of their
+  graves placed in conspicuous points of the basaltic walls which line
+  the lower valleys, and designated by a clump of poles planted over
+  them, from which fluttered various articles of dress. Formerly these
+  prairie tribes killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling
+  into disuse in consequence of the teachings of the whites.
+
+  Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among
+  the Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of
+  box, rudely constructed of boards, and elsewhere on the Sound the
+  same method is adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are
+  placed on elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the
+  Indians upon the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a
+  distance from it buried them. Most of the graves are surrounded with
+  strips of cloth, blankets, and other articles of property. Mr.
+  Cameron, an English gentleman residing at Esquimalt Harbor,
+  Vancouver Island, informed me that on his place there were graves
+  having at each corner a large stone, the interior space filled with
+  rubbish. The origin of these was unknown to the present Indians.
+
+  The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked;
+  persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little
+  care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly
+  attracted to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that
+  at Port Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing
+  the skeletons of young children, and, what is not easily explained,
+  small square boxes, containing, apparently, food. I�do not think
+  that any of these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor
+  have I been able to learn from living Indians that they formerly
+  followed that practice. What he took for such I do not understand.
+  He also mentions seeing in the same place a cleared space recently
+  burned over, in which the skulls and bones of a number lay among the
+  ashes. The practice of burning the dead exists in parts of
+  California and among the Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also
+  pursued by the "Carriers" of New California, but no intermediate
+  tribes, to my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the Sound do
+  not at present.
+
+  It is clear from Vancouver's narrative that some great epidemic had
+  recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity
+  of human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit,
+  and very probably the Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in
+  which the inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is
+  frequently done. They almost invariably remove from any place where
+  sickness has prevailed, generally destroying the house also.
+
+  At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver's officers, noticed
+  several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them
+  were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied
+  up in baskets. The smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed,
+  but not one of the limb bones was found, which gave rise to an
+  opinion that these, by the living inhabitants of the neighborhood,
+  were appropriated to useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows,
+  spears, or other weapons.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Canoe Burial.]
+
+  It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether
+  foreign to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably
+  been removed and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are
+  variously disposed of; sometimes by suspending them, at others by
+  placing in the hollows of trees. A�cemetery devoted to infants is,
+  however, an unusual occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note
+  much pomp was used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes
+  were of great size and value--the war or state canoes of the
+  deceased. Frequently one was inverted over that holding the body,
+  and in one instance, near Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited
+  in a small canoe, which again was placed in a larger one and covered
+  with a third. Among the _Tsin�k_ and _Ts�halis_ the _tamahno-�s_
+  board of the owner was placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do
+  not make these _tamahno-�s_ boards, but they sometimes constructed
+  effigies of their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as
+  possible, dressed in his usual costume, and wearing the articles of
+  which he was fond. One of these, representing the Skagit chief
+  Sneestum, stood very conspicuously upon a high bank on the eastern
+  side of Whidbey Island. The figures observed by Captain Clarke at
+  the Cascades were either of this description or else the carved
+  posts which had ornamented the interior of the houses of the
+  deceased, and were connected with the superstition of the
+  _tamahno-�s_. The most valuable articles of property were put into
+  or hung up around the grave, being first carefully rendered
+  unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped to do
+  honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have been practiced in
+  parting with articles so precious, but those interested frequently
+  had the least to say on the subject. The graves of women were
+  distinguished by a cap, a�Kamas stick, or other implement of their
+  occupation, and by articles of dress.
+
+  Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
+  deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied
+  to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this
+  practice has been almost entirely given up, but till within a very
+  few years it was not uncommon. A�case which occurred in 1850 has
+  been already mentioned. Still later, in 1853, Toke, a�Tsin�k chief
+  living at Shoalwater Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging
+  to his daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be
+  done. The woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the woods
+  half starved. Her master attempted to reclaim her, but was soundly
+  thrashed and warned against another attempt.
+
+  It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a
+  considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of the
+  burial-place. With the common class of persons family pride or
+  domestic affection was satisfied with the gathering together of the
+  bones after the flesh had decayed and wrapping them in a new mat.
+  The violation of the grave was always regarded as an offense of the
+  first magnitude and provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher
+  remarks: "Great secrecy is observed in all their burial ceremonies,
+  partly from fear of Europeans, and as among themselves they will
+  instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb or wage war if
+  perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate and tenaceously
+  bent on revenge should they discover that any act of the kind has
+  been perpetrated by a white man. It is on record that part of the
+  crew of a vessel on her return to this port (the Columbia) suffered
+  because a person who belonged to her (but not then in her) was known
+  to have taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had
+  become an object of curiosity." He adds, however, that at the period
+  of his visit to the river "the skulls and skeletons were scattered
+  about in all directions; and as I was on most of their positions
+  unnoticed by the natives, I�suspect the feeling does not extend much
+  beyond their relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body,
+  goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as their
+  canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care taken by placing
+  them in sequestered spots."
+
+  The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of
+  death will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas.
+  Wailing for the dead is continued for a long time, and it seems to
+  be rather a ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief.
+  The duty, of course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is
+  usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a
+  little distant from the lodge or camp and in a loud, sobbing voice
+  repeat a sort of stereotyped formula; as, for instance, a�mother, on
+  the loss of her child, "_A�seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud!
+  ad-de-dah_," "Ah chief!" "My child dead, alas!" When in dreams they
+  see any of their deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.
+
+With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned by
+Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing to
+die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom
+has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the
+individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states
+that--
+
+  In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died,
+  those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved
+  ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed
+  themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that
+  they might wait upon him in the land of spirits.
+
+It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this
+revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATIC BURIAL.
+
+
+As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead has
+never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes.
+Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are
+informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy,
+living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed
+their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred
+to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans,
+with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or
+about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder "the
+beautiful," it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which
+was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The
+Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to
+Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of
+room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of
+thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee "seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the
+river."
+
+The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of
+sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their
+bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J.�G. Wood[82] states that the
+Obongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the
+course of which has been previously diverted. A�deep grave is dug in the
+bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over carefully.
+Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so that all
+traces of the grave are soon lost.
+
+The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply
+sinking the body in some stream.
+
+Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to that
+employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosen�a, a�town of Calabria, the
+Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and having made a
+grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most rapid, they
+interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and riches. They
+then caused the river to resume its regular course, and destroyed all
+persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic grave.
+
+A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De
+Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well
+weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the
+Mississippi.
+
+After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have
+been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes,
+and is by Capt. J.�H. Simpson:[83]
+
+  Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and
+  which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this
+  route last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls
+  which have been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom
+  of the Goshute Indians burying their dead in springs, which they
+  sank with stones or keep down with sticks. He says he has actually
+  seen the Indians bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo,
+  where he resides.
+
+As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in another
+part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they were
+obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the bottom
+before using the water.
+
+This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned,
+especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is
+quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or
+springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a
+reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to
+attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to
+poison the springs for white persons.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Mourning Cradle.]
+
+The second example is by George Catlin,[84] and relates to the Chinook:
+
+  *�*�* This little cradle has a strap which passes over the woman's
+  forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if the child dies
+  during its subjection to this rigid mode, its cradle becomes its
+  coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it lies floating on the
+  water in some sacred pool, where they are often in the habit of
+  fastening their canoes containing the dead bodies of the old and
+  young, or, which in often the case, elevated into the branches of
+  trees, where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry
+  whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed in their
+  canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale them out, and
+  provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they are performing their
+  "long journey after death to their contemplated hunting grounds,"
+  which these people think is to be performed in their canoes.
+
+Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle.
+Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her
+dead child to the mercy of the elements.
+
+
+
+
+LIVING SEPULCHERS.
+
+
+This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to express
+the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving friends
+and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has already
+been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is not
+believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, although
+cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true that a
+few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered apochryphal
+in character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how
+credulous were the early writers on American natives.
+
+That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is
+somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies
+been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the
+statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a
+number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.
+
+For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the Massagetics,
+Pad�ans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously
+strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and
+Tertullian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the
+dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did the
+same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to be
+preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms.
+
+J. G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of Africa
+devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the common
+people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.
+
+The following extract is from Lafitau:[85]
+
+  Dans l'Am�rique M�ridionale quelque Peuples d�charnent les corps de
+  leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi que je viens de
+  le dire, et apr�s les avoir consum�es, ils conservent pendant
+  quelque temps leurs cadavres avec respect dans leurs Cabanes, et il
+  portent ces squeletes dans les combats en guise d'Etendard, pour
+  ranimer leur courage par cette vue et inspirer de la terreur � leurs
+  ennemis. *�*�*
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Launching the Burial Cradle.]
+
+  Il est vrai qu'il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de leurs
+  parens; mais il est faux qu'elles les mettent � mort dans leur
+  vieillesse, pour avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de leur chair, et
+  d'en faire un repas. Quelques Nations de l'Am�rique M�ridionale, qui
+  ont encore cette coutume de manger les corps morts de leurs parens,
+  n'en usent ainsi que par pi�t�, pi�t� mal entendu� � la verit�, mais
+  pi�t� color�e n�anmoins par quelque ombre de raison; car ils croyent
+  leur donner une s�pulture bien plus honorable.
+
+To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is
+not believed to have been practiced by them.
+
+
+
+
+MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,
+AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.
+
+
+The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper,
+yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples,
+under separate heads.
+
+
+_MOURNING._
+
+One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of a
+chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,[86] who for
+many years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction
+as a warrior.
+
+  I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head
+  chief's death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we
+  slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the
+  contemplation of the scenes that would be enacted at my arrival.
+  When we drew in sight of the village, we found every lodge laid
+  prostrate. We entered amid shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was
+  streaming from every conceivable part of the bodies of all who were
+  old enough to comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were
+  dismembered; hair torn from the head lay in profusion about the
+  paths; wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where
+  unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This fearful
+  mourning lasted until evening of the next day. *�*�*
+
+  A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint
+  them with the death of our head chief, and request them to assemble
+  at the Rose Bud, in order to meet our village and devote themselves
+  to a general time of mourning, there met, in conformity to the
+  summons, over ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a
+  scene of disorderly, vociferous mourning, no imagination can
+  conceive nor any pen portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his
+  hair; a�thing he was never known to do before. The cutting and
+  hacking of human flesh exceeded all my previous experience; fingers
+  were dismembered as readily as twigs, and blood was poured out like
+  water. Many of the warriors would cut two gashes nearly the entire
+  length of their arm; then, separating the skin from the flesh at one
+  end, would grasp it in their other hand, and rip it asunder to the
+  shoulder. Others would carve various devices upon their breasts and
+  shoulders, and raise the skin in the same manner to make the scars
+  show to advantage after the wound was healed. Some of their
+  mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at them, but
+  they would not appear to receive any pain from them.
+
+It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth's statements are to be
+taken _cum grana salis_.
+
+From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of Lake
+Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received:
+
+  There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for
+  their dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her
+  husband; by day as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a
+  constant visitor to the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance
+  will she follow the raised camp. The friends and relatives of the
+  young mourner will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind
+  from the thought of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment, but
+  as nature is exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake of food; the
+  supply is scant, but on every occasion the best and largest
+  proportion is deposited upon the grave of her husband. In the mean
+  time the female relatives of the deceased have, according to custom,
+  submitted to her charge a parcel made up of different cloths
+  ornamented with bead-work and eagle's feathers, which she is charged
+  to keep by her side--the place made vacant by the demise of her
+  husband--a reminder of her widowhood. She is therefore for a term of
+  twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery, neither is she
+  permitted to slicken up and comb her head; this to avoid attracting
+  attention. Once in a while a female relative of deceased,
+  commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will visit her and
+  voluntarily proceed to comb out the long-neglected and matted hair.
+  With a jealous eye a vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during
+  the term of her widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to
+  marry, any time during her widowhood, an unmarried brother or
+  cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her
+  husband.
+
+  At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully
+  performed and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and,
+  with greetings commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her
+  face, comb her hair, and attire her person with new apparel, and
+  otherwise demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint.
+  Still she has not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to
+  marry a relative of the deceased and will marry another, she then
+  has to purchase her freedom by giving a certain amount of goods and
+  whatever else she might have manufactured during her widowhood in
+  anticipation of the future now at hand. Frequently, though, during
+  widowhood the vows are disregarded and an inclination to flirt and
+  play courtship or form an alliance of marriage outside of the
+  relatives of the deceased is being indulged, and when discovered the
+  widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick braided hair is
+  shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her apparel and trinkets
+  are torn from her person, and a quarrel frequently results fatally
+  to some member of one or the other side.
+
+Thomas L. McKenney[87] gives a description of the Chippewa widow which
+differs slightly from the one above:
+
+  I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls of
+  clothing. On inquiring what these imported, I�learn that they _are
+  widows_ who carry them, and that these are badges of mourning. It is
+  indispensable, when a woman of the Chippeway Nation loses her
+  husband, for her to take of her best apparel--and the whole of it is
+  not worth a dollar--and roll it up, and confine it by means of her
+  husband's sashes; and if he had ornaments, these are generally put
+  on the top of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth.
+  This bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is
+  never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it with her;
+  if she sits down in her lodge, she places it by her side. This badge
+  of widowhood and of mourning the widow is compelled to carry with
+  her until some of her late husband's family shall call and take it
+  away, which is done when they think she has mourned long enough, and
+  which is generally at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not
+  before, released from her mourning, and at liberty to marry again.
+  She has the privilege to take this husband to the family of the
+  deceased and leave it, but this is considered indecorous, and is
+  seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the deceased takes the widow for
+  his wife at the grave of her husband, which is done by a ceremony of
+  walking her over it. And this he has a right to do; and when this is
+  done she is not required to go into mourning; or, if she chooses,
+  she has the right _to go to him_, and he is _bound_ to support her.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Chippewa Widow.]
+
+  I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges. The size
+  varies according to the quantity of clothing which the widow may
+  happen to have. It is expected of her to put up her _best_ and wear
+  her _worst_. The "_husband_" I saw just now was 30 inches high and
+  18 inches in circumference.
+
+  I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had been left
+  to mourn after this fashion for years, none of her husband's family
+  calling for the badge or token of her grief. At a certain time it
+  was told her that some of her husband's family were passing, and she
+  was advised to speak to them on the subject. She did so, and told
+  them she had mourned long and was poor; that she had no means to buy
+  clothes, and her's being all in the mourning badge, and sacred,
+  could not be touched. She expressed a hope that her request might
+  not be interpreted into a wish to marry; it was only made that she
+  might be placed in a situation to get some clothes. She got for
+  answer, that "they were going to Mackinac, and would think of it."
+  They left her in this state of uncertainty, but on returning, and
+  finding her faithful still, they took her "husband" and presented
+  her with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded for her
+  constancy and made comfortable.
+
+  The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the term of
+  their grief, which is generally about a year. The Chippeway men
+  mourn by painting their faces black.
+
+  I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the badge
+  of mourning, this "_husband_" comes in for an equal share, as if it
+  were the living husband.
+
+  A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image of it in
+  the best manner she is able, and dresses it as she did her living
+  child, and fixes it in the kind of cradle I have referred to, and
+  goes through the ceremonies of nursing it as if it were alive, by
+  dropping little particles of food in the direction of its mouth, and
+  giving it of whatever the living child partook. This ceremony also
+  is generally observed for a year.
+
+Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the
+substitute for the dead husband.
+
+The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other
+tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged
+to carry around with them, for a variable period, a�bundle containing
+the bones of the deceased consort.
+
+Similar observances, according to Bancroft,[88] were followed by some of
+the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and
+Mosquitos being as follows:
+
+  The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a year,
+  after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for
+  another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and
+  then only was she allowed to marry again.
+
+  On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is
+  destroyed, the cocoa palms being cut down, and all who have taken
+  part in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut
+  off the hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape
+  of the neck to the forehead. Widows, according to some old writers,
+  after supplying the grave with food for a year take up the bones and
+  carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night
+  for another year, after which they are placed at the door or upon
+  the house-top. On the anniversary of deaths, friends of the deceased
+  hold a feast, called _seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor
+  are drained to his memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on
+  an occasion of this kind, says that males and females were dressed
+  in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and white, while their
+  faces were correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they
+  performed a slow walk around, prostrating themselves at intervals
+  and calling loudly upon the dead and tearing the ground with their
+  hands. At no other time is the departed referred to, the very
+  mention of his name being superstitiously avoided. Some tribes
+  extend a thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in
+  a straight line over every obstacle. Fr�ebel states that among the
+  Woolwas all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that
+  both husband and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of
+  either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.
+
+Benson[89] gives the following account of the Choctaws' funeral
+ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and
+dance:
+
+  Their funeral is styled by them "the last cry."
+
+  When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and
+  place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and
+  arrows, hatchet, and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are
+  planted at the head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the
+  grave is then inclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral
+  ceremonies now begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night
+  and morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous
+  cries and wailings. It is not important that any other member of the
+  family should take any very active part in the "cry," though they do
+  participate to some extent.
+
+  The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the
+  grave during one entire moon from the date when the death occurred.
+  On the evening of the last day of the moon the friends all assemble
+  at the cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions for a
+  sumptuous feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled
+  together in a kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved
+  wife goes to the grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her
+  bitter wailings and lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked
+  the kettle is taken from the fire and placed in the center of the
+  cabin, and the friends gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn
+  spoon from hand to hand and from mouth to mouth till all have been
+  bountifully supplied. While supper is being served, two of the
+  oldest men of the company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and
+  fill it up, taking down the flags. All then join in a dance, which
+  not unfrequently is continued till morning; the widow does not fail
+  to unite in the dance, and to contribute her part to the festivities
+  of the occasion. This is the "_last cry_," the days of mourning are
+  ended, and the widow is now ready to form another matrimonial
+  alliance. The ceremonies are precisely the same when a man has lost
+  his wife, and they are only slightly varied when any other member of
+  the family has died. (Slaves were buried without ceremonies.)
+
+
+_SACRIFICE._
+
+Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in connection
+with another subject, but it is thought others might prove interesting.
+The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.[90]
+
+  When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by his
+  wives and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns took care to
+  follow the same custom. The law likewise condemned every Natchez to
+  death who had married a girl of the blood of the Suns as soon as she
+  was expired. On this occasion I must tell you the history of an
+  Indian who was noways willing to submit to this law. His name was
+  _Elteacteal_; he contracted an alliance with the Suns, but the
+  consequences which this honor brought along with it had like to have
+  proved very unfortunate to him. His wife fell sick; as soon as he
+  saw her at the point of death he fled, embarked in a piragua on the
+  _Mississippi_, and came to New Orleans. He put himself under the
+  protection of M. de Bienville, the then governor, and offered to be
+  his huntsman. The governor accepted his services, and interested
+  himself for him with the Natchez, who declared that he had nothing
+  more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he was accordingly
+  no longer a lawful prize.
+
+  _Elteacteal_, being thus assured, ventured to return to his nation,
+  and, without settling among them, he made several voyages thither.
+  He happened to be there when the Sun called the _Stung Serpent_,
+  brother to the Great Sun, died. He was a relative of the late wife
+  of _Elteacteal_, and they resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de
+  Bienville had been recalled to France, and the sovereign of the
+  Natchez thought that the protector's absence had annulled the
+  reprieve granted to the protected person, and accordingly he caused
+  him to be arrested. As soon as the poor fellow found himself in the
+  hut of the grand chief of war, together with the other victims
+  destined to be sacrificed to the _Stung Serpent_, he gave vent to
+  the excess of his grief. The favorite wife of the late Son, who was
+  likewise to be sacrificed, and who saw the preparations for her
+  death with firmness, and seemed impatient to rejoin her husband,
+  hearing _Elteacteal's_ complaints and groans, said to him: "Art thou
+  no warrior?" He answered, "Yes: I�am one." "However," said she,
+  "thou cryest; life is dear to thee, and as that is the case, it is
+  not good that thou shouldst go along with us; go with the women."
+  _Elteacteal_ replied: "True; life is dear to me. It would be well if
+  I walked yet on earth till to the death of the Great Sun, and I
+  would die with him." "Go thy way," said the favorite, "it is not fit
+  thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart should remain behind on
+  earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee no more."
+
+  _Elteacteal_ did not stay to hear this order repeated to him; he
+  disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of which were his
+  relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age and their infirmities
+  had disgusted them of life; none of them had been able to use their
+  legs for a great while. The hair of the two that were related to
+  _Elteacteal_ was no more gray than those of women of fifty-five
+  years in France. The other old woman was a hundred and twenty years
+  old, and had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among
+  the Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin. They were
+  dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the _Stung Serpent_,
+  and the other two upon the place before the temple. *�*�* A cord is
+  fastened round their necks with a slip-knot, and eight men of their
+  relations strangle them by drawing, four one way and four the other.
+  So many are not necessary, but as they acquire nobility by such
+  executions, there are always more than are wanting, and the
+  operation is performed in an instant. The generosity of these women
+  gave _Elteacteal_ life again, acquired him the degree of
+  _considered_, and cleared his honor, which he had sullied by fearing
+  death. He remained quiet after that time, and taking advantage of
+  what he had learned during his stay among the French, he became a
+  juggler and made use of his knowledge to impose upon his countrymen.
+
+  The morning after this execution they made everything ready for the
+  convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of the ceremonies
+  appeared at the door of the hut, adorned suitably to his quality.
+  The victims who were to accompany the deceased prince into the
+  mansion of the spirits came forth; they consisted of the favorite
+  wife of the deceased, of his second wife, his chancellor, his
+  physician, his hired man, that is, his first servant, and of some
+  old women.
+
+  The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were several
+  Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for the Suns of
+  both sexes that were her children to appear, and spoke to the
+  following effect:
+
+  "Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from you
+  (_sic_) arms and to follow your father's steps, who waits for me in
+  the country of the spirits; if I were to yield to your tears I would
+  injure my love and fail in my duty. I�have done enough for you by
+  bearing you next to my heart, and by suckling you with my breasts.
+  You that are descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought you to
+  shed tears? Rejoice rather that you are _Suns_ and warriors; you are
+  bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the whole nation:
+  go, my children, I�have provided for all your wants, by procuring
+  you friends; my friends and those of your father are yours too;
+  I�leave you amidst them; they are the French; they are
+  tender-hearted and generous; make yourselves worthy of their esteem
+  by not degenerating from your race; always act openly with them and
+  never implore them with meanness.
+
+  "And you, Frenchmen," added she, turning herself towards our
+  officers, "I�recommend my orphan children to you; they will know no
+  other fathers than you; you ought to protect them."
+
+  After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned to her
+  husband's hut with a surprising firmness.
+
+  A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims of her
+  own accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore the _Stung
+  Serpent_ to follow him into the other world. The Europeans called
+  her the _haughty_ lady, on account of her majestic deportment and
+  her proud air, and because she only frequented the company of the
+  most distinguished Frenchmen. They regretted her much, because she
+  had the knowledge of several simples with which she had saved the
+  lives of many of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with
+  grief and horror. The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and
+  spoke to them with a smiling countenance: "I�die without fear;" said
+  she, "grief does not embitter my last hours. I�recommend my children
+  to you; whenever you see them, noble Frenchmen, remember that you
+  have loved their father, and that he was till death a true and
+  sincere friend of your nation, whom he loved more than himself. The
+  disposer of life has been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go
+  and join him; I�shall tell him that I have seen your hearts moved at
+  the sight of his corps; do not be grieved; we shall be longer
+  friends in the _country of the spirits_ than here, because we do not
+  die there again."[91*]
+
+  These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French; they were
+  obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great Sun from killing
+  himself, for he was inconsolable at the death of his brother, upon
+  whom he was used to lay the weight of government, he being great
+  chief of war of the Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies;
+  that prince grew furious by the resistance he met with; he held his
+  gun by the barrel, and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by the
+  lock, and caused the powder to fall out of the pan; the hut was full
+  of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables[92*] but the French raised their
+  spirits again, by hiding all the arms belonging to the sovereign,
+  and filling the barrel of his gun with water, that it might be unfit
+  for use for some time.
+
+  As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign's life in safety, they
+  thanked the French, by squeezing their hands, but without speaking;
+  a�most profound silence reigned throughout, for grief and awe kept
+  in bounds the multitude that were present.
+
+  The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this
+  transaction. She was asked whether she was ill, and she answered
+  aloud, "Yes, I�am"; and added with a lower voice, "If the Frenchmen
+  go out of this hut, my husband dies and all the Natches will die
+  with him; stay, then, brave Frenchmen, because your words are as
+  powerful as arrows; besides, who could have ventured to do what you
+  have done? But you are his true friends and those of his brother."
+  Their laws obliged the Great Sun's wife to follow her husband in the
+  grave; this was doubtless the cause of her fears; and likewise the
+  gratitude towards the French, who interested themselves in behalf of
+  his life, prompted her to speak in the above-mentioned manner.
+
+  The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to them: "My
+  friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief that, though my eyes
+  were open, I�have not taken notice that you have been standing all
+  this while, nor have I asked you to sit down; but pardon the excess
+  of my affliction."
+
+  The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that they
+  were going to leave him alone, but that they would cease to be his
+  friends unless he gave orders to light the fires again,[93*]
+  lighting his own before them; and that they should not leave him
+  till his brother was buried.
+
+  He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: "Since all the
+  chiefs and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I�will do it;
+  I�will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted again immediately,
+  and I'll wait till death joins me to my brother; I�am already old,
+  and till I die I shall walk with the French; had it not been for
+  them I should have gone with my brother, and all the roads would
+  have been covered with dead bodies."
+
+Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been credited
+by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, and its
+seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of similar
+ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.
+
+An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice is
+described by Miss A.�J. Allen,[94] and refers to the Wascopums, of
+Oregon.
+
+  At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words, it was
+  found that the chief had determined that the deceased boy's friend,
+  who had been his companion in hunting the rabbit, snaring the
+  pheasant, and fishing in the streams, was to be his companion to the
+  spirit land; his son should not be deprived of his associate in the
+  strange world to which he had gone; that associate should perish by
+  the hand of his father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house.
+  This receptacle was built on a long, black rock in the center of the
+  Columbia River, around which, being so near the falls, the current
+  was amazingly rapid. It was thirty feet in length, and perhaps half
+  that in breadth, completely enclosed and sodded except at one end,
+  where was a narrow aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse
+  through. The council overruled, and little George, instead of being
+  slain, was conveyed living to the dead-house about sunset. The dead
+  were piled on each side, leaving a narrow aisle between, and on one
+  of these was placed the deceased boy; and, bound tightly till the
+  purple, quivering flesh puffed above the strong bark cords, that he
+  might die very soon, the living was placed by his side, his face to
+  his till the very lips met, and extending along limb to limb and
+  foot to foot, and nestled down into his couch of rottenness, to
+  impede his breathing as far as possible and smother his cries.
+
+Bancroft[95] states that--
+
+  The slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and Tarascos were
+  selected from various trades and professions, and took with them the
+  most cherished articles of the master and the implements of their
+  trade wherewith to supply his wants--
+
+while among certain of the Central American tribe death was voluntary,
+wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing themselves
+by means of a vegetable poison.
+
+To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that self-murder
+is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, if he so
+wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or friend to the
+"happy other world;" and when this is remembered we need not feel
+astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self immolations
+are related. It is quite likely that among our own people similar
+customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down such
+proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us,
+notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place
+on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.
+
+
+_FEASTS._
+
+In Beltrami[96] an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of
+the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took
+place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:
+
+  I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the
+  manes of _Cloudy Weather's_ son-in-law, whose body had remained with
+  the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their repasts.
+  What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in this
+  funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific
+  lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others
+  were singing and dancing with all their might.
+
+  At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand Medicine_,
+  and at which as _a man of another world_ I was permitted to attend,
+  the same practice occurred. But at the feast which took place on
+  that occasion an allowance was served up for the deceased out of
+  every article of which it consisted, while others were beating,
+  wounding, and torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow
+  both over the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that
+  this was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they
+  could possibly supply. His wife furnished out an entertainment
+  present for him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with
+  his arms, his provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine
+  bag, he was wrapped up in the skin which had been his last covering
+  when alive. He was then tied round with the bark of some particular
+  trees which they use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm
+  texture and hold (the only ones indeed which they have), and instead
+  of being buried in the earth was hung up to a large oak. The reason
+  of this was that, as his favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit
+  would be enabled more easily from such a situation to fly with him
+  to Paradise.
+
+Hind[97] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which
+occurred among the Hurons of New York:
+
+  The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the
+  "feasts of the dead" at the village of Ossosane, before the
+  dispersion of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in
+  the presence of 2,000 Indians, who offered 1,300 presents at the
+  common tomb, in testimony of their grief. The people belonging to
+  five large villages deposited the bones of their dead in a gigantic
+  shroud, composed of forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten
+  beaver skins. After being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they
+  were placed between moss and bark. A�wall of stones was built around
+  this vast ossuary to preserve it from profanation. Before covering
+  the bones with earth a few grains of Indian corn were thrown by the
+  women upon the sacred relics. According to the superstitious belief
+  of the Hurons the souls of the dead remain near the bodies until the
+  "feast of the dead"; after which ceremony they become free, and can
+  at once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe to be
+  situated in the regions of the setting sun.
+
+Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom of
+exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting
+them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in
+Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of
+Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a�slatted pen containing the remains of
+hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and
+preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris
+afford examples of burial ossuaries.
+
+
+_SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS._
+
+The following account is by Dr. S. G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:--
+
+  Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still adhere
+  to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed
+  friends; the object is to feast with the departed; that is, they
+  believe that while they partake of the visible material the departed
+  spirit partakes at the same time of the spirit that dwells in the
+  food. From ancient time it was customary to bury with the dead
+  various articles, such especially as were most valued in lifetime.
+  The idea was that there was a spirit dwelling in the article
+  represented by the material article; thus the war-club contained a
+  spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, which could be used
+  by the departed in another world. These several spiritual implements
+  were supposed, of course, to accompany the soul, to be used also on
+  the way to its final abode. This habit has now ceased.
+
+
+_FOOD._
+
+This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an
+almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to
+place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.
+
+
+_DANCES._
+
+Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan:[98]
+
+  An occasional and very singular figure was called the "dance for the
+  dead." It was known as the _O-h�-w�._ It was danced by the women
+  alone. The music was entirely vocal, a�select band of singers being
+  stationed in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which
+  they sang the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and
+  mournful music. This dance was usually separate from all councils
+  and the only dance of the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon
+  after and continued until towards morning, when the shades of the
+  dead who were believed to be present and participate in the dance
+  were supposed to disappear. The dance was had whenever a family
+  which had lost a member called for it, which was usually a year
+  after the event. In the spring and fall it was often given for all
+  the dead indiscriminately, who were believed then to revisit the
+  earth and join in the dance.
+
+The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers[99] and
+relates to the Yo-ka�-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial:
+
+  I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding
+  there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine
+  it, but was not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence
+  of the old sexton by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver
+  half dollar. The pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5
+  feet deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the interior
+  was damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was
+  provided with a tunnel-like entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet
+  high, and leading down to a level with the floor of the pit. The
+  mouth of the tunnel was closed with brush, and the venerable sexton
+  would not remove it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several
+  times to and fro before the entrance.
+
+  Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled
+  poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude
+  devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat,
+  which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the
+  tribe, lately deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the
+  Sen�l come up to condole with the Yo-ka�-a on the loss of their
+  chief, and a dance or series of dances was held which lasted three
+  days. During this time of course the Sen�l were the guests of the
+  Yo-ka�-a, and the latter were subjected to a considerable expense.
+  I�was prevented by other engagements from being present, and shall
+  be obliged to depend on the description of an eye-witness, Mr. John
+  Tenney, whose account is here given with a few changes:
+
+  There are four officials connected with the building, who are
+  probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They
+  are the assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from
+  one of them, and admission was given by the same. These four wore
+  black vests trimmed with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief
+  made no special display on the occasion. In addition to these four,
+  who were officers of the assembly-chamber, there were an old man and
+  a young woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The young
+  woman was dressed differently from any other, the rest dressing in
+  plain calico dresses. Her dress was white covered with spots of red
+  flannel, cut in neat figure, ornamented with shells. It looked
+  gorgeous and denoted some office, the name of which I could not
+  ascertain. Before the visitors were ready to enter, the older men of
+  the tribe were reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As
+  the ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and young woman
+  were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the entrance, they
+  inaugurated the exercises by a brief service, which seemed to be a
+  dedication of the house to the exercises about to commence. Each of
+  them spoke a few words, joined in a brief chant, and the house was
+  thrown open for their visitors. They staid at their post until the
+  visitors entered and were seated on one side of the room. After the
+  visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all, though
+  there was plenty of room in the center for the dancing.
+
+  Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe made a
+  brief speech in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief
+  of the Yo-ka�-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss.
+  As he spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out,
+  and with difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I�presume that he
+  proposed a few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole
+  assemblage burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if
+  in agony. The whole thing created such a din that I was compelled to
+  stop my ears. The air was rent and pierced with their cries. This
+  wailing and shedding of tears lasted about three or five minutes,
+  though it seemed to last a half hour. At a given signal they ceased,
+  wiped their eyes, and quieted down.
+
+  Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was
+  set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors wens five men, who
+  were muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint
+  and feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies.
+  They were girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors,
+  sometimes with variegated shawls. A�feather mantle hung from the
+  shoulder, reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the
+  neck, while their heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers.
+  They had whistles in their months as they danced, swaying their
+  heads, bending and whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be
+  exercised, and the feather ornaments quivered with light. They were
+  agile and graceful as they bounded about in the sinuous course of
+  the dance.
+
+  The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only
+  marked time by stepping up and down with short step. They always
+  took their places first and disappeared first, the men making their
+  exit gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable
+  for the occasion. They were white dresses, trimmed heavily with
+  black velvet. The stripes were about three inches wide, some plain
+  and others edged like saw teeth. This was an indication of their
+  mourning for the dead chief, in whose honor they had prepared that
+  style of dancing. Strings of haliotis and pachydesma shell beads
+  encircled their necks, and around their waists were belts heavily
+  loaded with the same material. Their head-dresses were more showy
+  than those of the men. The head was encircled with a bandeau of
+  otters' or beavers' fur, to which were attached short wires standing
+  out in all directions, with glass or shell beads strung on them, and
+  at the tips little feather flags and quail plumes. Surmounting all
+  was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray, and scarlet, the top
+  generally being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and tossing very
+  beautifully. All these combined gave their heads a very brilliant
+  and spangled appearance.
+
+  The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the
+  Yo-ka�-a chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful
+  and simple, being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were
+  used, accompanied with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a
+  hollow slab. The second day the dance was more lively on the part of
+  the men, the music was better, employing airs which had a greater
+  range of tune, and the women generally joined in the chorus. The
+  dress of the women was not so beautiful, as they appeared in
+  ordinary calico. The third day, if observed in accordance with
+  Indian custom, the dancing was still more lively and the proceedings
+  more gay, just as the coming home from a Christian funeral is apt to
+  be much more jolly than the going out.
+
+  A Yo-ka�-a widow's style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the
+  usual evidences of grief, she mingles the ashes of her dead husband
+  with pitch, making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a
+  band about two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is
+  previously cut off close to the head), so that at a little distance
+  she appears to be wearing a white chaplet.
+
+  It is their custom to "feed the spirits of the dead" for the space
+  of one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to
+  frequent while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground.
+  A�Yo-ka�-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to
+  some place where her little one played when alive, or to the spot
+  where the body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This
+  is accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling
+  upon her little one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and
+  melancholy chant, and dances with a wild static swaying of the body.
+
+
+_SONGS._
+
+It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals,
+but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these chants may no
+doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful ejaculation.
+A�writer[100] mentions it as follows:
+
+  At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing,
+  with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same
+  melody at the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song
+  and at the same time, but each begins and finishes when he or she
+  may wish. Often for weeks, or even months, after the decease of a
+  dear friend, a�living one, usually a woman, will sit by her house
+  and sing or cry by the hour, and they also sing for a short time
+  when they visit the grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have
+  not seen since the decease. At the funeral both men and women sing.
+  No. 11 I have heard more frequently some time after the funeral, and
+  No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by the Twanas. (For song see
+  p.�251 of the magazine quoted.) The words are simply an exclamation
+  of grief, as our word "alas," but they also have other words which
+  they use, and sometimes they use merely the syllable _la_. Often the
+  notes are sung in this order, and sometimes not, but in some order
+  the notes _do_ and _la_, and occasionally _mi_, are sung.
+
+Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a peculiar
+death dirge sung by the Sen�l of California, as related by Mr. Powers.
+It is as follows:
+
+  Hel-lel-li-ly,
+  Hel-lel-lo,
+  Hel-lel-lo.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Ghost Gamble.]
+
+Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the attention
+of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for instance,
+the Basques of Spain ululate thus:
+
+  Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,
+  Lelo il Lelo,
+  Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,
+  Il Lelon killed Lelo.
+
+This was called the "ululating Lelo." Mr. Campbell says:
+
+  This again connects with the Linus or Ailinus of the Greeks and
+  Egyptians *�*�* which Wilkinson connects with the Coptic "ya
+  lay-lee-ya lail." The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard the South
+  Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek verb
+  #ololuz�# and the Latin ululare, with an English howl and wail,
+  are probably derived from this ancient form of lamentation.
+
+In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks
+describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he
+inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost
+tribes of Israel.
+
+
+_GAMES._
+
+It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a
+practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct.
+Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed among
+the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and interesting
+account of what is called the "ghost gamble." This is played with marked
+wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to the Sioux.
+Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in which this
+game is played.
+
+  After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge
+  of the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the time of the
+  first feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair--they
+  are divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians
+  invited to play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is
+  selected to represent the ghost and he plays against all the others,
+  who are not required to stake anything on the result, but simply
+  invited to take part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the
+  lodge of the dead person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing
+  the lock of hair. In cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy
+  the stakes are furnished by his rich friends, should he have any.
+  The players are called in one at a time, and play singly against the
+  ghost's representative, the gambling being done in recent years by
+  means of cards. If the invited player succeeds in beating the ghost,
+  he takes one of the piles of goods and passes out, when another is
+  invited to play, &c., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases
+  of men only the men play, and in cases of women the women only take
+  part in the ceremony.
+
+  Before white men came among these Indians and taught them many of
+  his improved vices, this game was played by means of figured
+  plum-seeds, the men using eight and the women seven seeds, figured
+  as follows, and shown in Figure�34.
+
+  Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse containing
+  nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a small spot of the
+  color of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a
+  black spot in the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a
+  buffalo's head on one side and the reverse simply two crossed black
+  lines. There is but one seed of this kind in the set used by the
+  women. Two seeds have half of one side blackened and the rest left
+  plain, so as to represent a half moon; the reverse has a black
+  longitudinal line crossed at right angles by six small ones. There
+  are six throws whereby the player can win, and five that entitle him
+  to another throw. The winning throws are as follows, each winner
+  taking a pile of the ghost's goods:
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Auxiliary throw No 5.]
+
+  Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo's head up,
+  and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two
+  black with natural spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and
+  the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones
+  up, two black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the
+  transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two
+  black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo's
+  head up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two
+  longitudinally crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up
+  wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, buffalo's
+  head up, and two long crossed up wins a pile. The following
+  auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to win: two plain ones
+  up, two with black spots up, one half moon up, one longitudinally
+  crossed one up, and buffalo's head up gives another throw, and on
+  this throw, if the two plain ones up and two with black spots with
+  either of the half moons or buffalo's head up, the player takes a
+  pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons up,
+  and the transversely crossed one up entitles to another throw, when,
+  if all of the black sides come up, excepting one, the throw wins.
+  One of the plain ones up and all the rest with black sides up gives
+  another throw, and the same then turning up wins. One of the plain
+  black ones up with that side up of all the others having the least
+  black on gives another throw, when the same turning up again wins.
+  One half moon up, with that side up of all the others having the
+  least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is then
+  duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men, has its place
+  in their game whenever its facings are mentioned above. I�transmit
+  with this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can be used to
+  illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a
+  hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Figured Plum Stones.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Winning Throw No. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Winning Throw No. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Winning Throw No. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Winning Throw No. 4.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Winning Throw No. 5.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Winning Throw No. 6.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Auxiliary Throw No. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Auxiliary Throw No. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Auxiliary Throw No. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Auxiliary Throw No. 4.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Grave Posts.]
+
+For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Dr. C.�C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian
+Agency.
+
+Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the
+different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones
+sent by Dr. McChesney.
+
+
+_POSTS._
+
+These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, and
+have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family,
+certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the
+achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and danced
+at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently plant poles
+near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, horses' tails,
+&c. The custom among the present Indians does not exist to any extent.
+Beltrami[101] speaks of it as follows:
+
+  Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted
+  by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was
+  raised, covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies
+  slain by the tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary
+  Manitous.
+
+The following extract from Schoolcraft[102] relates to the burial posts
+used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 46 is after the picture given by
+this author in connection with the account quoted:
+
+  Among the Sioux and Western Chippewas, after the body had been
+  wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a
+  scaffold or in a tree until the flesh is entirely decayed, after
+  which the bones are buried and grave-posts fixed. At the head of the
+  grave a tubular piece of cedar or other wood, called the
+  _adjedatig_, is set. This grave-board contains the symbolic or
+  representative figure, which records, if it be a warrior, his totem,
+  that is to say the symbol of his family, or surname, and such
+  arithmetical or other devices as seem to denote how many times the
+  deceased has been in war parties, and how many scalps he has taken
+  from the enemy--two facts from which his reputation is essentially
+  to be derived. It is seldom that more is attempted in the way of
+  inscription. Often, however, distinguished chiefs have their war
+  flag, or, in modern days, a�small ensign of American fabric,
+  displayed on a standard at the head of their graves, which is left
+  to fly over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps
+  of their enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the
+  swallow-tailed falcon, or some carnivorous bird, are also placed, in
+  such instances, on the _adjedatig_, or suspended, with offerings of
+  various kinds, on a separate staff. But the latter are
+  superadditions of a religious character, and belong to the class of
+  the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig (_ante_, No.�4). The building of a funeral
+  fire on recent graves is also a rite which belongs to the
+  consideration of their religious faith.
+
+
+_FIRES._
+
+It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building fires
+on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the soul
+thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that demons
+were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford light to
+the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer states
+that--
+
+  The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the grave
+  was to light the spirit on its journey. By a coincidence to be
+  explained by the universal sacredness of the number, both Algonkins
+  and Mexicans maintained it for four nights consecutively. The former
+  related the tradition that one of their ancestors returned from the
+  spirit land and informed their nation that the journey thither
+  consumed just four days, and that collecting fuel every night added
+  much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered, all of which
+  could be spared�it.
+
+So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also
+intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.
+
+Stephen Powers[103] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires:
+
+  After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity
+  of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the "Big Indians" do,
+  that the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely
+  attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the
+  debatable land, and that they require the fire to light them on
+  their darksome journey. A�righteous soul traverses the pole quicker
+  than a wicked one, hence they regulate the number of nights for
+  burning a light according to the character for goodness or the
+  opposite which the deceased possessed in this world.
+
+Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that a
+somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.
+
+Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one of
+the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Grave Fire.]
+
+
+_SUPERSTITIONS._
+
+An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,[104]
+and relates to the Hidatsa:
+
+  When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around the camp
+  or village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his
+  departed kindred in the "village of the dead." When he has arrived
+  there he is rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on
+  earth by receiving the same regard in the one place as in the other,
+  for there as here the brave man is honored and the coward despised.
+  Some say that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a
+  separate part of the village, but that their condition differs in no
+  wise from that of the others. In the next world human shades hunt
+  and live in the shades of buffalo and other animals that have here
+  died. There, too there are four seasons, but they come in an inverse
+  order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four nights that the
+  ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who
+  disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from the
+  shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins which they leave at
+  the door of the lodge. The smell of the burning leather they claim
+  keeps the ghost out; but the true friends of the dead man take no
+  such precautions.
+
+From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the
+spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather
+should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to
+speculate�on.
+
+The next account, by Keating,[105] relating to the Chippewas, shows a
+slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already alluded�to:
+
+  The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely
+  distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag_, and appear to
+  supply to it the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe
+  that it quits the body it the time of death, and repairs to what
+  they term _Chekechekchekawe_; this region is supposed to be situated
+  to the south, and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to
+  arriving there they meet with a stream which they are obliged to
+  cross upon a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those
+  who die from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream; they are
+  thrown into it and remain there forever. Some souls come to the edge
+  of the stream, but are prevented from passing by the snake, which
+  threatens to devour them; these are the souls of the persons in a
+  lethargy or trance. Being refused a passage these souls return to
+  their bodies and reanimate them. They believe that animals have
+  souls, and even that inorganic substances, such as kettles, &c.,
+  have in them a similar essence.
+
+  In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits.
+  Those who have been good men are free from pain; they have no duties
+  to perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing, and they
+  feed upon mushrooms, which are very abundant. The souls of bad men
+  are haunted by the phantom of the persons or things that they have
+  injured; thus, if a man has destroyed much property the phantoms of
+  the wrecks of this property obstruct his passage wherever he goes;
+  if he has been cruel to his dogs or horses they also torment him
+  after death. The ghosts of those whom during his lifetime he wronged
+  are there permitted to avenge their injuries. They think that when a
+  soul has crossed the stream it cannot return to its body, yet they
+  believe in apparitions, and entertain the opinion that the spirits
+  of the departed will frequently revisit the abodes of their friends
+  in order to invite them to the other world, and to forewarn them of
+  their approaching dissolution.
+
+Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of
+examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California:
+
+  How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is
+  shown by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the
+  _pet-chi-�-ri_ the mere mention of the dead relative's name. It is a
+  deadly insult to the survivors, and can be atoned for only by the
+  same amount of blood-money paid for willful murder. In default of
+  that they will have the villain's blood. *�*�* At the mention of his
+  name the mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do
+  not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. *�*�* They
+  believe that the soul of a good Karok goes to the "happy western
+  land" beyond the great ocean. That they have a well-grounded
+  assurance of an immortality beyond the grave is proven, if not
+  otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical custom of whispering a
+  message in the ear of the dead. *�*�* Believe that dancing will
+  liberate some relative's soul from bonds of death, and restore him
+  to earth.
+
+According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies away
+with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk will
+catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he was
+good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that--
+
+  The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of
+  the dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes. When I
+  asked the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for "father"
+  and "mother" and certain others similar, he shook his head
+  mournfully and said, "All dead," "All dead," "No good." They are
+  forbidden to mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult
+  to the relatives, *�*�* and that the Mat-t�al hold that the good
+  depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but
+  the soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which
+  they consider, of all animals, the cousin-german of sin.
+
+The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows
+regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:
+
+  *�*�* It has always been one of the most passionate desires among
+  the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the Shastika, to live, die,
+  and be buried where they were born. Some of their usages in regard
+  to the dead and their burial may be gathered from an incident that
+  occurred while the captives of 1873 were on their way from the Lava
+  Beds to Fort Klamath, as it was described by an eye-witness.
+  Curly-headed Jack, a�prominent warrior, committed suicide with a
+  pistol. His mother and female friends gathered about him and set up
+  a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood and
+  endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life. The mother
+  took his head in her lap and scooped the blood from his ear, another
+  old woman placed her hand upon his heart, and a third blew in his
+  face. The sight of the group--these poor old women, whose grief was
+  unfeigned, and the dying man--was terrible in its sadness. Outside
+  the tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim, Steamboat
+  Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had been the dying man's
+  companions from childhood, all affected to tears. When he was
+  lowered into the grave, before the soldiers began to cover the body,
+  Huka Jim was seen running eagerly about the camp trying to exchange
+  a two-dollar bill of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior
+  that amount of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency
+  would be of any use to him in the other world--sad commentary on our
+  national currency!--and desired to have the coin instead. Procuring
+  it from one of the soldiers he cast it in and seemed greatly
+  relieved. All the dead man's other effects, consisting of clothing,
+  trinkets, and a half dollar, were interred with him, together with
+  some root-flour as victual for the journey to the spirit land.
+
+The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead
+may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.[106] It regards
+the natives of Washington Territory:
+
+  My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is this: It is
+  the universal custom with these Indians never to live in a lodge
+  where a person has died. If a person of importance dies, the lodge
+  is usually burned down, or taken down and removed to some other part
+  of the bay; and it can be readily seen that in the case of the Palux
+  Indians, who had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before
+  stated, their relatives chose at once to leave for some other place.
+  This objection to living in a lodge where a person has died is the
+  reason why their sick slaves are invariably carried out into the
+  woods, where they remain either to recover or die. There is,
+  however, no disputing the fact that an immense mortality has
+  occurred among these people, and they are now reduced to a mere
+  handful.
+
+  The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead person,
+  and their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes give rise to a
+  difficulty as to who shall perform the funeral ceremonies; for any
+  person who handles a dead body must not eat of salmon or sturgeon
+  for thirty days. Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I�have known them
+  leave the corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in two
+  instances that came to my knowledge, the whites had to burn the
+  lodges, with the bodies in them, to prevent infection.
+
+  So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had buried
+  Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could be seen. All
+  kept in their lodges, singing and drumming to keep away the spirits
+  of the dead.
+
+According to Bancroft[107]--
+
+  The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after death
+  transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while the nobler
+  became stars and beautiful birds.
+
+The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously
+avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those
+of our own country.
+
+Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, to
+enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed
+final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and
+while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on
+hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire
+for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper,
+that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of
+the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to
+induce further investigation and contribution from careful and
+conscientious observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and
+correspondence given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in
+short, most of them may serve as copies for preparation of similar
+material.
+
+To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are also
+given.
+
+_1st._ NAME OF THE TRIBE; present appellation; former, if differing any;
+and that used by the Indians themselves.
+
+_2d._ LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range
+of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+_3d._ DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and
+characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse
+prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it
+spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the character
+of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food
+put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an
+ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried together; and is the
+clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever prevail?
+
+_4th._ MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF
+THE GRAVES; CREMATION.--Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are
+scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction
+of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in
+skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are
+suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the
+water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be
+given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial
+posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of
+position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation,
+or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of
+remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if
+any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been
+used, describe them.
+
+_5th._ MOURNING OBSERVANCES.--Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?
+
+_6th._ BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS.--Give in full all that can
+be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.
+
+In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.
+
+One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the "why" and "wherefore" for every rite and custom; for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for�it.
+
+Any material the result of careful observation will be most gratefully
+received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer must here
+confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have already
+contributed, a�number so large that limited space precludes a mention of
+their individual names.
+
+Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested
+in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general.
+Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious
+forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.
+
+The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos.
+Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made by
+Mr. W.�H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended their
+preparation.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+    [Footnote 1: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1853, pt. 3, p. 193.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p. 270.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Voy. dans l'Arizona, in Bull. Soc. de G�ographie,
+    1877.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. 1, p. 555.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: L'incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1,
+    p.�439.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States,
+    1853, Pt. 3, p.�140.]
+
+    [Footnote 12: U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.]
+
+    [Footnote 13: Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841,
+    p.�252.]
+
+    [Footnote 14: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.]
+
+    [Footnote 15: Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to
+    Knowledge. No. 259, 1876. Pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55,�82.]
+
+    [Footnote 16: Pop. Sc. Month., Sept., 1877, p. 577.]
+
+    [Footnote 17: Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i,
+    p.�780.]
+
+    [Footnote 18: A detailed account of this exploration, with many
+    illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
+    Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.]
+
+    [Footnote 19: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 _et
+    seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 20: American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.]
+
+    [Footnote 21: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 513.]
+
+    [Footnote 23: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 515.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida,
+    1775.]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp.
+    241-243.]
+
+    [Footnote 26: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i,
+    p.�464.]
+
+    [Footnote 27: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.]
+
+    [Footnote 28: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 62.]
+
+    [Footnote 29: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.]
+
+    [Footnote 30: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.]
+
+    [Footnote 31: Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp.
+    155 _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.]
+
+    [Footnote 33: Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll.
+    Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol.�1, p.�318.]
+
+    [Footnote 34: A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age,
+    discovered in Kentucky, is now in the cabinet of the American
+    Antiquarian Society. It is a female. Several human bodies were
+    found enwrapped carefully in skins and cloths. They were inhumed
+    below the floor of the cave; _inhumed_, and not lodged in
+    catacombs.]
+
+    [Footnote 35: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.]
+
+    [Footnote 36: Billings' Exped., 1802, p. 161.]
+
+    [Footnote 37: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.]
+
+    [Footnote 38: Rawlinson's Herodotus, Book i, chap. 198, _note_.]
+
+    [Footnote 39: Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 455 et seq.]
+
+    [Footnote 40: Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians,
+    1844, vol. ii, p.�5.]
+
+    [Footnote 41: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i,
+    p.�483.]
+
+    [Footnote 42: Hist. de l'Am�rique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii,
+    p.�43.]
+
+    [Footnote 43: Pioneer Life, 1872.]
+
+    [Footnote 44: I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was
+    undoubtedly an exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island)
+    the bluffs on the peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River
+    (three miles distant) were thickly studded with Indian grave
+    mounds, showing conclusively that subterranean was the usual mode
+    of burial. In making roads, streets, and digging foundations,
+    skulls, bones, trinkets, beads, etc., in great numbers, were
+    exhumed, proving that many things (according to the wealth or
+    station of survivors) were deposited in the graves. In 1836 I
+    witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner stated.
+    --P.�GREGG.]
+
+    [Footnote 45: Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist.
+    Soc. (1879?), p.�107.]
+
+    [Footnote 46: Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.]
+
+    [Footnote 47: The Last Act, 1876.]
+
+    [Footnote 48: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.]
+
+    [Footnote 49: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part
+    IV, p.�224.]
+
+    [Footnote 50: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii,
+    p.�387.]
+
+    [Footnote 51: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.]
+
+    [Footnote 52: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part
+    iii, p.�112.]
+
+    [Footnote 53: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.]
+
+    [Footnote 54: Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.]
+
+    [Footnote 55: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-'76, p. 64.]
+
+    [Footnote 56: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 149.]
+
+    [Footnote 57: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874, p. 168.]
+
+    [Footnote 58: Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.]
+
+    [Footnote 59: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of
+    Utah, 1852, p.�43.]
+
+    [Footnote 60: Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol.�i,
+    p.�332.]
+
+    [Footnote 61: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. i, p. 780.]
+
+    [Footnote 62: Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p. 286.]
+
+    [Footnote 63: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol. i, p. 69.]
+
+    [Footnote 64: Travels in Alaska, 1869, p. 100.]
+
+    [Footnote 65: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145.]
+
+    [Footnote 66: Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.]
+
+    [Footnote 67: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.]
+
+    [Footnote 68: Long's Exped. to the St. Peter's River, 1824,
+    p.�332.]
+
+    [Footnote 69: L'incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome i,
+    p.�475, _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 70: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that
+    the custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the
+    Moravian settlement of Salem, N.C.]
+
+    [Footnote 71: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319.]
+
+    [Footnote 72: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. ii, p.�774,
+    _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 73: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.]
+
+    [Footnote 74: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.]
+
+    [Footnote 75: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 516.]
+
+    [Footnote 76: "Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have
+    given it as their opinion that all those pyramidal artificial
+    hills, usually called Indian mounds, were raised on this occasion,
+    and are generally sepulchers. However, I�am of different
+    opinion."]
+
+    [Footnote 77: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.]
+
+    [Footnote 78: Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.]
+
+    [Footnote 79: Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.]
+
+    [Footnote 80: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.]
+
+    [Footnote 81: Cont. N. A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p. 200.]
+
+    [Footnote 82: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i,
+    p.�483.]
+
+    [Footnote 83: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859,
+    p.�48.]
+
+    [Footnote 84: Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii,
+    p.�141.]
+
+    [Footnote 85: Moeurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.]
+
+    [Footnote 86: Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.]
+
+    [Footnote 87: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.]
+
+    [Footnote 88: Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731,
+    744.]
+
+    [Footnote 89: Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.]
+
+    [Footnote 90: Bossu's Travels (Forster's translation), 1771,
+    p.�38.]
+
+    [Footnote 91: At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the
+    victims swallow little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make
+    them giddy, and as it were to take the sensation of pain from
+    them; after that they were all strangled and put upon mats, the
+    favorite on the right, the other wife on the left, and the others
+    according to their rank.]
+
+    [Footnote 92: The established distinctions among these Indians
+    were as follows: The Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the
+    highest rank; next come the Nobles; after them the Honorables; and
+    last of all the common people, who were very much despised. As the
+    nobility was propagated by the women, this contributed much to
+    multiply�it.]
+
+    [Footnote 93: The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the
+    fires, which is only done at the death of the sovereign.]
+
+    [Footnote 94: Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.]
+
+    [Footnote 95: Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.]
+
+    [Footnote 96: Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.]
+
+    [Footnote 97: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii,
+    p.�164.]
+
+    [Footnote 98: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.]
+
+    [Footnote 99: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.]
+
+    [Footnote 100: Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.]
+
+    [Footnote 101: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.]
+
+    [Footnote 102: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851,
+    part i, p.�356.]
+
+    [Footnote 103: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.]
+
+    [Footnote 104: Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S.
+    Geol. Surv. of Terr., 1877, p.�409.]
+
+    [Footnote 105: Long's Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.]
+
+    [Footnote 106: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.]
+
+    [Footnote 107: Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abiquiu, Ancient cemetery of  111
+  Acaxers and Yaquis, cairn burial  143
+  "Adjedatig"  197
+  Aerial burial in canoes, Chinooks  171
+  ---- sepulture,  152
+  Alaric's burial  181
+  Alaska cave burial  129
+  Alaskan mummies  134, 135
+  Alden, E.�H., Scaffold burial  161
+  Aleutian Islanders, embalmment  135, 136
+  Algonkins, Burial fires of the  198
+  Alibamans, Aquatic burial of suicides by  180
+  Allen, Miss A.�J., Burial sacrifice  189
+  Ancient burial customs of barbaric tribes  152
+  ---- cemetery of Abiquiu  111
+  ---- nations, Tree burial of  165, 166
+  Ancients, Curious mourning observances  165, 166
+  Antiquity of cremation  143
+  Apingi burial  125, 126
+  Aquatic burial, Alibamans, of suicides  180
+  ---- Cherokees  180
+  ---- Chinooks  180
+  ---- Gosh-Utes  181
+  ---- Hyperboreans  180
+  ---- Ichthyophagi  180
+  ---- Itzas  180
+  ---- Kavague  180
+  ---- Lotophagians  180
+  ---- Obongo  180
+  Ascena or Timber Indians  103
+  Atwater, Caleb, Burial mounds  117
+  Australian scaffold burial  167
+  Aztecs and Taracos, Burial sacrifice  190
+  Baldwin, C.�C., Pottawatomie surface burial  141
+  Balearic Islanders, Cairn burial  143
+  Bancroft, H.�H., Burial sacrifice  190
+  ----, Canoe burial in ground  112
+  ----, Costa Rica hut burial  154
+  ----, Doracho cist burial  115
+  ----, Esquimaux burial boxes  155
+  ----, Mourning, Central Americans  185
+  ----, Pima burial  98
+  ----, Superstitions regarding dead  201
+  Barbaric tribes, Ancient burial customs of  152
+  Barber, E.�A., Burial urns  138
+  ----, Partial cremation  151
+  Bari of Africa, burial  125
+  Bartram, John, Cabin burial  122
+  ----, Choctaw ossuary  120
+  ----, Partial scaffold burial  169
+  Bechuana burial  126
+  Beckwourth, James, Crow mourning  183
+  Beechey, Capt. F.�W., Lodge burial  154
+  Beltrami, J.�C., Burial feast  190
+  ----, Burial posts  197
+  Benson, H.�C., Choctaw burial  186
+  Bessels, Dr. Emil, Esquimaux superstition  198
+  Beverly, Robert, Virginia mummies  131
+  Birgan, Meaning of word  93
+  Blackbird's burial  139
+  Blackfeet burial lodges  154
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  ---- tree burial  161
+  Bonaks, Cremation  144
+  Bone cleaning of the dead  168
+  Boner, J.�H., Moravian mourning  166
+  Bossu, M., Burial denied to suicides  180
+  Boteler, Dr. W.�C., Oto burial ceremonies  96
+  Box burial, Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee  155
+  ----, Esquimaux  155, 156
+  ----, Indians of Talomeco River  155
+  ----, Innuits and Ingaliks  156, 158
+  ----, Kalosh  156
+  Bransford, Dr. J.�C., U.S.N., Burial urns discovered by  138
+  Brebeuf, Pere de, Burial feast  191
+  Brice, W.�A., Surface burial  141
+  Brinton, Dr. D.�G., Burial of collected bones  170
+  Bruhier, J.�J., Corsican customs  147
+  ---- Persian burial  103
+  Brule Sioux, tree and scaffold burial  158, 160
+  Burchard, J.�L., Pit burial  124
+  Butterfield, H., Shoshone cairn burial  143
+  Burial, Apingi  125, 126
+  ----, Aquatic  180
+  ---- canoes and houses  177-179
+  ----, Bari of Africa  125
+  ----, Bechuanas  126
+  ---- beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses  122
+  ----, Box  155
+  ----, Carolina tribes  93
+  ----, Caddos  103
+  ----, Cairn  142
+  ----, Cairn, Ute  142
+  ---- case, Cheyenne  162, 163
+  ----, Cave  126
+  ----, Chieftain, of the  110, 111
+  ----, Classification of  92-93
+  ----, Damara  126
+  ---- dance, Yo-ka�-a  192, 194
+  ---- dances  193
+  ---- feast, Description of, by Beltrami  190, 191
+  ---- ----, Hurons, of the  191
+  ---- feasts  190
+  ---- ----, superstitions regarding  191
+  ---- fires, Algonkins  198
+  ---- ----, Yurok  198
+  ---- ----, Esquimaux  198
+  ---- food  192
+  ---- games  195
+  ----, Grave  101
+  ----, Ground, in canoes  112
+  ---- in logs  138, 139
+  ---- in mounds  115
+  ---- in standing posture  151, 152
+  ----, Indians of Virginia  125
+  ----, Iroquois  140
+  ----, Kaffir  126
+  ----, Klamath and Trinity Indians  106, 107
+  ----, Latookas  126
+  ----, Lodge  152
+  ---- lodges, Blackfeet  154
+  ---- ----, Cheyenne  154
+  ---- ----, Shoshone  153, 154
+  ----, Muscogulges  122, 123
+  ----, Meaning and derivation of word  93
+  ----, Moquis,  114
+  ----, Navajo,  123
+  ----, Obongo,  139, 140
+  ---- of Alaric,  181
+  ---- of Blackbird,  139
+  ---- of De Soto,  181
+  ---- of Long Horse,  153
+  ---- of Ouray,  128
+  ----, Parsee,  105, 106
+  ----, Pit,  93
+  ----, Pitt River Indians,  151
+  ---- posts, Sioux and Chippewa,  197, 198
+  ----, Round Valley Indians,  124
+  ---- sacrifice, Aztecs and Tarascos,  190
+  ---- ----, Indians of Northwest,  180
+  ---- ----, Indians of Panama,  180
+  ---- ----, Natchez,  187, 189
+  ---- ----, Tsin�k,  179
+  ---- ----, Wascopums,  189, 190
+  ----, Sacs and Foxes,  94, 95
+  ---- scaffolds,  162
+  ---- song, Schiller's,  110, 111
+  ---- ---- of Basques and others,  195
+  ---- superstitions, Chippewas,  199, 200
+  ---- ----, Indians of Washington Territory,  201
+  ---- ----, Karok,  200
+  ---- ----, Kelta,  200
+  ---- ----, Modocs,  200, 201
+  ---- ----, Mosquito Indians,  201
+  ---- ----, Tlascaltecs,  201
+  ---- ----, Tolowa,  200
+  ----, Surface,  138, 139
+  ----, Urn,  137
+  ---- ---- and cover, Georgia,  138
+  ---- ----, New Mexico,  138
+
+  Cabins, wigwams, or houses, Burial beneath or in,  122
+  Caddos, Burial,  103
+  Cairn burial, Acaxers and Yaquis,  143
+  ----, Balearic Islanders,  143
+  ----, Blackfeet,  143
+  ----, Esquimaux,  143
+  ----, Kiowas and Comanches,  142, 143
+  ----, Pi-Utes,  143
+  ----, Reasons for,  143
+  ----, Shoshonis,  143
+  Calaveras Cave,  128, 129
+  California steatite burial urn,  138
+  Campbell, John, Burial songs,  195
+  Canes sepulchrales,  104
+  Canoe burial in ground,  112
+  ---- ----, Mosquito Indians,  112, 113
+  ---- ----, Santa Barbara,  112
+  ----, Clallam,  173, 174
+  ----, Twana,  171, 173
+  Canoes and houses, Burial,  177-179
+  Canoes, Superterrene and aerial burial in,  171
+  Caraibs, Verification of death,  146
+  Carolina tribes, Burial among,  93
+  Catlin, George, Burial of Blackbird,  139
+  ----, Golgotha of Mandans,  170
+  ----, Mourning cradle,  181
+  Cave burial,  126
+  ----, Alaska,  129
+  ----, Calaveras,  128, 129
+  ----, Utes,  127, 128
+  Cherokee aquatic burial,  180
+  Cheyenne burial case,  162, 163
+  ---- lodges,  154
+  Chillicothe mound,  117, 118
+  Chinook aerial burial in canoes,  171
+  ---- aquatic burial,  180
+  ---- mourning cradle,  181, 182
+  Chippewa burial superstitions,  199, 200
+  ---- mourning,  184
+  ---- scaffold burial,  161, 162
+  ---- widow,  184, 185
+  Choctaw mound burial,  120
+  ---- scaffold burial,  169
+  Choctaws funeral ceremonies,  186
+  Cist burial, Doracho,  115
+  ---- graves, Kentucky,  114, 115
+  ---- ----, Indians of Illinois,  114
+  Cists or stone graves,  113
+  ----, Solutr�,  113
+  ----, Tennessee,  113
+  Clallam canoe burial,  173, 174
+  ---- house burial,  175
+  Classification of burial,  92
+  Cleveland, Wm. J., Tree and scaffold burial,  158
+  Collected bones, Interment of,  170
+  Comanche inhumation,  99, 100
+  Congaree and Santee Indians, embalmment  132, 133
+  Corsican funeral custom  147
+  Cox, Ross, Cremation  144
+  Coyotero Apaches, Inhumation  111, 112
+  Cradle, mourning, Illustration of  181
+  Crock, Choctaw, and Cherokee box burial  155
+  Creeks and Seminoles, Inhumation  95, 96
+  ----, "Hallelujah" of the  195
+  Cremation, Antiquity of  143
+  ----, Bonaks  144
+  ---- furnace  149
+  ----, Indians of Clear Lake  147
+  ----, Indians of Southern Utah  149
+  ---- mound, Florida  148, 149
+  ----, Nishinams  144
+  ----, Partial  150, 151
+  ----, Se-n�l  147, 148
+  ----, Tolkotins  144-146
+  Crow lodge burial  153
+  ---- mourning  183, 184
+  Curious mourning observances of ancients  165, 166
+  Curtiss, E., Exploration by  115, 116
+
+  Dakhnias  104
+  Dall, W.�H., Burial boxes  156
+  ----, Cave burial  129
+  ----, Mummies  134
+  Damara burial  126
+  Dance for the dead  192
+  Dances, Burial  192
+  Danish burial logs  139
+  Dead, Dance for the  192
+  Delano, A., Tree burial  161
+  Description of burial feast  190, 191
+  De Soto's burial  181
+  Devouring the dead, Fans of Africa  182
+  ----, Indians of South America  182, 183
+  ----, Massageties, Pad�ns, and others  182
+  Dolmens in Japan  115
+  Doracho cist burial  115
+  Drew, Benjamin, Schiller's burial song  110
+  Dumont, M. Butel de, House burial  124
+
+  Eells, Rev. M., Canoe burial  171
+  Embalmment, Aleutian Islanders  135, 136
+  ----, Congaree and Santee Indians  132, 133
+  ----, or mummification  130
+  Engelhardt, Prof. C.  139
+  Esquimaux box burial  155, 156
+  ---- burial fires  198
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  ---- lodge burial  154
+  European ossuaries  191
+  Excavation of Indian mound, North Carolina  120-122
+
+  Fans of Africa devour the dead  182
+  Feasts, Burial  190
+  Fires, Burial  198
+  Fiske, Moses, Cists  113
+  Florida cremation mound  148, 149
+  ---- mound burial  119, 120
+  Food, Burial  192
+  Ford, Lieut. Geo. E., U.S.A., Cabin burial  123
+  Foreman, Dr. E., Burial urns  138
+  ---- Cremation  149
+  Foster, J. W., Urn burial  137
+  ---- Cremation  150
+  Funeral ceremonies, Choctaws  186
+  ----, Twanas and Clallams  176
+  ---- custom, Corsican  147
+  Furnace, Cremation  149
+
+  Gageby, Capt. J.�H., U.S.A., Box burial  155
+  Games, Burial  195
+  Gardner, Dr. W., U.S.A., Theory of scaffold burial  167
+  Ghost gamble  195-197
+  Gianque, Florian, Mound burial  120
+  Gibbs, George  106
+  ----, Burial canoes and houses  177
+  Gilbert, G.�K., Klamath burial  147
+  ---- Moquis burial  114
+  Gillman, Henry, Exploration of mound  148
+  Given, Dr. O.�G., Cairn burial  142
+  "Golgothas," Mandans  170
+  Gosh-Utes, Aquatic burial amongst  181
+  Grave burial  101
+  Gregg, Dr. P., Surface burial  140
+  Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce, Comanche inhumation  99
+  ---- Wichita burial customs  102
+  Grossman, Capt. F.�E., Pima burial  98
+  Gros Ventres and Mandans, Scaffold burial  161
+
+  "Hallelujah" of the Creeks  195
+  Hammond, Dr. J.�F., Burial lodges  154
+  Hardisty, W.�L., Log burial in trees  166
+  Hidatsa superstitions  199
+  Hind, Henry Youle, Burial feast  191
+  Hoffman, Dr. W.�J.  99
+  ---- Drawing of Pima burial  111, 153
+  Holbrook, W.�C., Burial mounds  118
+  Holmes, W.�H., Drawings by  106, 203
+  Hough, Franklin B., Canoe burial in the ground  112
+  House burial, Clallams  175
+  ----, Paskagoulas and Billoxis  124, 125
+  Hurons, Burial feast of  191
+  Hyperboreans, aquatic burial  180
+
+  Ichthyophagi, aquatic burial  180
+  Illinois mounds  118
+  Indian mound in North Carolina, Excavation of  120-122
+  Indians of Bellingham Bay, lodge burial  154
+  ---- of Clear Lake, cremation  147
+  ---- of Costa Rica, lodge burial  154
+  ---- of Illinois, cist burial  114
+  ---- of Northwest, burial sacrifice  180
+  ---- of Panama, burial sacrifice  180
+  ---- of South America devour the dead  182, 183
+  ---- of Southern Utah, cremation  149
+  ---- of Talomeco River, box burial  155
+  ---- of Taos, inhumation  101, 102
+  ---- of Virginia, burial  125
+  ---- of Washington Territory, burial superstition  201
+  Inhumation  93
+  ----, Comanches  99, 100
+  ----, Coyotero Apaches  111, 112
+  ----, Creeks and Seminoles  95, 96
+  ----, Indians of Taos  101, 102
+  ----, Mohawks  93
+  ----, Otoe and Missouri Indians.  96, 97, 98
+  ----, Pimas  98, 99
+  ----, Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux  107-110
+  ----, Wichitas  102, 103
+  ----, Yuki  99
+  Innuit and Ingalik box burial  156-158
+  Interment of collected bones  170
+  Iroquois scaffold burial  169, 170
+  ---- surface burial  140
+  Itzas, Aquatic burial  180
+
+  Japan dolmens  115
+  Jenkes, Col. C.�W., Partial cremation  150
+  Johnston, Adam, Cremation myth  144
+  Jones, Dr. Charles C., Stone graves of Tennessee  114
+  ---- Natchez burial  169
+  Joseph, Judge Anthony, Inhumation of Taos Indians  101
+
+  Kaffir burial  126
+  Kalosh box burial  156
+  Kavague aquatic burial  180
+  Kaw-a-w�h  142
+  Keating, William H., Burial scaffolds  162
+  ----, Burial superstitions  199
+  "Keeping the Ghost"  160
+  Kent, M. B., Sac and Fox burial  94
+  Kentucky cist graves  114, 115
+  ---- mummies  133
+  Kiowa and Comanche cairn burial  142, 143
+  Kitty-ka-tats  102
+  Klamath and Trinity Indians, burial  106, 107
+  Klingbeil, William, Partial cremation  151
+
+  Lafitau, J. F.  182
+  "Last cry"  186
+  Latookas burial  126
+  Lawson, John, Partial embalmment  132
+  ----, Pit burial  93
+  List of illustrations, Burial customs  87
+  Living sepulchers  182
+  Lodge burial  152
+  ----, Crow  153
+  ----, Esquimaux  154
+  ----, Indians of Bellingham Bay  154
+  ----, Indians of Costa Rica  154
+  ----, Sioux  152, 153
+  Log burial  138, 139
+  ----, Danish  139
+  ---- in trees, Loucheux  166
+  Long Horse, burial of  153
+  Lotophagians, Aquatic burial  180
+  Loucheux, log burial in trees  166
+
+  McChesney, Dr. Charles E.  107-111
+  ----, "Ghost gamble"  195
+  McDonald, Dr. A. J., Rock fissure burial  127
+  McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial  161
+  ----, Chippewa widow  184
+  Macrobrian Ethiopians, Preservation of the dead  136, 137
+  Mahan, I. L., Chippewa mourning  184
+  Mandan "Golgothas"  170
+  Matthews, Dr. Washington, U.S.A., Hidatsa superstition  199
+  ----, Tree burial  161
+  Menard, Dr. John, Navajo burial  123
+  Miami Valley mound burial  120
+  Midawan, a ceremony of initiation  122
+  Miller, Dr. C. C., Assistance from  197
+  Mitchell, Dr. Samuel L., Kentucky mummies  133, 134
+  Mohawks, Inhumation  93
+  Monotheism defined  30, 32, 142
+  Moquis burial  114
+  Moravian mourning  166
+  Morgan, Lewis H., Burial dance  192
+  ----, Partial scaffold burial  169
+  Morse, E.�S., Dolmens in Japan  115
+  Mortuary customs of Parthians, Medes, etc.  104
+  ---- Persians  103, 104
+  Mosquito Indians, Burial superstition of  201
+  ----, canoe burial in ground  112, 113
+  Mound burial  115
+  ----, Choctaws  120
+  ----, Florida  119, 120
+  ----, Miami Valley  120
+  ----, Ohio  117, 118
+  Mounds, Illinois  118, 119
+  ---- of stone  118
+  Mourning ceremonies, Sioux  109, 110
+  ----, Chippewa  184
+  ---- cradle, Chinook  181, 182
+  ---- ----, engraving of  181
+  ---- Crows  183, 184
+  ---- customs of widows  185, 186
+  ----, Indians of Northwest  179
+  ---- Moravian  166
+  ---- observances, Twana and Clallams  176
+  ---- sacrifice, feasts, food, etc  183
+  Mummies, Alaskan  134, 135
+  ----, Kentucky  133
+  ----, Northwest coast  135
+  ----, Virginia  131, 132
+  Mummification or embalmment  130
+  Mummification, Theories regarding  130
+  Muret, Pierre, Living sepulchres  182
+  ----, Persian mortuary customs  103
+  Muscogulge burial  122, 123
+  Natchez burial sacrifice  187-189
+  ---- scaffold burial  169
+  Navajo burial  123
+  Norm  142
+  New Mexico burial urn  138
+  Nishinams, Cremation among the  144
+  Norris, P. W., lodge burial  153
+  North Carolina Indians, Partial cremation  150, 151
+  Northwest coast mummies  135
+  ----, Indians of, mourning  179
+
+  Obongo aquatic burial  180
+  ---- surface burial  139, 140
+  Observers, Queries for, regarding burial  202, 203
+  Ohio mound burial  117
+  Oh-sah-ke-uck  94
+  Ojibwa and Cree surface burial  141
+  Ossuaries, European  191
+  Otis, Dr. George A., U.S.A., Burial case  162
+  Oto and Missouri Indians, Inhumation  96-98
+  Ouray, Burial of  128
+  Owsley, Dr. W.�J., Cist graves  114
+
+  Partial cremation  150
+  ---- ----, North Carolina Indians  150, 151
+  ---- scaffold burial and ossuaries  168
+  Parsee burial  105, 106
+  Paskagoulas and Billoxis, House burial  124, 125
+  Persians, Mortuary customs of the  103, 104
+  Pimas, Inhumation among  98, 99
+  Pinart, M. Alphonse, Pima burial  98
+  Pinkerton, John, Virginia mummies  131
+  Piros  101
+  Pit burial  93
+  Pitt River Indians, Burial and cremation  151
+  Pi-Ute cairn burial  143
+  Posts, Burial  197
+  Potherie, De la M., Surface burial  140
+  Powell, J.�W., Stone graves or cists  113
+  Powers, Stephen, Burial dance  192
+  ----, Burial song  194
+  ----, Origin of cremation  144
+  ----, Se-n�l cremation  147
+  ----, Yuki burial  99
+  Preparation of dead,
+  ---- Similarity of, between Comanches and African tribes  100
+  Preservation of dead, Macrobrian Ethiopians  136, 137
+  ----, Werowance of Virginia  131, 132
+  Priest, Josiah, Box burial  155
+  Putnam, F.�W., Stone graves or cists  115, 116
+
+  Queries for observers regarding burial  202, 203
+  Quiogozon or ossuary  94
+
+  Reason for cairn burial  143
+  Remarks, Final  203
+  Review of Turner's narrative  165
+  Robertson, R.�S., Surface burial  139
+  Roman, Bernard, Choctaw hone houses  168
+  ----, Funeral customs of Chickasaws  123
+  Round Valley Indians, burial among  124
+
+  Sacrifice  187
+  Sacs and Foxes, burial among  94, 95
+  ----, surface burial  140, 141
+  Sauer, Martin, Aleutian mummies  135
+  Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies, surface burial among  151
+  Scaffold burial, Australia  167
+  ---- ----, Chippewas  161, 162
+  ---- ----, Choctaw  169
+  ---- ----, Gros-Ventres and Mandans  161
+  ---- ----, Iroquois  169, 170
+  ---- ----, Natchez  169
+  ---- ----, Sioux  163, 164
+  ----, Tent burial on  174
+  Scaffolds, Theory regarding  167, 168
+  Schiller's burial song  110
+  Schoolcraft, Henry R., Burial posts  197
+  ----, Cremation myth  144
+  ----, Mohawk burial  93, 95
+  ----, Partial embalmment  132
+  Seechaugas  158
+  Sellers, George Escoll, Cist burial  114
+  Se-n�l, Cremation among the  147, 148
+  Sepulture, Aerial  152
+  Sheldon, William, Caraib burial customs  146
+  Shoshone burial lodges  153, 154
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  Sicaugu  158
+  Simpson, Capt. J.�H., U.S.A., Aquatic burial  181
+  Sioux and Chippewa burial posts  197, 198
+  ---- lodge burial  152, 153
+  ---- mourning ceremonies  109, 110
+  Sioux, scaffold burial of the  163, 164
+  ----, tree burial of the  161
+  Solutr� cists  113
+  Songs, Burial  194
+  ---- ----, of Basques and others  195
+  Southern Indians, Urn burial among  137
+  Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason, Curious burial  120
+  Spencer, J. W., Partial surface burial  140
+  Standing posture, Burial in  151, 152
+  Stansbury, Capt. H., U.S.A., Lodge burial  152
+  Steatite burial urn, California  138
+  Sternberg, Dr. George M., U.S.A., Grave mounds  119
+  ----, Burial case discovered  162
+  Stone graves or cists  113
+  ---- mounds  118
+  Superstition, Hidatsa  199
+  ---- regarding burial feasts  191
+  Superstitions, Burial  199
+  Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes  171
+  Surface burial  138, 139
+  ----, Ojibways and Crees  141
+  ----, Sacs and Foxes  140, 141
+  ----, Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies  141
+  Swan, James G., Canoe burial  171
+  ----, Klamath burial  106
+  ----, Superstitions  201
+
+  T�h-zee  142
+  Tegg, William, Antiquity of cremation  143
+  ----, Towers of silence  104
+  Tennessee cists  113
+  Tent burial on scaffold  174
+  Theories regarding mummification or embalmment  130
+  ---- regarding use of scaffolds  176, 168
+  Tiffany, A. S., Cremation furnace  149
+  Timberlake, H., Aquatic burial  180
+  Tolkotin cremation  144, 146
+  Tompkins, Gen. Chas. H., U.S.A., Partial cremation  151
+  Towers of silence, Description of  104-106
+  Tree and scaffold burial  158
+  ---- ----, Brul� Sioux  158, 160
+  ---- burial, ancient nations  165, 166
+  ---- ----, Blackfeet  101
+  ---- ----, Sioux  101
+  Tsin�k burial sacrifice  179
+  Turner, Dr. L.�S., Scaffold burial  163
+  Turner's narrative, Review of  165
+  Twana and Clallam mourning observances  176
+  ---- canoe burial  171-173
+  Twanas and Clallams, funeral ceremonies  176
+
+  Urn burial by Southern Indians  137
+  Ute cairn burial  142
+  ---- cave burial  127, 128
+
+  Van Camper, Moses. Mode of burial of Indians inhabiting
+      Pennsylvania  112
+  Van Vliet, Gen. Stewart, U.S.A., Tree and scaffold burial  153
+  Verification of death, Caraibs  146
+  Virginia mummies  131, 132
+
+  Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux, Inhumation among  107-110
+  Wascopums, Burial sacrifice of  189, 190
+  Wee-ka-nahs  101
+  Welch, H., Surface burial  141
+  Werowance of Virginia, preservation of the dead  131, 132
+  Whitney, J. D., burial cave, Description of a  128
+  Whymper, Frederic, Burial boxes  156
+  Wichitas, Inhumation among the  102, 103
+  Widow, Chippewa  184, 185
+  Widows, Mourning customs of  185, 186
+  Wilcox, E., Partial cremation  150
+  Wilkins, Charles, Kentucky mummies  133
+  Williams, Monier, Parsee burial  104
+  Wood, Rev. J. G., African surface burial  139
+  ----, Bari burial  125
+  ----, Fans of Africa devour the dead  182
+  ----, Obongo aquatic burial  180
+  Wright, Dr. S. G., Superstitions regarding burial feasts  191
+
+  Yo-ka�-a burial dance  192-194
+  Young, John, Tree burial  161
+  Yuki inhumation  99
+  Yurok burial fires  198
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Errata_
+
+Unless otherwise noted, spelling and punctuation are unchanged.
+Differences in punctuation or hyphenization between the List of
+Illustrations and the captions themselves are not noted.
+
+  [List of Illustrations]
+  1.--Quiogozon or dead house  [Quiogozeon]
+
+  two small arroyas
+    [_spelling "arroya" consistent throughout the quoted passage_]
+  chanting the following chorous:
+    [_spelling in quoted passage unchanged_]
+  the Colchians enveloped their dead  [Colchiens]
+  these are considered apochryphal  [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Horace and Tertullian both affirm  [Tertulian]
+  cum grana salis  [_error unchanged: correct form is "grano"_]
+  the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her husband.
+    [_bracketed "sic" in original_]
+  Fr�ebel states that among the Woolwas
+    [_spelling unchanged: probably error for "Froebel" (two letters)
+    or "Fr�bel" (o-umlaut alone)_]
+  tear myself from you (_sic_) arms
+    [_error unchanged; parenthetical "sic" in original_]
+
+  [Footnote 54]
+  Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.  [1878.]
+
+  [Index]
+  [Missing commas within entries or before sub-entries have been
+  silently supplied.]
+  McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial  [Scafford]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of
+the mortuary customs of the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS ***
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of the
+mortuary customs of the North American Ind, by H. C. Yarrow
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North American Indians
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 87-204
+
+Author: H. C. Yarrow
+
+Posting Date: March 24, 2010 [EBook #11398]
+Release Date: March 2, 2004
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Anne Folland, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Canadian Institute for
+Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org) and The
+Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org).)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> includes a few
+characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+Tsinūk, tamahno-ūs, mé-mel-ūs-illa-hee; Kaw-a-wāh, Tāh-zee:<br>
+<i>macron (“long” mark) on <b>a</b> or <b>u</b></i></p>
+
+<p>There is also a single Greek word. If any of these characters do not
+display properly, or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this
+paragraph appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or
+unavailable fonts. First, make sure that the browser’s “character set”
+or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to
+change your browser’s default font.</p>
+
+<p>Much of this article is quoted from other published sources. The
+resulting incon&shy;sistencies in spelling and punctuation are
+unchanged.
+Typographical errors are shown with <ins class = "correction" title =
+"like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. Differences in punctuation or
+hyphenization between the List of Illustrations and the captions
+themselves are not noted.</p>
+
+<p>The Table of Contents and Index were supplied from the beginning and
+end of the Annual Report volume. The List of Illustrations was printed
+with the article. For this e-text, illustrations were placed as close as
+practical to their discussion in the text; the List of Illustrations
+shows their original location.</p>
+
+<p>Most footnotes are purely bibliographic. Asterisks after a few
+footnote numbers <a class = "tag" href = "#note44">44*</a> were added by
+the transcriber to identify those notes that give further
+information.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#contents">Table of Contents</a>
+<br>
+<a href = "#illus">List of Illustrations</a>
+<br>
+<a href = "#mortuary">Mortuary Customs</a>
+<br>
+<a href = "#index">Index</a>
+<br>
+<a href = "#endnote">Note on Illustrations</a>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">87</span>
+<a name = "page087" id = "page087"> </a>
+
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h4>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY</h4>
+
+<h5>J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR</h5>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h3>A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION</h3>
+
+<h6>TO THE</h6>
+
+<h1>STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS</h1>
+
+<h6>OF THE</h6>
+
+<h2>NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.</h2>
+
+<h6>BY</h6>
+
+<h3>Dr. H. C. YARROW,</h3>
+
+<h5>ACT. ASST. SURG., U.S.A.</h5>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">88</span>
+<a name = "page088" id = "page088"> </a>
+
+<h4><a name = "contents" id = "contents">CONTENTS</a></h4>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "table of contents">
+<tr>
+<td>List of illustrations</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page089">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Introductory</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page091">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Classification of burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page092">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Inhumation</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Pit burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page093">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Grave burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Stone graves or cists</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Burial in mounds</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Cave burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Embalmment or mummification</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Urn burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Surface burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Cairn burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cremation</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Partial cremation</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Aerial sepulture</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page152">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Lodge burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page152">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Box burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Tree and scaffold burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page158">158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Aquatic burial</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page180">180</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Living sepulchers</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page182">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc.</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Mourning</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Sacrifice</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Feasts</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Superstition regarding burial feasts</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Food</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Dances</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Songs</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Games</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Posts</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Fires</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Superstitions</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">89</span>
+<a name = "page089" id = "page089"> </a>
+
+<h4><a name = "illus" id = "illus">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h4>
+
+<p class = "mynote">
+In the original, Figure 12 was printed before Figure 11 (both full-page
+Plates). Figure 45 (<i>on</i> page 196) was printed before the group of
+plates 34-44 (<i>between</i> pages 196 and 197).</p>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "list of illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig1">1</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td><ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘Quiogozeon’">Quiogozon</ins> or dead house</td>
+<td class = "number">94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig2">2</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Pima burial</td>
+<td class = "number">98</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig3">3</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Towers of silence</td>
+<td class = "number">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig4">4</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Towers of silence</td>
+<td class = "number">106</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig5">5</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Alaskan mummies</td>
+<td class = "number">135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig6">6</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Burial urns</td>
+<td class = "number">138</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig7">7</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Indian cemetery</td>
+<td class = "number">139</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig8">8</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Grave pen</td>
+<td class = "number">141</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig9">9</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Grave pen</td>
+<td class = "number">141</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig10">10</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Tolkotin cremation</td>
+<td class = "number">145</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig11">11</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Eskimo lodge burial</td>
+<td class = "number">154</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig12">12</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Burial houses</td>
+<td class = "number">154</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig13">13</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Innuit grave</td>
+<td class = "number">156</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig14">14</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Ingalik grave</td>
+<td class = "number">157</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig15">15</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Dakota scaffold burial</td>
+<td class = "number">158</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig16">16</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td><p>Offering food to the dead</p></td>
+<td class = "number">159</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig17">17</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Depositing the corpse</td>
+<td class = "number">160</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig18">18</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Tree-burial</td>
+<td class = "number">161</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig19">19</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Chippewa scaffold burial</td>
+<td class = "number">162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig20">20</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Scarification at burial</td>
+<td class = "number">164</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig21">21</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td><p>Australian scaffold burial</p></td>
+<td class = "number">166</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig22">22</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Preparing the dead</td>
+<td class = "number">167</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig23">23</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Canoe-burial</td>
+<td class = "number">171</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig24">24</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Twana canoe-burial</td>
+<td class = "number">172</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig25">25</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Posts for burial canoes</td>
+<td class = "number">173</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig26">26</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Tent on scaffold</td>
+<td class = "number">174</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig27">27</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>House burial</td>
+<td class = "number">175</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig28">28</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>House burial</td>
+<td class = "number">175</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig29">29</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Canoe-burial</td>
+<td class = "number">178</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig30">30</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Mourning-cradle</td>
+<td class = "number">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig31">31</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td><p>Launching the burial cradle</p></td>
+<td class = "number">182</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig32">32</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Chippewa widow</td>
+<td class = "number">185</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig33">33</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Ghost gamble</td>
+<td class = "number">195</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig34">34</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Figured plum stones</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig35">35</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Winning throw, No. 1</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig36">36</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Winning throw, No. 2</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig37">37</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Winning throw, No. 3</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig38">38</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Winning throw, No. 4</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig39">39</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Winning throw, No. 5</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig40">40</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Winning throw, No. 6</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig41">41</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 1</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig42">42</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 2</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig43">43</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 3</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig44">44</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 4</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig45">45</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Auxiliary throw, No. 5</td>
+<td class = "number">196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig46">46</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Burial posts</td>
+<td class = "number">197</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig47">47</a>.&mdash;</td>
+<td>Grave fire</td>
+<td class = "number">198</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<a name = "page090" id = "page090"> </a>
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">91</span>
+<a name = "page091" id = "page091"> </a>
+
+<h3><a name = "mortuary" id = "mortuary">A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION</a><br>
+<span class = "tiny">TO THE</span><br>
+<span class = "smaller">STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF<br>
+THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</span></h3>
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<h5><span class = "smallcaps">By H. C. Yarrow.</span></h5>
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTORY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many
+readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen
+the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to
+reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an
+introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate
+study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and
+more important.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously,
+while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable.
+This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an
+almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and
+the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing.
+A&nbsp;wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably
+seconded the efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants,
+from the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of
+scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press,
+too&mdash;the mouth-piece of the people&mdash;is ever on the alert to
+scatter broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of
+well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry,
+and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is
+the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North
+American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it
+be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already
+contributed.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed
+more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of
+supererogation
+<span class = "pagenum">92</span>
+<a name = "page092" id = "page092"> </a>
+to continue a further examination of the subject, for nearly every
+author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention of burial
+observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on the sea of
+this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless supported by
+corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely unreliable. To
+bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and arrange
+collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer’s task,
+and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method of
+securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and
+need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present
+to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to
+the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies,
+the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples,
+and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding
+the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be
+done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough
+analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and
+from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be
+considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer
+having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the
+accounts furnished.</p>
+
+<p>It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions
+to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj.
+J.&nbsp;W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian
+Institution, from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant
+encouragement and advice has been received, and to whom all American
+ethnologists owe a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the
+subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies
+among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost
+analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of
+burials may be adopted, although further study may lead to some
+modifications.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.</h3>
+
+
+<p>1st. By <span class = "smallroman">INHUMATION</span> in pits, graves,
+or holes in the ground, stone graves or cists, in mounds, beneath or in
+cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or in caves.</p>
+
+<p>2d. By <span class = "smallroman">EMBALMMENT</span> or a process of
+mummifying, the remains being afterwards placed in the earth, caves,
+mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in charnel-houses.</p>
+
+<p>3d. By <span class = "smallroman">DEPOSITION</span> of remains in
+urns.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">93</span>
+<a name = "page093" id = "page093"> </a>
+<p>4th. By <span class = "smallroman">SURFACE BURIAL</span>, the remains
+being placed in hollow trees or logs, pens, or simply covered with
+earth, or bark, or rocks forming cairns.</p>
+
+<p>5th. By <span class = "smallroman">CREMATION</span>, or partial
+burning, generally on the surface of the earth, occasionally beneath,
+the resulting bones or ashes being placed in pits in the ground, in
+boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns, sometimes scattered.</p>
+
+<p>6th. By <span class = "smallroman">AERIAL SEPULTURE</span>, the
+bodies being left in lodges, houses, cabins, tents, deposited on
+scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the two latter receptacles
+supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the ground. Occasionally
+baskets have been used to contain the remains of children, these being
+hung to trees.</p>
+
+<p>7th. By <span class = "smallroman">AQUATIC BURIAL</span>, beneath the
+water, or in canoes, which were turned adrift.</p>
+
+<p>These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the term <i>burial</i> throughout this paper is to be
+understood in its literal significance, the word being derived from the
+Teutonic Anglo-Saxon “<i>birgan</i>,” to conceal or hide away.</p>
+
+<p>In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies,
+it has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished,
+in order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the
+relator’s language been changed except to correct manifest
+unintentional, errors of spelling.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>INHUMATION.</h3>
+
+
+<h4>PIT BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been
+that of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of
+different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of
+the process:</p>
+
+<p>One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href = "#note1">1</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body was
+placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered with
+timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby kept the
+body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a round hill over
+it. They always dressed the corpse in all its finery, and put wampum and
+other things into the grave with it; and the relations suffered not
+grass nor any wood to grow upon the grave, and frequently visited it and
+made lamentation.</p>
+
+<p>In Jones<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href =
+"#note2">2</a> is the following interesting account from Lawson<a class
+= "tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href = "#note3">3</a> of the burial
+customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was accompanied with
+special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon the funeral
+according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was first placed in
+a cane hurdle and deposited in
+<span class = "pagenum">94</span>
+<a name = "page094" id = "page094"> </a>
+an outhouse made for the purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a
+day and a night, guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with
+disheveled hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral go into the
+town, and from the backs of the first young men they meet strip such
+blankets and matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In
+these the dead body is wrapped and then covered with two or three mats
+made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or hollow
+canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared for the
+interment, the corpse is carried from the house in which it has been
+lying into the orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in another
+hurdle. Seated upon mats are there congregated the family and tribe of
+the deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or conjurer, having
+enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral oration, during which he
+recounts the exploits of the deceased, his valor, skill, love of
+country, property, and influence; alludes to the void caused by his
+death, and counsels those who remain to supply his place by following in
+his footsteps; pictures the happiness he will enjoy in the land of
+spirits to which he has gone, and concludes his address by an allusion
+to the prominent traditions of his tribe.</p>
+
+<p>Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day&mdash;a custom, in
+the opinion of many, “more honored in the breach than in the
+observance.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from that Hurdle
+to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the Relations, the King, old
+Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the Sepulcre, which is about
+six foot deep and eight foot long, having at each end (that is, at the
+Head and Foot) a&nbsp;Light-Wood or Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down
+the sides of the Grave firmly into the Ground (these two Forks are to
+contain a Ridge-Pole, as you shall understand presently), before they
+lay the Corps into the Grave, they cover the bottom two or three time
+over with the Bark of Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two
+Belts that the <i>Indians</i> carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely
+upon the said Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the
+two Forks, and having a great many Pieces of Pitch-Pine Logs about two
+Foot and a half long, they stick them in the sides of the Grave down
+each End and near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the
+Ridge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of a House. These
+being very thick plac’d, they cover them [many times double] with Bark;
+then they throw the Earth thereon that came out of the Grave and beat it
+down very firm. By this Means the dead Body lies in a Vault, nothing
+touching him.</p>
+
+<p>After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited
+in an ossuary called the Quiogozon.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers
+called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to
+it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair
+greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited,
+another dried bodies.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig1.png" width = "298" height = "426"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Quiogozon or Dead
+House.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M. B. Kent,
+relating to the Sacs and Foxes (<i>Oh-sak-ke-uck</i>) of the Nehema
+Agency, Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead
+to prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom
+has been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by
+examples given further&nbsp;on.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Ancient burial.</i>&mdash;The body was buried in a grave made about
+2½ feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards the east, the
+burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave was
+prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse
+<span class = "pagenum">95</span>
+<a name = "page095" id = "page095"> </a>
+was deposited, a&nbsp;plank covering made and secured some distance
+above the body. The plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse
+with the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse was
+always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a long journey in
+life, no coffin being used.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Modern burial.</i>&mdash;This tribe now usually bury in coffins, rude
+ones constructed by themselves, still depositing the body in the grave
+with the head towards the east.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Ancient funeral ceremonies.</i>&mdash;Every relative of the deceased
+had to throw some article in the grave, either food, clothing, or other
+material. There was no rule stating the nature of what was to be added
+to the collection, simply a requirement that something must be
+deposited, if it were only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After the
+corpse was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead,
+instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would soon discover
+moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he came to a great river,
+which is the river of death; when there he would find a pole across the
+river, which, if he has been honest, upright, and good, will be
+straight, upon which he could readily cross to the other side; but if
+his life had been one of wickedness and sin, the pole would be very
+crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he would be precipitated
+into the turbulent stream and lost forever. The brave also told him if
+he crossed the river in safety the Great Father would receive him, take
+out his old brains, give him new ones, and then he would have reached
+the happy hunting grounds, always be happy and have eternal life. After
+burial a feast was always called, and a portion of the food of which
+each and every relative was partaking was burned to furnish subsistence
+to the spirit upon its journey.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Modern funeral ceremonies.</i>&mdash;Provisions are rarely put into
+the grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast subsequent
+to burial is burned, although the feast is continued. All the address
+delivered by the brave over the corpse after being deposited in the
+grave is omitted. A&nbsp;prominent feature of all ceremonies, either
+funeral or religious, consists of feasting accompanied with music and
+dancing.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Ancient mourning observances.</i>&mdash;The female relations allowed
+their hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed themselves in the most
+unpresentable attire, the latter of which the males also do. Men blacked
+the whole face for a period of ten days after a death in the family,
+while the women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the children were
+blacked for three months; they were also required to fast for the same
+length of time, the fasting to consist of eating but one meal per day,
+to be made entirely of hominy, and partaken of about sunset. It was
+believed that this fasting would enable the child to dream of coming
+events and prophesy what was to happen in the future. The extent and
+correctness of prophetic vision depended upon how faithfully the ordeal
+of fasting had been observed.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Modern mourning observances.</i>&mdash;Many of those of the past are
+continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing uncouth
+apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children, and they are adhered
+to with as much tenacity as many of the professing Christians belonging
+to the evangelical churches adhere to their practices, which constitute
+mere forms, the intrinsic value of which can very reasonably be called
+in question.</p>
+
+<p>The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag4" id = "tag4" href = "#note4">4</a> made the
+graves of their dead as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse about four
+feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the cabin or rock wherever
+he died. The corpse is placed in the hole in a sitting posture, with a
+blanket wrapped about it, and the legs bent under and tied together. If
+a warrior, he is painted, and his pipe, ornaments, and warlike
+appendages are deposited with him. The grave is then covered with canes
+tied to a hoop round the top of the hole, then a firm layer of clay,
+sufficient to support the weight of a man. The relations howl loudly and
+mourn publicly for four days. If the deceased has been a man of eminent
+character, the family immediately remove
+<span class = "pagenum">96</span>
+<a name = "page096" id = "page096"> </a>
+from the house in which he is buried and erect a new one, with a belief
+that where the bones of their dead are deposited the place is always
+attended by goblins and chimeras dire.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. W. C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County,
+Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most
+interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it
+may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those
+already mentioned:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in southern Gage
+County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000 acres, unsurpassed in
+beauty of location, natural resources, and adaptability for prosperous
+agriculture. This pastoral people, though in the midst of civilization,
+have departed but little from the rude practice and customs of a nomadic
+life, and here may be seen and studied those interesting dramas as
+vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote frontier.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+During my residence among this people on different occasions,
+I&nbsp;have had the opportunity of witnessing the Indian burials and
+many quaint ceremonies pertaining thereto.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe subject,
+the preparation of the burial costume is immediately began. The near
+relatives of the dying Indian surround the humble bedside, and by loud
+lamentations and much weeping manifest a grief which is truly
+commensurate with the intensity of Indian devotion and attachment.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+While thus expressing before the near departed their grief at the sad
+separation impending, the Indian women, or friendly braves, lose no time
+in equipping him or her with the most ornate clothes and ornaments that
+are available or in immediate possession. It is thus that the departed
+Otoe is enrobed in death, in articles of his own selection and by
+arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his own tongue. It is
+customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere his departure, the
+propriety or impropriety of the accustomed sacrifices. In some cases
+there is a double and in others no sacrifice at all. The Indian women
+then prepare to cut away their hair; it is accomplished with scissors,
+cutting close to the scalp at the side and behind.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with great solemnity
+and care. Bead-work, the most ornate, expensive blankets and ribbons
+comprise the funeral shroud. The dead, being thus enrobed, is placed in
+a recumbent posture at the most conspicuous part of the lodge and viewed
+in rotation by the mourning relatives previously summoned by a courier,
+all preserving uniformity in the piercing screams which would seem to
+have been learned by rote.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the tribe,
+arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge around one of their
+number, keeping time upon a drum or some rude cooking-utensil.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance excitedly
+around the central person, vociferating, and with wild gesture, tomahawk
+in hand, imprecate the evil spirit, which he drives to the land where
+the sun goes down. The evil spirit being thus effectually banished, the
+mourning gradually subsides, blending into succeeding scenes of feasting
+and refreshment. The burial feast is in every respect equal in richness
+to its accompanying ceremonies. All who assemble are supplied with
+cooked venison, hog, buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing
+alike hot cakes soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case
+may&nbsp;be.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged Indian
+present will sit in the central circle, and in a continuous and doleful
+tone narrate the acts of valor in the life of the departed, enjoining
+fortitude and bravery upon all sitting around as an essential
+qualification for admittance to the land where the Great Spirit reigns.
+When the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is customary for the
+surviving friends to
+<span class = "pagenum">97</span>
+<a name = "page097" id = "page097"> </a>
+present the bereaved family with useful articles of domestic needs, such
+as calico in bolt, flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or
+horses. After the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the body is
+carefully placed in a wagon and, with an escort of all friends,
+relatives, and acquaintances, conveyed to the grave previously prepared
+by some near relation or friend. When a wagon is used, the immediate
+relatives occupy it with the corpse, which is propped in a semi-sitting
+posture; before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it was necessary to
+bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then convey him to his
+last resting place among his friends. In past days when buffalo were
+more available, and a tribal hunt was more frequently indulged in, it is
+said that those dying on the way were bound upon horses and thus
+frequently carried several hundred miles for interment at the burial
+places of their friends.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a double
+nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel, and upon the other
+blended with the deepest grief and most heartfelt sorrow. Before the
+interment of the dead the chattels of the deceased are unloaded from the
+wagons or unpacked from the backs of ponies and carefully arranged in
+the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is wider than the top (graves
+here being dug like an inverted funnel), is spread with straw or grass
+matting, woven generally by the Indian women of the tribe or some near
+neighbor. The sides are then carefully hung with handsome shawls or
+blankets, and trunks, with domestic articles, pottery, &amp;c., of less
+importance, are piled around in abundance. The sacrifices are next
+inaugurated. A&nbsp;pony, first designated by the dying Indian, is led
+aside and strangled by men hanging to either end of a rope. Sometimes,
+but not always, a&nbsp;dog is likewise strangled, the heads of both
+animals being subsequently laid upon the Indian’s grave. The body, which
+is now often placed in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if
+a coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the deceased
+before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a&nbsp;saddle and
+bridle, blankets, dishes, &amp;c., are placed upon it, the mourning
+ceases, and the Indians prepare to close the grave. It should be
+remembered, among the Otoe and Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in
+upon the body, but simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs
+that are accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the
+burying is completed, a&nbsp;distribution of the property of the
+deceased takes place, the near relatives receiving everything, from the
+merest trifle to the tent and homes, leaving the immediate family, wife
+and children or father out-door pensioners.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Although the same generosity is not observed towards the whites
+assisting in funeral rites, it is universally practiced as regards
+Indians, and poverty’s lot is borne by the survivors with a fortitude
+and resignation which in them amounts to duty, and marks a higher grade
+of intrinsic worth than pervades whites of like advantages and
+conditions. We are told in the Old Testament Scriptures, “four days and
+four nights should the fires burn,” &amp;c. In fulfillment of this
+sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil carefully kept by these
+Indians four days and four nights at the graves of their departed.
+A&nbsp;small fire is kindled for the purpose near the grave at sunset,
+where the nearest relatives convene and maintain a continuous
+lamentation till the morning dawn. There was an ancient tradition that
+at the expiration of this time the Indian arose, and mounting his spirit
+pony, galloped off to the happy hunting-ground beyond.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these superstitions have
+faded, and the living sacrifices are partially continued only from a
+belief that by parting with their most cherished and valuable goods they
+propitiate the Great Spirit for the sins committed during the life of
+the deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find was the practice
+of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt offerings the lamb or the
+ox; hence we cannot censure this people, but, from a comparison of
+conditions, credit them with a more strict observance of our Holy Book
+than pride and seductive fashions permit of&nbsp;us.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">98</span>
+<a name = "page098" id = "page098"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+From a careful review of the whole of their attendant ceremonies a
+remarkable similarity can be marked. The arrangement of the corpse
+preparatory to interment, the funeral feast, the local service by the
+aged fathers, are all observances that have been noted among whites,
+extending into times that are in the memory of those still living.</p>
+
+<p>The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that
+led the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with
+the corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F.&nbsp;E.
+Grossman,<a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5" href =
+"#note5">5</a> and the account is corroborated by M.&nbsp;Alphonse
+Pinart<a class = "tag" name = "tag6" id = "tag6" href = "#note6">6</a>
+and Bancroft.<a class = "tag" name = "tag7" id = "tag7" href =
+"#note7">7</a></p>
+
+<p>Captain Grossman’s account follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig2.png" width = "236" height = "264"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Pima burial.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the latter
+around their neck and under the knees, and then drawing them tight until
+the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting position. They dig the
+graves from four to five feet deep and perfectly round (about two feet
+in diameter), and then hollow out to one side of the bottom of this
+grave a sort of vault large enough to contain the body. Here the body is
+deposited, the grave is filled up level with the ground, and poles,
+trees, or pieces of timber placed upon the grave to protect the remains
+from coyotes.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The mourners
+chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The bodies of
+their dead are buried if possible, immediately after death has taken
+place and the graves are generally prepared before the patients die.
+Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had already been dug)
+recover. In such cases the graves are left open until the persons for
+whom they are intended die. Open graves of this kind can be seen in
+several of their burial grounds. Places of burial are selected some
+distance from the village, and, if possible, in a grove of mesquite
+trees.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house and personal
+effects of the deceased are burned and his horses and cattle killed, the
+meat being cooked as a
+<span class = "pagenum">99</span>
+<a name = "page099" id = "page099"> </a>
+repast for the mourners. The nearest relatives of the deceased as a sign
+of their sorrow remain within their village for weeks, and sometimes
+months; the men cut off about six inches of their long hair, while the
+women cut their hair quite short. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he dies
+impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of stock. The
+women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor should their
+husbands die, and that then they will have to provide for their children
+by their own exertions, do not care to have many children, and
+infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to a great extent.
+This is not considered a crime, and old women of the tribe practice it.
+A&nbsp;widow may marry again after a year’s mourning for her first
+husband; but having children no man will take her for a wife and thus
+burden himself with her children. Widows generally cultivate a small
+piece of ground, and friends and relatives (men) plow the ground for
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman’s description by my friend Dr.
+W.&nbsp;J. Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Powers<a class = "tag" name = "tag8" id = "tag8" href =
+"#note8">8</a> describes a similar mode of grave preparation among the
+Yuki of California:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a hole six feet
+deep sometimes and at the bottom of it “<i>coyote</i>” under, making a
+little recess in which the corpse is deposited.</p>
+
+<p>The Comanches of Indian Territory (<i>Nem</i>, <i>we, or us,
+people</i>), according to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency,
+Indian Territory, go to the opposite extreme, so far as the protection
+of the dead from the surrounding earth is concerned. The account as
+received is given entire, as much to illustrate this point as others of
+interest.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be faintly
+heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not departed from the
+body, the knees are strongly bent upon the chest, and the legs flexed
+upon the thighs. The arms are also flexed upon each side of the chest,
+and the head bent forward upon the knees. A&nbsp;lariat, or rope, is now
+used to firmly bind the limbs and body in this position. A&nbsp;blanket
+is then wrapped around the body, and this again tightly corded, so that
+the appearance when ready for burial is that of an almost round and
+compact body, very unlike the composed pall of his Wichita or Caddo
+brother. The body is then taken and placed in a saddle upon a pony, in a
+sitting posture; a&nbsp;squaw usually riding behind, though sometimes
+one on either side of the horse, holds the body in position until the
+place of burial is reached, when the corpse is literally tumbled into
+the excavation selected for the purpose. The deceased is only
+accompanied by two or three squaws, or enough to perform the little
+labor bestowed upon the burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge
+or village of the bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes or heads
+of cañons in which the Comanche country abounds is selected, and the
+body thrown in, without special reference to position. With this are
+deposited the bows and arrows; these, however, are first broken. The
+saddle is also placed in the grave, together with many of the personal
+valuables of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks and
+earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Funeral ceremonies.</i>&mdash;the best pony owned by the deceased is
+brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may appear well
+mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the other world. Formerly,
+if the deceased were a chief or man of consequence and had large herds
+of ponies, many were killed, sometimes amounting to 200 or 300 head in
+number.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good pony for the
+convoy
+<span class = "pagenum">100</span>
+<a name = "page100" id = "page100"> </a>
+of the deceased to the happy-grounds by the following story, which is
+current among both Comanches and Wichitas:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no relatives and who
+was quite poor. Some of the tribe concluded that almost any kind of a
+pony would serve to transport him to the next world. They therefore
+killed at his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared horse. But a few
+weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo and behold he
+returned, riding this same old worn-out horse, weary and hungry. He
+first appeared at the Wichita camps, where he was well known, and asked
+for something to eat, but his strange appearance, with sunken eyes and
+hollow cheeks, filled with consternation all who saw him, and they fled
+from his presence. Finally one bolder than the rest placed a piece of
+meat on the end of a lodge-pole and extended it to him. He soon appeared
+at his own camp, creating, if possible, even more dismay than among the
+Wichitas, and this resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving their
+villages and moving <i>en masse</i> to a place on Rush Creek, not far
+distant from the present site of Fort Sill.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was questioned why
+he thus appeared among the inhabitants of earth, he made reply that when
+he came to the gates of paradise the keepers would on no account permit
+him to enter upon such an ill-conditioned beast as that which bore him,
+and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the homes of those whose
+stinginess and greed permitted him no better equipment. Since this no
+Comanche has been permitted to depart with the sun to his chambers in
+the west without a steed which in appearance should do honor alike to
+the rider and his friends.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that the spirit
+may accompany the setting sun to the world beyond. The spirit starts on
+its journey the following night after death has taken place; if this
+occur at night, the journey is not begun until the next night.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Mourning observances.</i>&mdash;All the effects of the deceased, the
+tents, blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of value, aside from
+the articles which have been buried with the body, are burned, so that
+the family is left in poverty. This practice has extended even to the
+burning of wagons and harness since some of the civilized habits have
+been adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the smoke,
+and will thus be of service to the owner in the other world. Immediately
+upon the death of a member of the household, the relatives begin a
+peculiar wailing, and the immediate members of the family take off their
+customary apparel and clothe themselves in rags and cut themselves
+across the arms, breast, and other portions of the body, until sometimes
+a fond wife or mother faints from loss of blood. This scarification is
+usually accomplished with a knife, or, as in earlier days, with a flint.
+Hired mourners are employed at times who are in no way related to the
+family, but who are accomplished in the art of crying for the dead.
+These are invariably women. Those nearly related to the departed, cut
+off the long locks from the entire head, while those more distantly
+related, or special friends, cut the hair only from one side of the
+head. In case of the death of a chief, the young warriors also cut the
+hair, usually from the left side of the head.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is conducted
+more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the Comanches venerate the
+sun; and the mourning at these seasons is kept up, if the death occurred
+in summer, until the leaves fall, or, if in the winter, until they
+reappear.</p>
+
+<p>It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the
+corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the
+burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body
+with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The
+hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from
+remotest periods of time.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">101</span>
+<a name = "page101" id = "page101"> </a>
+<h4>GRAVE BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians
+of San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph,
+will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon
+those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo
+people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian
+Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.</p>
+
+<p>According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves
+<i>Wee-ka-nahs</i>.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+These are commonly known to the whites as <i>Piros</i>. The manner of
+burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern, as far as I can
+ascertain from information obtained from the most intelligent of the
+tribe, is that the body of the dead is and has been always buried in the
+ground in a horizontal position with the flat bottom of the grave. The
+grave is generally dug out of the ground in the usual and ordinary
+manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7&nbsp;feet long, and about 2 feet
+wide. It is generally finished after receiving its occupant by being
+leveled with the hard ground around it, never leaving, as is customary
+with the whites, a&nbsp;mound to mark the spot. This tribe of Pueblo
+Indians never cremated their dead, as they do not know, even by
+tradition, that it was ever done or attempted. There are no utensils or
+implements placed in the grave, but there are a great many Indian
+ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells, hawk-bells, round
+looking-glasses, and a profusion of ribbons of all imaginable colors;
+then they paint the body with red vermilion and white chalk, giving it a
+most fantastic as well as ludicrous appearance. They also place a
+variety of food in the grave as a wise provision for its long journey to
+the happy hunting-ground beyond the clouds.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar. First, after
+death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo robe spread out on the
+ground, then they dress the body in the best possible manner in their
+style of dress; if a male, they put on his beaded leggins and
+embroidered <i>saco</i>, and his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large
+brass or shell ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or
+dress, tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her fancy
+dancing-moccasins; her <i>rosario</i> around her neck, her brass or
+shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed black hair tied up
+with red tape or ribbon, this completes her wardrobe for her long and
+happy chase. When they get through dressing the body, they place about a
+dozen lighted candles around it, and keep them burning continually until
+the body is buried. As soon as the candles are lighted, the
+<i>veloris</i>, or wake, commences; the body lies in state for about
+twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends, relatives, and
+neighbors of the deceased or “<i>difunti</i>” visit the wake, chant,
+sing, and pray for the soul of the same, and tell one another of the
+good deeds and traits of valor and courage manifested by the deceased
+during his earthly career, and at intervals in their praying, singing,
+&amp;c., some near relative of the deceased will step up to the corpse
+and every person in the room commences to cry bitterly and express aloud
+words of endearment to the deceased and of condolence to the family of
+the same in their untimely bereavement.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in attendance
+marches out into another room and partakes of a frugal Indian meal,
+generally composed of wild game; Chilé Colorado or red-pepper tortillas,
+and guayaves, with a good supply of mush and milk, which completes the
+festive board of the <i>veloris</i> or wake. When the deceased is in
+good circumstances, the crowd in attendance is treated every little
+while during the wake to alcoholic refreshments. This feast and feasting
+is kept up until the Catholic priest arrives to perform the funeral
+rites.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">102</span>
+<a name = "page102" id = "page102"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather baled up in a
+large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around tight with a rope or
+lasso made for the purpose; then six or eight men act as pall-bearers,
+conducting the body to the place of burial, which is in front of their
+church or chapel. The priest conducts the funeral ceremonies in the
+ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings observed by the Catholic
+church all over the world. While the grave-diggers are filling up the
+grave, the friends, relatives, neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that
+attend the funeral, give vent to their sad feelings by making the whole
+pueblo howl; after the tremendous uproar subsides, they disband and
+leave the body to rest until Gabriel blows his trumpet. When the
+ceremonies are performed with all the pomp of the Catholic church, the
+priest receives a fair compensation for his services; otherwise he
+officiates for the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo pay
+him, which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning observance, which
+last for one year after the demise of the deceased. While in mourning
+for the dead, the mourners do not participate in the national
+festivities of the tribe, which are occasions of state with them, but
+they retire into a state of sublime quietude which makes more civilized
+people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning ceases, at the end
+of the year, they have high mass said for the benefit of the soul of the
+departed; after this they again appear upon the arena of their wild
+sports and continue to be gay and happy until the next mortal is called
+from this terrestrial sphere to the happy hunting-ground, which is their
+pictured celestial paradise. The above cited facts, which are the most
+interesting points connected with the burial customs of the Indians of
+the pueblo San Geronimo de Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but
+are the absolute facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances
+for a period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a short
+distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer of their peculiar
+burial customs, am able to give you this true and undisguised
+information relative to your circular on “burial customs.”</p>
+
+<p>Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth
+coming in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the
+burial of the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr.
+Fordyce Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection
+with the Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves
+<i>Kitty-ka-tats</i>, or those of the tattooed eyelids.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the village
+and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made for the
+burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave prepared for
+its reception. If the grave is some distance from the village, the body
+is carried thither on the back of a pony, being first wrapped in
+blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle, one person walking on
+either side to support it. The grave is dug from three to four feet deep
+and of sufficient length for the extended body. First blankets and
+buffalo-robes are laid in the bottom of the grave, then the body, being
+taken from the horse and unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and
+with ornaments is placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the
+head towards the west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging
+to the deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are
+deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are
+placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when the
+earth is filled in, it need not come in contact with the body or its
+trappings. After the grave is filled with earth, a&nbsp;pen of poles is
+built around it, or as is frequently the case, stakes are driven so that
+they cross each other from either side about midway over the grave, thus
+forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild animals. After
+all this is done, the grass or other <i>debris</i> is carefully scraped
+from about the grave for several feet, so that the ground is left smooth
+and clean. It is seldom the case that the relatives accompany
+<span class = "pagenum">103</span>
+<a name = "page103" id = "page103"> </a>
+the remains to the grave, but they more often employ others to bury the
+body for them, usually women. Mourning is similar in this tribe, as in
+others, and it consists in cutting off the hair, fasting, &amp;c. Horses
+are also killed at the grave.</p>
+
+<p>The Caddoes, <i>Ascena</i>, or Timber Indians, as they call
+themselves, follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but
+one custom prevailing is worthy of mention:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is left to
+be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and the condition of such
+individuals in the other world is considered to be far better than that
+of persons dying a natural death.</p>
+
+<p>In a work by Bruhier<a class = "tag" name = "tag9" id = "tag9" href =
+"#note9">9</a> the following remarks, freely translated by the writer,
+may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the
+exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the roads,
+and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was esteemed a
+great honor, a&nbsp;misfortune if not. Sometimes they interred, always
+wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor.</p>
+
+<p>M. Pierre Muret,<a class = "tag" name = "tag10" id = "tag10" href =
+"#note10">10</a> from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his
+information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar
+method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It is a matter of astonishment, considering the <i>Persians</i> have
+ever had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the
+world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous customs
+about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some Historians; and
+the rather because at this day there are still to be seen among them
+those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie us, that their Tombs
+have been very magnificent. And yet nevertheless, if we will give credit
+to <i>Procopius</i> and <i>Agathias</i>, the <i>Persians</i> were never
+wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far were they from bestowing any
+Funeral Honours upon them: But, as these Authors tell us, they exposed
+them stark naked in the open fields, which is the greatest shame our
+Laws do allot to the most infamous Criminals, by laying them open to the
+view of all upon the highways: Yea, in their opinion it was a great
+unhappiness, if either Birds or Beasts did not devour their Carcases;
+and they commonly made an estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies,
+according as they were sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning these,
+they resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed, since even
+the beasts themselves would not touch them; which caused an extream
+sorrow to their Relations, they taking it for an ill boding to their
+Family, and an infallible presage of some great misfortune hanging over
+their heads; for they persuaded themselves, that the Souls which
+inhabited those Bodies being dragg’d into Hell, would not fail to come
+and trouble them; and that being always accompanied with the Devils,
+their Tormentors, they would certainly give them a great deal of
+disturbance.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured, their
+joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the Deceased;
+every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to congratulate
+their relations on that account: For as they believed assuredly, that
+they were entered into the <i>Elysian</i> Fields, so they were
+persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all those of their
+family.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered up
+and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see those of
+Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane Bodies, (the sight
+whereof gives us so much horror, that we presently bury them out of our
+sight, whenever we find them elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or
+Church-yards) were the occasion of their greatest joy; beecause they
+concluded from thence the happiness of those that had been devoured,
+wishing after their Death to meet with the like good luck.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">104</span>
+<a name = "page104" id = "page104"> </a>
+<p>The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that
+the Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and
+of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the
+open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a&nbsp;part of their belief
+being that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy
+at least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite
+probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians
+trained dogs for this special purpose, called <i>Canes sepulchrales</i>,
+which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper
+that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to
+dwell&nbsp;in.</p>
+
+<p>The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead
+on top of high rocks.</p>
+
+<p>According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London
+Times of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta
+regarding the “Towers of Silence,” so called, of the Parsees, who, it is
+well known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from
+Persia by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100
+years since. This gentleman’s narrative is freely made use of to show
+how the custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has
+continued up to the present time.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a garden on the
+highest point of Malabar Hill, a&nbsp;beautiful, rising ground on one
+side of Black Bay, noted for the bungalows and compounds of the European
+and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every direction over
+its surface.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private road, all access
+to which, except to Parsees, is barred by strong iron gates.</p>
+
+<p>The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+No English nobleman’s garden could be better kept, and no pen could do
+justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses, and palms. It
+seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred silence, but of
+peaceful rest.</p>
+
+<p>The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about
+40 feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as
+almost to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest
+of the towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees
+first settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next
+oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next
+century. A&nbsp;sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only
+used for criminals.</p>
+
+<p>The writer proceeds as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest moldings,
+the parapet of each tower possesses an extraordinary coping, which
+instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a coping formed not of
+dead stone, but of living vultures. These birds, on the occasion of my
+visit, had settled themselves side by side in perfect order and in a
+complete circle around the parapets of the towers, with their heads
+pointing inwards, and so lazily did they sit there, and so motionless
+was their whole mien, that except for their color, they might have been
+carved out of the stonework.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig3.png" width = "337" height = "536"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Parsee Towers of Silence
+(interior).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">105</span>
+<a name = "page105" id = "page105"> </a>
+<p>No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor
+is any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts.
+A&nbsp;model was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this
+description:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet high and at
+least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of solid stone except in the
+center, where a well, 5&nbsp;or 6 feet across, leads down to an
+excavation under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles to
+each other, terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the upper
+surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely hiding the
+interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12 feet in height. This it
+is which, when viewed from the outside, appears to form one piece with
+the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered with chunam, gives the
+whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper surface of the solid
+stone column is divided into 72 compartments, or open receptacles,
+radiating like the spokes of a wheel from the central well, and arranged
+in three concentric rings, separated from each other by narrow ridges of
+stone, which are grooved to act as channels for conveying all moisture
+from the receptacles into the well and into the lower drains. It should
+be noted that the number “3” is emblematical of Zoroaster’s three
+precepts, and the number “72” of the chapters of his Yasna,
+a&nbsp;portion of the Zend-Avestá.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next by a pathway,
+so that there are three circular pathways, the last encircling the
+central well, and these three pathways are crossed by another pathway
+conducting from the solitary door which admits the corpse-bearers from
+the exterior. In the outermost circle of the stone coffins are placed
+the bodies of males, in the middle those of the females, and in the
+inner and smallest circle nearest the well those of children.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the model,
+a&nbsp;sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our heads. At least
+a hundred birds collected round one of the towers began to show symptoms
+of excitement, while others swooped down from neighboring trees. The
+cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy soon revealed
+itself. A&nbsp;funeral was seen to be approaching. However distant the
+house of a deceased person, and whether he be rich or poor, high or low
+in rank, his body is always carried to the towers by the official
+corpse-bearers, called <i>Nasasalár</i>, who form a distinct class, the
+mourners walking behind.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Before they remove the body from the house where the relatives are
+assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and the corpse is exposed to the
+gaze of a dog, regarded by the Parsees as a sacred animal. This latter
+ceremony is called <i>sagdid</i>.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a curved metal
+trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed in pure white
+garments, proceed with it towards the towers. They are followed by the
+mourners at a distance of at least 30 feet, in pairs, also dressed in
+white, and each couple joined by holding a white handkerchief between
+them. The particular funeral I witnessed was that of a child. When the
+two corpse-bearers reached the path leading by a steep incline to the
+door of the tower, the mourners, about eight in number, turned back and
+entered one of the prayer-houses. “There,” said the secretary, “they
+repeat certain gáthás, and pray that the spirit of the deceased may be
+safely transported, on the fourth day after death, to its final
+resting-place.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which other
+members of the same family had before been laid. The two bearers
+speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed the body of the child
+into the interior, and, unseen by any one, laid it uncovered in one of
+the open stone receptacles nearest the central well. In two minutes they
+reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and scarcely had they
+closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down upon the body and
+were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes more we saw the
+satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again upon the parapet.
+They had left nothing behind but a skeleton. Meanwhile, the bearers were
+seen to enter a building shaped like a high barrel. There,
+<span class = "pagenum">106</span>
+<a name = "page106" id = "page106"> </a>
+as the secretary informed me, they changed their clothes and washed
+themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come out and deposit their
+cast-off funeral garments in a stone receptacle near at hand. Not a
+thread leaves the garden, lest it should carry defilement into the city.
+Perfectly new garments are supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or,
+at most, four weeks, the same bearers return, and, with gloved hands and
+implements resembling tongs, place the dry skeleton in the central well.
+There the bones find their last resting-place, and there the dust of
+whole generations of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my back on the
+towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I&nbsp;asked the secretary how it
+was possible to become reconciled to such usage. His reply was nearly in
+the following words: “Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived 6,000 years ago,
+taught us to regard the elements as symbols of the Deity. Earth, fire,
+water, he said, ought never, under any circumstances, to be defiled by
+contact with putrefying flesh. Naked, he said, came we into the world
+and naked we ought to leave it. But the decaying particles of our bodies
+should be dissipated as rapidly as possible and in such a way that
+neither Mother Earth nor the beings she supports should be contaminated
+in the slightest degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest of health
+officers, and, following his sanitary laws, we build our towers on the
+tops of the hills, above all human habitations. We spare no expense in
+constructing them of the hardest materials, and we expose our putrescent
+bodies in open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen feet of solid
+granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures, but to be
+dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without the possibility
+of polluting the earth or contaminating a single being dwelling thereon.
+God, indeed, sends the vultures, and, as a matter of fact, these birds
+do their appointed work much more expeditiously than millions of insects
+would do if we committed our bodies to the ground. In a sanitary point
+of view, nothing can be more perfect than our plan. Even the rain-water
+which washes our skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying
+charcoal. Here in these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees
+that have lived in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We form a
+united body in life and we are united in death.”</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of
+disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with
+the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which
+allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat
+similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the
+North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees,
+but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care
+is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the
+corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes
+or thongs.</p>
+
+<p>Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence,
+drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig4.jpg" width = "564" height = "346"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Parsee Towers of
+Silence.</p>
+
+<p>George Gibbs<a class = "tag" name = "tag11" id = "tag11" href =
+"#note11">11</a> gives the following account of burial among the Klamath
+and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been
+originally furnished him by James G. Swan.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses, exhibit
+very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are inclosed in
+rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the body, and covered
+with earth to some depth; a&nbsp;heavy plank, often supported by upright
+head and foot stones, is laid upon the top, or stones are built up into
+a wall about a foot above the ground, and the top flagged with
+<span class = "pagenum">107</span>
+<a name = "page107" id = "page107"> </a>
+others. The graves of the chiefs are surrounded by neat wooden palings,
+each pale ornamented with a feather from the tail of the bald eagle.
+Baskets are usually staked down by the side, according to the wealth or
+popularity of the individual, and sometimes other articles for ornament
+or use are suspended over them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three
+days, during which the soul of the deceased is in danger from
+<i>O-mah-á</i>, or the devil. To preserve it from this peril,
+a&nbsp;fire is kept up at the grave, and the friends of the deceased
+howl around it to scare away the demon. Should they not be successful in
+this the soul is carried down the river, subject, however, to redemption
+by <i>Péh-ho-wan</i> on payment of a big knife. After the expiration of
+three days it is all well with them.</p>
+
+<p>The question may well be asked, is the big knife a “sop to
+Cerberus”?</p>
+
+<p>To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States
+Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer
+is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary
+customs of the</p>
+
+<h5>WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A large proportion of these Indians being members of the Presbyterian
+church (the missionaries of which church have labored among them for
+more than forty years past), the dead of their families are buried after
+the customs of that church, and this influence is felt to a great extent
+among those Indians who are not strict church members, so that they are
+dropping one by one the traditional customs of their tribe, and but few
+can now be found who bury their dead in accordance with their customs of
+twenty or more years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to
+their modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated below.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Warrior.</i>&mdash;After death they paint a warrior red across the
+mouth, or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb on one side
+of the mouth and the fingers separated on the other cheek, the rest of
+the face being painted red. (This latter is only done as a mark of
+respect to a specially brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the medicine-bag
+of the deceased when alive are buried with the body, the medicine-bag
+being placed on the bare skin over the region of the heart. There is not
+now, nor has there been, among these Indians any special preparation of
+the grave. The body of a warrior is generally wrapped in a blanket or
+piece of cloth (and frequently in addition is placed in a box) and
+buried in the grave prepared for the purpose, always, as the majority of
+these Indians inform me, with the head towards the <i>south</i>.
+(I&nbsp;have, however, seen many graves in which the head of the
+occupant had been placed to the <i>east</i>. It may be that these graves
+were those of Indians who belonged to the church; and a few Indians
+inform me that the head is sometimes placed towards the <i>west</i>,
+according to the occupant’s belief when alive as to the direction from
+which his guiding medicine came, and I am personally inclined to give
+credence to this latter as sometimes occurring.) In all burials, when
+the person has died a natural death, or had not been murdered, and
+whether man, woman, or child, the body is placed in the grave with the
+face <i>up</i>. In cases, however, when a man or woman has been murdered
+by one of their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the
+grave with the face <i>down</i>, head to the <i>south</i>, and a piece
+of fat (bacon or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of fat is placed
+in the mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent the spirit of the
+murdered person driving or scaring the game from that section of
+country. Those Indians who state that their dead are always buried with
+the head towards the south say they do so in order that the spirit of
+the deceased may go to the south, the land from which these Indians
+believe they originally came.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Women and children.</i>&mdash;Before death the face of the person
+expected to die is often painted in a red color. When this is not done
+before death it is done afterwards; the
+<span class = "pagenum">108</span>
+<a name = "page108" id = "page108"> </a>
+body being then buried in a grave prepared for its reception, and in the
+manner described for a warrior, cooking-utensils taking the place of the
+warrior’s weapons. In cases of boys and girls a kettle of cooked food is
+sometimes placed at the head of the grave after the body is covered.
+Now, if the dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go
+up and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls do likewise.
+This, however, has never obtained as a custom, but is sometimes done in
+cases of warriors and women also.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is now, and
+always has been, a&nbsp;custom among them to remove a lock of hair from
+the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or from the left side of the head of
+a woman, which is carefully preserved by some near relative of the
+deceased, wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in the lodge
+of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the dead person. To the
+bundle is attached a tin cup or other vessel, and in this is placed some
+food for the spirit of the dead person. Whenever a stranger happens in
+at meal time, this food, however, is not allowed to go to waste; if not
+consumed by the stranger to whom it is offered, some of the occupants of
+the lodge eat it. They seem to take some pains to please the ghost of
+the deceased, thinking thereby they will have good luck in their family
+so long as they continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they
+smoke to offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time asking it to
+confer some favor on them, or aid them in their work or in
+hunting,&nbsp;&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost of the
+deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This feast may be at any
+time, and is not at any particular time, occurring, however, generally
+as often as once a year, unless, at the time of the first feast, the
+friends designate a particular time, such, for instance, as when the
+leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle is never
+permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the dead person, except
+to be buried in the grave of one of them. Much of the property of the
+deceased person is buried with the body, a&nbsp;portion being placed
+under the body and a portion over it. Horses are sometimes killed on the
+grave of a warrior, but this custom is gradually ceasing, in consequence
+of the value of their ponies. These animals are therefore now generally
+given away by the person before death, or after death disposed of by the
+near relatives. Many years ago it was customary to kill one or more
+ponies at the grave. In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an
+Indian, much of his personal property is now, and has ever been,
+reserved from burial with the body, and forms the basis for a gambling
+party, which will be described hereafter. No food is ever buried in the
+grave, but some is occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case
+it is consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the method
+that was in vogue with these Indians twenty years ago, and which is
+still adhered to, with more or less exactness, by the majority of them,
+the exceptions being those who are strict church members and those very
+few families who adhere to their ancient customs.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as the oldest
+members of these tribes can remember, and with the usual tribal
+traditions handed down from generation to generation, in regard to this
+as well as to other things, for these Indians to bury in a tree or on a
+platform, and in those days an Indian was only buried in the ground as a
+mark of disrespect in consequence of the person having been murdered, in
+which case the body would be buried in the ground, <i>face down</i>,
+head toward the south and with a piece of fat in the mouth. <span class
+= "ellipsis">***</span> The platform upon which the body was deposited
+was constructed of four crotched posts firmly set in the ground, and
+connected near the top by cross-pieces, upon which was placed boards,
+when obtainable, and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so as to give
+a firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an elevation of
+from six to eight or more feet, and never contained but one body,
+although frequently having sufficient surface to accommodate two or
+three. In burying in the crotch of a tree and on platforms, the head of
+the dead person was always placed towards the south; the body was
+wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely tied, and many of the
+personal effects
+<span class = "pagenum">109</span>
+<a name = "page109" id = "page109"> </a>
+of the deceased were buried with it; as in the case of a warrior, his
+bows and arrows, war-clubs, &amp;c., would be placed alongside of the
+body, the Indians saying he would need such things in the next
+world.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before their
+outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near relative whom they held
+in great respect with them on their moves, for a greater or lesser time,
+often as long as two or three years before burial. This, however, never
+obtained generally among them, and some of them seem to know nothing
+about it. It has of late years been entirely dropped, except when a
+person dies away from home, it being then customary for the friends to
+bring the body home for burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Mourning ceremonies.</i>&mdash;The mourning ceremonies before the
+year 1860 were as follows: After the death of a warrior the whole camp
+or tribe would be assembled in a circle, and after the widow had cut
+herself on the arms, legs, and body with a piece of flint, and removed
+the hair from her head, she would go around the ring any number of times
+she chose, but each time was considered as an oath that she would not
+marry for a year, so that she could not marry for as many years as times
+she went around the circle. The widow would all this time keep up a
+crying and wailing. Upon the completion of this the friends of the
+deceased would take the body to the platform or tree where it was to
+remain, keeping up all this time their wailing and crying. After
+depositing the body, they would stand under it and continue exhibiting
+their grief, the squaws by hacking their arms and legs with flint and
+cutting off the hair from their head. The men would sharpen sticks and
+run them through the skin of their arms and legs, both men and women
+keeping up their crying generally for the remainder of the day, and the
+near relatives of the deceased for several days thereafter. As soon as
+able, the warrior friends of the deceased would go to a near tribe of
+their enemies and kill one or more of them if possible, return with
+their scalps, and exhibit them to the deceased person’s relatives, after
+which their mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as
+properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when their enemies
+were within reasonable striking distance, such, for instance, as the
+Chippewas and the Arickarees, Gros Ventres and Mandan Indians. In cases
+of women and children, the squaws would cut off their hair, hack their
+persons with flint, and sharpen sticks and run them through the skin of
+the arms and legs, crying as for a warrior.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for a squaw
+when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by hanging herself with
+a lariat over the limb of a tree. This could not have prevailed to any
+great extent, however, although the old men recite several instances of
+its occurrence, and a very few examples within recent years. Such was
+their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since which time it has
+gradually died out, and at the present time these ancient customs are
+adhered to by but a single family, known as the seven brothers, who
+appear to retain all the ancient customs of their tribe. At the present
+time, as a mourning observance, the squaws hack themselves on their legs
+with knives, cut off their hair, and cry and wail around the grave of
+the dead person, and the men in addition paint their faces, but no
+longer torture themselves by means of sticks passed through the skin of
+the arms and legs. This cutting and painting is sometimes done before
+and sometimes after the burial of the body. I&nbsp;also observe that
+many of the women of these tribes are adopting so much of the customs of
+the whites as prescribes the wearing of black for certain periods.
+During the period of mourning these Indians never wash their face, or
+comb their hair, or laugh. These customs are observed with varying
+degree of strictness, but not in many instances with that exactness
+which characterized these Indians before the advent of the white man
+among them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of the person
+practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That mutilation of a finger by
+removing one or more joints, so generally observed among the Minnetarree
+Indians at the Fort Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not here seen, although
+the old men of these tribes inform me that it was an ancient custom
+among
+<span class = "pagenum">110</span>
+<a name = "page110" id = "page110"> </a>
+their women, on the occasion of the burial of a husband, to cut off a
+portion of a finger and have it suspended in the tree above his body.
+I&nbsp;have, however, yet to see an example of this having been done by
+any of the Indians now living, and the custom must have fallen into
+disuse more than seventy years ago.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In regard to the period of mourning, I&nbsp;would say that there does
+not now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never was, any fixed
+period of mourning, but it would seem that, like some of the whites,
+they mourn when the subject is brought to their minds by some remark or
+other occurrence. It is not unusual at the present time to hear a man or
+woman cry and exclaim, “O, my poor husband!” “O, my poor wife!” or “O,
+my poor child!” as the case may be, and, upon inquiring, learn that the
+event happened several years before. I&nbsp;have elsewhere mentioned
+that in some cases much of the personal property of the deceased was and
+is reserved from burial with the body, and forms the basis of a gambling
+party. I&nbsp;shall conclude my remarks upon the burial customs,
+&amp;c., of these Indians by an account of this, which they designate as
+the “ghost’s gamble.”</p>
+
+<p>The account of the game will be found in another part of this
+paper.</p>
+
+<p>As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the
+tomb, a&nbsp;translation of Schiller’s beautiful burial song is here
+given. It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted
+to the kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:</p>
+
+<h5>BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.</h5>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>See on his mat, as if of yore,</p>
+<p class = "indent">How lifelike sits he here;</p>
+<p>With the same aspect that he wore</p>
+<p class = "indent">When life to him was dear.</p>
+<p>But where the right arm’s strength, and where</p>
+<p class = "indent">The breath he used to breathe</p>
+<p>To the Great Spirit aloft in air,</p>
+<p class = "indent">The peace-pipe’s lusty wreath?</p>
+<p>And where the hawk-like eye, alas!</p>
+<p class = "indent">That wont the deer pursue</p>
+<p>Along the waves of rippling grass,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Or fields that shone with dew?</p>
+<p>Are these the limber, bounding feet</p>
+<p class = "indent">That swept the winter snows?</p>
+<p>What startled deer was half so fleet,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Their speed outstripped the roe’s.</p>
+<p>These hands that once the sturdy bow</p>
+<p class = "indent">Could supple from its pride,</p>
+<p>How stark and helpless hang they now</p>
+<p class = "indent">Adown the stiffened side!</p>
+<p>Yet weal to him! at peace he strays</p>
+<p class = "indent">Where never fall the snows,</p>
+<p>Where o’er the meadow springs the maize</p>
+<p class = "indent">That mortal never sows;</p>
+<p>Where birds are blithe in every brake,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Where forests teem with deer,</p>
+<p>Where glide the fish through every lake,</p>
+<p class = "indent">One chase from year to year!</p>
+<p>With spirits now he feasts above;</p>
+<p class = "indent">All left us, to revere</p>
+<p>The deeds we cherish with our love,</p>
+<p class = "indent">The rest we bury here.</p>
+<span class = "pagenum">111</span>
+<a name = "page111" id = "page111"> </a>
+<p>Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill</p>
+<p class = "indent">Wail death-dirge of the brave</p>
+<p>What pleased him most in life may still</p>
+<p class = "indent">Give pleasure in the grave.</p>
+<p>We lay the axe beneath his head</p>
+<p class = "indent">He swung when strength was strong,</p>
+<p>The bear on which his hunger fed&mdash;</p>
+<p class = "indent">The way from earth is long!</p>
+<p>And here, new-sharpened, place the knife</p>
+<p class = "indent">Which severed from the clay,</p>
+<p>From which the axe had spoiled the life,</p>
+<p class = "indent">The conquered scalp away.</p>
+<p>The paints that deck the dead bestow,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Aye, place them in his hand,</p>
+<p>That red the kingly shade may glow</p>
+<p class = "indent">Amid the spirit land.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr.
+McChesney, face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of
+Indians, is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a
+cemetery belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near
+Abiquiu, N.&nbsp;Mex., a&nbsp;number of bodies, all of which had been
+buried face downward. The account originally appeared in Field and
+Forest, 1877, vol. iii, No.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;9.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+On each side of the town were noticed two small <ins class =
+"correction" title = "spelling consistent for this selection">arroyas</ins>
+or water washed ditches, within 30 feet of the
+walls, and a careful examination of these revealed the objects of our
+search. At the bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly formed
+subsequent to the occupation of the village, we found portions of human
+remains, and following up the walls of the ditch soon had the pleasure
+of discovering several skeletons <i>in situ</i>. The first found was in
+the eastern arroya, and the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the
+surface of the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face
+downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the skeleton
+were two shining black earthen vases, containing small bits of charcoal,
+the bones of mammals, birds, and partially consumed corn, and above
+these “<i>ollas</i>” the earth to the surface was filled with pieces of
+charcoal. Doubtless the remains found in the vases served at a funeral
+feast prior to the inhumation. We examined very carefully this grave,
+hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or weapons, but none rewarded
+our search. In all of the graves examined the bodies were found in
+similar positions and under similar circumstances in both arroyas,
+several of the skeletons being those of children. No information could
+be obtained as to the probable age of these interments, the present
+Indians considering them as dating from the time when their ancestors
+with Moctezuma came from the <i>north</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag12" id = "tag12" href = "#note12">12</a> in disposing of
+their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any
+needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this
+manner:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially wrap
+up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the removal of a
+small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has been crammed into
+the smallest possible space the rock or stump is again rolled into its
+former position, when a number of stones are placed around the base to
+keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin usually mourn for the period of
+one month, during that time giving utterance at intervals to the most
+dismal lamentations, which are apparently sincere. During the day this
+obligation is
+<span class = "pagenum">112</span>
+<a name = "page112" id = "page112"> </a>
+frequently neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of
+his duty he renews his howling with evident interest. This custom of
+mourning for the period of thirty days corresponds to that formerly
+observed by the Natchez.</p>
+
+<p>Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in
+the life of Moses Van Campen,<a class = "tag" name = "tag13" id =
+"tag13" href = "#note13">13</a> which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen in
+battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and laying
+the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a little
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:</p>
+
+<h5>CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians plant
+a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury them in a
+bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring provisions to the
+place where their fathers are buried. One of the graves had fallen in,
+and we observed in the soil some sticks for stretching skins, the
+remains of a canoe, &amp;c., and the two straps for carrying it, and
+near the place where the head lay were the traces of a fire which they
+had kindled for the soul of the deceased to come and warm itself by and
+to partake of the food deposited near&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the north
+shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the country
+being claimed by the Oneidas.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was
+discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may
+have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his
+vocation&mdash;nets, fish-spears, &amp;c.&mdash;were near him, and this
+burial was only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to
+all Indians, that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same
+articles as were employed in this one. It should be added that of the
+many hundreds of skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned
+presented the only example of the kind.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus
+described:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan which
+has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and drown their
+grief in <i>mushla</i>, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing
+themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and inflicting other
+tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As it is supposed that
+the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body, musicians are
+called in to lull it to sleep while preparations are made for its
+removal. All at once four naked men, who have disguised themselves with
+paint so as not to be recognized and punished by <i>Wulasha</i>, rush
+out from a neighboring hut, and, seizing a rope
+<span class = "pagenum">113</span>
+<a name = "page113" id = "page113"> </a>
+attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods, followed by the music and
+the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow, arrow,
+spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the departed in the land
+beyond, then the other half of the boat is placed over the body.
+A&nbsp;rude hut is constructed over the grave, serving as a receptacle
+for the choice food, drink, and other articles placed there from time to
+time by relatives.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STONE GRAVES OR CISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in
+the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the
+class of graves previously described.</p>
+
+<p>A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus
+described by Moses Fiske:<a class = "tag" name = "tag14" id = "tag14"
+href = "#note14">14</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular graves.
+They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the bottom ends and
+sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after laying in the body,
+covered it over with earth.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of
+a number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutré, in
+France, and they were almost identical in construction with those
+described by Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper,
+this, however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a
+deposition of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which
+have elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer
+in 1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom
+and sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were
+none directly over the skeletons.</p>
+
+<p>The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his own
+observation in Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant throughout the
+State. Often hundreds of graves may be found on a single hillside. The
+same people sometimes bury in scattered graves and in mounds&mdash;the
+mounds being composed of a large number of cist graves. The graves are
+increased by additions from time to time. The additions are sometimes
+placed above and sometimes at the sides of the others. In the first
+burials there is a tendency to a concentric system with the feet towards
+the center, but subsequent burials are more irregular, so that the
+system is finally abandoned before the place is desired for cemetery
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Some other peculiarities are of interest. A&nbsp;larger number of
+interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before the
+decay of the flesh, and in many instances collections of bones are
+buried. Sometimes these bones are placed in some order about the crania,
+and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of bones had been
+emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers, knives, arrowheads,
+&amp;c., were usually found, with women, pottery, rude beads, shells,
+&amp;c., with children, toys of pottery, beads, curious
+pebbles,&nbsp;&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous burial
+was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists were covered
+with slabs.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">114</span>
+<a name = "page114" id = "page114"> </a>
+<p>Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work<a class = "tag" name = "tag15" id =
+"tag15" href = "#note15">15</a> the reader is referred for a more
+detailed account of this mode of burial.</p>
+
+<p>G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the
+writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to
+their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a
+receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the
+hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the
+dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave
+by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground
+after the grave is filled&nbsp;in.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George
+Escoll Sellers,<a class = "tag" name = "tag16" id = "tag16" href =
+"#note16">16</a> inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which
+is as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about 30°, it has
+been terraced and the terrace as well as the crown of the spur have been
+used as a cemetery; portions of the terraces are still perfect; all the
+burials appear to have been made in rude stone cists, that vary in size
+from 13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4 feet, and from 18 inches to 2
+feet deep. They are made of thin-bedded sandstone slabs, generally
+roughly shaped, but some of them have been edged and squared with
+considerable care, particularly the covering slabs. The slope below the
+terraces was thickly strewed with these slabs, washed out as the
+terraces have worn away, and which have since been carried off for
+door-steps and hearth-stones. I&nbsp;have opened many of these cists;
+they nearly all contain fragments of human bones far gone in decay, but
+I have never succeeded in securing a perfect skull; even the clay
+vessels that were interred with the dead have disintegrated, the
+portions remaining being almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some
+of the cists that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water
+shells, but most generally with the fragments of the great salt-pans,
+which in every case are so far gone in decay as to have lost the outside
+markings. This seems conclusively to couple the tenants of these ancient
+graves with the makers and users of these salt-pans. The great number of
+graves and the quantity of slabs that have been washed out prove either
+a dense population or a long occupancy, or both.</p>
+
+<p>W. J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a
+description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from
+other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some twenty-five years
+ago, of seeing what was called “Indian graves,” and those that I
+examined were close to small streams of water, and were buried in a
+sitting or squatting posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones, and
+were then buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves which I
+examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to be isolated,
+no two being found in the same locality. When the burials took place I
+could hardly conjecture, but it must have been, from appearances, from
+fifty to one hundred years. The bones that I took out on first
+appearance seemed tolerably perfect, but on short exposure to the
+atmosphere crumbled, and I was unable to save a specimen. No implements
+or relics were observed in those examined by me, but I have heard of
+others who have found such. In that State, Kentucky, there are a number
+of places
+<span class = "pagenum">115</span>
+<a name = "page115" id = "page115"> </a>
+where the Indians buried their dead and left mounds of earth over the
+graves, but I have not examined them myself. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p>According to Bancroft,<a class = "tag" name = "tag17" id = "tag17"
+href = "#note17">17</a> the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central
+America, also followed the cist form of burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the principal
+men, constructed with flat stones laid together with much care, and in
+which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food and wine for the
+dead. Those for the plebians were merely trenches, in which were
+deposited some gourds of maize and wine, and the place filled with
+stones. In some parts of Panama and Darien only the chiefs and lords
+received funeral rites. Among the common people a person feeling his end
+approaching either went himself or was led to the woods by his wife,
+family, or friends, who, supplying him with some cake or ears of corn
+and a gourd of water, then left him to die alone or to be assisted by
+wild beasts. Others, with more respect for their dead, buried them in
+sepulchers made with niches, where they placed maize and wine and
+renewed the same annually. With some, a&nbsp;mother dying while suckling
+her infant, the living child was placed at her breast and buried with
+her, in order that in her future state she might continue to nourish it
+with her milk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BURIAL IN MOUNDS.</h4>
+
+<p>In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote
+any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting
+examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.</p>
+
+<p>The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F.&nbsp;W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of
+Archæology, Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History,
+and is published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> He then stated that it would be of
+interest to the members, in connection with the discovery of dolmens in
+Japan, as described by Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four
+hours there had been received at the Peabody Museum a small collection
+of articles taken from rude dolmens (or&nbsp;chambered barrows, as they
+would be called in England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is
+now engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay County,
+Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the Missouri River.
+The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr. Curtiss, about 8 feet
+square, and from 4½ to 5 feet high, each chamber having a passage-way
+several feet in length and 2 in width, leading from the southern side
+and opening on the edge of the mound formed by covering the chamber and
+passage-way with earth. The walls of the chambered passages were about 2
+feet thick, vertical, and well made of stones, which were evenly laid
+without clay or mortar of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a
+covering of large, flat rocks, but the others seem to have been closed
+over with wood. The chambers were filled with clay which had been burnt,
+and appeared as if it had fallen in from above. The inside walls of the
+chambers also showed signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each
+chamber, were found the remains of several human skeletons, all of which
+had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small fragments of the
+bones, which were mixed with the ashes and charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought
+that in one chamber
+<span class = "pagenum">116</span>
+<a name = "page116" id = "page116"> </a>
+he found the remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these
+skeletons there were a few flint implements and minute fragments of
+vessels of clay.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this no
+chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This mound
+proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also contained
+well-made pottery and a peculiar “gorget” of red stone. The connection
+of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in the stone chambers
+with those who buried their dead in the earth mounds is, of course, yet
+to be determined.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used
+for secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.</p>
+
+<p>In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same
+investigator gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like
+the preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Mr. F.&nbsp;W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account
+of his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the
+Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr. Edwin
+Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody Museum at
+Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds had been
+thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular stone graves
+of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully opened. <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> Mr. Putnam’s remarks were illustrated by
+drawings of several hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds,
+particularly to show the great variety of articles of pottery and
+several large and many unique forms of implements of chipped flint. He
+also exhibited and explained in detail a map of a walled town of this
+old nation. This town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a bend of
+Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying ditch,
+encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this inclosure there was one
+large mound with a flat top, 15 feet high, 130 feet long, and 90 feet
+wide, which was found not to be a burial mound. Another mound near the
+large one, about 50 feet in diameter, and only a few feet high,
+contained 60 human skeletons, each in a carefully-made stone grave, the
+graves being arranged in two rows, forming the four sides of a square,
+and in three layers. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> The most
+important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of finding the
+remains of the houses of the people who lived in this old town. Of them
+about 70 were traced out and located on the map by Professor Buchanan,
+of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr. Putnam. Under the floors of hard
+clay, which was in places much burnt, Mr. Putnam found the graves of
+children. As only the bodies of adults had been placed in the one mound
+devoted to burial, and as nearly every site of a house he explored had
+from one to four graves of children under the clay floor, he was
+convinced that it was a regular custom to bury the children in that way.
+He also found that the children had undoubtedly been treated with
+affection, as in their small graves were found many of the best pieces
+of pottery he obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several
+large pearls, and many other objects which were probably the playthings
+of the little ones while living.<a class = "tag" name = "tag18" id =
+"tag18" href = "#note18">18</a></p>
+
+<p>This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it
+is frequently mentioned by writers on North American archæology.</p>
+
+<p>The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part
+used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless
+common.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">117</span>
+<a name = "page117" id = "page117"> </a>
+<p>Caleb Atwater<a class = "tag" name = "tag19" id = "tag19" href =
+"#note19">19</a> gives this description of the</p>
+
+<h5>BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Near the center of the round fort <span class = "ellipsis">***</span>
+was a tumulus of earth about 10 feet in height and several rods in
+diameter at its base. On its eastern side, and extending 6 rods from it,
+was a semicircular pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in
+the bed of the Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been
+brought. The summit of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and
+there was a raised way to it, leading from the east, like a modern
+turnpike. The summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement
+and the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this mound was
+entirely removed several years since. The writer was present at its
+removal and carefully examined the contents. It contained&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the original surface of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+2d. A&nbsp;great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as
+to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made of an elk’s
+horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a ferule of
+silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time. Though the
+handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted, yet no iron
+was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and size.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were
+surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared to
+have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost consumed
+the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a little to the
+south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet to the north of it
+was another, with which were&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+5th. A&nbsp;large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1½ inches in
+thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (<i>mica membranacea</i>), and
+on&nbsp;it&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+6th. A&nbsp;plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was
+disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour
+answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This skeleton
+had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal and a
+considerable quantity of wood ashes. A&nbsp;part of the mirrour is in my
+possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at the time.
+The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal’s Museum, at
+Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another,
+more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate representing
+these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears to be artificial.
+This must have been the common cemetery, as it contains an immense
+number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid
+horizontally, with their heads generally towards the center and the feet
+towards the outside of the tumulus. A&nbsp;considerable part of this
+work still stands uninjured, except by time. In it have been found,
+besides these skeletons, stone axes and knives, and several ornaments,
+with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord passing through
+these perforations, they could be worn by their owners. On the south
+side of this tumulus, and not far from it, was a semicircular fosse,
+which, when I first saw it, was 6 feet deep. On opening it was
+discovered at the bottom a great quantity of human bones, which I am
+inclined to believe were the remains of those who had been slain in some
+great and destructive battle: first, because they belonged to persons
+who had attained their full size, whereas in the mound adjoining were
+found the skeletons of persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were
+here in the utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not
+conjecture that they belonged to the people who resided in the town, and
+who were victorious in the engagement? Otherwise they would not have
+been thus honorably buried in the common cemetery.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Chillicothe mound.</i>&mdash;Its perpendicular height was about 15
+feet, and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was composed of
+sand and contained human bones belonging
+<span class = "pagenum">118</span>
+<a name = "page118" id = "page118"> </a>
+to skeletons which were buried in different parts of it. It was not
+until this pile of earth was removed and the original surface exposed to
+view that a probable conjecture of its original design could be formed.
+About 20 feet square of the surface had been leveled and covered with
+bark. On the center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been
+spread a mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the breast lay
+what had been a piece of copper, in the form of a cross, which had now
+become verdigris. On the breast also lay a stone ornament with two
+perforations, one near each end, through which passed a string, by means
+of which it was suspended around the wearer’s neck. On this string,
+which was made of sinews, and very much injured by time, were placed a
+great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I cannot certainly say
+which. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Mounds of stone.</i>&mdash;Two such mounds have been described
+already in the county of Perry. Others have been found in various parts
+of the country. There is one at least in the vicinity of Licking River,
+not many miles from Newark. There is another on a branch of Hargus’s
+Creek, a&nbsp;few miles to the northeast of Circleville. There were
+several not very far from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds were
+sometimes used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they were also
+used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the recollection of some
+great transaction or event. In the former not more generally than one or
+two skeletons are found; in the latter none. These mounds are like those
+of earth, in form of a cone, composed of small stones on which no marks
+of tools were visible. In them some of the most interesting articles are
+found, such as urns, ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &amp;c., of
+the same metal, as well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende;
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> works of this class, compared with
+those of earth, are few, and they are none of them as large as the
+mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of Circleville, which belong to the
+first class. I&nbsp;saw one of these stone tumuli which had been piled
+on the surface of the earth on the spot where three skeletons had been
+buried in stone coffins, beneath the surface. It was situated on the
+western edge of the hill on which the “walled town” stood, on Paint
+Creek. The graves appear to have been dug to about the depth of ours in
+the present times. After the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat
+stones, the corpses were placed in these graves in an eastern and
+western direction, and large flat stones were laid over the graves; then
+the earth which had been dug out of the graves was thrown over them.
+A&nbsp;huge pile of stones was placed over the whole. It is quite
+probable, however, that this was a work of our present race of Indians.
+Such graves are more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except
+the skeletons, was found in these graves; and the skeletons resembled
+very much the present race of Indians.</p>
+
+<p>The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C.
+Holbrook<a class = "tag" name = "tag20" id = "tag20" href =
+"#note20">20</a> as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian mounds found
+on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first one opened
+was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 7 feet high. In
+the interior of this I found a <i>dolmen</i> or quadrilateral wall about
+10 feet long, 4&nbsp;feet high, and 4½ feet wide. It had been built of
+lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was covered with large flat stones.
+No mortar or cement had been used. The whole structure rested on the
+surface of the natural soil, the interior of which had been scooped out
+to enlarge the chamber. Inside of the <i>dolmen</i> I found the partly
+decayed remains of eight human skeletons, two very large teeth of an
+unknown animal, two fossils, one of which is not found in this place,
+and a plummet. One of the long bones had been splintered; the fragments
+had united, but there remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis)
+in several places. One of the skulls presented a circular opening about
+the size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during life,
+for the edges had commenced to cicatrize.
+<span class = "pagenum">119</span>
+<a name = "page119" id = "page119"> </a>
+I later examined three circular mounds, but in them I found no dolmens.
+The first mound contained three adult human skeletons, a&nbsp;few
+fragments of the skeleton of a child, the lower maxillary of which
+indicated it to be about six years old. I&nbsp;also found claws of some
+carnivorous animal. The surface of the soil had been scooped out and the
+bodies laid in the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth;
+fires had then been made upon the grave and the mound afterwards
+completed. The bones had not been charred. No charcoal was found among
+the bones, but occurred in abundance in a stratum about one foot above
+them. Two other mounds, examined at the same time, contain no
+remains.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4 feet
+high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on an
+elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the top of
+this mound one might view the country for many miles in almost any
+direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long and 4½ wide. It
+was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which had been burned red,
+some portions having been almost converted into lime. On and about this
+altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the sides of the altar were
+fragments of human bones, some of which had been charred. It was covered
+by a natural growth of vegetable mold and sod, the thickness of which
+was about 10 inches. Large trees had once grown in this vegetable mold,
+but their stumps were so decayed I could not tell with certainty; to
+what species they belonged. Another large mound was opened which
+contained nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla.,
+and was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army:<a class = "tag" name = "tag21" id = "tag21" href =
+"#note21">21</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were buried in
+it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his head. This
+idea was based upon some superficial explorations which had been made
+from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their excavations had, indeed,
+brought to light pots containing fragments of skulls, but not buried in
+the position they imagined. Very extensive explorations, made at
+different times by myself, have shown that only fragments of skulls and
+of the long bones of the body are to be found in the mound, and that
+these are commonly associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but
+more frequently broken fragments only. In some instances portions of the
+skull were placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited in its
+immediate vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand, and
+fragments of bones would be found near them. The most successful “find”
+I&nbsp;made was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all
+in a good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of skull,
+which I take, from its small size, to have been that of a female.
+Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried in
+the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains because of
+her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason of the unusual
+wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter of conjecture.
+I&nbsp;found, altogether, fragments of skulls and thigh-bones belonging
+to at least fifty individuals, but in no instance did I find anything
+like a complete skeleton. There were no vertebræ, no ribs, no pelvic
+bones, and none of the small bones of the hands and feet. Two or three
+skulls, nearly perfect, were found, but they were so fragile that it was
+impossible to preserve them. In the majority of instances, only
+fragments of the frontal and parietal bones were found, buried in pots
+or in fragments of pots too small to have ever contained a complete
+skull. The conclusion was irresistible that this was not a burial-place
+for <i>the bodies</i> of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been
+gathered from some other locality for burial in this mound, or that
+cremation was practiced before burial, and the fragments of bone not
+consumed by fire were gathered and deposited in the mound. That the
+latter supposition is the correct one I deem probable from the fact that
+in digging in
+<span class = "pagenum">120</span>
+<a name = "page120" id = "page120"> </a>
+the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places, but without
+any regularity as to depth and position. These evidences consist in
+strata of from one to four inches in thickness, in which the sand is of
+a dark color and has mixed with it numerous small fragments of
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the
+following manner: That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was erected
+on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the body was
+consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered, placed in a
+pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were covered by a layer
+of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for that purpose. This view
+is further supported by the fact that only the shafts of the long bones
+are found, the expanded extremities, which would be most easily
+consumed, having disappeared; also, by the fact that no bones of
+children were found. Their bones being smaller, and containing a less
+proportion of earthy matter, would be entirely consumed. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I found
+the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved skulls. <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> The bodies were not, apparently, deposited
+upon any regular system, and I found no objects of interest associated
+with the remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the
+skeletons found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in which
+they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the fact that they
+were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of ante-mortem
+injuries which must have been of a fatal character.</p>
+
+<p>Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,<a class = "tag" name = "tag22" id =
+"tag22" href = "#note22">22</a> in alluding to the ossuary, or
+bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation
+takes place, in this manner:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of the
+deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one upon
+another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth heaped
+above.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of a
+festival called the feast of the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a
+somewhat curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley
+of Ohio:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a
+central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons buried
+around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture, but leaning against
+one another, tipped over towards the right, facing inwards. I&nbsp;did
+not see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many ornaments, awls,
+&amp;c., said to have been found near the central body. The parties
+informing me are trustworthy.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting
+as being <i>sui generis</i>, the following description by Dr. J. Mason
+Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11, 1871,
+on the farm of R.&nbsp;V. Michaux, esq., near John’s River, in Burke
+County, N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer
+of undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:</p>
+
+<h5>EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he informed me
+that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was formerly of
+considerable height,
+<span class = "pagenum">121</span>
+<a name = "page121" id = "page121"> </a>
+but had gradually been plowed down; that several mounds in the
+neighborhood had been excavated, and nothing of interest found in them.
+I&nbsp;asked permission to examine this mound, which was granted, and
+upon investigation the following facts were revealed:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Upon reaching the place, I&nbsp;sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length
+and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a
+rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was
+found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth, about 18
+inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, and 16 inches
+in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with the corners
+rounded.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Not finding anything under this rock, I&nbsp;then made an excavation in
+the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which, upon
+examination, proved to be in front of the remains of a human skeleton in
+a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right hand were
+resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a small stone
+about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon a
+further examination many of the bones were found, though in a very
+decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air soon crumbled to
+pieces. The heads of the bones, a&nbsp;considerable portion of the
+skull, maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the vertebra, were in
+their proper places, though the weight of the earth above them had
+driven them down, yet the entire frame was so perfect that it was an
+easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones of the cranium were
+slightly inclined toward the east. Around the neck were found coarse
+beads that seemed to be of some hard substance and resembled chalk.
+A&nbsp;small lump of red paint about the size of an egg was found near
+the right side of this skeleton. The sutures of the cranium indicated
+the subject to have been 25 or 28 years of age, and its top rested about
+12 inches below the mark of the plow.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave and found
+another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing the
+east. A&nbsp;rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right hand
+were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been about 7
+inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was much better
+finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck of this one,
+but were much smaller and of finer quality than those on the neck of the
+first. The material, however, seems to be the same. A&nbsp;much larger
+amount of paint was found by the side of this than the first. The bones
+indicated a person of large frame, who, I&nbsp;think, was about 50 years
+of age. Everything about this one had the appearance of superiority over
+the first. The top of the skull was about 6 inches below the mark of the
+plane.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found nothing
+at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east, found another
+skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing the west. On the
+right side of this was a rock on which the bones of the right hand were
+resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, which had been about 8
+inches in length, but was broken into <i>three</i> pieces, and was
+composed of much better material, and better finished than the others.
+Beads were also found on the neck of this, but much smaller and finer
+than those of the others. A&nbsp;larger amount of paint than both of the
+others was found near this one. The top of the cranium had been moved by
+the plow. The bones indicated a person of 40 years of age.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller bones
+were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken from their
+bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with the fact that
+the farm on which this grave was found was the first settled in that
+part of the country, the date of the first deed made from Lord Granville
+to John Perkins running back about 150 years (the land still belonging
+to the descendants of the same family that first occupied&nbsp;it),
+would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old grave.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet, the
+line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of the soil.
+It was dug in rich, black
+<span class = "pagenum">122</span>
+<a name = "page122" id = "page122"> </a>
+loam, and filled around the bodies with white or yellow sand, which I
+suppose was carried from the river-bank, 200 yards distant. The
+skeletons approximated the walls of the grave, and contiguous to them
+was a dark-colored earth, and so decidedly different was this from all
+surrounding it, both in quality and odor, that the line of the bodies
+could be readily traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had
+been flesh, was similar to clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when
+compressed in the hand.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots
+made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the warrior
+had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need, in the
+“hunting-grounds beyond,” his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and
+scalping-knife.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will
+carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the American
+Indians were in possession of at least some of the mysteries of our
+order, and that it was evidently the grave of Masons, and the three
+highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave was situated due east and
+west; an altar was erected in the center; the south, west, and east were
+occupied&mdash;<i>the north was not</i>; implements of authority were
+near each body. The difference in the quality of the beads, the
+tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces, and the difference in distance
+that the bodies were placed from the surface, indicate beyond doubt that
+these three persons had been buried by Masons, and those, too, that
+understood what they were doing.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the Masonic
+world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic information?</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other
+bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at Washington,
+D.C., to be placed among the archives of that institution for
+exhibition, at which place they may be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Should Dr. Spainhour’s inferences be incorrect, there is still a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.</p>
+
+<p>In support of this gentleman’s views, attention is called to the
+description of the <i>Midawan</i>&mdash;a ceremony of initiation for
+would-be medicine men&mdash;in Schoolcraft’s History of the Indian
+Tribes of the United States, 1855, p.&nbsp;428, relating to the Sioux
+and Chippewas. In this account are found certain forms and resemblances
+which have led some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of
+Masonry.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES.</h4>
+
+<p>While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently&mdash;<i>lodge</i>
+burial&mdash;they differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface
+or aerial burial, and must consequently fall under another caption. The
+narratives which are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former
+kinds of burial.</p>
+
+<p>Bartram<a class = "tag" name = "tag23" id = "tag23" href =
+"#note23">23</a> relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the
+Carolinas:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a four-foot,
+square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the deceased laid on in
+his house, lining the grave with cypress bark, when they place the
+corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were alive, depositing with him
+his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other matters as he
+<span class = "pagenum">123</span>
+<a name = "page123" id = "page123"> </a>
+had the greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest wife, or the
+queen dowager, has the second choice of his possessions, and the
+remaining effects are divided among his other wives and children.</p>
+
+<p>According to Bernard Roman,<a class = "tag" name = "tag24" id =
+"tag24" href = "#note24">24</a> the “funeral customs of the Chickasaws
+did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred
+the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired.”</p>
+
+<p>The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the
+house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case the
+body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown in, and
+stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body first takes
+off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with water before
+putting them on or mingling with the living. When a body is removed from
+a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and the place in every case
+abandoned, as the belief is that the devil comes to the place of death
+and remains where a dead body is. Wild animals frequently (indeed,
+generally) get the bodies, and it is a very easy matter to pick up
+skulls and bones around old camping grounds, or where the dead are laid.
+In case it is not desirable to abandon a place, the sick person is left
+out in some lone spot protected by brush, where they are either
+abandoned to their fate or food brought to them until they die. This is
+done only when all hope is gone. I&nbsp;have found bodies thus left so
+well inclosed with brush that wild animals were unable to get at them;
+and one so left to die was revived by a cup of coffee from our house and
+is still living and well.</p>
+
+<p>Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal
+communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr.
+Menard, as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a reservation in the
+extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona. The
+funeral ceremonies of the Navajos are of the most simple character. They
+ascribe the death of an individual to the direct action of
+<i>Chinde</i>, or the devil, and believe that he remains in the vicinity
+of the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the tribe dies a
+shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by one of the near
+male relatives, and into this the corpse is unceremoniously tumbled by
+the relatives, who have previously protected themselves from the evil
+influence by smearing their naked bodies with tar from the piñon tree.
+After the body has thus been disposed of, the hogan (composed of logs
+and branches of trees covered with earth) is pulled down over it and the
+place deserted. Should the deceased have no near relatives or was of no
+importance in the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed
+with, the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This carelessness
+does not appear to arise from want of natural affection for the dead,
+but fear of the evil influence of <i>Chinde</i> upon the surviving
+relatives causes them to avoid doing anything that might gain for them
+his ill-will. A&nbsp;Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the
+logs of a fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have
+been years in that condition. There are no mourning observances other
+than smearing the forehead and under the eyes with tar, which is allowed
+to remain until worn off, and then not renewed. The deceased is
+apparently forgotten, as his name is never spoken by the survivors for
+fear of giving offense to <i>Chinde</i>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">124</span>
+<a name = "page124" id = "page124"> </a>
+<p>J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the
+Navajos:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the ground,
+draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body into as
+small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with cords, place
+them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing, everything owned
+by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all gathered around the
+grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their faces with their nails till
+the blood would run down their cheeks, pull out their hair, and such
+other heathenish conduct. These burials were generally made under their
+thatch houses or very near thereto. The house where one died was always
+torn down, removed, rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks, &amp;c.,
+were in their own jargon; none else could understand, and they seemingly
+knew but little of its meaning (if&nbsp;there was any meaning
+in&nbsp;it); it simply seemed to be the promptings of grief, without
+sufficient intelligence to direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out
+his own impulse.</p>
+
+<p>The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tag25" id = "tag25" href = "#note25">25</a> relating to the
+Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example
+of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to
+consider the receptacles as temples.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n’enterent point leur Chef, lorsqu’il
+est décédé; mais-ils font sécher son cadavre au feu et à la fumée de
+façon qu’ils en font un vrai squelette. Après l’avoir réduit en cet
+état, ils le portent au Temple (car ils en ont un ainsi que les
+Natchez), et le mettent à la place de son prédécesseur, qu’ils tirent de
+l’endroit qu’il occupoit, pour le porter avec les corps de leurs autres
+Chefs dans le fond du Temple où ils sont tous rangés de suite dressés
+sur leurs pieds comme des statues. A&nbsp;l’égard du dernier mort, il
+est exposé à l’entrée de ce Temple sur une espèce d’autel ou de table
+faite de cannes, et couverte d’une natte très-fine travaillée fort
+proprement en quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces mêmes
+cannes. Le cadavre du Chef est exposé au milieu de cette table droit sur
+ses pieds, soutenu par derrière par une longue perche peinte en rouge
+dont le bout passe au dessus de sa tête, et à laquelle il est attaché
+par le milieu du corps avec une liane. D’une main il tient un casse-tête
+ou une petite hache, de l’autre un pipe; et au-dessus de sa tête, est
+attaché au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le Calumet le plus fameux
+de tous ceux qui lui ont été présentés pendant sa vie. Du reste cette
+table n’est guères élevée de terre que d’un demi-pied; mais elle a au
+moins six pieds de large et dix de longueur.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+C’est sur cette table qu’on vient tous les jours servir à manger à ce
+Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de sagamité, du bled grolé ou
+boucané, &amp;c. C’est-là aussi qu’au commencement de toutes les
+récoltes ses Sujets vont lui offrir les premiers de tous les fruits
+qu’ils peuvent recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est présenté de la sorte
+reste sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est toujours
+ouverte, qu’il n’y a personne préposé pour y veiller, que par conséquent
+y entre qui veut, et que d’ailleurs il est éloigné du Village d’un grand
+quart de lieue, il arrive que ce sont ordinairement des Etrangers,
+Chasseurs ou Sauvages, qui profitent de ces mets et de ces fruits, ou
+qu’ils sont consommés par les animaux. Mais cela est égal à ces
+sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu’ils retournent le lendemain, plus
+ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur Chef a bien mangé, et que par
+conséquent il est content d’eux quoiqu’il les ait abandonnés. Pour leur
+ouvrir les yeux sur l’extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur
+représenter ce qu’ils ne peuvent s’empêcher de voir eux-mêmes, que ce
+n’est point ce mort qui mange; ils répondent que si ce n’est pas lui,
+c’est toujours lui au moins qui offre à qui il lui plaît ce qui a été
+mis sur la table; qu’après tout c’étoit là la pratique de leur père, de
+leur mère, de leurs parens; qu’ils n’ont pas plus d’esprit qu’eux, et
+qu’ils ne sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+C’est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la veuve du
+Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent de tems en tems lui
+rendre visite et lui faire
+<span class = "pagenum">125</span>
+<a name = "page125" id = "page125"> </a>
+leur harangue, comme s’il étoit en état de les entendre. Les uns lui
+demandent pourquoi il s’est laissé mourir avant eux? d’autres lui disent
+que s’il est mort ce n’est point leur faute; que c’est lui même qui
+s’est tué par telle débauche on par tel effort; enfin s’il y a eu
+quelque défaut dans son gouvernement, on prend ce tems-là pour le lui
+reprocher. Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui disant
+de n’être pas fâché contre eux, de bien manger, et qu’ils auront
+toujours bien soin de lui.</p>
+
+<p>Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the
+publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p.&nbsp;89, taken from
+Strachey’s Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early
+writer on American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess
+as a truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of
+Virginia:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the cenotaphies or
+the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes, so soon as they be dead,
+they embowell, and, scraping the flesh from off the bones, they dry the
+same upon hurdells into ashes, which they put into little potts (like
+the anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the bones they bind together or
+case up in leather, hanging braceletts, or chaines of copper, beads,
+pearle, or such like, as they used to wear about most of their joints
+and neck, and so repose the body upon a little scaffold (as&nbsp;upon a
+tomb), laying by the dead bodies’ feet all his riches in severall
+basketts, his apook, and pipe, and any one toy, which in his life he
+held most deare in his fancy; their inwards they stuff with pearle,
+copper, beads, and such trash, sowed in a skynne, which they overlapp
+againe very carefully in whit skynnes one or two, and the bodyes thus
+dressed lastly they rowle in matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay
+them orderly one by one, as they dye in their turnes, upon an arche
+standing (as&nbsp;aforesaid) for the tomb, and thes are all the
+ceremonies we yet can learne that they give unto their dead. We heare of
+no sweet oyles or oyntments that they use to dresse or chest their dead
+bodies with; albeit they want not of the pretious rozzin running out of
+the great cedar, wherewith in the old time they used to embalme dead
+bodies, washing them in the oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the
+priests the care of these temples and holy interments are committed, and
+these temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or ministers
+to exercise themselves in contemplation, for they are seldome out of
+them, and therefore often lye in them and maynteyne contynuall fier in
+the same, upon a hearth somewhat neere the east end.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the earth with
+sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in skynns and matts with their
+jewells, they laye uppon sticks in the ground, and soe cover them with
+earth; the buryall ended, the women (being painted all their faces with
+black coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in their howses,
+mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling and howling as may
+expresse their great passions.</p>
+
+<p>While this description brings the subject under the head before
+given&mdash;house burial&mdash;at the same time it might also afford an
+example of embalmment or mummifying.</p>
+
+<p><a href = "#fig1">Figure 1</a> may be referred to as a probable
+representation of the temple or charnel-house described.</p>
+
+<p>The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be
+considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices
+prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the
+Rev. J.&nbsp;G. Wood,<a class = "tag" name = "tag26" id = "tag26" href =
+"#note26">26</a> bury their dead within the inclosure of the home-stead,
+fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems. The Apingi,
+according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in its
+dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and
+<span class = "pagenum">126</span>
+<a name = "page126" id = "page126"> </a>
+deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas
+bury within the inclosure of a man’s house, although the bones are
+subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside
+the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle
+inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the
+Bechuanas follow the same general plan.</p>
+
+<p>The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted
+above (p.&nbsp;314), is added as containing an account of certain
+details which resemble somewhat those followed by North American
+Indians. In the narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed
+only if specially desired by the expiring person:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar fashion. As
+soon as life is extinct&mdash;some say even before the last breath is
+drawn&mdash;the bystanders break the spine by a blow from a large stone.
+They then unwind the long rope that encircles the loins, and lash the
+body together in a sitting posture, the head being bent over the knees.
+Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its face to the
+north, as already described when treating of the Bechuanas. Cattle are
+then slaughtered in honor of the dead chief, and over the grave a post
+is erected, to which the skulls and hair are attached as a trophy. The
+bow, arrows, assagai, and clubs of the deceased are hung on the same
+post. Large stones are pressed into the soil above and around the grave,
+and a large pile of thorns is also heaped over it, in order to keep off
+the hyenas, who would be sure to dig up and devour the body before the
+following day. The grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302.
+Now and then a chief orders that his body shall be left in his own
+house, in which case it is laid on an elevated platform, and a strong
+fence of thorns and stakes built round the hut.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief forsakes the place
+and takes the whole of the people under his command. He remains at a
+distance for several years, during which time he wears the sign of
+mourning, i.e., a&nbsp;dark-colored conical cap, and round the neck a
+thong, to the ends of which are hung two small pieces of ostrich-shell.
+When the season of mourning is over, the tribe return, headed by the
+chief, who goes to the grave of his father, kneels over it, and whispers
+that he has returned, together with the cattle and wives which his
+father gave him. He then asks for his parent’s aid in all his
+undertakings, and from that moment takes the place which his father
+filled before him. Cattle are then slaughtered, and a feast held to the
+memory of the dead chief and in honor of the living one, and each person
+present partakes of the meat, which is distributed by the chief himself.
+The deceased chief symbolically partakes of the banquet. A&nbsp;couple
+of twigs cut from the tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased
+belonged are considered as his representative, and with this emblem each
+piece of meat is touched before the guests consume it. In like manner,
+the first pail of milk that is drawn is taken to the grave and poured
+over&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CAVE BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only
+the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation
+and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of
+artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have
+actuated this
+<span class = "pagenum">127</span>
+<a name = "page127" id = "page127"> </a>
+mode of burial, a&nbsp;discussion would be out of place at this time,
+except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so far as can
+be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient resting
+places for their deceased relatives and friends.</p>
+
+<p>In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a&nbsp;few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.</p>
+
+<p>While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a
+natural cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to
+which resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had
+deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was
+quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination
+made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the
+same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the
+Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it,
+which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian,
+a&nbsp;Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of
+his tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the
+party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted
+in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew
+a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if
+an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some
+years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent
+game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it
+was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full
+extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many
+refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A&nbsp;rough ride of over an hour
+and the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the
+apex of a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole
+which was pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This
+entrance was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As
+the Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones
+and roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of
+uninterrupted, faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned.
+The guide was asked if many bodies were therein, and replied “Heaps,
+heaps,” moving the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There
+is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it
+was voluntarily imparted.</p>
+
+<p>In a communication received from Dr. A. J. McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a&nbsp;description is given of
+crevice or rock-fissure burial, which follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the
+medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged in
+preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long; whatever
+articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time of death are
+not removed. The dead man’s limbs are straightened out, his weapons of
+war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets wrapped securely and
+snugly around him, and now everything is ready for burial. It is the
+<span class = "pagenum">128</span>
+<a name = "page128" id = "page128"> </a>
+custom to secure if possible, for the purpose of wrapping up the corpse,
+the robes and blankets in which the Indian died. At the same time that
+the body is being fitted for internment, the squaws having immediate
+care of it, together with all the other squaws in the neighborhood, keep
+up a continued chant or dirge, the dismal cadence of which may, when the
+congregation of women is large, be heard for quite a long distance. The
+death song is not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces
+expressions eulogistic in character, but whether or not any particular
+formula of words is adopted on such occasion is a question which I am
+unable, with the materials at my disposal, to determine with any degree
+of certainty.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing the
+dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot chosen for
+burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as can be
+ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to select
+sepulchers of this character. From descriptions given by Mr. Harris, who
+has several times been fortunate enough to discover remains, it would
+appear that no superstitious ideas are held by this tribe with respect
+to the position in which the body is placed, the space accommodation of
+the sepulcher probably regulating this matter; and from the same source
+I learn that it is not usual to find the remains of more than one Indian
+deposited in one grave. After the body has been received into the cleft,
+it is well covered with pieces of rock, to protect it against the
+ravages of wild animals. The chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the
+burial ceremonies are at an end. The men during all this time have not
+been idle, though they have in no way participated in the preparation of
+the body, have not joined the squaws in chanting praises to the memory
+of the dead, and have not even as mere spectators attended the funeral,
+yet they have had their duties to perform. In conformity with a
+long-established custom, all the personal property of the deceased is
+immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle are shot, and his
+wigwam, furniture, &amp;c., burned. The performance of this part of the
+ceremonies is assigned to the men; a&nbsp;duty quite in accord with
+their taste and inclinations. Occasionally the destruction of horses and
+other properly is of considerable magnitude, but usually this is not the
+case, owing to a practice existing with them of distributing their
+property among their children while they are of a very tender age,
+retaining to themselves only what is necessary to meet every-day
+requirements.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The widow “goes into mourning” by smearing her face with a substance
+composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once, and is
+allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only mourning
+observance of which I have any knowledge.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as those
+in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property takes
+place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse. Should a
+youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the Indians will
+not as a role have anything to do with the interment of the body. In a
+case of the kind which occurred at this agency some time ago, the squaws
+prepared the body in the usual manner; the men of the tribe selected a
+spot for the burial, and the employee at the agency, after digging a
+grave and depositing the corpse therein, filled it up according to the
+fashion of civilized people, and then at the request of the Indians
+rolled large fragments of rocks on top. Great anxiety was exhibited by
+the Indians to have the employes perform the service as expeditiously as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos
+agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock
+fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been
+used for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J.&nbsp;D.
+Whitney:<a class = "tag" name = "tag27" id = "tag27" href =
+"#note27">27</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now in
+the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is near the Stanislaus River,
+in Calaveras County, on
+<span class = "pagenum">129</span>
+<a name = "page129" id = "page129"> </a>
+a nameless creek, about two miles from Abbey’s Ferry, on the road to
+Vallicito, at the house of Mr. Robinson. There were two or three persons
+with me, who had been to the place before and knew that the skulls in
+question were taken from it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and
+since that the condition of things in the cave has greatly changed.
+Owing to some alteration in the road, mining operations, or some other
+cause which I could not ascertain, there has accumulated on the formerly
+clean stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness of some 20 feet of
+surface earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which could not
+be removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet deep
+at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet in
+diameter. It is the general opinion of those who have noticed this cave
+and saw it years ago that it was a burying-place of the present Indians.
+Dr. Jones said he found remains of bows and arrows and charcoal with the
+skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed at the time the village of
+Murphy’s was burned. All the people spoke of the skulls as lying on the
+surface and not as buried in the stalagmite.</p>
+
+<p>The next description of cave burial, by W. H. Dall,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag28" id = "tag28" href = "#note28">28</a> is so remarkable
+that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to
+the Innuits of Alaska.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of writing I
+refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are some crania found
+by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave and a cranium obtained
+at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of Islands. These were deposited
+in a remarkable manner, precisely similar to that adopted by most of the
+continental Innuit, but equally different from the modern Aleut fashion.
+At the Amaknak cave we found what at first appeared to be a wooden
+inclosure, but which proved to be made of the very much decayed
+supra-maxillary bones of some large cetacean. These were arranged so as
+to form a rude rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces of
+bone. This was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2&nbsp;feet wide, and 18
+inches deep. The bottom was formed of flat pieces of stone. Three such
+were found close together, covered with and filled by an accumulation of
+fine vegetable and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton
+in the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in the Innuit
+fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all the bones, with the
+exception of the skull, were minced to a soft paste, or even entirely
+gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted me to dig into a small knoll near the
+ancient shell-heap, and here we found, in a precisely similar
+sarcophagus, the remains of a skeleton, of which also only the cranium
+retained sufficient consistency to admit of preservation. This
+inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty mass not reduced to
+mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous growth, which had reached a
+thickness of nearly 2 feet above the remains. When we reflect upon the
+well-known slowness of this kind of growth in these northern regions,
+attested by numerous Arctic travelers, the antiquity of the remains
+becomes evident.</p>
+
+<p>It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments
+were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many
+mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles
+were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary
+skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">130</span>
+<a name = "page130" id = "page130"> </a>
+<h3>EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of
+mummifying or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of
+the kind have generally been found in such repositories.</p>
+
+<p>It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and
+discuss the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt
+certain processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all
+flesh must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope
+of this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories
+advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians.
+Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their
+dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on
+this point no definite information has been procured. In the final
+volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification
+among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time
+of the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more
+than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by
+others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. “They did not
+inter them,” says he, “for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched.” According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief,
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived,
+provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the
+ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising
+that this theory has obtained many believers. M.&nbsp;Gannal believes
+embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our
+nature&mdash;a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains
+of loved ones; but MM.&nbsp;Volney and Pariset think it was intended to
+obviate, in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being
+primarily a cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later;
+and the Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from
+the finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had
+hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is
+thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction
+to embalmment in North America.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">131</span>
+<a name = "page131" id = "page131"> </a>
+<p>From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians,
+it appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly,<a class = "tag" name = "tag29" id = "tag29" href =
+"#note29">29</a> being as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The <i>Indians</i> are religious in preserving the Corpses of their
+Kings and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following manner:
+First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can, slitting it
+only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from the Bones as
+clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that they
+may preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in the Sun,
+and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean time has been kept
+from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed right in the Skin,
+they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very fine white Sand. After
+this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body looks as if the Flesh had
+not been removed. They take care to keep the Skin from shrinking, by the
+help of a little Oil or Grease, which saves it also from Corruption. The
+Skin being thus prepar’d, they lay it in an apartment for that purpose,
+upon a large Shelf rais’d above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with
+Mats, for the Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the same, to
+keep it from the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon Hurdles in the Sun to
+dry, and when it is thoroughly dried, it is sewed up in a Basket, and
+set at the Feet of the Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also
+they set up a <i>Quioccos</i>, or Idol, which they believe will be a
+Guard to the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the Priests
+must give his Attendance, to take care of the dead Bodies. So great an
+Honour and Veneration have these ignorant and unpolisht People for their
+Princes even after they are dead.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added that, in the writer’s opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.</p>
+
+<p>According to Pinkerton,<a class = "tag" name = "tag30" id = "tag30"
+href = "#note30">30</a> who took the account from Smith’s Virginia, the
+Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the Devil’s] image
+euill favouredly carved, and then painted and adorned with chaines of
+copper, and beads, and covered with a skin, in such manner as the
+deformitie may well suit with such a God. By him is commonly the
+sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then dried
+upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of their
+ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of copper, pearle, and
+such like, as they use to wear. Their inwards they stuffe with copper
+beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lappe they them very carefully in
+white skins, and so rowle them in mats for their winding-sheets. And in
+the Tombe, which is an arch made of mats, they lay them orderly. What
+remaineth of this kind of wealth their Kings have, they set at their
+feet in baskets. These temples and bodies are kept by their Priests.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the earth with
+sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with their
+Jewels they lay them upon stickes in the ground, and so cover them with
+earth. The buriale ended, the women being painted all their faces with
+blacke cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in the houses mourning
+and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and howling as may expresse
+their great passions. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three
+great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and the tombes
+of their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in length, built
+harbourwise after their building. This place they count so holey as that
+but the priests and Kings dare come into them; nor the savages dare not
+go up the river in boates by it, but that they solemnly cast
+<span class = "pagenum">132</span>
+<a name = "page132" id = "page132"> </a>
+some piece of copper, white beads or pocones into the river for feare
+their Okee should be offended and revenged of them.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteeme
+quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond the mountains
+towards the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of their
+Okee, with their bedes paynted rede with oyle and pocones, finely
+trimmed with feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets, copper, and
+tobacco, doing nothing but dance and sing with all their predecessors.
+But the common people they suppose shall not live after deth, but rot in
+their graves like dede dogges.</p>
+
+<p>This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former
+page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding
+truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.</p>
+
+<p><a href = "#fig1">Figure 1</a> may again be referred to as an example
+of the dead-house described.</p>
+
+<p>The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to
+Lawson, used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the
+subjoined extract from Schoolcraft;<a class = "tag" name = "tag31" id =
+"tag31" href = "#note31">31</a> but instead of laying away the remains
+in caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched
+sticks.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The manner of their interment is thus: A&nbsp;mole or pyramid of earth
+is raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even,
+sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity of the person whose
+monument it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made ridgeways, like
+the roof of a house. This in supported by nine stakes or small posts,
+the grave being about 6 to 8 feet in length and 4 feet in breadth, about
+which is hung gourds, feathers, and other such like trophies, placed
+there by the dead man’s relations in respect to him in the grave. The
+other parts of the funeral rites are thus: As soon as the party is dead
+they lay the corpse upon a piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or
+embalming it with a small root beaten to powder, which looks as red as
+vermillion; the same is mixed with bear’s oil to beautify the hair.
+After the carcass has laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and
+lay it upon crotches cut on purpose for the support thereof from the
+earth; then they anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients
+of the powder of this root and bear’s oil. When it is so done they cover
+it over very exactly with the bark or pine of the cypress tree to
+prevent any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean all
+about it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal estate he
+was possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads,
+feathers, match-coat, &amp;c. This relation is the chief mourner, being
+clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty for
+three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch pine
+mixed with bear’s oil. All the while he tells the dead man’s relations
+and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was, and of the
+great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks tending to the
+praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows mellow and will cleave
+from the bone they get it off and burn it, making the bones very clean,
+then anoint them with the ingredients aforesaid, wrapping up the skull
+(very carefully) in a cloth artificially woven of opossum’s hair. The
+bones they carefully preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and
+cleansing them. By these means they preserve them for many ages, that
+you may see an Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or
+some of his relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of
+tombs, as when an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of
+stones (or&nbsp;sticks where stones are not to be found); to this
+memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the heap in
+respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of light wood or
+<span class = "pagenum">133</span>
+<a name = "page133" id = "page133"> </a>
+pitch-pine over the graves of the more distinguished, covering it with
+bark and then with earth, leaving the body thus in a subterranean vault
+until the flesh quits the bones. The bones are then taken up, cleaned,
+jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins, and laid away in the
+<i>Quiogozon</i>, which is the royal tomb or burial-place of their kings
+and war-captains, being a more magnificent cabin reared at the public
+expense. This Quiogozon is an object of veneration, in which the writer
+says he has known the king, old men, and conjurers to spend several days
+with their idols and dead kings, and into which he could never gain
+admittance.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt
+with archæologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve
+these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with
+certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens
+were found. Charles Wilkins<a class = "tag" name = "tag32" id = "tag32"
+href = "#note32">32</a> thus describes one:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> An exsiccated body of a female<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag33" id = "tag33" href = "#note33">33</a> <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> was found at the depth of about 10 feet
+from the surface of the cave bedded in clay strongly impregnated with
+nitre, placed in a sitting posture, incased in broad stones standing on
+their edges, with a flat atone covering the whole. It was enveloped in
+coarse clothes, <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> the whole wrapped in
+deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the manner in which the
+Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the stone coffin were the
+working utensils, beads, feathers, and other ornaments of dress which
+belonged to her.</p>
+
+<p>The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag34" id = "tag34" href = "#note34">34*</a></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Aug. 24th, 1815.</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Dear Sir</span>: I offer you some observations
+on a curious piece of American antiquity now in New York. It is a human
+body: found in one of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect
+desiccation; all the fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other
+firm parts are in a state of entire preservation. I&nbsp;think it enough
+to have puzzled Bryant and all the archæologists.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of
+Glasgow for saltpetre.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract and
+retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash; and probably
+the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good proportion of
+calcareous carbonate. Amidst them drying and antiseptick ingredients, it
+may be conceived that putrefaction would be stayed, and the solids
+preserved from decay. The outer envelope of the body is a deer-skin,
+probably dried in the usual way, and perhaps softened before its
+application by rubbing. The next covering is a deer’s skin, whose hair
+had been cut away by a sharp instrument resembling a batter’s knife. The
+remnant of the hair and the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a sheared
+pelt of beaver. The next wrapper is of cloth made of twine doubled and
+twisted. But the thread does not appear to have been formed by the
+wheel, nor the web by the loom. The warp and filling seem to have been
+crossed and knotted by an operation like that of the fabricks of the
+northwest coast, and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the
+lamented Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the
+fibrous material.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">134</span>
+<a name = "page134" id = "page134"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the preceding, but
+furnished with large brown feathers, arranged and fashioned with great
+art, so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from wet and
+cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole bears a near
+similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the nations of the
+northwestern coast of America. A&nbsp;Wilson might tell from what bird
+they were derived.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm reclining
+forward, and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs down,
+with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual, who was a
+male, did not probably exceed the age of fourteen at his death. There is
+near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of the skull, which
+probably killed him. The skin has sustained little injury; it is of a
+dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be decided with exactness, from
+its present appearance. The scalp, with small exceptions, is covered
+with sorrel or foxey hair. The teeth are white and sound. The hands and
+feet, in their shrivelled state, are slender and delicate. All this is
+worthy the investigation of our acute and perspicacious colleague, Dr.
+Holmes.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like the
+Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except the
+several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of a
+suture or incision about the belly; whence it seems that the viscera
+were not removed.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as to the
+antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+First, then, I&nbsp;am satisfied that it does not belong to that class
+of white men of which we are members.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of
+Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled up
+the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this head I
+should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious friend, Noah
+Webster.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+3dly. I&nbsp;am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged
+to any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting
+Kentucky.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted
+threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash and
+the Pacifick Islands, that I refer this individual to that era of time,
+and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of the Green
+River, and of the place where these relicks were found. This conclusion
+is strengthened by the consideration that such manufactures are not
+prepared by the actual and resident red men of the present day. If the
+Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him, he would have thought of
+the people who constructed those ancient forts and mounds, whose exact
+history no man living can give. But I forbear to enlarge; my intention
+being merely to manifest my respect to the society for having enrolled
+me among its members, and to invite the attention of its Antiquarians to
+further inquiry on a subject of such curiousity.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+With respect, I remain yours,</p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<span class = "smaller">SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.</span></p>
+
+<p>It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that
+the natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W.&nbsp;H. Dall,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag35" id = "tag35" href = "#note35">35</a> the
+description of the mummies being as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment in
+their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already described;
+second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or stones in some
+convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss, covered by
+matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or carvings
+associated with them. We found only three or four specimens in all in
+<span class = "pagenum">135</span>
+<a name = "page135" id = "page135"> </a>
+these places, of which we examined a great number. This was apparently
+the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and one which more
+recently was still pursued in the case of poor or unpopular
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few centuries,
+and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was adopted for the
+wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The bodies were
+eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running water, dried, and
+usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of fur and fine grass
+matting. The body was usually doubled up into the smallest compass, and
+the mummy case, especially in the case of children, was usually
+suspended (so&nbsp;as not to touch the ground) in some convenient rock
+shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body was placed in a lifelike
+position, dressed and armed. They were placed as if engaged in some
+congenial occupation, such as hunting, fishing, sewing, &amp;c. With
+them were also placed effigies of the animals they were pursuing, while
+the hunter was dressed in his wooden armor and provided with an enormous
+mask all ornamented with feathers, and a countless variety of wooden
+pendants, colored in gay patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the
+weapons even were only fac-similes in wood of the original articles.
+Among the articles represented were drums, rattles, dishes, weapons,
+effigies of men, birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of rods or
+scales of wood, and remarkable masks, so arranged that the wearer when
+erect could only see the ground at his feet. These were worn at their
+religious dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to
+animate a temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look upon it while
+so occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the masking of those
+who had gone into the land of spirits.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the whaling
+class&mdash;a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit&mdash;has erroneously
+been confounded with the one now described. The latter included women as
+well as men, and all those whom the living desired particularly to
+honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the bodies of males, and
+they were not associated with the paraphernalia of those I have
+described. Indeed, the observations I have been able to make show the
+bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with stone weapons and
+actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the meanest apparel, and
+no carvings of consequence. These details, and those of many other
+customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear no testimony <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> do not come within my line.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig5.jpg" width = "555" height = "317"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Alaskan Mummies.</p>
+
+<p>Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings’ Expedition,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tag36" id = "tag36" href = "#note36">36</a> speaks of the Aleutian
+Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they embalm
+the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in their best
+attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their darts and
+instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured mats,
+embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less ceremony.
+A&nbsp;mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut for some
+months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it begins to
+smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial Company,
+has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the mummified
+remains of Indians who lived on an island north of Ounalaska one hundred
+and fifty years ago. This contribution to science was secured by Captain
+Henning, an agent of the company who has long resided at Ounalaska. In
+his transactions with the Indians he learned
+<span class = "pagenum">136</span>
+<a name = "page136" id = "page136"> </a>
+that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the island in
+question, as the last resting-place of a great chief, known as
+Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the neighborhood of
+Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and other furs, and he bore up for the
+island, with the intention of testing the truth of the tradition he had
+heard. He had more difficulty in entering the cave than in finding it,
+his schooner having to beat on and off shore for three days. Finally he
+succeeded in affecting a landing, and clambering up the rocks he found
+himself in the presence of the dead chief, his family and relatives.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care the
+mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments
+scattered around were also taken away.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have as
+yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large
+basket-like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the wrappings
+are finely wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in texture, and
+skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of thinly cut wood, and
+adjoining the center portions are pieces of body armor composed of reeds
+bound together. The body is covered with the fine skin of the sea-otter,
+always a mark of distinction in the interments of the Aleuts, and round
+the whole package are stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the
+sinews of the sea lion; also those of a bird-net. There are evidently
+some bulky articles inclosed with the chief’s body, and the whole
+package differs very much from the others, which more resemble, in their
+brown-grass matting, consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich
+Islands than the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose and
+of a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon after it,
+have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet of the latter
+projects, with a toe-nail visible. The remaining mummies are of
+adults.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man’s body in
+tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face decomposed.
+This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by severing some of
+the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending the limbs downward
+horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most peculiar package, next to
+that of the chief, is one which incloses in a single matting, with
+sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and woman. The collection also
+embraces a couple of skulls, male and female, which have still the hair
+attached to the scalp. The hair has changed its color to a brownish red.
+The relics obtained with the bodies include a few wooden vessels scooped
+out smoothly: a&nbsp;piece of dark, greenish, flat stone, harder than
+the emerald, which the Indians use to tan skins; a&nbsp;scalp-lock of
+jet-black hair; a&nbsp;small rude figure, which may have been a very
+ugly doll or an idol; two or three tiny carvings in ivory of the
+sea-lion, very neatly executed; a&nbsp;comb, a&nbsp;necklet made of
+bird’s claws inserted into one another, and several specimens of little
+bags, and a cap plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.</p>
+
+<p>In Cary’s translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following
+passage occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the
+Macrobrian Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a
+matter of curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved
+have ever been discovered.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which are said to
+be prepared from crystal in the following manner. When they have dried
+the body, either as the Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster
+it all over with gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible
+resemble real life; they then put round it a hollow column made of
+crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and is easily wrought. The body
+being in the middle of the column is plainly seen, nor does it emit an
+unpleasant smell, nor is it in any way offensive, and it is all visible
+as the body itself. The nearest relations keep the column in their
+houses for a year, offering to it the first-fruits
+<span class = "pagenum">137</span>
+<a name = "page137" id = "page137"> </a>
+of all, and performing sacrifices; after that time they carry it out and
+place it somewhere near the city.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>&mdash;The Egyptian mummies could
+only be seen in front, the back being covered by a box or coffin; the
+Ethiopian bodies could be seen all round, as the column of glass was
+transparent.</p>
+
+<p>With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil
+of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>URN-BURIAL.</h3>
+
+
+<p>To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster<a class = "tag" name = "tag37" id =
+"tag37" href = "#note37">37</a> may be added:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the
+mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the
+mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S.C., according to Dr.
+Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human
+remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small the
+skull is placed with the face downward in the opening, constituting a
+sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in which urn-burial
+alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was accidentally
+discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine’s Island, off the
+coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that from a mound at New
+Madrid, Mo., he obtained a human skull inclosed in an earthen jar, the
+lips of which were too small to admit of its extraction. It must
+therefore have been molded on the head after death.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the
+funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to admit of
+the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either the clay must
+have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or the neck of the
+jar must have been added subsequently to the other rites of interment.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag38" id = "tag38" href = "#note38">38</a></p>
+
+<p>It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but
+<i>to a very limited extent</i>, in North America, except as a secondary
+interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or
+ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of
+ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as
+the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply
+tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been
+that bodies
+<span class = "pagenum">138</span>
+<a name = "page138" id = "page138"> </a>
+were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the fleshy parts to
+decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in urns, and
+reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution, furnishes
+the following account of urns used for burial:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover, Nos.
+27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received from Mr.
+William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on his
+plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of the Oconee
+River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes, tall grasses, and
+briers. We had a few months ago from the same source one of the covers,
+of which the ornamentation was different but more entire. A&nbsp;portion
+of a similar cover has been received also from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr.
+McKinley ascribes the use of these urns and covers to the Muscogees,
+a&nbsp;branch of the Creek Nation.</p>
+
+<p>These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was
+a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around
+the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented
+scroll ornamentations.</p>
+
+<p>The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag39" id = "tag39" href = "#note39">39</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Burial-urns <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> comprise vessels or
+ollas without handles, for cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches
+in height, with broad, open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a
+laminated exterior (partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the
+indentations extend simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion
+being plain.</p>
+
+<p>So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J.&nbsp;C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of
+possibility that future researches in regions not far distant from that
+which he explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents
+different forms of burial-urns, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>e</i>, after
+Foster, are from Laporte, Ind. <i>f</i>, after Foster, is from Greenup
+County, Kentucky; <i>d</i> is from Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian
+collection, No. 27976; and <i>c</i> is one of the peculiar shoe-shaped
+urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake Nicaragua, by Surgeon J.&nbsp;C.
+Bransford, U.S.N.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig6.png" width = "337" height = "536"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Burial Urns.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>SURFACE BURIAL.</h3>
+
+
+<p>This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far
+as can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was
+employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for
+time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees,
+the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead
+being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the
+Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently
+<span class = "pagenum">139</span>
+<a name = "page139" id = "page139"> </a>
+large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and
+permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen
+was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by
+R.&nbsp;S. Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a
+communication received in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial
+in two different ways:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> 1st. The surface burial in hollow
+logs. These have been found in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been
+split and the two halves hollowed out to receive the body, when it was
+either closed with withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes;
+and sometimes a hollow tree is used by closing the ends.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs
+laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they meet
+in a single log at the top.</p>
+
+<p>The writer has recently received from Prof. C. Engelhardt, of
+Copenhagen, Denmark, a&nbsp;brochure describing the oak coffins of
+Borum-Æshœi. From an engraving in this volume it would appear that the
+manner employed by the ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins
+has its analogy among the North American Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible
+extent in accordance with the <i>ante mortem</i> wishes of the dead,
+were the obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The
+account is given by George Catlin:<a class = "tag" name = "tag40" id =
+"tag40" href = "#note40">40</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+He requested them to take his body down the river to this his favorite
+haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury him on the
+back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried alive under him,
+from whence he could see, as he said, “the Frenchmen passing up and down
+the river in their boats.” He owned, amongst many horses, a&nbsp;noble
+white steed, that was led to the top of the grass-covered hill, and with
+great pomp and ceremony, in the presence of the whole nation and several
+of the fur-traders and the Indian agent, he was placed astride of his
+horse’s back, with his bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver slung,
+with his pipe and his medicine bag, with his supply of dried meat, and
+his tobacco-pouch replenished to last him through the journey to the
+beautiful hunting grounds of the shades of his fathers, with his flint,
+his steel, and his tinder to light his pipe by the way; the scalps he
+had taken from his enemies’ heads could be trophies for nobody else, and
+were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in full dress, and fully
+equipped, and on his head waved to the last moment his beautiful
+head-dress of the war-eagles’ plumes. In this plight, and the last
+funeral honors having been performed by the medicine-men, every warrior
+of his band painted the palm and fingers of his right hand with
+vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly impressed on the milk-white
+sides of his devoted horse. This all done, turfs were brought and placed
+around the feet and legs of the horse, and gradually laid up to its
+sides, and at last over the back and head of the unsuspecting animal,
+and last of all over the head and even the eagle plumes of its valiant
+rider, where all together have smouldered and remained undisturbed to
+the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a
+high bluff of the Missouri River.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig7.jpg" width = "544" height = "319"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Indian Cemetery.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Rev. J. G. Wood,<a class = "tag" name = "tag41" id =
+"tag41" href = "#note41">41</a> the Obongo, an African tribe,
+<span class = "pagenum">140</span>
+<a name = "page140" id = "page140"> </a>
+buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of
+the Seminoles:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow tree in the
+forest and drop it into the hollow, which is afterwards filled to the
+top with earth, leaves, and branches.</p>
+
+<p>M. de la Potherie<a class = "tag" name = "tag42" id = "tag42" href =
+"#note42">42</a> gives an account of surface burial as practiced by the
+Iroquois of New York:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son séant, on oint ses cheveux
+et tout son corps d’huile d’animaux, on lui applique du vermillon sur le
+visage; on lui met toutes sortes de beaux plumages de la rassade de la
+porcelaine et on le pare des plus beaux habits que l’on peut trouver,
+pendant que les parens et des vieilles continuent toujours à pleurer.
+Cette cérémonie finie, les alliez apportent plusieurs présens. Les uns
+sont pour essuyer les larmes et les autres pour servir de matelas au
+défunt, on en destine certains pour couvrir la fosse, de peur,
+disent-ils, que la plague ne l’incommode, on y étend fort proprement des
+peaux d’ours et de chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui met ses
+ajustemens avec un sac de farine de bled d’Inde, de la viande, sa
+cuillière, et généralement tout ce qu’il faut à un homme qui veut faire
+un long voyage, avec toux les présens qui lui ont été faits á sa mort,
+et s’il a été guerrier on lui donne ses armes pour s’en servir au pais
+des morts. L’on couvre ensuite ce cadavre d’écorce d’arbres sur
+lesquelles on jette de la terre et quantité de pierres, et on l’entoure
+de pierres pour empêcher que les animaux ne le déterrent. Ces sortes de
+funérailles ne se font que dans leur village. Lorsqu’ils meurent en
+campagne on les met dans un cercueil d’écorce, entre les branches des
+arbres où on les élève sur quatre pilliers.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+On observe ces mêmes funérailles aux femmes et aux filles. Tous ceux qui
+ont assisté aux obsèques profitent de toute la dépouille du défunt et
+s’il n’avoit rien, les parens y supléent. Ainsi ils ne pleurent pas en
+vain. Le deuil consiste à ne se point couper ni graisser les cheveux et
+de se tenir négligé sans aucune parure, couverts de méchantes hardes. Le
+père et la mère portent le deuil de leur fils. Si le père meurt les
+garçons le portent, et les filles de leur mère.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to
+forward to the writer an interesting work by J.&nbsp;V. Spencer,<a class
+= "tag" name = "tag43" id = "tag43" href = "#note43">43</a> containing
+annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and
+partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly
+inhabiting Illinois:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his hands
+grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow hole in the ground,
+setting the body in up to the waist, so the most of the body was above
+ground. The part above ground was then covered by a buffalo robe, and a
+trench about eight feet square was then dug about the grave. In this
+trench they set picketing about eight feet high, which secured the grave
+against wild animals. When I first came here there were quite a number
+of these high picketings still standing where their chiefs had been
+buried, and the body of a chief was disposed of in this way while I
+lived near their village. The common mode of burial was to dig a shallow
+grave, wrap the body in a blanket, place it in the grave, and fill it
+nearly full of dirt; then take split sticks about three feet long and
+stand them in the grave so that their tops would come together in the
+form of a roof; then they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks
+in place. I&nbsp;saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their
+child about a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a blanket and
+putting a long stick through the blanket, each taking an end of the
+stick.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">141</span>
+<a name = "page141" id = "page141"> </a>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is done by
+digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in it, and covering it.
+I&nbsp;have seen several bodies in one tree. I&nbsp;think when they are
+disposed of in this way it is by special request, as I knew of an Indian
+woman who lived with a white family who desired her body placed in a
+tree, which was accordingly done.<a class = "tag" name = "tag44" id =
+"tag44" href = "#note44">44*</a> Doubtless there was some peculiar
+superstition attached to this mode, though I do not remember to have
+heard what it was.</p>
+
+<p>Judge H. Welch<a class = "tag" name = "tag45" id = "tag45" href =
+"#note45">45</a> states that “the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies buried
+by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of sticks
+or logs. I&nbsp;think the bodies lay heads to the east.” And C.&nbsp;C.
+Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge Welch. <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> In 1824 he went with his father-in-law,
+Judge Gibson, to Fort Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of an
+Ottawa or Pottawatomie chief. The body lay on the ground covered with
+notched poles. It had been there but a few days and the worms were
+crawling around the body. My special interest in the case was the
+accusation of witchcraft against a young squaw who was executed for
+killing him by her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only
+parts of skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been
+burned.</p>
+
+<p>W. A. Brice<a class = "tag" name = "tag46" id = "tag46" href =
+"#note46">46</a> mentions a curious variety of surface burial not
+heretofore met with:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough of a tree,
+or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the infant of the Indian
+mother; or a few little log inclosures, where the bodies of adults sat
+upright, with all their former apparel wrapped about them, and their
+trinkets, tomahawks, &amp;c., by their side, could be seen at any time
+for many years by the few pale-faces visiting or sojourning here.</p>
+
+<p>A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may
+be considered under that head is the one employed by some of the
+Ojibways and Swampy Crees of Canada. A&nbsp;small cavity is scooped out,
+the body deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus
+formed being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River
+exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the
+Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave,
+which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and
+they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and&nbsp;9.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig8.png" width = "452" height = "353"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Grave Pen.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig9.png" width = "451" height = "350"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Grave Pen.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">142</span>
+<a name = "page142" id = "page142"> </a>
+<h4>CAIRN-BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent
+among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra
+Nevadas.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries
+in Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen
+or twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the
+side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully
+chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find
+it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have
+been constructed in the following manner: A&nbsp;number of bowlders had
+been removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had
+been obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein,
+with weapons, ornaments, &amp;c., and covered over with saplings of the
+mountain aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled,
+forming a huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the
+last resting place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the
+graves were scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which
+had been sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of
+the graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number
+of articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a
+boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this
+place.</p>
+
+<p>From Dr. O. G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency,
+Indian Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was
+received. According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves
+<i>Kaw-a-wāh</i>, the Comanches <i>Nerm</i>, and the Apaches
+<i>Tāh-zee</i>.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not seem to
+have any particular rule with regard to the position. Sometimes prone,
+sometimes supine, but always decumbent. They select a place where the
+grave is easily prepared, which they do with such implements as they
+chance to have, viz, a&nbsp;squaw-axe, or hoe. If they are traveling,
+the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much time is spent in
+finishing. I&nbsp;was present at the burial of Black Hawk, an Apache
+chief, some two years ago, and took the body in my light wagon up the
+side of a mountain to the place of burial. They found a crevice in the
+rocks about four feet wide and three feet deep. By filling in loose
+rocks at either end they made a very nice tomb. The body was then put in
+face downwards, short sticks were put across, resting on projections of
+rock at the sides, brush was thrown on this, and flat rocks laid over
+the whole of&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing, together with
+all the ornaments most admired by the person when living. The face is
+painted with any colored paint they may have, mostly red and yellow, as
+I have observed. The body is then wrapped in skins, blankets, or
+domestic, with the hands laid across the breast, and the legs placed
+upon the thighs. They put into the grave their guns, bows and arrows,
+tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins, and trinkets of
+various kinds. One
+<span class = "pagenum">143</span>
+<a name = "page143" id = "page143"> </a>
+or more horses are killed over or near the grave. Two horses and a mule
+were killed near Black Hawk’s grave. They were led up near and shot in
+the head. At the death of a Comanche chief, some years ago, I&nbsp;am
+told about seventy horses were killed, and a greater number than that
+were said to have been killed at the death of a prominent Kiowa chief a
+few years since.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The mourning is principally done by the relatives and immediate friends,
+although any one of their own tribe, or one of another tribe, who
+chances to be passing, will stop and moan with the relatives. Their
+mourning consists in a weird wail, which to be described must be heard,
+and once heard is never forgotten, together with the scarifying of their
+faces, arms, and legs with some sharp instrument, the cutting off of the
+hair, and oftentimes the cutting off of a joint of a finger, usually the
+little finger (Comanches do not cut off fingers). The length of time and
+intensity of their mourning depends upon the relation and position of
+the deceased in the tribe. I&nbsp;have known instances where, if they
+should be passing along where any of their friends had died, even a year
+after their death, they would mourn.</p>
+
+<p>The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath
+heaps of rocks, according to H.&nbsp;Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County,
+Nevada, although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as
+reasons for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d,
+because they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural
+indolence of the Indians&mdash;indisposition to work any more than can
+be helped.</p>
+
+<p>The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as
+did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact,
+a&nbsp;number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom
+prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>CREMATION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common
+custom to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially
+those living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we
+have undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more
+eastern ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from
+its great antiquity, for Tegg<a class = "tag" name = "tag47" id =
+"tag47" href = "#note47">47</a> informs us that it reached as far back
+as the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the
+burning of Menœacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair,
+eighth judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among
+the ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos
+up to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom
+among civilized people.</p>
+
+<p>While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance
+<span class = "pagenum">144</span>
+<a name = "page144" id = "page144"> </a>
+of this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North
+America, yet, did space admit, a&nbsp;discussion might profitably be
+entered upon regarding the details of it among the ancients and the
+origin of the ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the
+country, with discursive notes and an account of its origin among the
+Nishinams of California, by Stephen Powers,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag48" id = "tag48" href = "#note48">48</a> seem to be all that is
+required at this time:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that
+exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and
+women, the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died
+they should return to the earth after two or three days as he himself
+does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said this should
+not be; but that when men died their friends should burn their bodies
+and once a year make a great mourning for them and the coyote prevailed.
+So, presently when deer died, they burned his body, as the coyote had
+decreed and after a year they made a great mourning for him. But the
+moon created the rattlesnake and caused it to bite the coyote’s son, so
+that he died. Now, though the coyote had been willing to burn the deer’s
+relations, he refused to burn his own son. Then the moon said unto him,
+“This is your own rule. You would have it so, and now your son shall be
+burned like the others.” So he was burned, and after a year the coyote
+mourned for him. Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and,
+as he had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in that
+it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not practice
+cremation, which is also established by other traditions. It hints at
+the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set great store by
+the moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred ways and observe its
+changes for a hundred purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in
+Schoolcraft<a class = "tag" name = "tag49" id = "tag49" href =
+"#note49">49</a> and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number died
+the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they thought then.
+After crawling over the body for a time they took all manner of shapes,
+some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope, etc. It was discovered
+however, that great numbers were taking wings and for a while they
+sailed about in the air, but eventually they would fly off to the moon.
+The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the earth might become depopulated
+in this way, concluded to stop it at once and ordered that when one of
+their people died the body must be burnt. Ever after they continued to
+burn the bodies of deceased persons.</p>
+
+<p>Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the
+Tolkotins of Oregon:<a class = "tag" name = "tag50" id = "tag50" href =
+"#note50">50</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and quite peculiar
+to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days laid out in
+his lodge and on the tenth it is buried. For this purpose a rising
+ground is selected, on which are laid a number of sticks, about 7 feet
+long, of cypress, neatly split and in the interstices, placed a quantity
+of gummy wood. During these operations invitations are dispatched to the
+natives of the neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the
+ceremony. When the preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on
+the pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of
+burning, the bystanders appear to be in
+<span class = "pagenum">145</span>
+<a name = "page145" id = "page145"> </a>
+a high state of merriment. If a stranger happen to be present they
+invariably plunder him, but if that pleasure be denied them, they never
+separate without quarreling among themselves. Whatever property the
+deceased possessed is placed about the corpse, and if he happened to be
+a person of consequence, his friends generally purchase a capote,
+a&nbsp;shirt, a&nbsp;pair of trousers, &amp;c, which articles are also
+laid around the pile. If the doctor who attended him has escaped
+uninjured, he is obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last
+time tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation. Failing in
+this, he throws on the body a piece of leather, or some other article,
+as a present, which in some measure appeases the resentment of his
+relatives, and preserves the unfortunate quack from being maltreated.
+During the nine days the corpse is laid out, the widow of the deceased
+is obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to sunrise, and from this
+custom there is no relaxation even during the hottest days of summer!
+While the doctor is performing his last operations she must lie on the
+pile, and after the fire is applied to it she cannot stir until the
+doctor orders her to be removed, which, however, is never done until her
+body is completely covered with blisters. After being placed on her
+legs, she is obliged to pass her hands gently through the flame and
+collect some of the liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which
+she is permitted to wet her face and body. When the friends of the
+deceased observe the sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract
+they compel the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint
+of hard pressing to straighten those members.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+If during her husband’s life time she has been known to have committed
+any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him savory food or
+neglected his clothing, &amp;c. she is now made to suffer severely for
+such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently fling her in the
+funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her friends, and thus between
+alternate scorching and cooling she is dragged backwards and forwards
+until she falls into a state of insensibility.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow
+collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of birch
+bark and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to carry on her
+back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all the laborious
+duties of cooking, collecting food, &amp;c. devolve on her. She must
+obey the orders of all the women, and even of the children belonging to
+the village, and the slightest mistake or disobedience subjects her to
+the infliction of a heavy punishment. The ashes of her husband are
+carefully collected and deposited in a grave which it is her duty to
+keep free from weeds, and should any such appear, she is obliged to root
+them out with her fingers. During this operation her husband’s relatives
+stand by and beat her in a cruel manner until the task is completed or
+she falls a victim to their brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid
+this complicated cruelty, frequently commit suicide. Should she,
+however, linger on for three or four years, the friends of her husband
+agree to relieve her from the her painful mourning. This is a ceremony
+of much consequence and the preparations for it occupy a considerable
+time generally from six to eight months. The hunters proceed to the
+various districts in which deer and beaver abound and after collecting
+large quantities of meat and fur return to the village. The skins are
+immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing, trinkets, &amp;c.
+Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants of the various friendly
+villages, and when they have all assembled the feast commences, and
+presents are distributed to each visitor. The object of their meeting is
+then explained, and the woman is brought forward, still carrying on her
+back the bones of her late husband, which are now removed and placed in
+a covered box, which is nailed or otherwise fastened to a post twelve
+feet high. Her conduct as a faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and
+the ceremony of her manumission is completed by one man powdering on her
+head the down of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a
+bladder of oil. She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of
+single blessedness, but few of them, I&nbsp;believe, wish to encounter
+the risk attending a second widowhood.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">146</span>
+<a name = "page146" id = "page146"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it with
+equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid the brutal
+treatment which custom has established as a kind of religious rite.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the
+description given.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig10.jpg" width = "555" height = "319"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Tolkotin cremation.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after
+death&mdash;certainly a long period of time, when it is remembered that
+Indians as a rule endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible.
+This may be accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the
+friends and relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death,
+and of making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the
+verification of the dead person, William Sheldon<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag51" id = "tag51" href = "#note51">51</a> gives an account of a
+similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and which
+seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased persons
+by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this is mere
+hypothesis:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased persons.
+When one of them died, it was necessary that all his relations should
+see him and examine the body in order to ascertain that he died a
+natural death. They acted so rigidly on this principle, that if one
+relative remained who had not seen the body all the others could not
+convince that one that the death was natural. In such a case the absent
+relative considered himself as bound in honor to consider all the other
+relatives as having been accessories to the death of the kinsman, and
+did not rest until he had killed one of them to revenge the death of the
+deceased. If a Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his
+relations lived in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon them to see
+the body, and several months sometimes elapsed before it could be
+finally interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately painted all over
+with <i>roucou</i>, and had his mustachios and the black streaks in his
+face made with a black paint, which was different from that used in
+their lifetime. A&nbsp;kind of grave was then dug in the <i>carbet</i>
+where he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body was
+let down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to the knees, and
+the body was placed in it in a sitting posture, resembling that in which
+they crouched round the fire or the table when alive, with the elbows on
+the knees and the palms of the hands against the cheeks. No part of the
+body touched the outside of the grave, which was covered with wood and
+mats until all the relations had examined it. When the customary
+examinations and inspections were ended the hole was filled, and the
+bodies afterwards remained undisturbed. The hair of the deceased was
+kept tied behind. In this way bodies have remained several months
+without any symptoms of decay or producing any disagreeable smell. The
+<i>roucou</i> not only preserved them from the sun, air, and insects
+during their lifetime, but probably had the same effect after death. The
+arms of the Caraibs were placed by them when they were covered over for
+inspection, and they were finally buried with them.</p>
+
+<p>Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over
+for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be
+remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As
+<span class = "pagenum">147</span>
+<a name = "page147" id = "page147"> </a>
+already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the
+widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but,
+if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable
+to such torments.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a
+husband died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her
+severely. Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to
+take good care of their husbands.</p>
+
+<p>George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,<a class = "tag" name = "tag52" id =
+"tag52" href = "#note52">52</a> states that among the Indians of Clear
+Lake, California, “the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a
+hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered.”</p>
+
+<p>According to Stephen Powers,<a class = "tag" name = "tag53" id =
+"tag53" href = "#note53">53</a> cremation was common among the Se-nél of
+California. He thus relates&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of
+incremation that he once witnessed, which was frightful for its
+exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that of a
+wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they placed in
+his month two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in his ears and
+hands, on his breast, &amp;c. besides all his finery, his feather
+mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows, painted arrows,
+&amp;c. When the torch was applied they set up a mournful ululation,
+chanting and dancing about him, gradually working themselves into a wild
+and ecstatic raving, which seemed almost a demoniacal possession,
+leaping, howling, lacerating their flesh. Many seemed to lose all
+self-control. The younger English-speaking Indians generally lend
+themselves charily to such superstitious work, especially if American
+spectators are present, but even they were carried away by the old
+contagious frenzy of their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat,
+quite new and fine, and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the
+blazing pile. Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a pile of
+California blankets, when a white man, to test his sincerity, offend him
+$16 for them, jingling the bright coins before his eyes, but the savage
+(for such he had become again for the moment) otherwise so avaricious,
+hurled him away with a yell of execration and ran and threw his offering
+into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied, wildly flung upon the pyre
+all they had in the world&mdash;their dearest ornaments, their gaudiest
+dresses, their strings of glittering shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing
+their hair, beating their breasts in their mad and insensate
+infatuation, some of them would have cast themselves bodily into the
+flaming ruins and perished with the chief had they not been restrained
+by their companions. Then the bright, swift flames, with their hot
+tongues, licked this “cold obstruction” into chemic change, and the once
+“delighted spirit” of the savage was borne up. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare’s shudder at the thought
+of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of his
+superstition to think of the soul, of his departed friend set free and
+purified by the swift purging heat of the flames not dragged down to be
+clogged and bound in the mouldering body, but borne up in the soft, warm
+chariots of the smoke toward the beautiful sun, to bask in his warmth
+and light, and then to fly away to the Happy Western Land. What wonder
+if the Indian shrinks with unspeakable horror from the thought of
+<i>burying his friend’s soul!</i>&mdash;of pressing and ramming down
+with pitiless clods that inner something which once took such delight in
+the sweet light of the sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade
+him to do otherwise and follow our custom! What wonder if even then he
+does it with sad fears and misgivings! Why not let him keep his custom!
+In the gorgeous
+<span class = "pagenum">148</span>
+<a name = "page148" id = "page148"> </a>
+landscapes and balmy climate of California an Indian incremation is as
+natural to the savage as it is for him to love the beauty of the sun.
+Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian bury their dead if they
+will; it matters little, the earth is the same above as below; or to
+them the bosom of the earth may seem even the better; but in California
+do not blame the savage if he recoils at the thought of going
+underground! This soft pale halo of the lilac hills&mdash;ah, let him
+console himself if he will with the belief that his lost friend enjoys
+it still! The narrator concluded by saying that they destroyed full $500
+worth of property. “The blankets,” said he with a fine Californian scorn
+of much absurd insensibility to such a good bargain, “the blankets that
+the American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After death the Se-nél hold that bad Indians return into coyotes. Others
+fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are hooked off by a
+raging bull at the further end, while the good escape across. Like the
+Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it necessary to nourish the spirits
+of the departed for the space of a year. This is generally done by a
+squaw, who takes pinole in her blanket, repairs to the scene of the
+incremation, or to places hallowed by the memory of the dead, when she
+scatters it over the ground, meantime rocking her body violently to and
+fro in a dance and chanting the following <ins class = "correction"
+title = "spelling unchanged">chorous</ins>:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Hel-lel-li-ly,</p>
+<p>Hel-lel-lo,</p>
+<p>Hel-lel-lu.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words have
+no meaning whatever.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Gillman<a class = "tag" name = "tag54" id = "tag54" href =
+"#note54">54</a> has published an interesting account of the exploration
+of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant evidence that
+cremation had existed among the former Indian population. It is as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In opening a burial-mound at Cade’s Pond, a&nbsp;small body of water
+situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fé Lake, Fla., the
+writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull of
+the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of his
+ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human burials, the
+bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a great number of
+vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in brilliant colors,
+chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them ornamented with
+indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in the ceramic art,
+though they are reduced to fragments. The first of the skulls referred
+to was exhumed at a depth of 2½ feet. It rested on its apex (base
+uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half incinerated human
+bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the sand which invariably
+sifts into crania under such circumstances. Immediately beneath the
+skull lay the greater part of a human tibia, presenting the peculiar
+compression known as a platycnemism to the degree of affording a
+latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and surrounding it lay the
+fragments of a large number of human bones, probably constituting an
+entire individual. In the second instance of this peculiar mode in
+cremation, the cranium was discovered on nearly the opposite side of the
+mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and, like the former, resting on its apex.
+It was filled with a black mass&mdash;the residuum of burnt human bones
+mingled with sand. At three feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a
+flattened tibia, which presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both the
+skulls were free from all action of fire, and though subsequently
+crumbling to pieces on their removal, the writer had opportunity to
+observe their strong resemblance to the small, orthocephalic crania
+which he had exhumed from mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was
+perceptible in the other cranium belonging to this mound. The small
+narrow, retreating frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather
+protuberant occipital, which was
+<span class = "pagenum">149</span>
+<a name = "page149" id = "page149"> </a>
+not in the least compressed, the well defined supraciliary ridges, and
+the superior border of the orbits, presenting a quadrilateral outline,
+were also particularly noticed. The lower facial bones, including the
+maxillaries, were wanting. On consulting such works as are accessible to
+him, the writer finds no mention of any similar relics having been
+discovered in mounds in Florida, or elsewhere. For further particulars
+reference may be had to a paper on the subject read before the Saint
+Louis meeting of the American Association, August, 1878.</p>
+
+<p>The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use
+of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is well-known to archæologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as
+occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E.
+Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account
+of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at
+the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but
+all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had
+served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained
+unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.</p>
+
+<p>A. S. Tiffany<a class = "tag" name = "tag55" id = "tag55" href =
+"#note55">55</a> describes what he calls a cremation-furnace, discovered
+within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> Mound seven miles, below the city,
+a&nbsp;projecting point known as Eagle Point. The surface was of the
+usual black soil to the depth of from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a
+burnt indurated clay, resembling in color and texture a medium-burned
+brick, and about 30 inches in depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a
+bed of charred human remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the
+unchanged and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor of
+the pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much
+decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind were
+discovered. The furnace appears to have been constructed by excavating
+the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or skeletons which
+had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and placing the fuel among
+and above the bodies, with a covering of poles or split timbers
+extending over and resting upon the earth, with the clay covering above,
+which latter we now find resting upon the charred remains. The ends of
+the timber covering, where they were protected by the earth above and
+below, were reduced to charcoal, parallel pieces of which were found at
+right angles to the length of the mound. No charcoal was found among or
+near the remains, the combustion there having been complete. The porous
+and softer portions of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black.
+Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably not been
+opened after the burning.</p>
+
+<p>This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be
+incorrect.</p>
+
+<p>Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given
+to show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">150</span>
+<a name = "page150" id = "page150"> </a>
+<h4>PARTIAL CREMATION.</h4>
+
+<p>Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of
+North Carolina, and which is thus described by J.&nbsp;W. Foster:<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag56" id = "tag56" href = "#note56">56</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region, when, in
+pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in the
+valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell commenced
+farming. During the first season’s operations the plowshare, in passing
+over a certain portion of a field, produced a hollow rumbling sound, and
+in exploring for the cause the first object met with was a shallow layer
+of charcoal, beneath which was a slab of burnt clay about 7 feet in
+length and 4 feet broad, which, in the attempt to remove, broke into
+several fragments. Nothing beneath this slab was found, but on examining
+its under side, to his great surprise there was the mould of a naked
+human figure. Three of these burned-clay sepulchers were thus raised and
+examined during the first year of his occupancy, since which time none
+have been found until recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow
+brought up another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the
+impress of a plump human arm.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Col. C.&nbsp;W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which
+have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for 500
+years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles of
+stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under one pile,
+but a grave has just been opened of the following construction:
+A&nbsp;pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face upward; then
+over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the form and features.
+On this was built a hot fire, which formed an entire shield of pottery
+for the corpse. The breaking up of one such tomb gives a perfect cast of
+the form of the occupant.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these archeological
+discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the exhumation, who proceeded
+to remove the earth from the mould, which he reached through a layer of
+charcoal, and then with a trowel excavated beneath it. The clay was not
+thoroughly baked, and no impression of the corpse was left, except of
+the forehead and that portion of the limbs between the ankles and the
+knees, and even these portions of the mould crumbled. The body had been
+placed east and west, the head toward the east. “I&nbsp;had hoped,”
+continues Mr. McDowell, “that the cast in the clay would be as perfect
+as one I found 51 years ago, a&nbsp;fragment of which I presented to
+Colonel Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on one side and
+on the other of the fingers, that had pressed down the soft clay upon
+the body interred beneath it.” The mound-builders of the Ohio valley, as
+has been shown, often placed a layer of clay over the dead, but not in
+immediate contact, upon which they builded fires; and the evidence that
+cremation was often resorted to in their disposition are too abundant to
+be gainsaid.</p>
+
+<p>This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag57" id = "tag57" href = "#note57">57</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his
+attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient race
+of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial places were
+discovered where the bodies had been placed with the face up and covered
+with a coating of plastic clay about an inch thick. A&nbsp;pile of wood
+was then placed on top and fired, which consumed the body and baked the
+clay, which retained the impression of the body. This was then lightly
+covered with earth.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">151</span>
+<a name = "page151" id = "page151"> </a>
+<p>It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the
+cases are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in
+the extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of
+burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the
+ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster
+(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.</p>
+
+<p>Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been
+practiced by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders nearly
+even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole of
+sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head being cut
+off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows, bead-work, trappings,
+&amp;c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of food, consisting of
+dried fish, roots, herbs, &amp;c., were placed with the body also. The
+grave was then filled up, covering the headless body; then a bundle of
+fagots was brought and placed on the grave by the different members of
+the tribe, and on these fagots the head was placed, the pile fired, and
+the head consumed to ashes; after this was done the female relatives of
+the deceased, who had appeared as mourners with their faces blackened
+with a preparation resembling tar or paint, dipped their fingers in the
+ashes of the cremated head and made three marks on their right cheek.
+This constituted the mourning garb, the period of which lasted until
+this black substance wore off from the face. In addition to this
+mourning, the blood female relatives of the deceased (who, by the way,
+appeared to be a man of distinction) had their hair cropped short.
+I&nbsp;noticed while the head was burning that the old women of the
+tribe sat on the ground, forming a large circle, inside of which another
+circle of young girls were formed standing and swaying their bodies to
+and fro and singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male
+that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very different, their
+bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins and laid away in caves, with
+their valuables and in some cases food being placed with them in their
+mouths. Occasionally money is left to pay for food in the spirit
+land.</p>
+
+<p>This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E.&nbsp;A. Barber<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag58" id = "tag58" href = "#note58">58</a> has described
+what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one above
+noted:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice
+recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New Jersey
+bank of the Delaware River, a&nbsp;short distance below Gloucester City,
+the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position, in a
+high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A&nbsp;few inches
+below the surface the neck bones were found, and below these the
+remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of the hands
+and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be determined whether
+the remains were those of an Indian or of a white man, but in either
+case the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal. A&nbsp;careful exhumation
+and critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil disclosed the fact that around
+the lower extremities of the body had been placed a number of large
+stones, which revealed traces of fire, in conjunction with charred wood,
+and the bones of the feet had undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes
+it appear reasonably certain that the subject had been executed,
+probably as a prisoner of war. A&nbsp;pit had been dug, in which he was
+placed erect, and a fire kindled around him. Then he had been buried
+alive, or, at least, if he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body
+was imbedded
+<span class = "pagenum">152</span>
+<a name = "page152" id = "page152"> </a>
+in the earth, with the exception of his head, which was left protruding
+above the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it seems
+probable that the head had either been burned or severed from the body
+and removed, or else left a prey to ravenous birds. The skeleton, which
+would have measured fully six feet in height, was undoubtedly that of a
+man.</p>
+
+<p>Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning.
+The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an
+outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient
+Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with
+the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in
+the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment,
+placed a piece of money in the corpse’s mouth, which was thought to be
+Charon’s fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River.
+Besides this, the corpse’s mouth was furnished with a certain cake,
+composed of flour, honey, &amp;c. This was designed to appease the fury
+of Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet
+entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>AERIAL SEPULTURE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4>LODGE-BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag59" id = "tag59" href = "#note59">59</a> and
+relates to the Sioux:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to the
+wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our curiosity.
+There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie, and in them we
+found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the ground, wrapped in
+their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles, spears, camp-kettles,
+and all their accoutrements piled up around them. Some lodges contained
+three, others only one body, all of which were more or less in a state
+of decomposition. A&nbsp;short distance apart from these was one lodge
+which, though small, seemed of rather superior pretensions, and was
+evidently pitched with great care. It contained the body of a young
+Indian girl of sixteen or eighteen years, with a countenance presenting
+quite an agreeable expression: she was richly dressed in leggins of fine
+scarlet cloth elaborately ornamented; a&nbsp;new pair of moccasins,
+beautifully embroidered with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her
+body was wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner; she
+had evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our surprise a portion
+of the upper part of her person was bare, exposing the face and a part
+of the breast, as if the robes in which she was wrapped had by some
+means been disarranged, whereas all the other bodies were closely
+covered up.
+<span class = "pagenum">153</span>
+<a name = "page153" id = "page153"> </a>
+It was, at the time, the opinion of our mountaineers, that these Indians
+must have fallen in an encounter with a party of Crows; but I
+subsequently learned that they had all died of the cholera, and that
+this young girl, being considered past recovery, had been arranged by
+her friends in the habiliments of the dead, inclosed in the lodge alive,
+and abandoned to her fate, so fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this
+to them novel and terrible disease.</p>
+
+<p>It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional,
+and due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the
+homes of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was
+not the case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among
+the same tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of
+their chiefs (Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the base,
+converging to a point, at least 30 feet high, covered with buffalo-hides
+dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch, which floats
+outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The different skins are
+neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and all painted in seven
+alternate horizontal stripes of brown and yellow, decorated with various
+lifelike war scenes. Over the small entrance is a large bright cross,
+the upright being a large stuffed white wolf-skin upon his war lance,
+and the cross-bar of bright scarlet flannel, containing the quiver of
+bow and arrows, which nearly all warriors still carry, even when armed
+with repeating rifles. As the cross is not a pagan but a Christian
+(which Long Horse was not either by profession or practice) emblem, it
+was probably placed there by the influence of some of his white friends.
+I&nbsp;entered, finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war
+dress, paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about
+breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A&nbsp;large
+opening and wind-flap at the top favored ventilation, and though he had
+lain there in an open coffin a full month, some of which was hot
+weather, there was but little effluvia; in fact, I&nbsp;have seldom
+found much in a burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus
+performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.</p>
+
+<p>This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is
+admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal
+of his article, that the facts are correct.</p>
+
+<p>General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the
+Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small
+scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins
+deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his
+side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then
+closed&nbsp;up.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. W. J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of
+the Shoshones of Nevada:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known to have at
+any time practiced cremation. In Independence Valley, under a deserted
+and demolished <i>wickeup</i> or “brush tent,” I&nbsp;found the dried-up
+corpse of a boy, about twelve years of age. The body had been here for
+at least six weeks, according to information received, and presented a
+shriveled and hideous appearance. The dryness of the atmosphere
+prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region usually leave the
+body when life terminates, merely throwing over it such rubbish as may
+be at hand, or the remains of their primitive shelter tents, which are
+mostly composed of small branches, leaves, grass,&nbsp;&amp;c.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">154</span>
+<a name = "page154" id = "page154"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the eastern banks of
+the Owyhee River, upper portion of Nevada, did not bury their dead at
+the time of my visit in 1871. Whenever the person died, his lodge
+(usually constructed of poles and branches of <i>Salix</i>) was
+demolished and placed in one confused mass over his remains, when the
+band removed a short distance. When the illness is not too great, or
+death sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable place, some
+distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to avoid the
+necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens, and other carnivores
+soon remove all the flesh so that there remains nothing but the bones,
+and even these are scattered by the wolves. The Indians at Tuscarora,
+Nevada, stated that when it was possible and that they should by chance
+meet the bony remains of any Shoshone, they would bury it, but in what
+manner I failed to discover as the were very reticent, and avoided
+giving any information regarding the dead. One corpse was found totally
+dried and shrivelled, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere in this
+region.</p>
+
+<p>Capt. F. W. Beechey<a class = "tag" name = "tag60" id = "tag60" href
+= "#note60">60</a> describes a curious mode of burial among the
+Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat
+similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a
+good idea of these burial receptacles.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig11.png" width = "566" height = "339"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Eskimo lodge burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to what we had
+already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished several examples of the
+manner in which this tribe of natives dispose of their dead. In some
+instances a platform was constructed of drift-wood raised about two feet
+and a quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed, with its
+head to the westward and a double tent of drift-wood erected over it,
+the inner one with spars about seven feet long, and the outer one with
+some that were three times that length. They were placed close together,
+and at first no doubt sufficiently so to prevent the depredations of
+foxes and wolves, but they had yielded at last, and all the bodies, and
+even the hides that covered them, had suffered by these rapacious
+animals.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks, as at Cape
+Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock made of eider duck skins,
+with one of deer skin over it, and were covered with a sea horse hide,
+such as the natives use for their <i>baidars</i>. Suspended to the
+poles, and on the ground near them, were several Esquimaux implements,
+consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a tamborine, which, we were
+informed as well as signs could convey the meaning of the natives, were
+placed there for the use of the deceased, who, in the next world
+(pointing to the western sky) ate, drank, and sang songs. Having no
+interpreter, this was all the information I could obtain, but the custom
+of placing such instruments around the receptacles of the dead is not
+unusual, and in all probability the Esquimaux may believe that the soul
+has enjoyments in the next world similar to those which constitute their
+happiness in this.</p>
+
+<p>The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the
+Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J.&nbsp;F. Hammond, U.S.A.,
+place their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the
+northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in
+Figure&nbsp;12.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig12.jpg" width = "555" height = "318"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Burial Houses.</p>
+
+<p>Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag61" id = "tag61" href =
+"#note61">61</a> states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when
+a death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of
+plaited palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied,
+<span class = "pagenum">155</span>
+<a name = "page155" id = "page155"> </a>
+and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and attended to
+amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently informed that a
+similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic accounts are known of
+analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the Old World, although
+quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the floors of their
+houses, a&nbsp;custom which has been followed by the Mosquito Indians of
+Central America and one or two of our own tribes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BOX-BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain
+tribes on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead
+wonderfully carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a
+low platform or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small
+house with an angular roof, and each one has an opening through which
+food may be passed to the corpse.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did
+the same.</p>
+
+<p>Capt. J. H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following
+relating to the Creeks in Indian Territory.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> are buried on the surface, in a box
+or a substitute made of branches of trees, covered with small branches,
+leaves, and earth. I&nbsp;have seen several of their graves, which after
+a few weeks had become uncovered and the remains exposed to view.
+I&nbsp;saw in one Creek grave (a&nbsp;child’s) a&nbsp;small sum of
+silver, in another (adult male) some implements of warfare, bow and
+arrows. They are all interred with the feet of the corpse to the east.
+In the mourning ceremonies of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared
+their hair and faces with a composition made of grease and wood ashes,
+and would remain in that condition for several days, and probably a
+month.</p>
+
+<p>Josiah Priest<a class = "tag" name = "tag62" id = "tag62" href =
+"#note62">62</a> gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe
+of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The
+writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an
+example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there was no bad
+smell, they were deposited in large wooden coffins, well constructed,
+and placed upon benches two feet from the ground. In smaller coffins,
+and in baskets, the Spaniards found the clothes of the deceased men and
+women, and so many pearls that they distributed them among the officers
+and soldiers by handsfulls.</p>
+
+<p>In Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag63" id = "tag63" href =
+"#note63">63</a> may be found the following account of the burial boxes
+of the Esquimaux.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the body up and
+place it on the side in a plank box which is elevated three or four feet
+from the ground and supported by four posts. The grave-box is often
+covered with painted figures of
+<span class = "pagenum">156</span>
+<a name = "page156" id = "page156"> </a>
+birds, fishes and animals. Sometimes it is wrapped in skins placed upon
+an elevated frame and covered with planks or trunks of trees so as to
+protect it from wild beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are
+deposited the arms, clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the
+deceased. Frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where
+the bodies lie exposed with their heads placed towards the north.</p>
+
+<p>Frederic Whymper<a class = "tag" name = "tag64" id = "tag64" href =
+"#note64">64</a> describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that
+Territory.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain only the ashes
+of the dead. These people invariably burn the deceased. On one of the
+boxes I saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human hair
+depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of the (happily)
+deceased one’s ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more esteemed than
+if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are much ornamented with
+carved and painted faces and other devices.</p>
+
+<p>W. H. Dall,<a class = "tag" name = "tag65" id = "tag65" href =
+"#note65">65</a> well known as one of the most experienced and careful
+of American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the
+Innuits of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as
+follows: Figs. 13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume
+noted.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig13.png" width = "408" height = "344"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Innuit Grave.</p>
+
+<h5>INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its side in a box
+of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long. This is
+elevated several feet above the ground on four posts which project above
+the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with red chalk in figures
+of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to the
+<span class = "pagenum">157</span>
+<a name = "page157" id = "page157"> </a>
+wealth of the dead man, a&nbsp;number of articles which belonged to him
+are attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them have
+kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even kettles,
+around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably the wooden
+dish, or “kantág,” from which the deceased was accustomed to eat, is
+hung on one of the posts.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig14.png" width = "427" height = "297"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Ingalik grave.</p>
+
+<h5>INNUIT OF YUKON.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner previously
+described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the sarcophagus, which,
+in this case, is ornamented with snow-shoes, a&nbsp;reel for seal-lines,
+a&nbsp;fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kantág. The latter is found
+with every grave, and usually one is placed in the box with the body.
+Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is placed in the
+coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is thus disposed of.
+Generally the furs, possessions, and clothing (except such as has been
+worn) are divided among the nearer relatives of the dead, or remain in
+possession of his family if he has one; such clothing, household
+utensils, and weapons as the deceased had in daily use are almost
+invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are many deaths about the
+same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything belonging to the dead is
+destroyed. The house in which a death occurs is always deserted and
+usually destroyed. In order to avoid this, it is not uncommon to take
+the sick person out of the house and put him in a tent to die.
+A&nbsp;woman’s coffin may be known by the kettles and other feminine
+utensils about it. There is no distinction between the sexes in method
+of burial. On the outside of the coffin, figures are usually drawn in
+red ochre. Figures of fur animals usually indicate that the dead person
+was a good trapper; if seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter;
+representation of parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of his death
+is also occasionally indicated. For four days after a death the women in
+the village do no sewing; for five days the men do not cut wood with an
+axe. The relatives of the dead must not seek birds’ eggs on the
+overhanging cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under them
+and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or indicated,
+except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body, chanting a
+<span class = "pagenum">158</span>
+<a name = "page158" id = "page158"> </a>
+mournful refrain until he is interred. They seldom suspect that others
+have brought the death about by shamánism, as the Indians almost
+invariably&nbsp;do.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At the end of a year from the death, a&nbsp;festival is given, presents
+are made to those who assisted in making the coffin, and the period of
+mourning is over. Their grief seldom seems deep but they indulge for a
+long time in wailing for the dead at intervals. I&nbsp;have seen several
+women who refused to take a second husband, and had remained single in
+spite of repeated offers for many years.</p>
+
+<h5>INGALIKS OF ULUKUK.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mikála, one of my
+men, informed me that it was women lamenting for the dead. On landing,
+I&nbsp;saw several Indians hewing out the box in which the dead are
+placed. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> The body lay on its side on
+a deer skin, the heels were lashed to the small of the back, and the
+head bent forward on the chest so that his coffin needed to be only
+about four feet long.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL.</h4>
+
+<p>We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the
+most common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite
+extensively practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned
+the choice of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where
+timber abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has
+been received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the
+Brulé or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are
+called <i>Sicaugu</i>, in the Indian tongue <i>Seechaugas</i>, or the
+“burned thigh” people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only
+on account of its careful attention to details, but from its known
+truthfulness of description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig15.png" width = "527" height = "335"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Dakota Scaffold
+Burial.</p>
+
+<h5>FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude boxes, either
+burying them when implements for digging can be had, or, when they have
+no means of making a grave, placing them on top of the ground on some
+hill or other slight elevation, yet this is done in imitation of the
+whites, and their general custom, as a people, probably does not differ
+in any essential way from that of their forefathers for many generations
+in the past. In disposing of the dead, they wrap the body tightly in
+blankets or robes (sometimes both) wind it all over with thongs made of
+the hide of some animal and place it reclining on the back at full
+length, either in the branches of some tree or on a scaffold made for
+the purpose. These scaffolds are about eight feet high and made by
+planting four forked sticks firmly in the ground, one at each corner and
+then placing others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the
+body is securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is placed on the
+same scaffold, though generally a separate one is made for each
+occasion. These Indians being in all things most superstitious, attach a
+kind of sacredness to these scaffolds and all the materials used or
+about the dead. This superstition is in itself sufficient to prevent any
+of their own people from disturbing the dead, and for one of another
+nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered an offense not too
+severely punished by death.
+<span class = "pagenum">159</span>
+<a name = "page159" id = "page159"> </a>
+The same feeling also prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or any
+of the wood which has been used about them, even for firewood, though
+the necessity may be very great, for fear some evil consequences will
+follow. It is also the custom, though not universally followed, when
+bodies have been for two years on the scaffolds to take them down and
+bury them under ground.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+All the work about winding up the dead, building the scaffold, and
+placing the dead upon it is done by women only, who, after having
+finished their labor, return and bring the men, to show them where the
+body is placed, that they may be able to find it in future. Valuables of
+all kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &amp;c.&mdash;in short,
+whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and locks of hair
+cut from the heads of the mourners at his death, are always bound up
+with the body. In case the dead was a man of importance, or if the
+family could afford it, even though he were not, one or several horses
+(generally, in the former case, those which the departed thought
+most&nbsp;of) are shot and placed under the scaffold. The idea in this
+is that the spirit of the horse will accompany and be of use to his
+spirit in the “happy hunting grounds,” or, as these people express it,
+“the spirit land.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death occurs, the
+friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and begin crying over the
+departed or departing one. This consists in uttering the most
+heartrending, almost hideous wails and lamentations, in which all join
+until exhausted. Then the mourning ceases for a time until some one
+starts it again, when all join in as before and keep it up until unable
+to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is removed. This crying is
+done almost wholly by women, who gather in large numbers on such
+occasions, and among them a few who are professional mourners. These are
+generally old women and go whenever a person is expected to die, to take
+the leading part in the lamentations, knowing that they will be well
+paid at the distribution of goods which follows. As soon as death takes
+place, the body is dressed by the women in the best garments and
+blankets obtainable, new ones if they can be afforded. The crowd
+gathered near continue wailing piteously, and from time to time cut
+locks of hair from their own heads with knives, and throw them on the
+dead body. Those who wish to show their grief most strongly, cut
+themselves in various places, generally in the legs and arms, with their
+knives or pieces of flint, more commonly the latter, causing the blood
+to flow freely over their persons. This custom is followed to a less
+degree by the men.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the desire to get
+the dead out of sight, the fear that the disease which caused the death
+will communicate itself to others of the family causes them to hasten
+the disposition of it as soon as they are certain that death has
+actually taken place.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After that is
+done, connected with which there seems to be no particular ceremony, the
+few women who attend to it return to the lodge and a distribution is
+made among them and others, not only of the remaining property of the
+deceased, but of all the possessions, even to the lodge itself of the
+family to which he belonged. This custom in some cases has been carried
+so far as to leave the rest of the family not only absolutely destitute
+but actually naked. After continuing in this condition for a time, they
+gradually reach the common level again by receiving gifts from various
+sources.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the dead,
+a&nbsp;strict observance of the ten days following the death, as
+follows: They are to rise at a very early hour and work unusually hard
+all day, joining in no feast, dance, game, or other diversion, eat but
+little, and retire late, that they may be deprived of the usual amount
+of sleep as of food. During this they never paint themselves, but at
+various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead in loud
+cries and lamentations for hours together. After the ten days have
+expired they paint themselves again and engage in the usual amusements
+of the people as before. The men are expected to mourn and fast for one
+day and then go on the war-path against some other tribe, or on some
+long journey alone. If he prefers, he can mourn and fast for two or more
+<span class = "pagenum">160</span>
+<a name = "page160" id = "page160"> </a>
+days and remain at home. The custom of placing food at the scaffold also
+prevails to some extent. If but little is placed there it is understood
+to be for the spirit of the dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If
+much is provided, it is done with the intention that those of the same
+sex and age as the deceased shall meet there and consume it. If the dead
+be a little girl, the young girls meet and eat what is provided; if it
+be a man, then men assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never
+mention the name of the dead.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig16.jpg" width = "321" height = "554"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Offering Food to the
+Dead.</p>
+
+<h5>“KEEPING THE GHOST.”</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Still another custom, though at the present day by no means generally
+followed, is still observed to some extent among them. This is called
+<i>wanagee yuhapee</i>, or “keeping the ghost.” A&nbsp;little of the
+hair from the head of the deceased being preserved is bound up in calico
+and articles of value until the roll is about two feet long and ten
+inches or more in diameter, when it is placed in a case made of hide
+handsomely ornamented with various designs in different colored paints.
+When the family is poor, however, they may substitute for this case blue
+or scarlet blanket or cloth. The roll is then swung lengthwise between
+two supports made of sticks, placed thus × in front of a lodge which has
+been set apart for the purpose. In this lodge are gathered presents of
+all kinds, which are given out when a sufficient quantity is obtained.
+It is often a year and sometimes several years before this distribution
+is made. During all this time the roll containing the hair of the
+deceased is left undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they
+are brought in are piled in the back part of the lodge, and are not to
+be touched until given out. No one but men and boys are admitted to the
+lodge unless it be a wife of the deceased, who may go in if necessary
+very early in the morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke,
+eat, and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their pipes
+in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left undisturbed until
+after the distribution. When they eat, a&nbsp;portion is always placed
+first under the roll outside for the spirit of the deceased. No one is
+allowed to take this unless a large quantity is so placed, in which case
+it may be eaten by any persons actually in need of food, even though
+strangers to the dead. When the proper time comes the friends of the
+deceased and all to whom presents are to be given are called together to
+the lodge and the things are given out by the man in charge. Generally
+this is some near relative of the departed. The roll is now undone and
+small locks of the hair distributed with the other presents, which ends
+the ceremony.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Sometimes this “keeping the ghost” is done several times, and it is then
+looked upon as a repetition of the burial or putting away of the dead.
+During all the time before the distribution of the hair, the lodge, as
+well as the roll, is looked upon as in a manner sacred, but after that
+ceremony it becomes common again and may be used for any ordinary
+purpose. No relative or near friend of the dead wishes to retain
+anything in his possession that belonged to him while living, or to see,
+hear, or own anything which will remind him of the departed. Indeed, the
+leading idea in all their burial customs in the laying away with the
+dead their most valuable possessions, the giving to others what is left
+of his and the family property, the refusal to mention his name,
+&amp;c., is to put out of mind as soon and as effectual as possible the
+memory of the departed.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they believe each
+person to have a spirit which continues to live after the death of the
+body. They have no idea of a future life in the body, but believe that
+after death their spirits will meet and recognize the spirits of their
+departed friends in the spirit land. They deem it essential to their
+happiness here, however, to destroy as far as practicable their
+recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of death as a sleep, and
+of the dead as asleep or having gone to sleep at such a time. These
+customs are gradually losing their hold upon them, and are much less
+generally and strictly observed than formerly.</p>
+
+<p><a href = "#fig15">Figure 15</a> furnishes a good example of scaffold
+burial. <a href = "#fig16">Figure 16</a>, offering of food and drink to
+the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead upon the scaffold.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig17.jpg" width = "335" height = "560"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Depositing the
+Corpse.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">161</span>
+<a name = "page161" id = "page161"> </a>
+<p>A. Delano,<a class = "tag" name = "tag66" id = "tag66" href =
+"#note66">66</a> mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he
+noticed in Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> During the afternoon we passed a
+Sioux burying-ground, if I may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a
+hackberry tree, elevated about twenty feet from the ground, a&nbsp;kind
+of rack was made of broken tent poles, and the body (for there was but
+one) was placed upon it, wrapped in his blanket, and a tanned buffalo
+skin, with his tin cup, moccasins, and various things which he had used
+in life, were placed upon his body, for his use in the land of
+spirits.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend
+Dr. Washington Matthews, United States Army.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig18.jpg" width = "348" height = "563"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Tree-burial.</p>
+
+<p>John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose the
+dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed, closely
+sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the branches of a tree
+so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and then left to slowly
+waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of a squaw or child, it was
+thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where it soon became the prey of
+the wild animals. The weapons, pipes, &amp;c., of men were inclosed, and
+the small toys of children with them. The ceremonies were equally
+barbarous, the relatives cutting off, according to the depth of their
+grief, one or more joints of the fingers, divesting themselves of
+clothing even in the coldest weather, and filling the air with their
+lamentations. All the sewing up and burial process was conducted by the
+squaws, as the men would not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead
+body.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and
+Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E.&nbsp;H. Alden, United States Indian
+agent at Fort Berthold:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but always on a
+scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet high, on which the box is
+placed, or, if no box is used, the body wrapped in red or blue cloth if
+able, or, if not, a&nbsp;blanket of cheapest white cloth, the tools and
+weapons being placed directly under the body, and there they remain
+forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of them. It would be bad
+medicine to touch the dead or anything so placed belonging to him.
+Should the body by any means fall to the ground, it is never touched or
+replaced on the scaffold. As soon as one dies he is immediately buried,
+sometimes within an hour, and the friends begin howling and wailing as
+the process of interment goes on, and continue mourning day and night
+around the grave, without food sometimes three or four days. Those who
+mourn are always paid for it in some way by the other friends of the
+deceased, and those who mourn the longest are paid the most. They also
+show their grief and affection for the dead by a fearful cutting of
+their own bodies, sometimes only in part, and sometimes all over their
+whole flesh, and this sometimes continues for weeks. Their hair, which
+is worn in long braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They
+seem proud of their mutilations. A&nbsp;young man who had just buried
+his mother came in boasting of, and showing his mangled legs.</p>
+
+<p>According to Thomas L. McKenney,<a class = "tag" name = "tag67" id =
+"tag67" href = "#note67">67</a> the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis.,
+buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place the coffin
+or box containing their remains on two cross-pieces, nailed or tied with
+wattap to four poles.
+<span class = "pagenum">162</span>
+<a name = "page162" id = "page162"> </a>
+The poles are about ten feet high. They plant near these posts the wild
+hop or some other kind of running vine, which spreads over and covers
+the coffin. I&nbsp;saw one of these on the island, and as I have
+described it. It was the coffin of a child about four years old. It was
+near the lodge of the sick girl. I&nbsp;have a sketch of it.
+I&nbsp;asked the chief why his people disposed of their dead in that
+way. He answered they did not like to put them out of their sight so
+soon by putting them under ground. Upon a platform they could see the
+box that contained their remains, and that was a comfort to them.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 19 is copied from McKenney’s picture of this form of
+burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig19.jpg" width = "565" height = "347"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Chippewa Scaffold
+Burial.</p>
+
+<p>Keating<a class = "tag" name = "tag68" id = "tag68" href =
+"#note68">68</a> thus describes burial scaffolds:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high, corpses were
+deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair was
+suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide informed
+us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by the relatives
+to testify their grief. In the center, between the four posts which
+supported the scaffold, a&nbsp;stake was planted in the ground, it was
+about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human figures, five of
+which had a design of a petticoat indicating them to be females; the
+rest amounting to seven, were naked and were intended for male figures;
+of the latter four were headless, showing that they had been slain, the
+three other male figures were unmutilated, but held a staff in their
+hand, which, as our guide informed us designated that they were slaves.
+The post, which is an usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports
+a warrior’s remains, does not represent the achievements of the
+deceased, but those of the warriors that assembled near his remains
+danced the dance of the post, and related their martial exploits.
+A&nbsp;number of small bones of animals were observed in the vicinity,
+which were probably left there after a feast celebrated in honor of the
+dead.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man could
+not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country where boxes
+and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the corpses have
+remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down and burned. Our
+guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a witness to an
+interesting, though painful, circumstance that occurred here. An Indian
+who resided on the Mississippi, hearing that his son had died at this
+spot, came up in a canoe to take charge of the remains and convey them
+down the river to his place of abode but on his arrival he found that
+the corpse had already made such progress toward decomposition as
+rendered it impossible for it to be removed. He then undertook with a
+few friends, to clean off the bones. All the flesh was scraped off and
+thrown into the stream, the bones were carefully collected into his
+canoe, and subsequently carried down to his residence.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details
+is the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis,
+United States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to
+the Cheyennes of Kansas.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of
+Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by four
+notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The unusual care
+manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr. Sternberg to infer
+that some important chief was inclosed in it. Believing that articles of
+interest were inclosed with the body, and that their value would be
+enhanced if the were received at the Museum as left by the Indians, Dr.
+Sternberg determined to send the case unopened.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the
+contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of white
+willow, about six feet long,
+<span class = "pagenum">163</span>
+<a name = "page163" id = "page163"> </a>
+three feet broad, and three feet high, with a flooring of buffalo thongs
+arranged as a net-work. This cradle was securely fastened by strips of
+buffalo-hide to four poles of ironwood and cottonwood, about twelve feet
+in length. These poles doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of
+the vertical poles described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in
+two buffalo robes of large size and well preserved. On removing these an
+aperture eighteen inches square was found at the middle of the
+right-side of the cradle or basket. Within appeared other buffalo robes
+folded about the remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes. Five
+robes were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we came to a
+series of new blankets folded about the remains. There were five in
+all&mdash;two scarlet, two blue, and one white. These being removed, the
+next wrappings consisted of a striped white and gray sack, and of a
+United States Infantry overcoat, like the other coverings nearly new. We
+had now come apparently upon the immediate envelope of the remains,
+which it was now evident must be those of a child. These consisted of
+three robes, with hoods very richly ornamented with bead-work. These
+robes or cloaks were of buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length,
+elaborately decorated with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered
+with rows of blue and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow,
+and the third blue and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass
+bells attached all about the borders by strings of beads.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that used
+by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and upon a
+pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red paint, bits of
+antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &amp;c. The three bead-work
+hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we successively unwrapped a
+gray woolen double shawl, five yards of blue cassimere, six yards of red
+calico, and six yards of brown calico, and finally disclosed the remains
+of a child, probably about a year old, in an advanced stage of
+decomposition. The cadaver had a beaver-cap ornamented with disks of
+copper containing the bones of the cranium, which had fallen apart.
+About the neck were long wampum necklaces, with <i>Dentalium</i>,
+<i>Unionidæ</i>, and <i>Auriculæ</i>, interspersed with beads. There
+were also strings of the pieces of <i>Haliotis</i> from the Gulf of
+California, so valued by the Indians on this side of the Rocky
+Mountains. The body had been elaborately dressed for burial, the costume
+consisting of a red-flannel cloak, a&nbsp;red tunic, and frock-leggins
+adorned with bead-work, yarn stockings of red and black worsted, and
+deer-skin beadwork moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets,
+a&nbsp;porcelain image, a&nbsp;China vase, strings of beads, several
+toys, a&nbsp;pair of mittens, a&nbsp;fur collar, a&nbsp;pouch of the
+skin of <i>Putorius vison</i>,&nbsp;&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished
+by Dr. L.&nbsp;S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and
+relating to the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain
+curious mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over
+the entire globe:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be found
+sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay the body,
+but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more general practice is
+to lay them upon scaffolds from seven to ten feet high and out of the
+reach of carnivorous animals, as the wolf. These scaffolds are
+constructed upon four posts set into the ground something after the
+manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like all labors of a
+domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to the women, usually
+the old women. The work begins as soon as life is extinct. The face,
+neck, and hands are thickly painted with vermilion, or a species of red
+earth found in various portions of the Territory when the vermilion of
+the traders cannot be had. The clothes and personal trinkets of the
+deceased ornament the body. When blankets are available, it is then
+wrapped in one, all parts of the body being completely enveloped. Around
+this a dressed skin of buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the flesh
+side out, and the whole securely bound with thongs
+<span class = "pagenum">164</span>
+<a name = "page164" id = "page164"> </a>
+of skins, either raw or dressed; and for ornament, when available,
+a&nbsp;bright-red blanket envelopes all other coverings, and renders the
+general scene more picturesque until dimmed by time and the elements. As
+soon as the scaffold is ready, the body is borne by the women, followed
+by the female relatives, to the place of final deposit, and left prone
+in its secure wrappings upon this airy bed of death. This ceremony is
+accompanied with lamentations wild and weird that one must see and hear
+in order to appreciate. If the deceased be a brave, it is customary to
+place upon or beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads which time has
+rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been brave in war some of
+his implements of battle are placed on the scaffold or securely tied to
+its timbers. If the deceased has been a chief, or a soldier related to
+his chief, it is not uncommon to slay his favorite pony and place the
+body beneath the scaffold, under the superstition, I&nbsp;suppose, that
+the horse goes with the man. As illustrating the propensity to provide
+the dead with the things used while living, I&nbsp;may mention that some
+years ago I loaned to an old man a delft urinal for the use of his son,
+a&nbsp;young man who was slowly dying of a wasting disease. I&nbsp;made
+him promise faithfully that he would return it as soon as his son was
+done using it. Not long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which
+held the remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been
+returned I presume the young man is not done using&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be of
+universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never cut
+under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck, and the
+top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole body, are
+smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk, moistened with
+water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family possessions except the few
+shabby articles of apparel worn by the mourners, are given away and the
+family left destitute. Thus far the custom is universal or nearly so.
+The wives, mother, and sisters of a deceased man, on the first, second,
+or third day after the funeral, frequently throw off their moccasins and
+leggings and gash their legs with their butcher-knives, and march
+through the camp and to the place of burial with bare and bleeding
+extremities, while they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning.
+The men likewise often gash themselves in many places, and usually seek
+the solitude of the higher point on the distant prairie, where they
+remain fasting, smoking, and wailing out their lamentations for two or
+three days. A&nbsp;chief who had lost a brother once came to me after
+three or four days of mourning in solitude almost exhausted from hunger
+and bodily anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both lower
+extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from the ankles to
+the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed from exposure, and were
+suppurating freely. He assured me that he had not slept for several days
+or nights. I&nbsp;dressed his wounds with a soothing ointment, and gave
+him a full dose of an effective anodyne, after which he slept long and
+refreshingly, and awoke to express his gratitude and shake my hand in a
+very cordial and sincere manner. When these harsher inflictions are not
+resorted to, the mourners usually repair daily for a few days to the
+place of burial, toward the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until
+it is apparently assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up
+for more than four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at
+intervals, for weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the
+bereft. I&nbsp;have seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle
+of an old father going daily to the grave of his child, while the
+shadows are lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would
+move a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when,
+silent and solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect
+of this observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a
+grown-up son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of the
+scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence. The
+foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during a
+period of more than six years’ constant intercourse with several
+subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory has
+failed to recall upon a brief consideration.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">165</span>
+<a name = "page165" id = "page165"> </a>
+<p>Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for
+the dead.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig20" id = "fig20">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig20.jpg" width = "353" height = "575"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Scarification at
+Burial.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner’s narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.</p>
+
+<p>Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to
+have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation,
+and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &amp;c.,
+were thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles
+supposed or known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also
+consumed. The Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese,
+Caribs, and many of the tribes of North American Indians followed these
+customs. The cutting of hair as a mourning observance is of very great
+antiquity, and Tegg relates that among the ancients whole cities and
+countries were shaved (<i>sic</i>) when a great man died. The Persians
+not only shaved themselves on such occasions, but extended the same
+process to their domestic animals, and Alexander, at the death of
+Hephæstin, not only cut off the manes of his horses and mules, but took
+down the battlements from the city walls, that even towns might seem in
+mourning and look bald. Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed
+from a remote period of time, having possibly replaced, in the process
+of evolution, to a certain extent, the more barbarous practice of
+absolute personal sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human
+sacrifices have taken place to only a limited extent, but formerly many
+victims were immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida
+and Carolina Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for
+the reason, according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief
+or Great Sun descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as
+all other members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only
+persons of an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among
+some tribes of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or
+horses is by no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among
+the Romans, and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for
+at Solutré, in France, the writer saw horses’ bones exhumed from the
+graves examined in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with
+Indians upon this subject, and they have invariably informed him that
+when horses were slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the
+band.</p>
+
+<p>Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Colchiens’">Colchians</ins>
+enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and
+hung them to trees; the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With
+regard to the use of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the
+dead, it seems somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied
+the eastern portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in
+this way, which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much
+easier method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living
+<span class = "pagenum">166</span>
+<a name = "page166" id = "page166"> </a>
+in sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that
+the Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible,
+the fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to
+the supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the
+desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This
+desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.</p>
+
+<p>The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in
+loud cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a
+greater significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and
+on this point Bruhier<a class = "tag" name = "tag69" id = "tag69" href =
+"#note69">69</a> seems quite positive, his interpretation being that
+such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some
+interesting examples, which may be admitted here:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with comical
+remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to leave this
+world, having everything to make life comfortable. They place the corpse
+on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five feet deep, and for ten
+days they bring food, requesting the corpse to eat. Finally, being
+convinced that the dead will neither eat nor return to life, they throw
+the food on the head of the corpse and fill up the grave.</p>
+
+<p>When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the
+body, closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received
+the last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased
+by name was known as the <i>conclamation</i>, and was a custom anterior
+even to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately
+removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater
+propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves
+on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the
+Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number,
+performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village
+church steeple and again at the grave<a class = "tag" name = "tag70" id
+= "tag70" href = "#note70">70*</a>. This custom, however, was probably a
+remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to prevent premature
+burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad spirits.</p>
+
+<p>W. L. Hardisty<a class = "tag" name = "tag71" id = "tag71" href =
+"#note71">71</a> gives a curious example of log-burial in trees,
+relating to the Loucheux of British America:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure it
+to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A&nbsp;log about
+eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts carefully
+hollowed out to the required size. The body is then inclosed and the two
+pieces well lashed together, preparatory to being finally secured, as
+before stated, to the trees.</p>
+
+<p>The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing
+scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag72" id = "tag72" href = "#note72">72</a> gives a number of
+examples of this mode of burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig21.jpg" width = "554" height = "318"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Australian Scaffold
+Burial.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">167</span>
+<a name = "page167" id = "page167"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the body by
+fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a peculiarly
+conspicuous object. Should a tree grow favorably for their purpose, they
+will employ it as the final resting place for the dead body. Lying in
+its canoe coffin, and so covered over with leaves and grass that its
+shape is quite disguised, the body is lifted into a convenient fork of
+the tree and lashed to the boughs, by native ropes. No farther care is
+taken of it, and if in process of time it should be blown out of the
+tree, no one will take the trouble of replacing&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial platform
+is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches in the ground
+and connecting them at their tops by smaller horizontal branches. Such
+are the curious tombs which are represented in the illustration. <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> These strange tombs are mostly placed
+among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful than the sound of
+the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch in which the corpse is
+lying. The object of this aerial tomb is evident enough, namely, to
+protect the corpse from the dingo, or native dog. That the ravens and
+other carrion-eating birds should make a banquet upon the body of the
+dead man does not seem to trouble the survivors in the least, and it
+often happens that the traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed
+ravens that the body of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over
+his head.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who have
+died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in battle the
+body is treated in a very different manner. A&nbsp;moderately high
+platform is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the dead
+warrior with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are crossed and
+the arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is then removed, and
+after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over the body, which has
+previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is done in the ceremony of
+initiation. The legs and arms are covered with zebra-like stripes of
+red, white, and yellow, and the weapons of the dead man are laid across
+his lap.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform, and
+kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the friends
+and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to speak.
+Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their duty being to
+see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to keep the flies
+away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu feathers. When a body has
+been treated in this manner it becomes hard and mummy-like, and the
+strongest point is that the wild dogs will not touch it after it has
+been so long smoked. It remains sitting on the platform for two months
+or so, and is then taken down and buried, with the exception of the
+skull, which is made into a drinking-cup for the nearest relative. <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p>This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as
+the process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from
+decomposition.</p>
+
+<p><a href = "#fig21">Figs. 21</a> and 22 represent the Australian
+burials described, and are after the original engravings in Wood’s work.
+The one representing scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of
+our own Indians.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig22.jpg" width = "555" height = "319"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Preparing the Dead.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the
+dead, the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are
+given:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead bodies
+of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds resembling
+trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning them and
+preserving their ashes in urns, I&nbsp;think we can answer the inquiry
+by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American Indians, as
+well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed that the human
+soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and nature of a bird, and
+as these are essentially
+<span class = "pagenum">168</span>
+<a name = "page168" id = "page168"> </a>
+arboreal in their habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the
+soul-bird would have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place
+if it was placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the
+earth; moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest
+secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard
+like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.</p>
+
+<p>This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the
+writer’s possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct
+without farther investigation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by
+writers “bone-houses.” Roman<a class = "tag" name = "tag73" id = "tag73"
+href = "#note73">73</a> relates the following concerning the
+Choctaws:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The following treatment of the dead is very strange. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span> As soon as the deceased is departed, a&nbsp;stage
+is erected (as&nbsp;in the annexed plate is represented) and the corpse
+is laid on it and covered with a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it
+is decorated, and the poles painted red with vermillion and bear’s oil;
+if a child, it is put upon stakes set across; at this stage the
+relations come and weep, asking many questions of the corpse, such as,
+why he left them? did not his wife serve him well? was he not contented
+with his children? had he not corn enough? did not his land produce
+sufficient of everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &amp;c., and
+this accompanied by loud howlings; the women will be there constantly,
+and sometimes, with the corrupted air and heat of the sun, faint so as
+to oblige the bystanders to carry them home; the men will also come and
+mourn in the same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable
+times when they are least likely to be discovered.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain time,
+but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or four
+months, but seldom more than half that time. A&nbsp;certain set of
+venerable old Gentlemen, who wear very long nails as a distinguishing
+badge on the thumb, fore, and middle finger of each hand, constantly
+travel through the nation (when I was there I was told there were but
+five of this respectable order) that one of them may acquaint those
+concerned, of the expiration of this period, which is according to their
+own fancy; the day being come, the friends and relations assemble near
+the stage, a&nbsp;fire is made, and the respectable operator, after the
+body is taken down, with his nails tears the remaining flesh off the
+bones, and throws it with the entrails into the fire, where it is
+consumed; then he scrapes the bones and burns the scrapings likewise;
+the head being painted red with vermillion is with the rest of the bones
+put into a neatly made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and
+deposited in the loft of a hut built for that purpose, and called bone
+house; each town has one of these; after remaining here one year or
+thereabouts, if he be a man of any note, they take the chest down, and
+in an assembly of relations and friends they weep once more over him,
+refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him to
+lasting oblivion.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as one to
+be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial obsequies and
+mourning.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">169</span>
+<a name = "page169" id = "page169"> </a>
+<p>Jones<a class = "tag" name = "tag74" id = "tag74" href =
+"#note74">74</a> quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding
+the Natchez tribe:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs. These
+tombs were located within or very near their temples. They rested upon
+four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were raised some three
+feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a foot and a half wide,
+they were prepared for the reception of a single corpse. After the body
+was placed upon it, a&nbsp;basket-work of twigs was woven around and
+covered with mud, an opening being left at the head, through which food
+was presented to the deceased. When the flesh had all rotted away, the
+bones were taken out, placed in a box made of canes, and then deposited
+in the temple. The common dead were mourned and lamented for a period of
+three days. Those who fell in battle were honored with a more protracted
+and grievous lamentation.</p>
+
+<p>Bartram<a class = "tag" name = "tag75" id = "tag75" href =
+"#note75">75</a> gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial
+among the Choctaws of Carolina:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a very
+different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a scaffold 18
+or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where they lay the
+corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is suffered to remain,
+visited and protected by the friends and relations, until the flesh
+becomes putrid, so as easily to part from the bones; then undertakers,
+who make it their business, carefully strip the flesh from the bones,
+wash and cleanse them, and when dry and purified by the air, having
+provided a curiously-wrought chest or coffin, fabricated of bones and
+splints, they place all the bones therein, which is deposited in the
+bone-house, a&nbsp;building erected for that purpose in every town; and
+when this house is full a general solemn funeral takes place; when the
+nearest kindred or friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair
+to the bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following one
+another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and connections
+attending their respective corps, and the multitude following after
+them, all as one family, with united voice of alternate allelujah and
+lamentation, slowly proceeding on to the place of general interment,
+when they place the coffins in order, forming a pyramid;<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag76" id = "tag76" href = "#note76">76*</a> and, lastly, cover
+all over with earth, which raises a conical hill or mount; when they
+return to town in order of solemn procession, concluding the day with a
+festival, which is called the feast of the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Morgan<a class = "tag" name = "tag77" id = "tag77" href =
+"#note77">77</a> also alludes to this mode of burial:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding erected
+upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to
+waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of
+decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the
+former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house by its side,
+prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the whole
+family were preserved from generation to generation by the filial or
+parental affection of the living. After the lapse of a number of years,
+or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve of abandoning a
+settlement, it was customary to collect these skeletons from the whole
+community around and consign them to a common resting-place.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless to
+be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which have been found in such
+numbers in various
+<span class = "pagenum">170</span>
+<a name = "page170" id = "page170"> </a>
+parts of the country. On opening these mounds the skeletons are usually
+found arranged in horizontal layers, a&nbsp;conical pyramid, those in
+each layer radiating from a common center. In other cases they are found
+placed promiscuously.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. D. G. Brinton<a class = "tag" name = "tag78" id = "tag78" href =
+"#note78">78</a> likewise gives an account of the interment of collected
+bones:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated
+periods&mdash;usually once in eight or ten years&mdash;to collect and
+clean the osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the
+intervening time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with
+choice furs, and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such is
+the origin of those immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains of
+nations and generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent curiosity,
+so frequently chances upon in all portions of our territory. Throughout
+Central America the same usage obtained in various localities, as early
+writers and existing monuments abundantly testify. Instead of interring
+the bones, were they those of some distinguished chieftain, they were
+deposited in the temples or the council-houses, usually in small chests
+of canes or splints. Such were the charnel-houses which the historians
+of De Soto’s expedition so often mention, and these are the “arks” Adair
+and other authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians
+from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient Israelites bore
+with them in their migration.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her
+deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them in
+such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc. Exp.,
+p.&nbsp;200). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for all,
+without exception. About a year after death the bones were cleaned,
+bleached, painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a wicker
+basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling (Gumilla
+Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity of these
+heirlooms became burdensome they were removed to some inaccessible
+cavern and stowed away with reverential care.</p>
+
+<p>George Catlin<a class = "tag" name = "tag79" id = "tag79" href =
+"#note79">79</a> describes what he calls the “Golgothas” of the
+Mandans:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty
+feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a little
+mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo skulls
+(a&nbsp;male and female), and in the center of the little mound is
+erected “a&nbsp;medicine pole,” of about twenty feet high, supporting
+many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose
+have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred arrangement.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to evince
+their further affections for the dead, not in groans and lamentations,
+however, for several years have cured the anguish, but fond affection
+and endearments are here renewed, and conversations are here held and
+cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls is placed upon a bunch
+of wild sage, which has been pulled and placed under it. The wife knows,
+by some mark or resemblance, the skull of her husband or her child which
+lies in this group, and there seldom passes a day that she does not
+visit it with a dish of the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords,
+which she sets before the skull at night, and returns for the dish in
+the morning. As soon as it is discovered that the sage on which the
+skull rests is beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and
+places the skull carefully upon it, removing that which was
+under&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this
+spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold
+converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a
+pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or
+lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the most
+pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as&nbsp;they were
+wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">171</span>
+<a name = "page171" id = "page171"> </a>
+<p>From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which
+have been described by the authors cited were not confined to any
+special tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have
+prevailed among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES.</h4>
+
+<p>The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.</p>
+
+<p>The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington
+Territory, and may be found in Swan.<a class = "tag" name = "tag80" id =
+"tag80" href = "#note80">80</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a&nbsp;celebrated
+doctor, were the chief mourners, probably from being the smartest scamps
+among the relatives. Their duty was to prepare the canoe for the
+reception of the body. One of the largest and best the deceased had
+owned was then hauled into the woods, at some distance back of the
+lodge, after having been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two large
+square holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and stern, for the
+twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for further use, and
+therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the whites (who are but
+too apt to help themselves to these depositories for the dead), and also
+to allow any rain to pass off readily.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets, was brought
+out, and laid in it on mats previously spread. All the wearing apparel
+was next put in beside the body, together with her trinkets, beads,
+little baskets, and various trifles she had prized. More blankets were
+then covered over the body, and mats smoothed over all. Next,
+a&nbsp;small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was placed, bottom
+up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with mats. The canoe was
+then raised up and placed on two parallel bars, elevated four or five
+feet from the ground, and supported by being inserted through holes
+mortised at the top of four stout posts previously firmly planted in the
+earth. Around these holes were then hung blankets, and all the cooking
+utensils of the deceased, pots, kettles, and pans, each with a hole
+punched through it, and all her crockery-ware, every piece of which was
+first cracked or broken, to render it useless; and then, when all was
+done, they left her to remain for one year, when the bones would be
+buried in a box in the earth directly under the canoe; but that, with
+all its appendages, would never be molested, but left to go to gradual
+decay.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and would no
+more think of using one than we would of using our own graveyard relics;
+and it is, in their view, as much of a desecration for a white man to
+meddle or interfere with these, to them, sacred mementoes, as it would
+be to us to have an Indian open the graves of our relatives. Many
+thoughtless white men have done this, and animosities have been thus
+occasioned.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig23.png" width = "361" height = "533"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Canoe Burial.</p>
+
+<p>From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the
+Twanas, and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish
+Agency, Washington Territory, is selected:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age, dead
+of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I went to
+the house to
+<span class = "pagenum">172</span>
+<a name = "page172" id = "page172"> </a>
+attend the funeral. She had then been placed in a Hudson’s Bay Company’s
+box for a coffin, which was about 3½ feet long, 1½ wide, and 1½ high.
+She was very poor when she died, owing to her disease, or she could not
+have been put in this box. A&nbsp;fire was burning near by, where a
+large number of her things had been consumed, and the rest was in three
+boxes near the coffin. Her mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with
+others, and often saying, “My daughter, my daughter, why did you die?”
+and similar words. The burial did not take place until the next day, and
+I was invited to go. It was an aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was
+about 25 feet long. The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were about
+a foot wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were placed, on
+which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this was done which
+was new to me, but the significance of which I did not learn. As fast as
+the holes were cut in the posts, green leaves were gathered and placed
+over the holes until the posts were put in the ground. The coffin-box
+and the three others containing her things were placed in the canoe and
+a roof of boards made over the central part, which was entirely covered
+with white cloth. The head part and the foot part of her bedstead were
+then nailed on to the posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed
+on each of these. After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull
+and went to the beach except her father, mother, and brother, who
+remained ten or fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning.
+They then came down and made a present to those persons who were
+there&mdash;a gun to one, a&nbsp;blanket to each of two or three others,
+and a dollar and a half to each of the rest, including myself, there
+being about fifteen persons present. Three or four of them then made
+short speeches, and we came home.</p>
+
+<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24">&nbsp;</a><br>
+
+<!-- <p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig24.png" width = "435" height = "459"
+alt = "see caption"></p> -->
+
+<div class = "fig24">
+<div class = "sandbag" style = "width: 440px; height:
+316px;">&nbsp;</div>
+<div class = "sandbag" style = "width: 208px; height:
+143px;">&nbsp;</div>
+<div class = "sandbag" style = "width: 208px; height: auto;">
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Twana
+Canoe-Burial.</p></div>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The&nbsp;reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a
+prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected that
+there will be a “<i>pot-latch</i>” or distribution of money near this
+place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a
+<span class = "pagenum">173</span>
+<a name = "page173" id = "page173"> </a>
+delegation of two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at
+the grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried in the
+ground. Shortly after her death both her father and mother cut off their
+hair as a sign of their grief.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and
+represents the burial mentioned in his narrative.</p>
+
+<p>The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed
+canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by
+Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of
+the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized
+by painstaking attention to detail:</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I divide this subject into five periods, varying according to time,
+though they are somewhat intermingled.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+(<i>a</i>) There are places where skulls and skeletons have been plowed
+up or still remain in the ground and near together, in such a way as to
+give good ground for the belief which is held by white residents in the
+region, that formerly persons were buried in the ground and in irregular
+cemeteries. I&nbsp;know of such places in Duce Waillops among the
+Twanas, and at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the Clallams. These
+graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the present day profess
+to have no knowledge as to who is buried in them, except that they
+believe, undoubtedly, that they are the graves of their ancestors.
+I&nbsp;do not know that any care has ever been exercised by any one in
+exhuming these skeletons so as to learn any particulars about them. It
+is possible, however, that these persons were buried according to the
+(<i>b</i>) or canoe method, and that time has buried them where they now
+are.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+(<i>b</i>) Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the forks
+of two trees and left there. There was no particular cemetery, but the
+person was generally left near the place where the death occurred. The
+Skokomish Valley is said to have been full of
+<span class = "pagenum">174</span>
+<a name = "page174" id = "page174"> </a>
+canoes containing persons thus buried. What their customs were while
+burying, or what they placed around the dead, I&nbsp;am not informed but
+am told that they did not take as much care then of their dead as they
+do now. I&nbsp;am satisfied, however, that they then left some articles
+around the dead. An old resident informs me that the Clallam Indians
+always bury their dead in a sitting posture.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+(<i>c</i>) About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in British
+Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region, unprincipled white men
+took many of the canoes in which the Indian dead had been left, emptying
+them of their contents. This incensed the Indians and they changed their
+mode of burial somewhat by burying the dead in one place, placing them
+in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by building scaffolds for them
+instead of placing them in forks of trees, and in cutting their canoes
+so as to render them useless, when they were used as coffins or left by
+the side of the dead. The ruins of one such graveyard now remain about
+two miles from this agency. Nearly all the remains were removed a few
+years ago.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I have drawn.
+Fig. 25 shows that at present only one pair of posts remains.
+I&nbsp;have supplied the other pair as they evidently were.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig25.png" width = "408" height = "318"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Posts for Burial
+Canoes.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part which is covered
+with board and cloth incloses the coffin which is on a scaffold.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig26" id = "fig26">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig26.png" width = "407" height = "319"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Tent on Scaffold.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites they have
+learned to bury in the ground, and this is the most common method at the
+present time. There are cemeteries everywhere where Indians have resided
+any length of time. After a person has died a coffin is made after the
+cheaper kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it, and also with
+it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes, though occasionally
+money. I&nbsp;lately heard of a child being buried with a twenty-dollar
+gold piece in each hand and another in its month, but I am not able to
+vouch for the truth of it. As a general thing, money is too valuable
+with them for this purpose and there is too much temptation for some one
+to rob the grave when this is left in&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">175</span>
+<a name = "page175" id = "page175"> </a>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+(<i>d</i>) The grave is dug after the style of the whites and the coffin
+then placed in it. After it has been covered it is customary though not
+universal, to build some kind of an inclosure over it or around it in
+the shape of a small house, shed, lodge or fence. These are from 2 to 12
+feet high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet long. Some of
+these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to see within and some
+are quite open. Occasionally a window is placed in the front side.
+Sometimes these enclosures are
+<span class = "pagenum">176</span>
+<a name = "page176" id = "page176"> </a>
+covered with cloth, which is generally white, sometimes partly covered,
+and some have none. Around the grave, both outside and inside of the
+inclosure, various articles are placed, as guns, canoes, dishes, pails,
+cloth, sheets, blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and
+occasionally a roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said
+that around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few years
+ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of these articles are cut
+or broken so as to render them valueless to man and to prevent their
+being stolen. Poles are also often erected, from 10 to 30 feet long, on
+which American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes, and cloths of various
+colors are hung. A&nbsp;few graves have nothing of this kind. On some
+graves these things are renewed every year or two. This depends mainly
+on the number of relatives living and the esteem in which they hold the
+deceased.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig27" id = "fig27">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig27.png" width = "405" height = "306"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;House-Burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it away particle
+by particle to the spirit of the deceased in the spirit land, and also
+as these articles decay they are also carried away in a similar manner.
+I&nbsp;have never known of the placing food near a grave. Figures 27 and
+28 will give you some idea of this class of graves. Figure 27 has a
+paling fence 12 feet square around it. Figure 28 is simply a frame over
+a grave where there is no enclosure.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig28" id = "fig28">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig28.png" width = "405" height = "307"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;House-Burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+(<i>e</i>) <i>Civilized mode.</i>&mdash;A few persons, of late, have
+fallen almost entirely into the American custom of burying, building a
+simple paling fence around it, but placing no articles around it; this
+is more especially true of the Clallams.</p>
+
+<h5>FUNERAL CEREMONIES.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances of sections
+(<i>a</i>) and (<i>b</i>) of the preceding subject I know nothing. In
+regard to (<i>c</i>) and (<i>d</i>), they begin to mourn, more
+especially the women, as soon as a person dies. Their mourning song
+consists principally of the sounds represented by the three English
+notes mi mi, do do, la la; those who attend the funeral are expected to
+bring some articles to place in the coffin or about the grave as a token
+of respect for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this purpose
+have been cloth of some kind; a&nbsp;small piece of cloth is returned by
+the mourners to the attendants as a token of remembrance. They bury much
+sooner after death than white persons do, generally as soon as they can
+obtain a coffin. I&nbsp;know of no other native funeral ceremonies.
+Occasionally before being taken to the grave, I&nbsp;have held Christian
+funeral ceremonies over them, and these services increase from year to
+year. One reason which has rendered them somewhat backward about having
+these funeral services is, that they are quite superstitions about going
+near the dead, fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased
+will enter the living and kill them also. Especially are they afraid of
+having children go near, being much more fearful of the effect of the
+evil spirit on them than on older persons.</p>
+
+<h5>MOURNING OBSERVANCES.</h5>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning, but often
+continue it after the burial, though I do not know that they often visit
+the grave. If they feel the loss very much, sometimes they will mourn
+nearly every day for several weeks; especially is this true when they
+meet an old friend who has not been seen since the funeral, or when they
+see an article owned by the deceased which they have not seen for a long
+time. The only other thing of which I think, which bears on this
+subject, is an idea they have, that before a person dies&mdash;it may be
+but a short time or it may be several months&mdash;a spirit from the
+spirit land comes and carries off the spirit of the individual to that
+place. There are those who profess to discover when this is done, and if
+by any of their incantations they can compel that spirit to return, the
+person will not die, but if they are not able, then the person will
+become dead at heart and in time die, though it may not be for six
+months or even twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a
+pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has recently been
+published by the Department of the Interior, under Prof. F.&nbsp;V.
+Hayden, United States Geologist.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">177</span>
+<a name = "page177" id = "page177"> </a>
+<p>George Gibbs<a class = "tag" name = "tag81" id = "tag81" href =
+"#note81">81</a> gives a most interesting account of the burial
+ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, which is
+here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples of other
+modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative
+would destroy the thread of the story:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes was in
+canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some prominent
+point a short distance from the village, and sometimes placed between
+the forks of trees or raised from the ground on posts. Upon the Columbia
+River the Tsinūk had in particular two very noted cemeteries,
+a&nbsp;high isolated bluff about three miles below the mouth of the
+Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance above, called Coffin
+Rock. The former would appear not to have been very ancient. Mr.
+Broughton, one of Vancouver’s lieutenants, who explored the river, makes
+mention only of <i>several</i> canoes at this place; and Lewis and
+Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of them at all, but at the
+time of Captain Wilkes’s expedition it is conjectured that there were at
+least 3,000. A&nbsp;fire caused by the carelessness of one of his party
+destroyed the whole, to the great indignation of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river in
+1839, remarks: “In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great
+ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague. Consequently
+Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent shores, were
+studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our visit the skulls
+and skeletons were strewed about in all directions.” This method
+generally prevailed on the neighboring coasts, as at Shoal Water Bay,
+&amp;c. Farther up the Columbia, as at the Cascades, a&nbsp;different
+form was adopted, which is thus described by Captain Clarke:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the woods,
+is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight vaults, made of
+pine cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet square and 6 in
+height, the top securely covered with wide boards, sloping a little, so
+as to convey off the rain. The direction of all these is east and west,
+the door being on the eastern side, and partially stopped with wide
+boards, decorated with rude pictures of men and other animals. On
+entering we found in some of them four dead bodies, carefully wrapped in
+skins, tied with cords of grass and bark, lying on a mat in a direction
+east and west; the other vaults contained only bones, which in some of
+them were piled to a height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults and on
+poles attached to them hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in
+their bottoms, baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair
+bags of trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or
+affection, which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity
+of war or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of
+the walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures cut
+and painted on them, and besides these were several wooden images of
+men, some of them so old and decayed as to have almost lost their shape,
+which were all placed against the sides of the vault. These images, as
+well as those in the houses we have lately seen, do not appear to be at
+all the objects of adoration in this place; they were most probably
+intended as resemblances of those whose decease they indicate, and when
+we observe them in houses they occupy the most conspicuous part, but are
+treated more like ornaments than objects of worship. Near the vaults
+which are still standing are the remains of others on the ground,
+completely rotted and covered with moss; and as they are formed of the
+most durable pine and cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a
+very long series of years this retired spot has been the depository for
+the Indians near this place.”</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">178</span>
+<a name = "page178" id = "page178"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few miles
+above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The <i>Watlala</i>, a tribe
+of the Upper Tsinūk, whose burial place is here described, are now
+nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in different
+states of preservation. The position of the body, as noticed by Clarke,
+is, I&nbsp;believe, of universal observance, the head being always
+placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that the road to the
+<i>mé-mel-ūs-illa-hee</i>, the country of the dead, is toward the west,
+and if they place them otherwise they would be confused. East of the
+Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are equestrian, and who use
+canoes only for ferriage or transportation purposes, bury their dead,
+usually heaping over them piles of stones, either to mark the spot or to
+prevent the bodies from being exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the
+Yakamas we saw many of their graves placed in conspicuous points of the
+basaltic walls which line the lower valleys, and designated by a clump
+of poles planted over them, from which fluttered various articles of
+dress. Formerly these prairie tribes killed horses over the
+graves&mdash;a custom now falling into disuse in consequence of the
+teachings of the whites.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among the
+Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of box, rudely
+constructed of boards, and elsewhere on the Sound the same method is
+adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are placed on elevated
+scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the Indians upon the water
+placed the dead in canoes, while those at a distance from it buried
+them. Most of the graves are surrounded with strips of cloth, blankets,
+and other articles of property. Mr. Cameron, an English gentleman
+residing at Esquimalt Harbor, Vancouver Island, informed me that on his
+place there were graves having at each corner a large stone, the
+interior space filled with rubbish. The origin of these was unknown to
+the present Indians.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked;
+persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little
+care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly attracted
+to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that at Port
+Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing the skeletons
+of young children, and, what is not easily explained, small square
+boxes, containing, apparently, food. I&nbsp;do not think that any of
+these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor have I been able
+to learn from living Indians that they formerly followed that practice.
+What he took for such I do not understand. He also mentions seeing in
+the same place a cleared space recently burned over, in which the skulls
+and bones of a number lay among the ashes. The practice of burning the
+dead exists in parts of California and among the Tshimsyan of Fort
+Simpson. It is also pursued by the “Carriers” of New California, but no
+intermediate tribes, to my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the
+Sound do not at present.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It is clear from Vancouver’s narrative that some great epidemic had
+recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity of
+human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit, and very
+probably the Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in which the
+inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is frequently done.
+They almost invariably remove from any place where sickness has
+prevailed, generally destroying the house also.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver’s officers, noticed several
+sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them were open, and
+contained the skeletons of many young children tied up in baskets. The
+smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed, but not one of the limb
+bones was found, which gave rise to an opinion that these, by the living
+inhabitants of the neighborhood, were appropriated to useful purposes,
+such as pointing their arrows, spears, or other weapons.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig29" id = "fig29">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig29.jpg" width = "560" height = "329"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Canoe Burial.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether foreign
+to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably been removed
+and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are variously disposed of;
+sometimes by suspending them, at others by placing in the hollows of
+trees. A&nbsp;cemetery devoted to infants is, however, an unusual
+occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note much pomp was used in the
+<span class = "pagenum">179</span>
+<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a>
+accompaniments of the rite. The canoes were of great size and
+value&mdash;the war or state canoes of the deceased. Frequently one was
+inverted over that holding the body, and in one instance, near
+Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited in a small canoe, which again
+was placed in a larger one and covered with a third. Among the
+<i>Tsinūk</i> and <i>Tsìhalis</i> the <i>tamahno-ūs</i> board of the
+owner was placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do not make these
+<i>tamahno-ūs</i> boards, but they sometimes constructed effigies of
+their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as possible, dressed in
+his usual costume, and wearing the articles of which he was fond. One of
+these, representing the Skagit chief Sneestum, stood very conspicuously
+upon a high bank on the eastern side of Whidbey Island. The figures
+observed by Captain Clarke at the Cascades were either of this
+description or else the carved posts which had ornamented the interior
+of the houses of the deceased, and were connected with the superstition
+of the <i>tamahno-ūs</i>. The most valuable articles of property were
+put into or hung up around the grave, being first carefully rendered
+unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped to do honor
+to the dead. No little self-denial must have been practiced in parting
+with articles so precious, but those interested frequently had the least
+to say on the subject. The graves of women were distinguished by a cap,
+a&nbsp;Kamas stick, or other implement of their occupation, and by
+articles of dress.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the deceased.
+In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied to the dead
+body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this practice has been
+almost entirely given up, but till within a very few years it was not
+uncommon. A&nbsp;case which occurred in 1850 has been already mentioned.
+Still later, in 1853, Toke, a&nbsp;Tsinūk chief living at Shoalwater
+Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging to his daughter, who, in
+dying, had requested that this might be done. The woman fled, and was
+found by some citizens in the woods half starved. Her master attempted
+to reclaim her, but was soundly thrashed and warned against another
+attempt.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a considerable
+length of time the materials and ornaments of the burial-place. With the
+common class of persons family pride or domestic affection was satisfied
+with the gathering together of the bones after the flesh had decayed and
+wrapping them in a new mat. The violation of the grave was always
+regarded as an offense of the first magnitude and provoked severe
+revenge. Captain Belcher remarks: “Great secrecy is observed in all
+their burial ceremonies, partly from fear of Europeans, and as among
+themselves they will instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb
+or wage war if perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate and
+tenaceously bent on revenge should they discover that any act of the
+kind has been perpetrated by a white man. It is on record that part of
+the crew of a vessel on her return to this port (the Columbia) suffered
+because a person who belonged to her (but not then in her) was known to
+have taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had become an
+object of curiosity.” He adds, however, that at the period of his visit
+to the river “the skulls and skeletons were scattered about in all
+directions; and as I was on most of their positions unnoticed by the
+natives, I&nbsp;suspect the feeling does not extend much beyond their
+relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body, goods, and
+chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as their canoes are
+repainted, decorated, and greater care taken by placing them in
+sequestered spots.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of death
+will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas. Wailing for
+the dead is continued for a long time, and it seems to be rather a
+ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief. The duty, of
+course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is usually chosen
+for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a little distant from
+the lodge or camp and in a loud, sobbing voice repeat a sort of
+stereotyped formula; as, for instance, a&nbsp;mother, on the loss of her
+child, “<i>A&nbsp;seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud! ad-de-dah</i>,” “Ah
+chief!” “My child dead, alas!” When in dreams they see any of their
+deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">180</span>
+<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a>
+<p>With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned
+by Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing
+to die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom
+has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the
+individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states
+that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died, those of
+his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved ardently and
+so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed themselves and were
+interred with him. This they did in order that they might wait upon him
+in the land of spirits.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this
+revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and
+Africa.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>AQUATIC BURIAL.</h3>
+
+
+<p>As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead
+has never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes.
+Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are
+informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy,
+living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed
+their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred
+to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans,
+with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or
+about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder “the
+beautiful,” it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which
+was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The
+Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to
+Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of
+room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of
+thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee “seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the
+river.”</p>
+
+<p>The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of
+sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their
+bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J.&nbsp;G. Wood<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag82" id = "tag82" href = "#note82">82</a> states that the
+Obongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the
+course of which has been previously diverted. A&nbsp;deep grave is dug
+in the bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over
+carefully. Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so
+that all traces of the grave are soon lost.</p>
+
+<p>The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply
+sinking the body in some stream.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">181</span>
+<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a>
+<p>Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to
+that employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosença, a&nbsp;town of
+Calabria, the Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and
+having made a grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most
+rapid, they interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and
+riches. They then caused the river to resume its regular course, and
+destroyed all persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic
+grave.</p>
+
+<p>A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De
+Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well
+weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the
+Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have
+been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes,
+and is by Capt. J.&nbsp;H. Simpson:<a class = "tag" name = "tag83" id =
+"tag83" href = "#note83">83</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and which
+we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this route
+last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls which have
+been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom of the Goshute
+Indians burying their dead in springs, which they sank with stones or
+keep down with sticks. He says he has actually seen the Indians bury
+their dead in this way near the town of Provo, where he resides.</p>
+
+<p>As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in
+another part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they
+were obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the
+bottom before using the water.</p>
+
+<div class = "figfloat" style = "width: 150px;">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig30" id = "fig30">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig30.png" width = "150" height = "435"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Mourning Cradle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned,
+especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is
+quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or
+springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a
+reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to
+attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to
+poison the springs for white persons.</p>
+
+<p>The second example is by George Catlin,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag84" id = "tag84" href = "#note84">84</a> and relates to the
+Chinook:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> This little cradle has a strap which
+passes over the woman’s forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back,
+and if the child dies during its subjection to this rigid
+<span class = "pagenum">182</span>
+<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a>
+mode, its cradle becomes its coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it
+lies floating on the water in some sacred pool, where they are often in
+the habit of fastening their canoes containing the dead bodies of the
+old and young, or, which in often the case, elevated into the branches
+of trees, where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry
+whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed in their
+canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale them out, and
+provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they are performing their “long
+journey after death to their contemplated hunting grounds,” which these
+people think is to be performed in their canoes.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle.
+Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her
+dead child to the mercy of the elements.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration clear">
+<a name = "fig31" id = "fig31">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig31.jpg" width = "349" height = "561"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Launching the Burial
+Cradle.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>LIVING SEPULCHERS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to
+express the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving
+friends and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has
+already been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is
+not believed that the North American Indians followed the custom,
+although cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true
+that a few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered <ins
+class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">apochryphal</ins> in
+character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how credulous
+were the early writers on American natives.</p>
+
+<p>That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is
+somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies
+been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the
+statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a
+number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the
+Massagetics, Padæans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having
+previously strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace
+and <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Tertulian’">Tertullian </ins>
+both affirm that the Irish and ancient
+Britons devoured the dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of
+South America did the same, esteeming this mode of disposal more
+honorable and much to be preferred than to rot and be eaten by
+worms.</p>
+
+<p>J. G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of
+Africa devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the
+common people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>The following extract is from Lafitau:<a class = "tag" name = "tag85"
+id = "tag85" href = "#note85">85</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Dans l’Amérique Méridionale quelque Peuples décharnent les corps de
+leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi que je viens de le
+dire, et après les avoir consumées, ils conservent pendant quelque temps
+leurs cadavres avec respect dans leurs Cabanes, et il portent ces
+squeletes dans les combats en guise d’Etendard, pour ranimer leur
+courage par cette vue et inspirer de la terreur à leurs ennemis. <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">183</span>
+<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+Il est vrai qu’il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de leurs parens;
+mais il est faux qu’elles les mettent à mort dans leur vieillesse, pour
+avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de leur chair, et d’en faire un repas.
+Quelques Nations de l’Amérique Méridionale, qui ont encore cette coutume
+de manger les corps morts de leurs parens, n’en usent ainsi que par
+piété, piété mal entenduë à la verité, mais piété colorée néanmoins par
+quelque ombre de raison; car ils croyent leur donner une sépulture bien
+plus honorable.</p>
+
+<p>To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice
+is not believed to have been practiced by them.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><a name = "mourning" id = "mourning">
+MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD,<br>
+DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,<br>
+AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH&nbsp;BURIAL.</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper,
+yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples,
+under separate heads.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MOURNING.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death
+of a chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag86" id = "tag86" href = "#note86">86</a> who for many
+years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction as a
+warrior.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head chief’s
+death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we slowly
+proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the contemplation of the
+scenes that would be enacted at my arrival. When we drew in sight of the
+village, we found every lodge laid prostrate. We entered amid shrieks,
+cries, and yells. Blood was streaming from every conceivable part of the
+bodies of all who were old enough to comprehend their loss. Hundreds of
+fingers were dismembered; hair torn from the head lay in profusion about
+the paths; wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where
+unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This fearful mourning
+lasted until evening of the next day. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint them
+with the death of our head chief, and request them to assemble at the
+Rose Bud, in order to meet our village and devote themselves to a
+general time of mourning, there met, in conformity to the summons, over
+ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a scene of disorderly,
+vociferous mourning, no imagination can conceive nor any pen portray.
+Long Hair cut off a large roll of his hair; a&nbsp;thing he was never
+known to do before. The cutting and hacking of human flesh exceeded all
+my previous experience; fingers were dismembered as readily as twigs,
+and blood was poured out like water. Many of the warriors would cut two
+gashes nearly the entire length of their arm; then, separating the skin
+from the flesh at one end, would grasp it in their other hand, and rip
+it asunder to the shoulder. Others would carve various devices upon
+<span class = "pagenum">184</span>
+<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a>
+their breasts and shoulders, and raise the skin in the same manner to
+make the scars show to advantage after the wound was healed. Some of
+their mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at them,
+but they would not appear to receive any pain from them.</p>
+
+<p>It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth’s statements are to
+be taken <i>cum <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text unchanged: correct form is ‘grano’">grana</ins> salis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of
+Lake Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for their
+dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her husband; by day
+as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a constant visitor to
+the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance will she follow the
+raised camp. The friends and relatives of the young mourner will
+incessantly devise methods to distract her mind from the thought of her
+lost husband. She refuses nourishment, but as nature is exhausted she is
+prevailed upon to partake of food; the supply is scant, but on every
+occasion the best and largest proportion is deposited upon the grave of
+her husband. In the mean time the female relatives of the deceased have,
+according to custom, submitted to her charge a parcel made up of
+different cloths ornamented with bead-work and eagle’s feathers, which
+she is charged to keep by her side&mdash;the place made vacant by the
+demise of her husband&mdash;a reminder of her widowhood. She is
+therefore for a term of twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery,
+neither is she permitted to slicken up and comb her head; this to avoid
+attracting attention. Once in a while a female relative of deceased,
+commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will visit her and voluntarily
+proceed to comb out the long-neglected and matted hair. With a jealous
+eye a vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during the term of her
+widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to marry, any time during
+her widowhood, an unmarried brother or cousin, or a person of the same
+<i>Dodem</i> [<ins class = "correction" title =
+"notation in original"><i>sic</i></ins>] (family mark) of her husband.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully performed
+and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and, with greetings
+commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her face, comb her hair,
+and attire her person with new apparel, and otherwise demonstrating the
+release from her vow and restraint. Still she has not her entire
+freedom. If she will still refuse to marry a relative of the deceased
+and will marry another, she then has to purchase her freedom by giving a
+certain amount of goods and whatever else she might have manufactured
+during her widowhood in anticipation of the future now at hand.
+Frequently, though, during widowhood the vows are disregarded and an
+inclination to flirt and play courtship or form an alliance of marriage
+outside of the relatives of the deceased is being indulged, and when
+discovered the widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick
+braided hair is shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her apparel
+and trinkets are torn from her person, and a quarrel frequently results
+fatally to some member of one or the other side.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas L. McKenney<a class = "tag" name = "tag87" id = "tag87" href =
+"#note87">87</a> gives a description of the Chippewa widow which differs
+slightly from the one above:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls of clothing.
+On inquiring what these imported, I&nbsp;learn that they <i>are
+widows</i> who carry them, and that these are badges of mourning. It is
+indispensable, when a woman of the Chippeway Nation loses her husband,
+for her to take of her best apparel&mdash;and the whole of it is not
+worth a dollar&mdash;and roll it up, and confine it by means of her
+husband’s sashes; and if he had ornaments, these are generally put on
+the top of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth. This
+bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is
+<span class = "pagenum">185</span>
+<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a>
+never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it with her; if
+she sits down in her lodge, she places it by her side. This badge of
+widowhood and of mourning the widow is compelled to carry with her until
+some of her late husband’s family shall call and take it away, which is
+done when they think she has mourned long enough, and which is generally
+at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not before, released from
+her mourning, and at liberty to marry again. She has the privilege to
+take this husband to the family of the deceased and leave it, but this
+is considered indecorous, and is seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the
+deceased takes the widow for his wife at the grave of her husband, which
+is done by a ceremony of walking her over it. And this he has a right to
+do; and when this is done she is not required to go into mourning; or,
+if she chooses, she has the right <i>to go to him</i>, and he is
+<i>bound</i> to support her.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges. The size
+varies according to the quantity of clothing which the widow may happen
+to have. It is expected of her to put up her <i>best</i> and wear her
+<i>worst</i>. The “<i>husband</i>” I saw just now was 30 inches high and
+18 inches in circumference.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had been left to
+mourn after this fashion for years, none of her husband’s family calling
+for the badge or token of her grief. At a certain time it was told her
+that some of her husband’s family were passing, and she was advised to
+speak to them on the subject. She did so, and told them she had mourned
+long and was poor; that she had no means to buy clothes, and her’s being
+all in the mourning badge, and sacred, could not be touched. She
+expressed a hope that her request might not be interpreted into a wish
+to marry; it was only made that she might be placed in a situation to
+get some clothes. She got for answer, that “they were going to Mackinac,
+and would think of it.” They left her in this state of uncertainty, but
+on returning, and finding her faithful still, they took her “husband”
+and presented her with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded
+for her constancy and made comfortable.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the term of
+their grief, which is generally about a year. The Chippeway men mourn by
+painting their faces black.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the badge of
+mourning, this “<i>husband</i>” comes in for an equal share, as if it
+were the living husband.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image of it in the
+best manner she is able, and dresses it as she did her living child, and
+fixes it in the kind of cradle I have referred to, and goes through the
+ceremonies of nursing it as if it were alive, by dropping little
+particles of food in the direction of its mouth, and giving it of
+whatever the living child partook. This ceremony also is generally
+observed for a year.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the
+substitute for the dead husband.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig32" id = "fig32">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig32.jpg" width = "319" height = "554"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Chippewa Widow.</p>
+
+<p>The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other
+tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged
+to carry around with them, for a variable period, a&nbsp;bundle
+containing the bones of the deceased consort.</p>
+
+<p>Similar observances, according to Bancroft,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag88" id = "tag88" href = "#note88">88</a> were followed by some of
+the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and
+Mosquitos being as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a year, after
+which she took up the bones and carried them with her for another year,
+at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and then only was she
+allowed to marry again.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">186</span>
+<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is destroyed,
+the cocoa palms being cut down, and all who have taken part in the
+funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut off the hair,
+the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck to
+the forehead. Widows, according to some old writers, after supplying the
+grave with food for a year take up the bones and carry them on the back
+in the daytime, sleeping with them at night for another year, after
+which they are placed at the door or upon the house-top. On the
+anniversary of deaths, friends of the deceased hold a feast, called
+<i>seekroe</i>, at which large quantities of liquor are drained to his
+memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an occasion of this
+kind, says that males and females were dressed in <i>ule</i> cloaks
+fantastically painted black and white, while their faces were
+correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they performed a slow
+walk around, prostrating themselves at intervals and calling loudly upon
+the dead and tearing the ground with their hands. At no other time is
+the departed referred to, the very mention of his name being
+superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a thread from the house of
+death to the grave, carrying it in a straight line over every obstacle.
+<ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged: probably error for ‘Fröbel’ or ‘Froebel’">Fröebel</ins>
+states that among the Woolwas
+all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that both husband
+and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of either, placing a
+gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.</p>
+
+<p>Benson<a class = "tag" name = "tag89" id = "tag89" href =
+"#note89">89</a> gives the following account of the Choctaws’ funeral
+ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and
+dance:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Their funeral is styled by them “the last cry.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and place
+the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and arrows,
+hatchet, and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are planted at the
+head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the grave is then
+inclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral ceremonies now
+begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night and morning she will
+go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous cries and wailings. It
+is not important that any other member of the family should take any
+very active part in the “cry,” though they do participate to some
+extent.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the grave
+during one entire moon from the date when the death occurred. On the
+evening of the last day of the moon the friends all assemble at the
+cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions for a sumptuous
+feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled together in a
+kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved wife goes to the
+grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her bitter wailings and
+lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked the kettle is taken
+from the fire and placed in the center of the cabin, and the friends
+gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn spoon from hand to hand and
+from mouth to mouth till all have been bountifully supplied. While
+supper is being served, two of the oldest men of the company quietly
+withdraw and go to the grave and fill it up, taking down the flags. All
+then join in a dance, which not unfrequently is continued till morning;
+the widow does not fail to unite in the dance, and to contribute her
+part to the festivities of the occasion. This is the “<i>last cry</i>,”
+the days of mourning are ended, and the widow is now ready to form
+another matrimonial alliance. The ceremonies are precisely the same when
+a man has lost his wife, and they are only slightly varied when any
+other member of the family has died. (Slaves were buried without
+ceremonies.)</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">187</span>
+<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a>
+<h4>SACRIFICE.</h4>
+
+<p>Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in
+connection with another subject, but it is thought others might prove
+interesting. The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag90" id = "tag90" href = "#note90">90</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by his wives
+and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns took care to follow the
+same custom. The law likewise condemned every Natchez to death who had
+married a girl of the blood of the Suns as soon as she was expired. On
+this occasion I must tell you the history of an Indian who was noways
+willing to submit to this law. His name was <i>Elteacteal</i>; he
+contracted an alliance with the Suns, but the consequences which this
+honor brought along with it had like to have proved very unfortunate to
+him. His wife fell sick; as soon as he saw her at the point of death he
+fled, embarked in a piragua on the <i>Mississippi</i>, and came to New
+Orleans. He put himself under the protection of M. de Bienville, the
+then governor, and offered to be his huntsman. The governor accepted his
+services, and interested himself for him with the Natchez, who declared
+that he had nothing more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he
+was accordingly no longer a lawful prize.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Elteacteal</i>, being thus assured, ventured to return to his nation,
+and, without settling among them, he made several voyages thither. He
+happened to be there when the Sun called the <i>Stung Serpent</i>,
+brother to the Great Sun, died. He was a relative of the late wife of
+<i>Elteacteal</i>, and they resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de
+Bienville had been recalled to France, and the sovereign of the Natchez
+thought that the protector’s absence had annulled the reprieve granted
+to the protected person, and accordingly he caused him to be arrested.
+As soon as the poor fellow found himself in the hut of the grand chief
+of war, together with the other victims destined to be sacrificed to the
+<i>Stung Serpent</i>, he gave vent to the excess of his grief. The
+favorite wife of the late Son, who was likewise to be sacrificed, and
+who saw the preparations for her death with firmness, and seemed
+impatient to rejoin her husband, hearing <i>Elteacteal’s</i> complaints
+and groans, said to him: “Art thou no warrior?” He answered, “Yes:
+I&nbsp;am one.” “However,” said she, “thou cryest; life is dear to thee,
+and as that is the case, it is not good that thou shouldst go along with
+us; go with the women.” <i>Elteacteal</i> replied: “True; life is dear
+to me. It would be well if I walked yet on earth till to the death of
+the Great Sun, and I would die with him.” “Go thy way,” said the
+favorite, “it is not fit thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart
+should remain behind on earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee
+no more.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<i>Elteacteal</i> did not stay to hear this order repeated to him; he
+disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of which were his
+relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age and their infirmities had
+disgusted them of life; none of them had been able to use their legs for
+a great while. The hair of the two that were related to
+<i>Elteacteal</i> was no more gray than those of women of fifty-five
+years in France. The other old woman was a hundred and twenty years old,
+and had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among the
+Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin. They were
+dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the <i>Stung Serpent</i>,
+and the other two upon the place before the temple. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span> A&nbsp;cord is fastened round their necks with a
+slip-knot, and eight men of their relations strangle them by drawing,
+four one way and four the other. So many are not necessary, but as they
+acquire nobility by such executions, there are always more than are
+wanting, and the operation is performed in an instant. The generosity of
+these women gave <i>Elteacteal</i>
+<span class = "pagenum">188</span>
+<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a>
+life again, acquired him the degree of <i>considered</i>, and cleared
+his honor, which he had sullied by fearing death. He remained quiet
+after that time, and taking advantage of what he had learned during his
+stay among the French, he became a juggler and made use of his knowledge
+to impose upon his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The morning after this execution they made everything ready for the
+convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of the ceremonies
+appeared at the door of the hut, adorned suitably to his quality. The
+victims who were to accompany the deceased prince into the mansion of
+the spirits came forth; they consisted of the favorite wife of the
+deceased, of his second wife, his chancellor, his physician, his hired
+man, that is, his first servant, and of some old women.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were several
+Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for the Suns of both
+sexes that were her children to appear, and spoke to the following
+effect:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from <ins class
+= "correction" title = "error unchanged; notation in original">you
+(<i>sic</i>)</ins> arms and to follow your father’s steps, who waits for
+me in the country of the spirits; if I were to yield to your tears I
+would injure my love and fail in my duty. I&nbsp;have done enough for
+you by bearing you next to my heart, and by suckling you with my
+breasts. You that are descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought
+you to shed tears? Rejoice rather that you are <i>Suns</i> and warriors;
+you are bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the whole
+nation: go, my children, I&nbsp;have provided for all your wants, by
+procuring you friends; my friends and those of your father are yours
+too; I&nbsp;leave you amidst them; they are the French; they are
+tender-hearted and generous; make yourselves worthy of their esteem by
+not degenerating from your race; always act openly with them and never
+implore them with meanness.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“And you, Frenchmen,” added she, turning herself towards our officers,
+“I&nbsp;recommend my orphan children to you; they will know no other
+fathers than you; you ought to protect them.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned to her
+husband’s hut with a surprising firmness.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims of her own
+accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore the <i>Stung
+Serpent</i> to follow him into the other world. The Europeans called her
+the <i>haughty</i> lady, on account of her majestic deportment and her
+proud air, and because she only frequented the company of the most
+distinguished Frenchmen. They regretted her much, because she had the
+knowledge of several simples with which she had saved the lives of many
+of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with grief and horror.
+The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and spoke to them with a
+smiling countenance: “I&nbsp;die without fear;” said she, “grief does
+not embitter my last hours. I&nbsp;recommend my children to you;
+whenever you see them, noble Frenchmen, remember that you have loved
+their father, and that he was till death a true and sincere friend of
+your nation, whom he loved more than himself. The disposer of life has
+been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go and join him; I&nbsp;shall
+tell him that I have seen your hearts moved at the sight of his corps;
+do not be grieved; we shall be longer friends in the <i>country of the
+spirits</i> than here, because we do not die there again.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag91" id = "tag91" href = "#note91">91*</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French; they were
+obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great Sun from killing
+himself, for he was inconsolable at the death of his brother, upon whom
+he was used to lay the weight of government, he being great chief of war
+of the Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies; that prince grew
+furious by the resistance he met with; he held his gun by the barrel,
+and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by the lock, and caused the
+powder to fall out
+<span class = "pagenum">189</span>
+<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a>
+of the pan; the hut was full of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag92" id = "tag92" href = "#note92">92*</a> but the
+French raised their spirits again, by hiding all the arms belonging to
+the sovereign, and filling the barrel of his gun with water, that it
+might be unfit for use for some time.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign’s life in safety, they thanked
+the French, by squeezing their hands, but without speaking; a&nbsp;most
+profound silence reigned throughout, for grief and awe kept in bounds
+the multitude that were present.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this transaction.
+She was asked whether she was ill, and she answered aloud, “Yes,
+I&nbsp;am”; and added with a lower voice, “If the Frenchmen go out of
+this hut, my husband dies and all the Natches will die with him; stay,
+then, brave Frenchmen, because your words are as powerful as arrows;
+besides, who could have ventured to do what you have done? But you are
+his true friends and those of his brother.” Their laws obliged the Great
+Sun’s wife to follow her husband in the grave; this was doubtless the
+cause of her fears; and likewise the gratitude towards the French, who
+interested themselves in behalf of his life, prompted her to speak in
+the above-mentioned manner.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to them: “My
+friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief that, though my eyes were
+open, I&nbsp;have not taken notice that you have been standing all this
+while, nor have I asked you to sit down; but pardon the excess of my
+affliction.”</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that they were
+going to leave him alone, but that they would cease to be his friends
+unless he gave orders to light the fires again,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag93" id = "tag93" href = "#note93">93*</a> lighting his own before
+them; and that they should not leave him till his brother was
+buried.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: “Since all the chiefs
+and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I&nbsp;will do it;
+I&nbsp;will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted again immediately,
+and I’ll wait till death joins me to my brother; I&nbsp;am already old,
+and till I die I shall walk with the French; had it not been for them I
+should have gone with my brother, and all the roads would have been
+covered with dead bodies.”</p>
+
+<p>Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been
+credited by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers,
+and its seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of
+similar ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.</p>
+
+<p>An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice
+is described by Miss A.&nbsp;J. Allen,<a class = "tag" name = "tag94" id
+= "tag94" href = "#note94">94</a> and refers to the Wascopums, of
+Oregon.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words, it was found
+that the chief had determined that the deceased boy’s friend, who had
+been his companion in hunting the rabbit, snaring the pheasant, and
+fishing in the streams, was to be his companion to the spirit land; his
+son should not be deprived of his associate in the strange world to
+which he had gone; that associate should perish by the hand of his
+father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house. This receptacle was
+built on a long, black rock in the center of the Columbia River, around
+which, being so near the falls, the current was amazingly rapid. It was
+thirty feet in length, and perhaps half that in breadth, completely
+enclosed and sodded except at one end, where was a
+<span class = "pagenum">190</span>
+<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a>
+narrow aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse through. The council
+overruled, and little George, instead of being slain, was conveyed
+living to the dead-house about sunset. The dead were piled on each side,
+leaving a narrow aisle between, and on one of these was placed the
+deceased boy; and, bound tightly till the purple, quivering flesh puffed
+above the strong bark cords, that he might die very soon, the living was
+placed by his side, his face to his till the very lips met, and
+extending along limb to limb and foot to foot, and nestled down into his
+couch of rottenness, to impede his breathing as far as possible and
+smother his cries.</p>
+
+<p>Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag95" id = "tag95" href =
+"#note95">95</a> states that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and Tarascos were
+selected from various trades and professions, and took with them the
+most cherished articles of the master and the implements of their trade
+wherewith to supply his wants&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>while among certain of the Central American tribe death was
+voluntary, wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing
+themselves by means of a vegetable poison.</p>
+
+<p>To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that
+self-murder is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why,
+if he so wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or
+friend to the “happy other world;” and when this is remembered we need
+not feel astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self
+immolations are related. It is quite likely that among our own people
+similar customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down
+such proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us,
+notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place
+on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FEASTS.</h4>
+
+<p>In Beltrami<a class = "tag" name = "tag96" id = "tag96" href =
+"#note96">96</a> an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of
+the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took
+place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the
+manes of <i>Cloudy Weather’s</i> son-in-law, whose body had remained
+with the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their
+repasts. What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in
+this funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific
+lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others were
+singing and dancing with all their might.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At another funeral ceremony for a member of the <i>Grand Medicine</i>,
+and at which as <i>a man of another world</i> I was permitted to attend,
+the same practice occurred. But at the feast which took place on that
+occasion an allowance was served up for the deceased out of every
+article of which it consisted, while others were beating, wounding, and
+torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow both over the dead
+man and his provisions, thinking possibly that this was the most
+palatable seasoning for the latter which they could possibly supply. His
+wife furnished out an entertainment present
+<span class = "pagenum">191</span>
+<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a>
+for him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with his arms,
+his provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine bag, he was
+wrapped up in the skin which had been his last covering when alive. He
+was then tied round with the bark of some particular trees which they
+use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm texture and hold (the
+only ones indeed which they have), and instead of being buried in the
+earth was hung up to a large oak. The reason of this was that, as his
+favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit would be enabled more easily
+from such a situation to fly with him to Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>Hind<a class = "tag" name = "tag97" id = "tag97" href =
+"#note97">97</a> mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf
+which occurred among the Hurons of New York:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the “feasts
+of the dead” at the village of Ossosane, before the dispersion of the
+Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in the presence of 2,000
+Indians, who offered 1,300 presents at the common tomb, in testimony of
+their grief. The people belonging to five large villages deposited the
+bones of their dead in a gigantic shroud, composed of forty-eight robes,
+each robe being made of ten beaver skins. After being carefully wrapped
+in this shroud, they were placed between moss and bark. A&nbsp;wall of
+stones was built around this vast ossuary to preserve it from
+profanation. Before covering the bones with earth a few grains of Indian
+corn were thrown by the women upon the sacred relics. According to the
+superstitious belief of the Hurons the souls of the dead remain near the
+bodies until the “feast of the dead”; after which ceremony they become
+free, and can at once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe
+to be situated in the regions of the setting sun.</p>
+
+<p>Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom
+of exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting
+them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in
+Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of
+Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a&nbsp;slatted pen containing the remains of
+hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and
+preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris
+afford examples of burial ossuaries.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS.</h4>
+
+<p>The following account is by Dr. S. G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still adhere to
+the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed friends; the
+object is to feast with the departed; that is, they believe that while
+they partake of the visible material the departed spirit partakes at the
+same time of the spirit that dwells in the food. From ancient time it
+was customary to bury with the dead various articles, such especially as
+were most valued in lifetime. The idea was that there was a spirit
+dwelling in the article represented by the material article; thus the
+war-club contained a spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe,
+which could be used by the departed in another world. These several
+spiritual implements were supposed, of course, to accompany the soul, to
+be used also on the way to its final abode. This habit has now
+ceased.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">192</span>
+<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a>
+<h4>FOOD.</h4>
+
+<p>This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an
+almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to
+place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DANCES.</h4>
+
+<p>Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan:<a class = "tag" name = "tag98" id = "tag98" href =
+"#note98">98</a></p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+An occasional and very singular figure was called the “dance for the
+dead.” It was known as the <i>O-hé-wä.</i> It was danced by the women
+alone. The music was entirely vocal, a&nbsp;select band of singers being
+stationed in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which
+they sang the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and mournful
+music. This dance was usually separate from all councils and the only
+dance of the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon after and
+continued until towards morning, when the shades of the dead who were
+believed to be present and participate in the dance were supposed to
+disappear. The dance was had whenever a family which had lost a member
+called for it, which was usually a year after the event. In the spring
+and fall it was often given for all the dead indiscriminately, who were
+believed then to revisit the earth and join in the dance.</p>
+
+<p>The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag99" id = "tag99" href = "#note99">99</a> and
+relates to the Yo-kaí-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding there a
+unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine it, but was
+not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence of the old sexton
+by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver half dollar. The pit
+of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 feet deep, and it was so
+heavily roofed with earth that the interior was damp and somber as a
+tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was provided with a tunnel-like
+entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet high, and leading down to a level
+with the floor of the pit. The mouth of the tunnel was closed with
+brush, and the venerable sexton would not remove it until he had slowly
+and devoutly paced several times to and fro before the entrance.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled
+poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude
+devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat,
+which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the tribe,
+lately deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the Senèl come up
+to condole with the Yo-kaí-a on the loss of their chief, and a dance or
+series of dances was held which lasted three days. During this time of
+course the Senèl were the guests of the Yo-kaí-a, and the latter were
+subjected to a
+<span class = "pagenum">193</span>
+<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a>
+considerable expense. I&nbsp;was prevented by other engagements from
+being present, and shall be obliged to depend on the description of an
+eye-witness, Mr. John Tenney, whose account is here given with a few
+changes:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+There are four officials connected with the building, who are probably
+chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They are the
+assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from one of them,
+and admission was given by the same. These four wore black vests trimmed
+with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief made no special display
+on the occasion. In addition to these four, who were officers of the
+assembly-chamber, there were an old man and a young woman, who seemed to
+be priest and priestess. The young woman was dressed differently from
+any other, the rest dressing in plain calico dresses. Her dress was
+white covered with spots of red flannel, cut in neat figure, ornamented
+with shells. It looked gorgeous and denoted some office, the name of
+which I could not ascertain. Before the visitors were ready to enter,
+the older men of the tribe were reclining around the fire smoking and
+chatting. As the ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and
+young woman were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the
+entrance, they inaugurated the exercises by a brief service, which
+seemed to be a dedication of the house to the exercises about to
+commence. Each of them spoke a few words, joined in a brief chant, and
+the house was thrown open for their visitors. They staid at their post
+until the visitors entered and were seated on one side of the room.
+After the visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all,
+though there was plenty of room in the center for the dancing.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe made a brief
+speech in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief of the
+Yo-kaí-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss. As he
+spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out, and with
+difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I&nbsp;presume that he proposed a
+few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole assemblage burst
+forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if in agony. The whole
+thing created such a din that I was compelled to stop my ears. The air
+was rent and pierced with their cries. This wailing and shedding of
+tears lasted about three or five minutes, though it seemed to last a
+half hour. At a given signal they ceased, wiped their eyes, and quieted
+down.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was set
+aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors wens five men, who were
+muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint and
+feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies. They were
+girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors, sometimes with
+variegated shawls. A&nbsp;feather mantle hung from the shoulder,
+reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the neck, while
+their heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers. They had
+whistles in their months as they danced, swaying their heads, bending
+and whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be exercised, and the
+feather ornaments quivered with light. They were agile and graceful as
+they bounded about in the sinuous course of the dance.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only
+marked time by stepping up and down with short step. They always took
+their places first and disappeared first, the men making their exit
+gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable for the
+occasion. They were white dresses, trimmed heavily with black velvet.
+The stripes were about three inches wide, some plain and others edged
+like saw teeth. This was an indication of their mourning for the dead
+chief, in whose honor they had prepared that style of dancing. Strings
+of haliotis and pachydesma shell beads encircled their necks, and around
+their waists were belts heavily loaded with the same material. Their
+head-dresses were more showy than those of the men. The head was
+encircled with a bandeau of otters’ or beavers’ fur, to which were
+attached short wires standing out in all directions, with glass or shell
+beads strung on them, and at the tips little feather flags and quail
+plumes. Surmounting all was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray,
+and scarlet, the top generally
+<span class = "pagenum">194</span>
+<a name = "page194" id = "page194"> </a>
+being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and tossing very beautifully. All
+these combined gave their heads a very brilliant and spangled
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the Yo-kaí-a
+chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful and simple,
+being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were used, accompanied
+with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a hollow slab. The
+second day the dance was more lively on the part of the men, the music
+was better, employing airs which had a greater range of tune, and the
+women generally joined in the chorus. The dress of the women was not so
+beautiful, as they appeared in ordinary calico. The third day, if
+observed in accordance with Indian custom, the dancing was still more
+lively and the proceedings more gay, just as the coming home from a
+Christian funeral is apt to be much more jolly than the going out.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+A Yo-kaí-a widow’s style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the
+usual evidences of grief, she mingles the ashes of her dead husband with
+pitch, making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a band about
+two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is previously cut
+off close to the head), so that at a little distance she appears to be
+wearing a white chaplet.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+It is their custom to “feed the spirits of the dead” for the space of
+one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to frequent
+while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground.
+A&nbsp;Yo-kaí-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year
+to some place where her little one played when alive, or to the spot
+where the body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This is
+accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling upon
+her little one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and
+melancholy chant, and dances with a wild static swaying of the body.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SONGS.</h4>
+
+<p>It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only
+funerals, but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these
+chants may no doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful
+ejaculation. A&nbsp;writer<a class = "tag" name = "tag100" id = "tag100"
+href = "#note100">100</a> mentions it as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing,
+with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same melody at
+the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song and at the same
+time, but each begins and finishes when he or she may wish. Often for
+weeks, or even months, after the decease of a dear friend, a&nbsp;living
+one, usually a woman, will sit by her house and sing or cry by the hour,
+and they also sing for a short time when they visit the grave or meet an
+esteemed friend whom they have not seen since the decease. At the
+funeral both men and women sing. No. 11 I have heard more frequently
+some time after the funeral, and No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by
+the Twanas. (For song see p.&nbsp;251 of the magazine quoted.) The words
+are simply an exclamation of grief, as our word “alas,” but they also
+have other words which they use, and sometimes they use merely the
+syllable <i>la</i>. Often the notes are sung in this order, and
+sometimes not, but in some order the notes <i>do</i> and <i>la</i>, and
+occasionally <i>mi</i>, are sung.</p>
+
+<p>Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a
+peculiar death dirge sung by the Senèl of California, as related by Mr.
+Powers. It is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Hel-lel-li-ly,</p>
+<p>Hel-lel-lo,</p>
+<p>Hel-lel-lo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">195</span>
+<a name = "page195" id = "page195"> </a>
+<p>Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the
+attention of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for
+instance, the Basques of Spain ululate thus:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,</p>
+<p>Lelo il Lelo,</p>
+<p>Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,</p>
+<p>Il Lelon killed Lelo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was called the “ululating Lelo.” Mr. Campbell says:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+This again connects with the Linus or Ailinus of the Greeks and
+Egyptians <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> which Wilkinson connects
+with the Coptic “ya lay-lee-ya lail.” The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard
+the South Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek verb
+<span class = "greek" title = "ololuzô">ὀλολύζω</span> and the Latin
+ululare, with an English howl and wail, are probably derived from this
+ancient form of lamentation.</p>
+
+<p>In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks
+describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he
+inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost
+tribes of Israel.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GAMES.</h4>
+
+<p>It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a
+practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct.
+Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed among
+the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and interesting
+account of what is called the “ghost gamble.” This is played with marked
+wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to the Sioux.
+Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in which this
+game is played.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig33" id = "fig33">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig33.jpg" width = "565" height = "343"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Ghost Gamble.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge of
+the effects, and at a stated time&mdash;usually at the time of the first
+feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair&mdash;they are
+divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians invited to
+play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is selected to
+represent the ghost and he plays against all the others, who are not
+required to stake anything on the result, but simply invited to take
+part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the lodge of the dead
+person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing the lock of hair. In
+cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy the stakes are furnished by
+his rich friends, should he have any. The players are called in one at a
+time, and play singly against the ghost’s representative, the gambling
+being done in recent years by means of cards. If the invited player
+succeeds in beating the ghost, he takes one of the piles of goods and
+passes out, when another is invited to play, &amp;c., until all the
+piles of goods are won. In cases of men only the men play, and in cases
+of women the women only take part in the ceremony.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">196</span>
+<a name = "page196" id = "page196"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+Before white men came among these Indians and taught them many of his
+improved vices, this game was played by means of figured plum-seeds, the
+men using eight and the women seven seeds, figured as follows, and shown
+in Figure&nbsp;34.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig34" id = "fig34">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig34.jpg" width = "316" height = "514"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Figured Plum Stones.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse containing
+nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a small spot of the color
+of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a black spot in
+the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a buffalo’s head on one
+side and the reverse simply two crossed black lines. There is but one
+seed of this kind in the set used by the women. Two seeds have half of
+one side blackened and the rest left plain, so as to represent a half
+moon; the reverse has a black longitudinal line crossed at right angles
+by six small ones. There are six throws whereby the player can win, and
+five that entitle him to another throw. The winning throws are as
+follows, each winner taking a pile of the ghost’s goods:</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig35" id = "fig35">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig35.png" width = "235" height = "211"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig36" id = "fig36">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig36.png" width = "259" height = "197"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Winning Throw No. 1.
+</td>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Winning Throw No. 2.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig37" id = "fig37">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig37.png" width = "254" height = "198"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig38" id = "fig38">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig38.png" width = "263" height = "202"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Winning Throw No. 3.
+</td>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Winning Throw No. 4.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig39" id = "fig39">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig39.png" width = "227" height = "198"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig40" id = "fig40">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig40.png" width = "223" height = "195"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;Winning Throw No. 5.
+</td>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Winning Throw No. 6.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo’s head up, and
+two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two black with
+natural spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and the
+transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two
+black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the transversely
+crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two black with natural
+spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo’s head up wins a pile. Two
+plain ones up, two with black spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones
+up, and the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain ones up,
+two with black spots up, buffalo’s head up, and two long crossed up wins
+a pile. The following auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to win:
+two plain ones up, two with black spots up, one half moon up, one
+longitudinally crossed one up, and buffalo’s head up gives another
+throw, and on this throw, if the two plain ones up and two with black
+spots with either of the half moons or buffalo’s head up, the player
+takes a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons
+up, and the transversely crossed
+<span class = "pagenum">197</span>
+<a name = "page197" id = "page197"> </a>
+one up entitles to another throw, when, if all of the black sides come
+up, excepting one, the throw wins. One of the plain ones up and all the
+rest with black sides up gives another throw, and the same then turning
+up wins. One of the plain black ones up with that side up of all the
+others having the least black on gives another throw, when the same
+turning up again wins. One half moon up, with that side up of all the
+others having the least black on gives another throw, and if the throw
+is then duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men, has its
+place in their game whenever its facings are mentioned above.
+I&nbsp;transmit with this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can
+be used to illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be
+nearly a hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare.</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig41" id = "fig41">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig41.png" width = "223" height = "200"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig42" id = "fig42">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig42.png" width = "235" height = "191"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Auxiliary Throw No. 1.
+</td>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Auxiliary Throw No. 2.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig43" id = "fig43">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig43.png" width = "259" height = "194"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig44" id = "fig44">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig44.png" width = "197" height = "189"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Auxiliary Throw No. 3.
+</td>
+<td>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Auxiliary Throw No. 4.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration" colspan = "2">
+<a name = "fig45" id = "fig45">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig45.png" width = "250" height = "200"
+alt = "see caption">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Auxiliary throw No 5.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges
+his indebtedness to Dr. C.&nbsp;C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton
+Indian Agency.</p>
+
+<p>Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the
+different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones
+sent by Dr. McChesney.</p>
+
+
+<h4>POSTS.</h4>
+
+<p>These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends,
+and have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his
+family, certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not
+the achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and
+danced at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently
+plant poles near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags,
+horses’ tails, &amp;c. The custom among the present Indians does not
+exist to any extent. Beltrami<a class = "tag" name = "tag101" id =
+"tag101" href = "#note101">101</a> speaks of it as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted by
+a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was raised,
+covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies slain by the
+tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary Manitous.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig46" id = "fig46">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig46.png" width = "408" height = "498"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Grave Posts.</p>
+
+<p>The following extract from Schoolcraft<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag102" id = "tag102" href = "#note102">102</a> relates to the burial
+posts used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 46 is after the picture
+given by this author in connection with the account quoted:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+Among the Sioux and Western Chippewas, after the body had been wrapped
+in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a scaffold or in
+a tree until the flesh is entirely decayed, after which the bones are
+buried and grave-posts fixed. At the head of the grave a tubular piece
+of cedar or other wood, called the <i>adjedatig</i>, is set. This
+grave-board contains the symbolic or representative figure, which
+records, if it be a warrior, his totem, that is to say the symbol of his
+family, or surname, and such arithmetical or other devices as seem to
+denote how many times the deceased has been in war parties, and how many
+scalps he has taken from the enemy&mdash;two facts from which his
+reputation is essentially to be derived. It is seldom that more is
+attempted in the way of inscription. Often, however, distinguished
+chiefs have their war flag,
+<span class = "pagenum">198</span>
+<a name = "page198" id = "page198"> </a>
+or, in modern days, a&nbsp;small ensign of American fabric, displayed on
+a standard at the head of their graves, which is left to fly over the
+deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps of their enemies,
+feathers of the bald or black eagle, the swallow-tailed falcon, or some
+carnivorous bird, are also placed, in such instances, on the
+<i>adjedatig</i>, or suspended, with offerings of various kinds, on a
+separate staff. But the latter are superadditions of a religious
+character, and belong to the class of the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig
+(<i>ante</i>, No.&nbsp;4). The building of a funeral fire on recent
+graves is also a rite which belongs to the consideration of their
+religious faith.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIRES.</h4>
+
+<p>It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building
+fires on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the
+soul thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that
+demons were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford
+light to the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer
+states that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the grave was to
+light the spirit on its journey. By a coincidence to be explained by the
+universal sacredness of the number, both Algonkins and Mexicans
+maintained it for four nights consecutively. The former related the
+tradition that one of their ancestors returned from the spirit land and
+informed their nation that the journey thither consumed just four days,
+and that collecting fuel every night added much to the toil and fatigue
+the soul encountered, all of which could be spared&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also
+intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Powers<a class = "tag" name = "tag103" id = "tag103" href =
+"#note103">103</a> gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity of
+the grave. They hold and believe, at least the “Big Indians” do, that
+the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely
+attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the debatable
+land, and that they require the fire to light them on their darksome
+journey. A&nbsp;righteous soul traverses the pole quicker than a wicked
+one, hence they regulate the number of nights for burning a light
+according to the character for goodness or the opposite which the
+deceased possessed in this world.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that
+a somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one
+of the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig47" id = "fig47">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig47.jpg" width = "318" height = "546"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;Grave Fire.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">199</span>
+<a name = "page199" id = "page199"> </a>
+<h4>SUPERSTITIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag104" id = "tag104" href = "#note104">104</a>
+and relates to the Hidatsa:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around the camp or
+village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his departed
+kindred in the “village of the dead.” When he has arrived there he is
+rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on earth by receiving
+the same regard in the one place as in the other, for there as here the
+brave man is honored and the coward despised. Some say that the ghosts
+of those that commit suicide occupy a separate part of the village, but
+that their condition differs in no wise from that of the others. In the
+next world human shades hunt and live in the shades of buffalo and other
+animals that have here died. There, too there are four seasons, but they
+come in an inverse order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four
+nights that the ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling,
+those who disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from
+the shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins which they leave at
+the door of the lodge. The smell of the burning leather they claim keeps
+the ghost out; but the true friends of the dead man take no such
+precautions.</p>
+
+<p>From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the
+spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather
+should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to
+speculate&nbsp;on.</p>
+
+<p>The next account, by Keating,<a class = "tag" name = "tag105" id =
+"tag105" href = "#note105">105</a> relating to the Chippewas, shows a
+slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already
+alluded&nbsp;to:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely distinct
+from the body; they call it <i>Ochechag</i>, and appear to supply to it
+the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe that it quits the
+body it the time of death, and repairs to what they term
+<i>Chekechekchekawe</i>; this region is supposed to be situated to the
+south, and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to arriving there
+they meet with a stream which they are obliged to cross upon a large
+snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those who die from drowning
+never succeed in crossing the stream; they are thrown into it and remain
+there forever. Some souls come to the edge of the stream, but are
+prevented from passing by the snake, which threatens to devour them;
+these are the souls of the persons in a lethargy or trance. Being
+refused a passage these souls return to their bodies and reanimate them.
+They believe that animals have souls, and even that inorganic
+substances, such as kettles, &amp;c., have in them a similar
+essence.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">200</span>
+<a name = "page200" id = "page200"> </a>
+<p class = "quotation">
+In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits. Those
+who have been good men are free from pain; they have no duties to
+perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing, and they feed upon
+mushrooms, which are very abundant. The souls of bad men are haunted by
+the phantom of the persons or things that they have injured; thus, if a
+man has destroyed much property the phantoms of the wrecks of this
+property obstruct his passage wherever he goes; if he has been cruel to
+his dogs or horses they also torment him after death. The ghosts of
+those whom during his lifetime he wronged are there permitted to avenge
+their injuries. They think that when a soul has crossed the stream it
+cannot return to its body, yet they believe in apparitions, and
+entertain the opinion that the spirits of the departed will frequently
+revisit the abodes of their friends in order to invite them to the other
+world, and to forewarn them of their approaching dissolution.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number
+of examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is shown
+by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the
+<i>pet-chi-é-ri</i> the mere mention of the dead relative’s name. It is
+a deadly insult to the survivors, and can be atoned for only by the same
+amount of blood-money paid for willful murder. In default of that they
+will have the villain’s blood. <span class = "ellipsis">***</span> At
+the mention of his name the mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and
+groans. They do not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place.
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> They believe that the soul of a good
+Karok goes to the “happy western land” beyond the great ocean. That they
+have a well-grounded assurance of an immortality beyond the grave is
+proven, if not otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical custom of
+whispering a message in the ear of the dead. <span class =
+"ellipsis">***</span> Believe that dancing will liberate some relative’s
+soul from bonds of death, and restore him to earth.</p>
+
+<p>According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies
+away with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk
+will catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he
+was good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states
+that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of the
+dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes. When I asked
+the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for “father” and
+“mother” and certain others similar, he shook his head mournfully and
+said, “All dead,” “All dead,” “No good.” They are forbidden to mention
+the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult to the relatives, <span
+class = "ellipsis">***</span> and that the Mat-tóal hold that the good
+depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but the
+soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which they
+consider, of all animals, the cousin-german of sin.</p>
+
+<p>The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows
+regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+<span class = "ellipsis">***</span> It has always been one of the most
+passionate desires among the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the
+Shastika, to live, die, and be buried where they were born. Some of
+their usages in regard to the dead and their burial may be gathered from
+an incident that occurred while the captives of 1873 were on their way
+from the Lava Beds to Fort Klamath, as it was described by an
+eye-witness. Curly-headed Jack, a&nbsp;prominent warrior, committed
+suicide with a pistol. His mother and female friends gathered about him
+and set up a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood
+and endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life. The mother
+took his head in her lap and scooped the blood from his ear, another old
+woman placed her hand upon his heart, and a third blew in his face. The
+sight of the group&mdash;these poor old women, whose grief was
+unfeigned, and the dying man&mdash;was terrible in its sadness.
+<span class = "pagenum">201</span>
+<a name = "page201" id = "page201"> </a>
+Outside the tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim,
+Steamboat Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had been the dying
+man’s companions from childhood, all affected to tears. When he was
+lowered into the grave, before the soldiers began to cover the body,
+Huka Jim was seen running eagerly about the camp trying to exchange a
+two-dollar bill of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior that
+amount of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency would be
+of any use to him in the other world&mdash;sad commentary on our
+national currency!&mdash;and desired to have the coin instead. Procuring
+it from one of the soldiers he cast it in and seemed greatly relieved.
+All the dead man’s other effects, consisting of clothing, trinkets, and
+a half dollar, were interred with him, together with some root-flour as
+victual for the journey to the spirit land.</p>
+
+<p>The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead
+may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag106" id = "tag106" href = "#note106">106</a> It regards the
+natives of Washington Territory:</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is this: It is the
+universal custom with these Indians never to live in a lodge where a
+person has died. If a person of importance dies, the lodge is usually
+burned down, or taken down and removed to some other part of the bay;
+and it can be readily seen that in the case of the Palux Indians, who
+had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before stated, their
+relatives chose at once to leave for some other place. This objection to
+living in a lodge where a person has died is the reason why their sick
+slaves are invariably carried out into the woods, where they remain
+either to recover or die. There is, however, no disputing the fact that
+an immense mortality has occurred among these people, and they are now
+reduced to a mere handful.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead person, and
+their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes give rise to a difficulty
+as to who shall perform the funeral ceremonies; for any person who
+handles a dead body must not eat of salmon or sturgeon for thirty days.
+Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I&nbsp;have known them leave the
+corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in two instances that
+came to my knowledge, the whites had to burn the lodges, with the bodies
+in them, to prevent infection.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had buried
+Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could be seen. All kept
+in their lodges, singing and drumming to keep away the spirits of the
+dead.</p>
+
+<p>According to Bancroft<a class = "tag" name = "tag107" id = "tag107"
+href = "#note107">107</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after death
+transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while the nobler became
+stars and beautiful birds.</p>
+
+<p>The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and
+superstitiously avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard
+resembling those of our own country.</p>
+
+<p>Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought,
+to enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed
+final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and
+while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on
+hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire
+for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper,
+that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of
+the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to
+induce further investigation and contribution from careful and
+conscientious
+<span class = "pagenum">202</span>
+<a name = "page202" id = "page202"> </a>
+observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and correspondence
+given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in short, most of
+them may serve as copies for preparation of similar material.</p>
+
+<p>To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are
+also given.</p>
+
+<p><i>1st.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Name of the tribe</span>;
+present appellation; former, if differing any; and that used by the
+Indians themselves.</p>
+
+<p><i>2d.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Locality, present and
+former.</span>&mdash;The response should give the range of the tribe and
+be full and geographically accurate.</p>
+
+<p><i>3d.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Deaths and funeral
+ceremonies</span>; what are the important and characteristic facts
+connected with these subjects? How is the corpse prepared after death
+and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it spoken to after death as
+if alive? when and where? What is the character of the addresses? What
+articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food put in the grave, or in
+or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an ancient custom? Are persons
+of the same gens buried together; and is the clan distinction obsolete,
+or did it ever prevail?</p>
+
+<p><i>4th.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Manner of burial, ancient and
+modern; structure and position of the graves;
+cremation.</span>&mdash;Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are
+scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction
+of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in
+skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are
+suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the
+water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be
+given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial
+posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of
+position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation,
+or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of
+remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if
+any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been
+used, describe them.</p>
+
+<p><i>5th.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Mourning
+observances.</span>&mdash;Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?</p>
+
+<p><i>6th.</i> <span class = "smallcaps">Burial traditions and
+superstitions.</span>&mdash;Give in full all that
+<span class = "pagenum">203</span>
+<a name = "page203" id = "page203"> </a>
+can be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.</p>
+
+<p>In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the “why” and “wherefore” for every rite and custom; for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>Any material the result of careful observation will be most
+gratefully received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer
+must here confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have
+already contributed, a&nbsp;number so large that limited space precludes
+a mention of their individual names.</p>
+
+<p>Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those
+interested in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in
+general. Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with
+curious forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.</p>
+
+<p>The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos.
+Sinclair &amp; Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made
+by Mr. W.&nbsp;H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended
+their preparation.</p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div maintext -->
+
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4>
+
+<p><a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a>
+Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1853, pt. 3, p. 193.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a>
+Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a>
+Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a>
+Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p. 270.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a>
+Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note6" id = "note6" href = "#tag6">6.</a>
+Voy. dans l’Arizona, in Bull. Soc. de Géographie, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note7" id = "note7" href = "#tag7">7.</a>
+Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. 1, p. 555.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note8" id = "note8" href = "#tag8">8.</a>
+Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note9" id = "note9" href = "#tag9">9.</a>
+L’incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1, p.&nbsp;439.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note10" id = "note10" href = "#tag10">10.</a>
+Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note11" id = "note11" href = "#tag11">11.</a>
+Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States, 1853, Pt. 3,
+p.&nbsp;140.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note12" id = "note12" href = "#tag12">12.</a>
+U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note13" id = "note13" href = "#tag13">13.</a>
+Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841, p.&nbsp;252.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note14" id = "note14" href = "#tag14">14.</a>
+Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note15" id = "note15" href = "#tag15">15.</a>
+Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to Knowledge. No. 259,
+1876. Pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55,&nbsp;82.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note16" id = "note16" href = "#tag16">16.</a>
+Pop. Sc. Month., Sept., 1877, p. 577.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note17" id = "note17" href = "#tag17">17.</a>
+Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, p.&nbsp;780.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note18" id = "note18" href = "#tag18">18.</a>
+A detailed account of this exploration, with many illustrations, will be
+found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge,
+1878.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note19" id = "note19" href = "#tag19">19.</a>
+Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name = "note20" id = "note20" href = "#tag20">20.</a>
+American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note21" id = "note21" href = "#tag21">21.</a>
+Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note22" id = "note22" href = "#tag22">22.</a>
+Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 513.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note23" id = "note23" href = "#tag23">23.</a>
+Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 515.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note24" id = "note24" href = "#tag24">24.</a>
+A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida, 1775.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note25" id = "note25" href = "#tag25">25.</a>
+Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp. 241-243.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note26" id = "note26" href = "#tag26">26.</a>
+Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i, p.&nbsp;464.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note27" id = "note27" href = "#tag27">27.</a>
+Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note28" id = "note28" href = "#tag28">28.</a>
+Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 62.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note29" id = "note29" href = "#tag29">29.</a>
+Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note30" id = "note30" href = "#tag30">30.</a>
+Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note31" id = "note31" href = "#tag31">31.</a>
+Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp. 155 <i>et
+seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name = "note32" id = "note32" href = "#tag32">32.</a>
+Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note33" id = "note33" href = "#tag33">33.</a>
+Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll. Amer. Antiq. Soc.,
+1820, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;318.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note34" id = "note34" href = "#tag34">34.</a>
+A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age, discovered in Kentucky,
+is now in the cabinet of the American Antiquarian Society. It is a
+female. Several human bodies were found enwrapped carefully in skins and
+cloths. They were inhumed below the floor of the cave; <i>inhumed</i>,
+and not lodged in catacombs.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note35" id = "note35" href = "#tag35">35.</a>
+Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note36" id = "note36" href = "#tag36">36.</a>
+Billings’ Exped., 1802, p. 161.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note37" id = "note37" href = "#tag37">37.</a>
+Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note38" id = "note38" href = "#tag38">38.</a>
+Rawlinson’s Herodotus, Book i, chap. 198, <i>note</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note39" id = "note39" href = "#tag39">39.</a>
+Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 455 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note40" id = "note40" href = "#tag40">40.</a>
+Manners, Customs, &amp;c., of North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii,
+p.&nbsp;5.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note41" id = "note41" href = "#tag41">41.</a>
+Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p.&nbsp;483.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note42" id = "note42" href = "#tag42">42.</a>
+Hist. de l’Amérique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii, p.&nbsp;43.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note43" id = "note43" href = "#tag43">43.</a>
+Pioneer Life, 1872.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note44" id = "note44" href = "#tag44">44.</a>
+I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was undoubtedly an
+exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island) the bluffs on the
+peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River (three miles distant) were
+thickly studded with Indian grave mounds, showing conclusively that
+subterranean was the usual mode of burial. In making roads, streets, and
+digging foundations, skulls, bones, trinkets, beads, etc., in great
+numbers, were exhumed, proving that many things (according to the wealth
+or station of survivors) were deposited in the graves. In 1836 I
+witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner stated.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">P.&nbsp;Gregg</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note45" id = "note45" href = "#tag45">45.</a>
+Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist. Soc. (1879?),
+p.&nbsp;107.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note46" id = "note46" href = "#tag46">46.</a>
+Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note47" id = "note47" href = "#tag47">47.</a>
+The Last Act, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note48" id = "note48" href = "#tag48">48.</a>
+Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note49" id = "note49" href = "#tag49">49.</a>
+Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part IV,
+p.&nbsp;224.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note50" id = "note50" href = "#tag50">50.</a>
+Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii, p.&nbsp;387.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note51" id = "note51" href = "#tag51">51.</a>
+Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note52" id = "note52" href = "#tag52">52.</a>
+Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part iii,
+p.&nbsp;112.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note53" id = "note53" href = "#tag53">53.</a>
+Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note54" id = "note54" href = "#tag54">54.</a>
+Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878<ins class = "correction"
+title = "text has . for ,">, </ins>p. 753.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note55" id = "note55" href = "#tag55">55.</a>
+Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-’76, p. 64.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note56" id = "note56" href = "#tag56">56.</a>
+Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 149.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note57" id = "note57" href = "#tag57">57.</a>
+Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874, p. 168.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note58" id = "note58" href = "#tag58">58.</a>
+Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note59" id = "note59" href = "#tag59">59.</a>
+Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah, 1852,
+p.&nbsp;43.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note60" id = "note60" href = "#tag60">60.</a>
+Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol.&nbsp;i,
+p.&nbsp;332.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note61" id = "note61" href = "#tag61">61.</a>
+Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. i, p. 780.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note62" id = "note62" href = "#tag62">62.</a>
+Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p. 286.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note63" id = "note63" href = "#tag63">63.</a>
+Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol. i, p. 69.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note64" id = "note64" href = "#tag64">64.</a>
+Travels in Alaska, 1869, p. 100.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note65" id = "note65" href = "#tag65">65.</a>
+Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note66" id = "note66" href = "#tag66">66.</a>
+Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note67" id = "note67" href = "#tag67">67.</a>
+Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note68" id = "note68" href = "#tag68">68.</a>
+Long’s Exped. to the St. Peter’s River, 1824, p. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note69" id = "note69" href = "#tag69">69.</a>
+L’incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome i, p.&nbsp;475, <i>et
+seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name = "note70" id = "note70" href = "#tag70">70.</a>
+The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that the custom still
+prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the Moravian settlement of
+Salem, N.C.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note71" id = "note71" href = "#tag71">71.</a>
+Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note72" id = "note72" href = "#tag72">72.</a>
+Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. ii, p.&nbsp;774, <i>et
+seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name = "note73" id = "note73" href = "#tag73">73.</a>
+Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note74" id = "note74" href = "#tag74">74.</a>
+Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note75" id = "note75" href = "#tag75">75.</a>
+Bartram’s Travels, 1791, p. 516.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note76" id = "note76" href = "#tag76">76.</a>
+“Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have given it as their
+opinion that all those pyramidal artificial hills, usually called Indian
+mounds, were raised on this occasion, and are generally sepulchers.
+However, I&nbsp;am of different opinion.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note77" id = "note77" href = "#tag77">77.</a>
+League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note78" id = "note78" href = "#tag78">78.</a>
+Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note79" id = "note79" href = "#tag79">79.</a>
+Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note80" id = "note80" href = "#tag80">80.</a>
+Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note81" id = "note81" href = "#tag81">81.</a>
+Cont. N. A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p. 200.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note82" id = "note82" href = "#tag82">82.</a>
+Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p.&nbsp;483.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note83" id = "note83" href = "#tag83">83.</a>
+Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859, p.&nbsp;48.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note84" id = "note84" href = "#tag84">84.</a>
+Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii, p.&nbsp;141.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note85" id = "note85" href = "#tag85">85.</a>
+Mœurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note86" id = "note86" href = "#tag86">86.</a>
+Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note87" id = "note87" href = "#tag87">87.</a>
+Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note88" id = "note88" href = "#tag88">88.</a>
+Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731, 744.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note89" id = "note89" href = "#tag89">89.</a>
+Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note90" id = "note90" href = "#tag90">90.</a>
+Bossu’s Travels (Forster’s translation), 1771, p.&nbsp;38.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note91" id = "note91" href = "#tag91">91.</a>
+At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the victims swallow
+little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make them giddy, and as it
+were to take the sensation of pain from them; after that they were all
+strangled and put upon mats, the favorite on the right, the other wife
+on the left, and the others according to their rank.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note92" id = "note92" href = "#tag92">92.</a>
+The established distinctions among these Indians were as follows: The
+Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the highest rank; next come the
+Nobles; after them the Honorables; and last of all the common people,
+who were very much despised. As the nobility was propagated by the
+women, this contributed much to multiply&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note93" id = "note93" href = "#tag93">93.</a>
+The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the fires, which is only
+done at the death of the sovereign.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note94" id = "note94" href = "#tag94">94.</a>
+Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note95" id = "note95" href = "#tag95">95.</a>
+Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note96" id = "note96" href = "#tag96">96.</a>
+Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note97" id = "note97" href = "#tag97">97.</a>
+Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii, p.&nbsp;164.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note98" id = "note98" href = "#tag98">98.</a>
+League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note99" id = "note99" href = "#tag99">99.</a>
+Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note100" id = "note100" href = "#tag100">100.</a>
+Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note101" id = "note101" href = "#tag101">101.</a>
+Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note102" id = "note102" href = "#tag102">102.</a>
+Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851, part i, p.&nbsp;356.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note103" id = "note103" href = "#tag103">103.</a>
+Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note104" id = "note104" href = "#tag104">104.</a>
+Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr.,
+1877, p.&nbsp;409.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note105" id = "note105" href = "#tag105">105.</a>
+Long’s Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note106" id = "note106" href = "#tag106">106.</a>
+Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note107" id = "note107" href = "#tag107">107.</a>
+Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "index">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">[739]</span>
+<a name = "page739" id = "page739"> </a>
+<h3><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h3>
+
+
+
+<p>Abiquiu, Ancient cemetery of &nbsp; <a href = "#page111">111</a></p>
+
+<p>Acaxers and Yaquis, cairn burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>“Adjedatig” &nbsp; <a href = "#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p>Aerial burial in canoes, Chinooks &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page171">171</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">sepulture, &nbsp; <a href = "#page152">152</a></p>
+
+<p>Alaric’s burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Alaska cave burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page129">129</a></p>
+
+<p>Alaskan mummies &nbsp; <a href = "#page134">134</a>, <a href =
+"#page135">135</a></p>
+
+<p>Alden, E. H., Scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Aleutian Islanders, embalmment &nbsp; <a href = "#page135">135</a>,
+<a href = "#page136">136</a></p>
+
+<p>Algonkins, Burial fires of the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page198">198</a></p>
+
+<p>Alibamans, Aquatic burial of suicides by &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Allen, Miss A. J., Burial sacrifice &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page189">189</a></p>
+
+<p>Ancient burial customs of barbaric tribes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page152">152</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">cemetery of Abiquiu &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page111">111</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">nations, Tree burial of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Ancients, Curious mourning observances &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Antiquity of cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Apingi burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page125">125</a>, <a href =
+"#page126">126</a></p>
+
+<p>Aquatic burial, Alibamans, of suicides &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Cherokees &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Chinooks &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Gosh-Utes &nbsp; <a href = "#page181">181</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Hyperboreans &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Ichthyophagi &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Itzas &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Kavague &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Lotophagians &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Obongo &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Ascena or Timber Indians &nbsp; <a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Atwater, Caleb, Burial mounds &nbsp; <a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Australian scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page167">167</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[740]</span>
+<a name = "page740" id = "page740"> </a>
+
+<p>Aztecs and Taracos, Burial sacrifice &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page190">190</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_B" id = "index_B">Baldwin</a>, C. C., Pottawatomie
+surface burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Balearic Islanders, Cairn burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Bancroft, H. H., Burial sacrifice &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page190">190</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Canoe burial in ground &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Costa Rica hut burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Doracho cist burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page115">115</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux burial boxes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page155">155</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Mourning, Central Americans &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page185">185</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Pima burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page098">98</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Superstitions regarding dead &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page201">201</a></p>
+
+<p>Barbaric tribes, Ancient burial customs of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page152">152</a></p>
+
+<p>Barber, E. A., Burial urns &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Partial cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page151">151</a></p>
+
+<p>Bari of Africa, burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page125">125</a></p>
+
+<p>Bartram, John, Cabin burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page122">122</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Choctaw ossuary &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page120">120</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Partial scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page169">169</a></p>
+
+<p>Bechuana burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+
+<p>Beckwourth, James, Crow mourning &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page183">183</a></p>
+
+<p>Beechey, Capt. F. W., Lodge burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+
+<p>Beltrami, J. C., Burial feast &nbsp; <a href = "#page190">190</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Burial posts &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p>Benson, H. C., Choctaw burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page186">186</a></p>
+
+<p>Bessels, Dr. Emil, Esquimaux superstition &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page198">198</a></p>
+
+<p>Beverly, Robert, Virginia mummies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page131">131</a></p>
+
+<p>Birgan, Meaning of word &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+
+<p>Blackbird’s burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page139">139</a></p>
+
+<p>Blackfeet burial lodges &nbsp; <a href = "#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">cairn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">tree burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Bonaks, Cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page144">144</a></p>
+
+<p>Bone cleaning of the dead &nbsp; <a href = "#page168">168</a></p>
+
+<p>Boner, J. H., Moravian mourning &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Bossu, M., Burial denied to suicides &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Boteler, Dr. W. C., Oto burial ceremonies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page096">96</a></p>
+
+<p>Box burial, Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page155">155</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux &nbsp; <a href = "#page155">155</a>,
+<a href = "#page156">156</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Talomeco River &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page155">155</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Innuits and Ingaliks &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page156">156</a>, <a href = "#page158">158</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Kalosh &nbsp; <a href = "#page156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Bransford, Dr. J. C., U.S.N., Burial urns discovered by &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page138">138</a></p>
+
+<p>Brebeuf, Pere de, Burial feast &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Brice, W. A., Surface burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Brinton, Dr. D. G., Burial of collected bones &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page170">170</a></p>
+
+<p>Bruhier, J. J., Corsican customs &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page147">147</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Persian burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Brule Sioux, tree and scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page158">158</a>, <a href = "#page160">160</a></p>
+
+<p>Burchard, J. L., Pit burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page124">124</a></p>
+
+<p>Butterfield, H., Shoshone cairn burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Burial, Apingi &nbsp; <a href = "#page125">125</a>, <a href =
+"#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Aquatic &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">canoes and houses &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page177">177-179</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Bari of Africa &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page125">125</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Bechuanas &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page122">122</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Box &nbsp; <a href = "#page155">155</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Carolina tribes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page093">93</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Caddos &nbsp; <a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Cairn &nbsp; <a href = "#page142">142</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Cairn, Ute &nbsp; <a href = "#page142">142</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">case, Cheyenne &nbsp; <a href = "#page162">162</a>,
+<a href = "#page163">163</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Cave &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Chieftain, of the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page110">110</a>, <a href = "#page111">111</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Classification of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page092">92-93</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Damara &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">dance, Yo-kaí-a &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a>,
+<a href = "#page194">194</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">dances &nbsp; <a href = "#page193">193</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">feast, Description of, by Beltrami &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page190">190</a>, <a href = "#page191">191</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Hurons, of the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page191">191</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">feasts &nbsp; <a href = "#page190">190</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, superstitions regarding &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page191">191</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">fires, Algonkins &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page198">198</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Yurok &nbsp; <a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Esquimaux &nbsp; <a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">food &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">games &nbsp; <a href = "#page195">195</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Grave &nbsp; <a href = "#page101">101</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Ground, in canoes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">in logs &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href
+= "#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">in mounds &nbsp; <a href = "#page115">115</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">in standing posture &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page151">151</a>, <a href = "#page152">152</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Virginia &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page125">125</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Iroquois &nbsp; <a href = "#page140">140</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Kaffir &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Klamath and Trinity Indians &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page106">106</a>, <a href = "#page107">107</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Latookas &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Lodge &nbsp; <a href = "#page152">152</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">lodges, Blackfeet &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Cheyenne &nbsp; <a href = "#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Shoshone &nbsp; <a href = "#page153">153</a>,
+<a href = "#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Muscogulges &nbsp; <a href = "#page122">122</a>,
+<a href = "#page123">123</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Meaning and derivation of word &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page093">93</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Moquis, &nbsp; <a href = "#page114">114</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Navajo, &nbsp; <a href = "#page123">123</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Obongo, &nbsp; <a href = "#page139">139</a>,
+<a href = "#page140">140</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Alaric, &nbsp; <a href = "#page181">181</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Blackbird, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of De Soto, &nbsp; <a href = "#page181">181</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Long Horse, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page153">153</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Ouray, &nbsp; <a href = "#page128">128</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Parsee, &nbsp; <a href = "#page105">105</a>,
+<a href = "#page106">106</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Pit, &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Pitt River Indians, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page151">151</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">posts, Sioux and Chippewa, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page197">197</a>, <a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Round Valley Indians, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page124">124</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">sacrifice, Aztecs and Tarascos, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page190">190</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Northwest, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Panama, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Natchez, &nbsp; <a href = "#page187">187</a>,
+<a href = "#page189">189</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Tsinūk, &nbsp; <a href = "#page179">179</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Wascopums, &nbsp; <a href = "#page189">189</a>,
+<a href = "#page190">190</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Sacs and Foxes, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page094">94</a>, <a href = "#page095">95</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">scaffolds, &nbsp; <a href = "#page162">162</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">song, Schiller’s, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page110">110</a>, <a href = "#page111">111</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">of Basques and others, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page195">195</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">superstitions, Chippewas, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page199">199</a>, <a href = "#page200">200</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Washington Territory, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page201">201</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Karok, &nbsp; <a href = "#page200">200</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Kelta, &nbsp; <a href = "#page200">200</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Modocs, &nbsp; <a href = "#page200">200</a>,
+<a href = "#page201">201</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Mosquito Indians, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page201">201</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Tlascaltecs, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page201">201</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Tolowa, &nbsp; <a href = "#page200">200</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Surface, &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a>,
+<a href = "#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Urn, &nbsp; <a href = "#page137">137</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">and cover, Georgia, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page138">138</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, New Mexico, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page138">138</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_C" id = "index_C">Cabins</a>, wigwams, or houses,
+Burial beneath or in, &nbsp; <a href = "#page122">122</a></p>
+
+<p>Caddos, Burial, &nbsp; <a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Cairn burial, Acaxers and Yaquis, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Balearic Islanders, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Blackfeet, &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux, &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Kiowas and Comanches, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page142">142</a>, <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Pi-Utes, &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Reasons for, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Shoshonis, &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Calaveras Cave, &nbsp; <a href = "#page128">128</a>, <a href =
+"#page129">129</a></p>
+
+<p>California steatite burial urn, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page138">138</a></p>
+
+<p>Campbell, John, Burial songs, &nbsp; <a href = "#page195">195</a></p>
+
+<p>Canes sepulchrales, &nbsp; <a href = "#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p>Canoe burial in ground, &nbsp; <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Mosquito Indians, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a>, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Santa Barbara, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Clallam, &nbsp; <a href = "#page173">173</a>,
+<a href = "#page174">174</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Twana, &nbsp; <a href = "#page171">171</a>,
+<a href = "#page173">173</a></p>
+
+<p>Canoes and houses, Burial, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page177">177-179</a></p>
+
+<p>Canoes, Superterrene and aerial burial in, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page171">171</a></p>
+
+<p>Caraibs, Verification of death, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Carolina tribes, Burial among, &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+
+<p>Catlin, George, Burial of Blackbird, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Golgotha of Mandans, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page170">170</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Mourning cradle, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Cave burial, &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Alaska, &nbsp; <a href = "#page129">129</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Calaveras, &nbsp; <a href = "#page128">128</a>,
+<a href = "#page129">129</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Utes, &nbsp; <a href = "#page127">127</a>, <a href
+= "#page128">128</a></p>
+
+<p>Cherokee aquatic burial, &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Cheyenne burial case, &nbsp; <a href = "#page162">162</a>, <a href =
+"#page163">163</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">lodges, &nbsp; <a href = "#page154">154</a></p>
+
+<p>Chillicothe mound, &nbsp; <a href = "#page117">117</a>, <a href =
+"#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Chinook aerial burial in canoes, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page171">171</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">aquatic burial, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mourning cradle, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page181">181</a>, <a href = "#page182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Chippewa burial superstitions, &nbsp; <a href = "#page199">199</a>,
+<a href = "#page200">200</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mourning, &nbsp; <a href = "#page184">184</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">scaffold burial, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page161">161</a>, <a href = "#page162">162</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">widow, &nbsp; <a href = "#page184">184</a>, <a href
+= "#page185">185</a></p>
+
+<p>Choctaw mound burial, &nbsp; <a href = "#page120">120</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">scaffold burial, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page169">169</a></p>
+
+<p>Choctaws funeral ceremonies, &nbsp; <a href = "#page186">186</a></p>
+
+<p>Cist burial, Doracho, &nbsp; <a href = "#page115">115</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">graves, Kentucky, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a>, <a href = "#page115">115</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Indians of Illinois, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>Cists or stone graves, &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Solutré, &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Tennessee, &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Clallam canoe burial, &nbsp; <a href = "#page173">173</a>, <a href =
+"#page174">174</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">house burial, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page175">175</a></p>
+
+<p>Classification of burial, &nbsp; <a href = "#page092">92</a></p>
+
+<p>Cleveland, Wm. J., Tree and scaffold burial, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page158">158</a></p>
+
+<p>Collected bones, Interment of, &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page170">170</a></p>
+
+<p>Comanche inhumation, &nbsp; <a href = "#page099">99</a>, <a href =
+"#page100">100</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[742]</span>
+<a name = "page742" id = "page742"> </a>
+
+<p>Congaree and Santee Indians, embalmment &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page132">132</a>, <a href = "#page133">133</a></p>
+
+<p>Corsican funeral custom &nbsp; <a href = "#page147">147</a></p>
+
+<p>Cox, Ross, Cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page144">144</a></p>
+
+<p>Coyotero Apaches, Inhumation &nbsp; <a href = "#page111">111</a>,
+<a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Cradle, mourning, Illustration of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Crock, Choctaw, and Cherokee box burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page155">155</a></p>
+
+<p>Creeks and Seminoles, Inhumation &nbsp; <a href = "#page095">95</a>,
+<a href = "#page096">96</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, “Hallelujah” of the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page195">195</a></p>
+
+<p>Cremation, Antiquity of &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Bonaks &nbsp; <a href = "#page144">144</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">furnace &nbsp; <a href = "#page149">149</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Clear Lake &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page147">147</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Southern Utah &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page149">149</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mound, Florida &nbsp; <a href = "#page148">148</a>,
+<a href = "#page149">149</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Nishinams &nbsp; <a href = "#page144">144</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Partial &nbsp; <a href = "#page150">150</a>,
+<a href = "#page151">151</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Se-nél &nbsp; <a href = "#page147">147</a>,
+<a href = "#page148">148</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Tolkotins &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page144">144-146</a></p>
+
+<p>Crow lodge burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mourning &nbsp; <a href = "#page183">183</a>,
+<a href = "#page184">184</a></p>
+
+<p>Curious mourning observances of ancients &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Curtiss, E., Exploration by &nbsp; <a href = "#page115">115</a>,
+<a href = "#page116">116</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_D" id = "index_D">Dakhnias</a> &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p>Dall, W. H., Burial boxes &nbsp; <a href = "#page156">156</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Cave burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page129">129</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Mummies &nbsp; <a href = "#page134">134</a></p>
+
+<p>Damara burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+
+<p>Dance for the dead &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a></p>
+
+<p>Dances, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a></p>
+
+<p>Danish burial logs &nbsp; <a href = "#page139">139</a></p>
+
+<p>Dead, Dance for the &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a></p>
+
+<p>Delano, A., Tree burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Description of burial feast &nbsp; <a href = "#page190">190</a>,
+<a href = "#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>De Soto’s burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Devouring the dead, Fans of Africa &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of South America &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a>, <a href = "#page183">183</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Massageties, Padæns, and others &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Dolmens in Japan &nbsp; <a href = "#page115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Doracho cist burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Drew, Benjamin, Schiller’s burial song &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page110">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Dumont, M. Butel de, House burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page124">124</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_E" id = "index_E">Eells</a>, Rev. M., Canoe burial
+&nbsp; <a href = "#page171">171</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[743]</span>
+<a name = "page743" id = "page743"> </a>
+
+<p>Embalmment, Aleutian Islanders. &nbsp; <a href = "#page135">135</a>,
+<a href = "#page136">136</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Congaree and Santee Indians &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page132">132</a>, <a href = "#page133">133</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, or mummification &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page130">130</a></p>
+
+<p>Engelhardt, Prof. C. &nbsp; <a href = "#page139">139</a></p>
+
+<p>Esquimaux box burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page155">155</a>, <a href =
+"#page156">156</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">burial fires &nbsp; <a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">cairn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">lodge burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page154">154</a></p>
+
+<p>European ossuaries &nbsp; <a href = "#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Excavation of Indian mound, North Carolina &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page120">120-122</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_F" id = "index_F">Fans</a> of Africa devour the dead
+&nbsp; <a href = "#page182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Feasts, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page190">190</a></p>
+
+<p>Fires, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+
+<p>Fiske, Moses, Cists &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Florida cremation mound &nbsp; <a href = "#page148">148</a>, <a href
+= "#page149">149</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mound burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page119">119</a>,
+<a href = "#page120">120</a></p>
+
+<p>Food, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a></p>
+
+<p>Ford, Lieut. Geo. E., U.S.A., Cabin burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page123">123</a></p>
+
+<p>Foreman, Dr. E., Burial urns &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page149">149</a></p>
+
+<p>Foster, J. W., Urn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page137">137</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page150">150</a></p>
+
+<p>Funeral ceremonies, Choctaws &nbsp; <a href = "#page186">186</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Twanas and Clallams &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page176">176</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">custom, Corsican &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page147">147</a></p>
+
+<p>Furnace, Cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page149">149</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_G" id = "index_G">Gageby</a>, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Box
+burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page155">155</a></p>
+
+<p>Games, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page195">195</a></p>
+
+<p>Gardner, Dr. W., U.S.A., Theory of scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page167">167</a></p>
+
+<p>Ghost gamble &nbsp; <a href = "#page195">195-197</a></p>
+
+<p>Gianque, Florian, Mound burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page120">120</a></p>
+
+<p>Gibbs, George &nbsp; <a href = "#page106">106</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Burial canoes and houses &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page177">177</a></p>
+
+<p>Gilbert, G. K., Klamath burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page147">147</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Moquis burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>Gillman, Henry, Exploration of mound &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p>Given, Dr. O. G., Cairn burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page142">142</a></p>
+
+<p>“Golgothas,” Mandans &nbsp; <a href = "#page170">170</a></p>
+
+<p>Gosh-Utes, Aquatic burial amongst &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Grave burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page101">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Gregg, Dr. P., Surface burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce, Comanche inhumation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page099">99</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Wichita burial customs &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page102">102</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[744]</span>
+<a name = "page744" id = "page744"> </a>
+
+<p>Grossman, Capt. F. E., Pima burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page098">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Gros Ventres and Mandans, Scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page161">161</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+“Hallelujah” of the Creeks &nbsp; <a href = "#page195">195</a></p>
+
+<p>Hammond, Dr. J. F., Burial lodges &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+
+<p>Hardisty, W. L., Log burial in trees &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Hidatsa superstitions &nbsp; <a href = "#page199">199</a></p>
+
+<p>Hind, Henry Youle, Burial feast &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Hoffman, Dr. W. J. &nbsp; <a href = "#page099">99</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Drawing of Pima burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page111">111</a>, <a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Holbrook, W. C., Burial mounds &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Holmes, W. H., Drawings by &nbsp; <a href = "#page106">106</a>,
+<a href = "#page203">203</a></p>
+
+<p>Hough, Franklin B., Canoe burial in the ground &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>House burial, Clallams &nbsp; <a href = "#page175">175</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Paskagoulas and Billoxis &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page124">124</a>, <a href = "#page125">125</a></p>
+
+<p>Hurons, Burial feast of &nbsp; <a href = "#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Hyperboreans, aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_I" id = "index_I">Ichthyophagi</a>, aquatic burial
+&nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Illinois mounds &nbsp; <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Indian mound in North Carolina, Excavation of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page120">120-122</a></p>
+
+<p>Indians of Bellingham Bay, lodge burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Clear Lake, cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page147">147</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Costa Rica, lodge burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Illinois, cist burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Northwest, burial sacrifice &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Panama, burial sacrifice &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of South America devour the dead &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a>, <a href = "#page183">183</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Southern Utah, cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page149">149</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Talomeco River, box burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page155">155</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Taos, inhumation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page101">101</a>, <a href = "#page102">102</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Virginia, burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page125">125</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of Washington Territory, burial superstition &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page201">201</a></p>
+
+<p>Inhumation &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Comanches &nbsp; <a href = "#page099">99</a>,
+<a href = "#page100">100</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Coyotero Apaches &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page111">111</a>, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Creeks and Seminoles &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page095">95</a>, <a href = "#page096">96</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Taos &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page101">101</a>, <a href = "#page102">102</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Mohawks &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Otoe and Missouri Indians. &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page096">96</a>, <a href = "#page097">97</a>, <a href =
+"#page098">98</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Pimas &nbsp; <a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href
+= "#page099">99</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page107">107-110</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Wichitas &nbsp; <a href = "#page102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Yuki &nbsp; <a href = "#page099">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Innuit and Ingalik box burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page156">156-158</a></p>
+
+<p>Interment of collected bones &nbsp; <a href = "#page170">170</a></p>
+
+<p>Iroquois scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page169">169</a>, <a href
+= "#page170">170</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Itzas, Aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_J" id = "index_J">Japan</a> dolmens &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Jenkes, Col. C. W., Partial cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page150">150</a></p>
+
+<p>Johnston, Adam, Cremation myth &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page144">144</a></p>
+
+<p>Jones, Dr. Charles C., Stone graves of Tennessee &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Natchez burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page169">169</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[745]</span>
+<a name = "page745" id = "page745"> </a>
+
+<p>Joseph, Judge Anthony, Inhumation of Taos Indians &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page101">101</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_K" id = "index_K">Kaffir</a> burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page126">126</a></p>
+
+<p>Kalosh box burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Kavague aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Kaw-a-wāh &nbsp; <a href = "#page142">142</a></p>
+
+<p>Keating, William H., Burial scaffolds &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page162">162</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Burial superstitions &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page199">199</a></p>
+
+<p>“Keeping the Ghost” &nbsp; <a href = "#page160">160</a></p>
+
+<p>Kent, M. B., Sac and Fox burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page094">94</a></p>
+
+<p>Kentucky cist graves &nbsp; <a href = "#page114">114</a>, <a href =
+"#page115">115</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mummies &nbsp; <a href = "#page133">133</a></p>
+
+<p>Kiowa and Comanche cairn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page142">142</a>,
+<a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Kitty-ka-tats &nbsp; <a href = "#page102">102</a></p>
+
+<p>Klamath and Trinity Indians, burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page106">106</a>, <a href = "#page107">107</a></p>
+
+<p>Klingbeil, William, Partial cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page151">151</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_L" id = "index_L">Lafitau</a>, J. F. &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>“Last cry” &nbsp; <a href = "#page186">186</a></p>
+
+<p>Latookas burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page126">126</a></p>
+
+<p>Lawson, John, Partial embalmment &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page132">132</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Pit burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+
+<p>List of illustrations, Burial customs &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page087">87</a></p>
+
+<p>Living sepulchers &nbsp; <a href = "#page182">182</a></p>
+
+<p>Lodge burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page152">152</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Crow &nbsp; <a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Esquimaux &nbsp; <a href = "#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Bellingham Bay &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Costa Rica &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Sioux &nbsp; <a href = "#page152">152</a>, <a href
+= "#page153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Log burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href =
+"#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Danish &nbsp; <a href = "#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">in trees, Loucheux &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Long Horse, burial of &nbsp; <a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Lotophagians, Aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Loucheux, log burial in trees &nbsp; <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_M" id = "index_M">McChesney</a>, Dr. Charles E. &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page107">107-111</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, “Ghost gamble” &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page195">195</a></p>
+
+<p>McDonald, Dr. A. J., Rock fissure burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page127">127</a></p>
+
+<p>McKenney, Thomas L., <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘Scafford’">Scaffold</ins> burial &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page161">161</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Chippewa widow &nbsp; <a href = "#page184">184</a></p>
+
+<p>Macrobrian Ethiopians, Preservation of the dead &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page136">136</a>, <a href = "#page137">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Mahan, I. L., Chippewa mourning &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page184">184</a></p>
+
+<p>Mandan “Golgothas” &nbsp; <a href = "#page170">170</a></p>
+
+<p>Matthews, Dr. Washington, U.S.A., Hidatsa superstition &nbsp; <a href
+= "#page199">199</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Tree burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Menard, Dr. John, Navajo burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page123">123</a></p>
+
+<p>Miami Valley mound burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page120">120</a></p>
+
+<p>Midawan, a ceremony of initiation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page122">122</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[746]</span>
+<a name = "page746" id = "page746"> </a>
+
+<p>Miller, Dr. C. C., Assistance from &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p>Mitchell, Dr. Samuel L., Kentucky mummies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page133">133</a>, <a href = "#page134">134</a></p>
+
+<p>Mohawks, Inhumation &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+
+<p>Moquis burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>Moravian mourning &nbsp; <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+
+<p>Morgan, Lewis H., Burial dance &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page192">192</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Partial scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page169">169</a></p>
+
+<p>Morse, E. S., Dolmens in Japan &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page115">115</a></p>
+
+<p>Mortuary customs of Parthians, Medes, etc. &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page104">104</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Persians &nbsp; <a href = "#page103">103</a>,
+<a href = "#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p>Mosquito Indians, Burial superstition of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page201">201</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, canoe burial in ground &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a>, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Mound burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page115">115</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Choctaws &nbsp; <a href = "#page120">120</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Florida &nbsp; <a href = "#page119">119</a>,
+<a href = "#page120">120</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Miami Valley &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page120">120</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Ohio &nbsp; <a href = "#page117">117</a>, <a href
+= "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Mounds, Illinois &nbsp; <a href = "#page118">118</a>, <a href =
+"#page119">119</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">of stone &nbsp; <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Mourning ceremonies, Sioux &nbsp; <a href = "#page109">109</a>,
+<a href = "#page110">110</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Chippewa &nbsp; <a href = "#page184">184</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">cradle, Chinook &nbsp; <a href = "#page181">181</a>,
+<a href = "#page182">182</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, engraving of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page181">181</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Crows &nbsp; <a href = "#page183">183</a>, <a href =
+"#page184">184</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">customs of widows &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page185">185</a>, <a href = "#page186">186</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of Northwest &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page179">179</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">Moravian &nbsp; <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">observances, Twana and Clallams &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page176">176</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">sacrifice, feasts, food, etc &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page183">183</a></p>
+
+<p>Mummies, Alaskan &nbsp; <a href = "#page134">134</a>, <a href =
+"#page135">135</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Kentucky &nbsp; <a href = "#page133">133</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Northwest coast &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page135">135</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Virginia &nbsp; <a href = "#page131">131</a>,
+<a href = "#page132">132</a></p>
+
+<p>Mummification or embalmment &nbsp; <a href = "#page130">130</a></p>
+
+<p>Mummification, Theories regarding &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page130">130</a></p>
+
+<p>Muret, Pierre, Living sepulchres &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Persian mortuary customs &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Muscogulge burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page122">122</a>, <a href =
+"#page123">123</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_N" id = "index_N">Natchez</a> burial sacrifice &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page187">187-189</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page169">169</a></p>
+
+<p>Navajo burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page123">123</a></p>
+
+<p>Norm &nbsp; <a href = "#page142">142</a></p>
+
+<p>New Mexico burial urn &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a></p>
+
+<p>Nishinams, Cremation among the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page144">144</a></p>
+
+<p>Norris, P. W., lodge burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>North Carolina Indians, Partial cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page150">150</a>, <a href = "#page151">151</a></p>
+
+<p>Northwest coast mummies &nbsp; <a href = "#page135">135</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Indians of, mourning &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page179">179</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[747]</span>
+<a name = "page747" id = "page747"> </a>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_O" id = "index_O">Obongo</a> aquatic burial &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page180">180</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">surface burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page139">139</a>,
+<a href = "#page140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Observers, Queries for, regarding burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page202">202</a>, <a href = "#page203">203</a></p>
+
+<p>Ohio mound burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Oh-sah-ke-uck &nbsp; <a href = "#page094">94</a></p>
+
+<p>Ojibwa and Cree surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Ossuaries, European &nbsp; <a href = "#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Otis, Dr. George A., U.S.A., Burial case &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page162">162</a></p>
+
+<p>Oto and Missouri Indians, Inhumation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page096">96-98</a></p>
+
+<p>Ouray, Burial of &nbsp; <a href = "#page128">128</a></p>
+
+<p>Owsley, Dr. W. J., Cist graves &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_P" id = "index_P">Partial</a> cremation &nbsp; <a href
+= "#page150">150</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, North Carolina Indians &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page150">150</a>, <a href = "#page151">151</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">scaffold burial and ossuaries &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page168">168</a></p>
+
+<p>Parsee burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page105">105</a>, <a href =
+"#page106">106</a></p>
+
+<p>Paskagoulas and Billoxis, House burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page124">124</a>, <a href = "#page125">125</a></p>
+
+<p>Persians, Mortuary customs of the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page103">103</a>, <a href = "#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p>Pimas, Inhumation among &nbsp; <a href = "#page098">98</a>, <a href =
+"#page099">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Pinart, M. Alphonse, Pima burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page098">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Pinkerton, John, Virginia mummies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page131">131</a></p>
+
+<p>Piros &nbsp; <a href = "#page101">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Pit burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a></p>
+
+<p>Pitt River Indians, Burial and cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page151">151</a></p>
+
+<p>Pi-Ute cairn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Posts, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page197">197</a></p>
+
+<p>Potherie, De la M., Surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Powell, J. W., Stone graves or cists &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Powers, Stephen, Burial dance &nbsp; <a href = "#page192">192</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Burial song &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page194">194</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Origin of cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page144">144</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Se-nél cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page147">147</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Yuki burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page099">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Preparation of dead, Similarity of, between Comanches and African
+tribes &nbsp; <a href = "#page100">100</a></p>
+
+<p>Preservation of dead, Macrobrian Ethiopians &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page136">136</a>, <a href = "#page137">137</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Werowance of Virginia &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page131">131</a>, <a href = "#page132">132</a></p>
+
+<p>Priest, Josiah, Box burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page155">155</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[748]</span>
+<a name = "page748" id = "page748"> </a>
+
+<p>Putnam, F. W., Stone graves or cists &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page115">115</a>, <a href = "#page116">116</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_Q" id = "index_Q">Queries</a> for observers regarding
+burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page202">202</a>, <a href =
+"#page203">203</a></p>
+
+<p>Quiogozon or ossuary &nbsp; <a href = "#page094">94</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_R" id = "index_R">Reason</a> for cairn burial &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Remarks, Final &nbsp; <a href = "#page203">203</a></p>
+
+<p>Review of Turner’s narrative &nbsp; <a href = "#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p>Robertson, R. S., Surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page139">139</a></p>
+
+<p>Roman, Bernard, Choctaw hone houses &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page168">168</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Funeral customs of Chickasaws &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page123">123</a></p>
+
+<p>Round Valley Indians, burial among &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page124">124</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_S" id = "index_S">Sacrifice</a> &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page187">187</a></p>
+
+<p>Sacs and Foxes, burial among &nbsp; <a href = "#page094">94</a>,
+<a href = "#page095">95</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page140">140</a>, <a href = "#page141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Sauer, Martin, Aleutian mummies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page135">135</a></p>
+
+<p>Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies, surface burial among &nbsp; <a href
+= "#page151">151</a></p>
+
+<p>Scaffold burial, Australia &nbsp; <a href = "#page167">167</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Chippewas &nbsp; <a href = "#page161">161</a>,
+<a href = "#page162">162</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Choctaw &nbsp; <a href = "#page169">169</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Gros-Ventres and Mandans &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page161">161</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Iroquois &nbsp; <a href = "#page169">169</a>,
+<a href = "#page170">170</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Natchez &nbsp; <a href = "#page169">169</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Sioux &nbsp; <a href = "#page163">163</a>,
+<a href = "#page164">164</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Tent burial on &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page174">174</a></p>
+
+<p>Scaffolds, Theory regarding &nbsp; <a href = "#page167">167</a>,
+<a href = "#page168">168</a></p>
+
+<p>Schiller’s burial song &nbsp; <a href = "#page110">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Schoolcraft, Henry R., Burial posts &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page197">197</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Cremation myth &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page144">144</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Mohawk burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page093">93</a>,
+<a href = "#page095">95</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Partial embalmment &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page132">132</a></p>
+
+<p>Seechaugas &nbsp; <a href = "#page158">158</a></p>
+
+<p>Sellers, George Escoll, Cist burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>Se-nél, Cremation among the &nbsp; <a href = "#page147">147</a>,
+<a href = "#page148">148</a></p>
+
+<p>Sepulture, Aerial &nbsp; <a href = "#page152">152</a></p>
+
+<p>Sheldon, William, Caraib burial customs &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Shoshone burial lodges &nbsp; <a href = "#page153">153</a>, <a href =
+"#page154">154</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">cairn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page143">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Sicaugu &nbsp; <a href = "#page158">158</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[749]</span>
+<a name = "page749" id = "page749"> </a>
+
+<p>Simpson, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page181">181</a></p>
+
+<p>Sioux and Chippewa burial posts &nbsp; <a href = "#page197">197</a>,
+<a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">lodge burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page152">152</a>,
+<a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mourning ceremonies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page109">109</a>, <a href = "#page110">110</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[750]</span>
+<a name = "page750" id = "page750"> </a>
+
+<p>Sioux, scaffold burial of the &nbsp; <a href = "#page163">163</a>,
+<a href = "#page164">164</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, tree burial of the &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Solutré cists &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Songs, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page194">194</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, of Basques and others &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page195">195</a></p>
+
+<p>Southern Indians, Urn burial among &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page137">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason, Curious burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page120">120</a></p>
+
+<p>Spencer, J. W., Partial surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Standing posture, Burial in &nbsp; <a href = "#page151">151</a>,
+<a href = "#page152">152</a></p>
+
+<p>Stansbury, Capt. H., U.S.A., Lodge burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page152">152</a></p>
+
+<p>Steatite burial urn, California &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page138">138</a></p>
+
+<p>Sternberg, Dr. George M., U.S.A., Grave mounds &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page119">119</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Burial case discovered &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page162">162</a></p>
+
+<p>Stone graves or cists &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">mounds &nbsp; <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Superstition, Hidatsa &nbsp; <a href = "#page199">199</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">regarding burial feasts &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page191">191</a></p>
+
+<p>Superstitions, Burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page199">199</a></p>
+
+<p>Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page171">171</a></p>
+
+<p>Surface burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page138">138</a>, <a href =
+"#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Ojibways and Crees &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page141">141</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Sacs and Foxes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page140">140</a>, <a href = "#page141">141</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Swan, James G., Canoe burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page171">171</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Klamath burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page106">106</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Superstitions &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page201">201</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_T" id = "index_T">Tāh-zee</a> &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page142">142</a></p>
+
+<p>Tegg, William, Antiquity of cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page143">143</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Towers of silence &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p>Tennessee cists &nbsp; <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Tent burial on scaffold &nbsp; <a href = "#page174">174</a></p>
+
+<p>Theories regarding mummification or embalmment &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page130">130</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">regarding use of scaffolds &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page176">176</a>, <a href = "#page168">168</a></p>
+
+<p>Tiffany, A. S., Cremation furnace &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page149">149</a></p>
+
+<p>Timberlake, H., Aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Tolkotin cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page144">144</a>, <a href =
+"#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Tompkins, Gen. Chas. H., U.S.A., Partial cremation &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page151">151</a></p>
+
+<p>Towers of silence, Description of &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page104">104-106</a></p>
+
+<p>Tree and scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page158">158</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Brulé Sioux &nbsp; <a href = "#page158">158</a>,
+<a href = "#page160">160</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">burial, ancient nations &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page165">165</a>, <a href = "#page166">166</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Blackfeet &nbsp; <a href = "#page101">101</a></p>
+<p class = "indent2">, Sioux &nbsp; <a href = "#page101">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Tsinūk burial sacrifice &nbsp; <a href = "#page179">179</a></p>
+
+<p>Turner, Dr. L. S., Scaffold burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page163">163</a></p>
+
+<p>Turner’s narrative, Review of &nbsp; <a href = "#page165">165</a></p>
+
+<p>Twana and Clallam mourning observances &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page176">176</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">canoe burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page171">171-173</a></p>
+
+<p>Twanas and Clallams, funeral ceremonies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page176">176</a></p>
+<span class = "pagenum">[751]</span>
+<a name = "page751" id = "page751"> </a>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_U" id = "index_U">Urn</a> burial by Southern Indians
+&nbsp; <a href = "#page137">137</a></p>
+
+<p>Ute cairn burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page142">142</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">cave burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page127">127</a>,
+<a href = "#page128">128</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_V" id = "index_V">Van</a> Camper, Moses. Mode of burial
+of Indians inhabiting Pennsylvania &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Van Vliet, Gen. Stewart, U.S.A., Tree and scaffold burial &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page153">153</a></p>
+
+<p>Verification of death, Caraibs &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page146">146</a></p>
+
+<p>Virginia mummies &nbsp; <a href = "#page131">131</a>, <a href =
+"#page132">132</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_W" id = "index_W">Wah-peton</a> and Sisseton Sioux,
+Inhumation among &nbsp; <a href = "#page107">107-110</a></p>
+
+<p>Wascopums, Burial sacrifice of &nbsp; <a href = "#page189">189</a>,
+<a href = "#page190">190</a></p>
+
+<p>Wee-ka-nahs &nbsp; <a href = "#page101">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Welch, H., Surface burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page141">141</a></p>
+
+<p>Werowance of Virginia, preservation of the dead &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page131">131</a>, <a href = "#page132">132</a></p>
+
+<p>Whitney, J. D., burial cave, Description of a &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page128">128</a></p>
+
+<p>Whymper, Frederic, Burial boxes &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page156">156</a></p>
+
+<p>Wichitas, Inhumation among the &nbsp; <a href = "#page102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Widow, Chippewa &nbsp; <a href = "#page184">184</a>, <a href =
+"#page185">185</a></p>
+
+<p>Widows, Mourning customs of &nbsp; <a href = "#page185">185</a>,
+<a href = "#page186">186</a></p>
+
+<p>Wilcox, E., Partial cremation &nbsp; <a href = "#page150">150</a></p>
+
+<p>Wilkins, Charles, Kentucky mummies &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page133">133</a></p>
+
+<p>Williams, Monier, Parsee burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p>Wood, Rev. J. G., African surface burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page139">139</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Bari burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page125">125</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Fans of Africa devour the dead &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page182">182</a></p>
+<p class = "indent">, Obongo aquatic burial &nbsp; <a href =
+"#page180">180</a></p>
+
+<p>Wright, Dr. S. G., Superstitions regarding burial feasts &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page191">191</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_Y" id = "index_Y">Yo-kaí-a</a> burial dance &nbsp;
+<a href = "#page192">192-194</a></p>
+
+<p>Young, John, Tree burial &nbsp; <a href = "#page161">161</a></p>
+
+<p>Yuki inhumation &nbsp; <a href = "#page099">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Yurok burial fires &nbsp; <a href = "#page198">198</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<h4><a name = "endnote" id = "endnote">Note on Illustrations</a>
+</h4>
+
+<p>BAE Annual Report 1 did not distinguish between Plates (full page,
+unpaginated) and Figures (inline). In the present article, most
+illustrations were full-page plates.</p>
+
+<p>For this e-text, Plates were rescaled to 25% by pixel count, while
+most Figures were rescaled to 33%. The original is strongly sepia-toned,
+so the distinction between color and grayscale illustrations reflects
+the transcriber’s judgement rather than a clear difference in the
+original.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of
+the mortuary customs of the North Amer, by H. C. Yarrow
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,8581 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of the
+mortuary customs of the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North American Indians
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 87-204
+
+Author: H. C. Yarrow
+
+Posting Date: March 24, 2010 [EBook #11398]
+Release Date: March 2, 2004
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Anne Folland, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Canadian Institute for
+Historical Microreproductions (www.canadiana.org) and The
+Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org).)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+This e-text comes in three forms: Unicode (UTF-8), Latin-1 and ASCII.
+Use the one that works best on your text reader.
+
+  --In the UTF-8 (best) version, a small group of words will appear
+  with a macron ("long" mark) on a or u:
+    Tsinuk (six times), tamahno-us (three times), me-mel-us-illa-hee,
+    Kaw-a-wah, Tah-zee (twice each)
+  There is also a single Greek word. The letter "oe" displays as a
+  single character, and apostrophes and quotation marks are "curly"
+  or angled. If any part of this paragraph displays as garbage, try
+  changing your text reader's "character set" or "file encoding". If
+  that doesn't work, proceed to:
+
+  --In the Latin-1 version, the words listed above will have a
+  circumflex (a or u) instead of a macron, the Greek word will be
+  transliterated and shown between #marks#, and the form "oe" is two
+  letters. The three long French passages still have the appropriate
+  accents, but apostrophes and quotation marks will be straight
+  ("typewriter" form). Again, if you see any garbage in this
+  paragraph and can't get it to display properly, use:
+
+  --The ASCII-7 or rock-bottom version. In this version, all diacritics
+  (accents) are gone, _including accents on all French words_.
+
+Much of this article is quoted from other published sources. The
+resulting inconsistencies in spelling and punctuation are unchanged.
+Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text.
+
+The Table of Contents and Index were supplied from the beginning and end
+of the Annual Report volume. The List of Illustrations was printed with
+the article.
+
+Most footnotes are purely bibliographic. Asterisks after a few footnote
+numbers [44*] were added by the transcriber to identify those notes
+that give further information.]
+
+
+
+
+  SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+  J. W. Powell, Director
+
+
+  A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION
+
+  to the
+
+  STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS
+
+  of the
+
+  NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
+
+
+  by
+
+  Dr. H. C. YARROW,
+
+  Act. Asst. Surg., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  List of illustrations                                   89
+  Introductory                                            91
+  Classification of burial                                92
+  Inhumation                                              93
+    Pit burial                                            93
+    Grave burial                                         101
+    Stone graves or cists                                113
+    Burial in mounds                                     115
+    Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses      122
+    Cave burial                                          126
+  Embalmment or mummification                            130
+  Urn burial                                             137
+  Surface burial                                         138
+    Cairn burial                                         142
+  Cremation                                              143
+    Partial cremation                                    150
+  Aerial sepulture                                       152
+    Lodge burial                                         152
+    Box burial                                           155
+    Tree and scaffold burial                             158
+    Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries                168
+    Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes             171
+  Aquatic burial                                         180
+  Living sepulchers                                      182
+  Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc.                      183
+    Mourning                                             183
+    Sacrifice                                            187
+    Feasts                                               190
+    Superstition regarding burial feasts                 191
+    Food                                                 192
+    Dances                                               192
+    Songs                                                194
+    Games                                                195
+    Posts                                                197
+    Fires                                                198
+    Superstitions                                        199
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+[In the original, Figure 12 was printed before Figure 11 (both full-page
+Plates). Figure 45 (_on_ page 196) was printed before the group of
+plates 34-44 (_between_ pages 196 and 197).]
+
+
+   1.--Quiogozon or dead house                            94
+   2.--Pima burial                                        98
+   3.--Towers of silence                                 105
+   4.--Towers of silence                                 106
+   5.--Alaskan mummies                                   135
+   6.--Burial urns                                       138
+   7.--Indian cemetery                                   139
+   8.--Grave pen                                         141
+   9.--Grave pen                                         141
+  10.--Tolkotin cremation                                145
+  11.--Eskimo lodge burial                               154
+  12.--Burial houses                                     154
+  13.--Innuit grave                                      156
+  14.--Ingalik grave                                     157
+  15.--Dakota scaffold burial                            158
+  16.--Offering food to the dead                         159
+  17.--Depositing the corpse                             160
+  18.--Tree-burial                                       161
+  19.--Chippewa scaffold burial                          162
+  20.--Scarification at burial                           164
+  21.--Australian scaffold burial                        166
+  22.--Preparing the dead                                167
+  23.--Canoe-burial                                      171
+  24.--Twana canoe-burial                                172
+  25.--Posts for burial canoes                           173
+  26.--Tent on scaffold                                  174
+  27.--House burial                                      175
+  28.--House burial                                      175
+  29.--Canoe-burial                                      178
+  30.--Mourning-cradle                                   181
+  31.--Launching the burial cradle                       182
+  32.--Chippewa widow                                    185
+  33.--Ghost gamble                                      195
+  34.--Figured plum stones                               196
+  35.--Winning throw, No. 1                              196
+  36.--Winning throw, No. 2                              196
+  37.--Winning throw, No. 3                              196
+  38.--Winning throw, No. 4                              196
+  39.--Winning throw, No. 5                              196
+  40.--Winning throw, No. 6                              196
+  41.--Auxiliary throw, No. 1                            196
+  42.--Auxiliary throw, No. 2                            196
+  43.--Auxiliary throw, No. 3                            196
+  44.--Auxiliary throw, No. 4                            196
+  45.--Auxiliary throw, No. 5                            196
+  46.--Burial posts                                      197
+  47.--Grave fire                                        198
+
+
+
+
+  A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION
+
+  to the
+
+  STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
+
+  By H. C. Yarrow.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many
+readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen
+the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to
+reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an
+introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate
+study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and
+more important.
+
+The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously,
+while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable.
+This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an
+almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and
+the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing.
+A wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably seconded
+the efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, from
+the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of
+scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press,
+too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever on the alert to scatter
+broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of
+well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry,
+and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is
+the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North
+American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it
+be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already
+contributed.
+
+It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed
+more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of
+supererogation to continue a further examination of the subject, for
+nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention
+of burial observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on
+the sea of this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless
+supported by corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely
+unreliable. To bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and
+arrange collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer's
+task, and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method
+of securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and
+need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present
+to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to
+the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies,
+the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples,
+and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding
+the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be
+done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough
+analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and
+from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be
+considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer
+having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the
+accounts furnished.
+
+It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions
+to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. J. W.
+Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,
+from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant encouragement
+and advice has been received, and to whom all American ethnologists owe
+a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.
+
+Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the
+subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies
+among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost
+analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.
+
+For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of burials
+may be adopted, although further study may lead to some modifications.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.
+
+
+1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, or holes in the ground, stone graves
+or cists, in mounds, beneath or in cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or
+in caves.
+
+2d. By EMBALMMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being
+afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in
+charnel-houses.
+
+3d. By DEPOSITION of remains in urns.
+
+4th. By SURFACE BURIAL, the remains being placed in hollow trees or
+logs, pens, or simply covered with earth, or bark, or rocks forming
+cairns.
+
+5th. By CREMATION, or partial burning, generally on the surface of the
+earth, occasionally beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed
+in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns,
+sometimes scattered.
+
+6th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being left in lodges, houses,
+cabins, tents, deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the
+two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the
+ground. Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of
+children, these being hung to trees.
+
+7th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were
+turned adrift.
+
+These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.
+
+The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be understood
+in its literal significance, the word being derived from the Teutonic
+Anglo-Saxon "_birgan_," to conceal or hide away.
+
+In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, it
+has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, in
+order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the
+relator's language been changed except to correct manifest
+unintentional, errors of spelling.
+
+
+
+
+INHUMATION.
+
+
+_PIT BURIAL._
+
+The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been that
+of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of
+different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of
+the process:
+
+One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:[1]
+
+  The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body
+  was placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered
+  with timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby
+  kept the body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a
+  round hill over it. They always dressed the corpse in all its
+  finery, and put wampum and other things into the grave with it; and
+  the relations suffered not grass nor any wood to grow upon the
+  grave, and frequently visited it and made lamentation.
+
+In Jones[2] is the following interesting account from Lawson[3] of the
+burial customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:
+
+  Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was accompanied
+  with special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon
+  the funeral according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was
+  first placed in a cane hurdle and deposited in an outhouse made for
+  the purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night,
+  guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with disheveled
+  hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral go into the town,
+  and from the backs of the first young men they meet strip such
+  blankets and matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In
+  these the dead body is wrapped and then covered with two or three
+  mats made of rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or
+  hollow canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared for
+  the interment, the corpse is carried from the house in which it has
+  been lying into the orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in
+  another hurdle. Seated upon mats are there congregated the family
+  and tribe of the deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or
+  conjurer, having enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral
+  oration, during which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his
+  valor, skill, love of country, property, and influence; alludes to
+  the void caused by his death, and counsels those who remain to
+  supply his place by following in his footsteps; pictures the
+  happiness he will enjoy in the land of spirits to which he has gone,
+  and concludes his address by an allusion to the prominent traditions
+  of his tribe.
+
+Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the
+opinion of many, "more honored in the breach than in the observance."
+
+  At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from that
+  Hurdle to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the Relations,
+  the King, old Men, and all the Nation. When they come to the
+  Sepulcre, which is about six foot deep and eight foot long, having
+  at each end (that is, at the Head and Foot) a Light-Wood or
+  Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down the sides of the Grave firmly into
+  the Ground (these two Forks are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you
+  shall understand presently), before they lay the Corps into the
+  Grave, they cover the bottom two or three time over with the Bark of
+  Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two Belts that the
+  _Indians_ carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely upon the said
+  Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood in the two Forks,
+  and having a great many Pieces of Pitch-Pine Logs about two Foot and
+  a half long, they stick them in the sides of the Grave down each End
+  and near the Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the
+  Ridge-Pole, so that they are declining like the Roof of a House.
+  These being very thick plac'd, they cover them [many times double]
+  with Bark; then they throw the Earth thereon that came out of the
+  Grave and beat it down very firm. By this Means the dead Body lies
+  in a Vault, nothing touching him.
+
+After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in
+an ossuary called the Quiogozon.
+
+Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers
+called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to
+it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair
+greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited,
+another dried bodies.
+
+It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M. B. Kent,
+relating to the Sacs and Foxes (_Oh-sak-ke-uck_) of the Nehema Agency,
+Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead to
+prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom has
+been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by
+examples given further on.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Quiogozon or Dead House.]
+
+  _Ancient burial._--The body was buried in a grave made about 2-1/2
+  feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards the east, the
+  burial taking place as soon after death as possible. The grave was
+  prepared by putting bark in the bottom of it before the corpse was
+  deposited, a plank covering made and secured some distance above the
+  body. The plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse with
+  the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse was
+  always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a long journey in
+  life, no coffin being used.
+
+  _Modern burial._--This tribe now usually bury in coffins, rude ones
+  constructed by themselves, still depositing the body in the grave
+  with the head towards the east.
+
+  _Ancient funeral ceremonies._--Every relative of the deceased had to
+  throw some article in the grave, either food, clothing, or other
+  material. There was no rule stating the nature of what was to be
+  added to the collection, simply a requirement that something must be
+  deposited, if it were only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After
+  the corpse was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead,
+  instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would soon
+  discover moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he came to a
+  great river, which is the river of death; when there he would find a
+  pole across the river, which, if he has been honest, upright, and
+  good, will be straight, upon which he could readily cross to the
+  other side; but if his life had been one of wickedness and sin, the
+  pole would be very crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he
+  would be precipitated into the turbulent stream and lost forever.
+  The brave also told him if he crossed the river in safety the Great
+  Father would receive him, take out his old brains, give him new
+  ones, and then he would have reached the happy hunting grounds,
+  always be happy and have eternal life. After burial a feast was
+  always called, and a portion of the food of which each and every
+  relative was partaking was burned to furnish subsistence to the
+  spirit upon its journey.
+
+  _Modern funeral ceremonies._--Provisions are rarely put into the
+  grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast subsequent
+  to burial is burned, although the feast is continued. All the
+  address delivered by the brave over the corpse after being deposited
+  in the grave is omitted. A prominent feature of all ceremonies,
+  either funeral or religious, consists of feasting accompanied with
+  music and dancing.
+
+  _Ancient mourning observances._--The female relations allowed their
+  hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed themselves in the most
+  unpresentable attire, the latter of which the males also do. Men
+  blacked the whole face for a period of ten days after a death in the
+  family, while the women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the
+  children were blacked for three months; they were also required to
+  fast for the same length of time, the fasting to consist of eating
+  but one meal per day, to be made entirely of hominy, and partaken of
+  about sunset. It was believed that this fasting would enable the
+  child to dream of coming events and prophesy what was to happen in
+  the future. The extent and correctness of prophetic vision depended
+  upon how faithfully the ordeal of fasting had been observed.
+
+  _Modern mourning observances._--Many of those of the past are
+  continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing uncouth
+  apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children, and they are
+  adhered to with as much tenacity as many of the professing
+  Christians belonging to the evangelical churches adhere to their
+  practices, which constitute mere forms, the intrinsic value of which
+  can very reasonably be called in question.
+
+The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,[4] made
+the graves of their dead as follows:
+
+  When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse about
+  four feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the cabin or rock
+  wherever he died. The corpse is placed in the hole in a sitting
+  posture, with a blanket wrapped about it, and the legs bent under
+  and tied together. If a warrior, he is painted, and his pipe,
+  ornaments, and warlike appendages are deposited with him. The grave
+  is then covered with canes tied to a hoop round the top of the hole,
+  then a firm layer of clay, sufficient to support the weight of a
+  man. The relations howl loudly and mourn publicly for four days. If
+  the deceased has been a man of eminent character, the family
+  immediately remove from the house in which he is buried and erect a
+  new one, with a belief that where the bones of their dead are
+  deposited the place is always attended by goblins and chimeras dire.
+
+Dr. W. C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County,
+Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most
+interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it
+may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those
+already mentioned:
+
+  The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in southern
+  Gage County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000 acres, unsurpassed
+  in beauty of location, natural resources, and adaptability for
+  prosperous agriculture. This pastoral people, though in the midst of
+  civilization, have departed but little from the rude practice and
+  customs of a nomadic life, and here may be seen and studied those
+  interesting dramas as vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote
+  frontier.
+
+  During my residence among this people on different occasions, I have
+  had the opportunity of witnessing the Indian burials and many quaint
+  ceremonies pertaining thereto.
+
+  When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe
+  subject, the preparation of the burial costume is immediately began.
+  The near relatives of the dying Indian surround the humble bedside,
+  and by loud lamentations and much weeping manifest a grief which is
+  truly commensurate with the intensity of Indian devotion and
+  attachment.
+
+  While thus expressing before the near departed their grief at the
+  sad separation impending, the Indian women, or friendly braves, lose
+  no time in equipping him or her with the most ornate clothes and
+  ornaments that are available or in immediate possession. It is thus
+  that the departed Otoe is enrobed in death, in articles of his own
+  selection and by arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his
+  own tongue. It is customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere his
+  departure, the propriety or impropriety of the accustomed
+  sacrifices. In some cases there is a double and in others no
+  sacrifice at all. The Indian women then prepare to cut away their
+  hair; it is accomplished with scissors, cutting close to the scalp
+  at the side and behind.
+
+  The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with great
+  solemnity and care. Bead-work, the most ornate, expensive blankets
+  and ribbons comprise the funeral shroud. The dead, being thus
+  enrobed, is placed in a recumbent posture at the most conspicuous
+  part of the lodge and viewed in rotation by the mourning relatives
+  previously summoned by a courier, all preserving uniformity in the
+  piercing screams which would seem to have been learned by rote.
+
+  An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the tribe,
+  arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge around one of
+  their number, keeping time upon a drum or some rude cooking-utensil.
+
+  At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance
+  excitedly around the central person, vociferating, and with wild
+  gesture, tomahawk in hand, imprecate the evil spirit, which he
+  drives to the land where the sun goes down. The evil spirit being
+  thus effectually banished, the mourning gradually subsides, blending
+  into succeeding scenes of feasting and refreshment. The burial feast
+  is in every respect equal in richness to its accompanying
+  ceremonies. All who assemble are supplied with cooked venison, hog,
+  buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing alike hot cakes
+  soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case may be.
+
+  Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged Indian
+  present will sit in the central circle, and in a continuous and
+  doleful tone narrate the acts of valor in the life of the departed,
+  enjoining fortitude and bravery upon all sitting around as an
+  essential qualification for admittance to the land where the Great
+  Spirit reigns. When the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is
+  customary for the surviving friends to present the bereaved family
+  with useful articles of domestic needs, such as calico in bolt,
+  flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or horses. After
+  the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the body is carefully
+  placed in a wagon and, with an escort of all friends, relatives, and
+  acquaintances, conveyed to the grave previously prepared by some
+  near relation or friend. When a wagon is used, the immediate
+  relatives occupy it with the corpse, which is propped in a
+  semi-sitting posture; before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it
+  was necessary to bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then
+  convey him to his last resting place among his friends. In past days
+  when buffalo were more available, and a tribal hunt was more
+  frequently indulged in, it is said that those dying on the way were
+  bound upon horses and thus frequently carried several hundred miles
+  for interment at the burial places of their friends.
+
+  At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a double
+  nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel, and upon the
+  other blended with the deepest grief and most heartfelt sorrow.
+  Before the interment of the dead the chattels of the deceased are
+  unloaded from the wagons or unpacked from the backs of ponies and
+  carefully arranged in the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is
+  wider than the top (graves here being dug like an inverted funnel),
+  is spread with straw or grass matting, woven generally by the Indian
+  women of the tribe or some near neighbor. The sides are then
+  carefully hung with handsome shawls or blankets, and trunks, with
+  domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less importance, are piled
+  around in abundance. The sacrifices are next inaugurated. A pony,
+  first designated by the dying Indian, is led aside and strangled by
+  men hanging to either end of a rope. Sometimes, but not always,
+  a dog is likewise strangled, the heads of both animals being
+  subsequently laid upon the Indian's grave. The body, which is now
+  often placed in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if a
+  coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the deceased
+  before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a saddle and bridle,
+  blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon it, the mourning ceases, and
+  the Indians prepare to close the grave. It should be remembered,
+  among the Otoe and Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in upon the
+  body, but simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs that
+  are accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the
+  burying is completed, a distribution of the property of the deceased
+  takes place, the near relatives receiving everything, from the
+  merest trifle to the tent and homes, leaving the immediate family,
+  wife and children or father out-door pensioners.
+
+  Although the same generosity is not observed towards the whites
+  assisting in funeral rites, it is universally practiced as regards
+  Indians, and poverty's lot is borne by the survivors with a
+  fortitude and resignation which in them amounts to duty, and marks a
+  higher grade of intrinsic worth than pervades whites of like
+  advantages and conditions. We are told in the Old Testament
+  Scriptures, "four days and four nights should the fires burn," &c.
+  In fulfillment of this sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil
+  carefully kept by these Indians four days and four nights at the
+  graves of their departed. A small fire is kindled for the purpose
+  near the grave at sunset, where the nearest relatives convene and
+  maintain a continuous lamentation till the morning dawn. There was
+  an ancient tradition that at the expiration of this time the Indian
+  arose, and mounting his spirit pony, galloped off to the happy
+  hunting-ground beyond.
+
+  Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these superstitions
+  have faded, and the living sacrifices are partially continued only
+  from a belief that by parting with their most cherished and valuable
+  goods they propitiate the Great Spirit for the sins committed during
+  the life of the deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find
+  was the practice of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt
+  offerings the lamb or the ox; hence we cannot censure this people,
+  but, from a comparison of conditions, credit them with a more strict
+  observance of our Holy Book than pride and seductive fashions permit
+  of us.
+
+  From a careful review of the whole of their attendant ceremonies a
+  remarkable similarity can be marked. The arrangement of the corpse
+  preparatory to interment, the funeral feast, the local service by
+  the aged fathers, are all observances that have been noted among
+  whites, extending into times that are in the memory of those still
+  living.
+
+The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that led
+the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with the
+corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F. E.
+Grossman,[5] and the account is corroborated by M. Alphonse Pinart[6]
+and Bancroft.[7]
+
+Captain Grossman's account follows:
+
+  The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the
+  latter around their neck and under the knees, and then drawing them
+  tight until the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting
+  position. They dig the graves from four to five feet deep and
+  perfectly round (about two feet in diameter), and then hollow out to
+  one side of the bottom of this grave a sort of vault large enough to
+  contain the body. Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up
+  level with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber placed
+  upon the grave to protect the remains from coyotes.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pima burial.]
+
+  Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The
+  mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The
+  bodies of their dead are buried if possible, immediately after death
+  has taken place and the graves are generally prepared before the
+  patients die. Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had
+  already been dug) recover. In such cases the graves are left open
+  until the persons for whom they are intended die. Open graves of
+  this kind can be seen in several of their burial grounds. Places of
+  burial are selected some distance from the village, and, if
+  possible, in a grove of mesquite trees.
+
+  Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house and
+  personal effects of the deceased are burned and his horses and
+  cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast for the mourners.
+  The nearest relatives of the deceased as a sign of their sorrow
+  remain within their village for weeks, and sometimes months; the men
+  cut off about six inches of their long hair, while the women cut
+  their hair quite short. * * *
+
+  The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he
+  dies impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of
+  stock. The women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor
+  should their husbands die, and that then they will have to provide
+  for their children by their own exertions, do not care to have many
+  children, and infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to
+  a great extent. This is not considered a crime, and old women of the
+  tribe practice it. A widow may marry again after a year's mourning
+  for her first husband; but having children no man will take her for
+  a wife and thus burden himself with her children. Widows generally
+  cultivate a small piece of ground, and friends and relatives (men)
+  plow the ground for them.
+
+Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman's description by my friend Dr. W. J.
+Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.
+
+Stephen Powers[8] describes a similar mode of grave preparation among
+the Yuki of California:
+
+  The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a hole six
+  feet deep sometimes and at the bottom of it "_coyote_" under, making
+  a little recess in which the corpse is deposited.
+
+The Comanches of Indian Territory (_Nem_, _we, or us, people_),
+according to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, Indian
+Territory, go to the opposite extreme, so far as the protection of the
+dead from the surrounding earth is concerned. The account as received is
+given entire, as much to illustrate this point as others of interest.
+
+  When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be faintly
+  heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not departed from
+  the body, the knees are strongly bent upon the chest, and the legs
+  flexed upon the thighs. The arms are also flexed upon each side of
+  the chest, and the head bent forward upon the knees. A lariat, or
+  rope, is now used to firmly bind the limbs and body in this
+  position. A blanket is then wrapped around the body, and this again
+  tightly corded, so that the appearance when ready for burial is that
+  of an almost round and compact body, very unlike the composed pall
+  of his Wichita or Caddo brother. The body is then taken and placed
+  in a saddle upon a pony, in a sitting posture; a squaw usually
+  riding behind, though sometimes one on either side of the horse,
+  holds the body in position until the place of burial is reached,
+  when the corpse is literally tumbled into the excavation selected
+  for the purpose. The deceased is only accompanied by two or three
+  squaws, or enough to perform the little labor bestowed upon the
+  burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge or village of the
+  bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes or heads of canyons in
+  which the Comanche country abounds is selected, and the body thrown
+  in, without special reference to position. With this are deposited
+  the bows and arrows; these, however, are first broken. The saddle is
+  also placed in the grave, together with many of the personal
+  valuables of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks
+  and earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.
+
+  _Funeral ceremonies._--the best pony owned by the deceased is
+  brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may appear well
+  mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the other world.
+  Formerly, if the deceased were a chief or man of consequence and had
+  large herds of ponies, many were killed, sometimes amounting to 200
+  or 300 head in number.
+
+  The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good pony for
+  the convoy of the deceased to the happy-grounds by the following
+  story, which is current among both Comanches and Wichitas:
+
+  "A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no relatives and
+  who was quite poor. Some of the tribe concluded that almost any kind
+  of a pony would serve to transport him to the next world. They
+  therefore killed at his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared
+  horse. But a few weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo
+  and behold he returned, riding this same old worn-out horse, weary
+  and hungry. He first appeared at the Wichita camps, where he was
+  well known, and asked for something to eat, but his strange
+  appearance, with sunken eyes and hollow cheeks, filled with
+  consternation all who saw him, and they fled from his presence.
+  Finally one bolder than the rest placed a piece of meat on the end
+  of a lodge-pole and extended it to him. He soon appeared at his own
+  camp, creating, if possible, even more dismay than among the
+  Wichitas, and this resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving
+  their villages and moving _en masse_ to a place on Rush Creek, not
+  far distant from the present site of Fort Sill.
+
+  "When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was questioned
+  why he thus appeared among the inhabitants of earth, he made reply
+  that when he came to the gates of paradise the keepers would on no
+  account permit him to enter upon such an ill-conditioned beast as
+  that which bore him, and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the
+  homes of those whose stinginess and greed permitted him no better
+  equipment. Since this no Comanche has been permitted to depart with
+  the sun to his chambers in the west without a steed which in
+  appearance should do honor alike to the rider and his friends."
+
+  The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that the
+  spirit may accompany the setting sun to the world beyond. The spirit
+  starts on its journey the following night after death has taken
+  place; if this occur at night, the journey is not begun until the
+  next night.
+
+  _Mourning observances._--All the effects of the deceased, the tents,
+  blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of value, aside from the
+  articles which have been buried with the body, are burned, so that
+  the family is left in poverty. This practice has extended even to
+  the burning of wagons and harness since some of the civilized habits
+  have been adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the
+  smoke, and will thus be of service to the owner in the other world.
+  Immediately upon the death of a member of the household, the
+  relatives begin a peculiar wailing, and the immediate members of the
+  family take off their customary apparel and clothe themselves in
+  rags and cut themselves across the arms, breast, and other portions
+  of the body, until sometimes a fond wife or mother faints from loss
+  of blood. This scarification is usually accomplished with a knife,
+  or, as in earlier days, with a flint. Hired mourners are employed at
+  times who are in no way related to the family, but who are
+  accomplished in the art of crying for the dead. These are invariably
+  women. Those nearly related to the departed, cut off the long locks
+  from the entire head, while those more distantly related, or special
+  friends, cut the hair only from one side of the head. In case of the
+  death of a chief, the young warriors also cut the hair, usually from
+  the left side of the head.
+
+  After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is
+  conducted more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the Comanches
+  venerate the sun; and the mourning at these seasons is kept up, if
+  the death occurred in summer, until the leaves fall, or, if in the
+  winter, until they reappear.
+
+It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the
+corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the
+burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body
+with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The
+hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from
+remotest periods of time.
+
+
+_GRAVE BURIAL._
+
+The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians of
+San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph,
+will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon
+those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo
+people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian
+Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.
+
+According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves _Wee-ka-nahs_.
+
+  These are commonly known to the whites as _Piros_. The manner of
+  burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern, as far as I can
+  ascertain from information obtained from the most intelligent of the
+  tribe, is that the body of the dead is and has been always buried in
+  the ground in a horizontal position with the flat bottom of the
+  grave. The grave is generally dug out of the ground in the usual and
+  ordinary manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7 feet long, and about 2
+  feet wide. It is generally finished after receiving its occupant by
+  being leveled with the hard ground around it, never leaving, as is
+  customary with the whites, a mound to mark the spot. This tribe of
+  Pueblo Indians never cremated their dead, as they do not know, even
+  by tradition, that it was ever done or attempted. There are no
+  utensils or implements placed in the grave, but there are a great
+  many Indian ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells,
+  hawk-bells, round looking-glasses, and a profusion of ribbons of all
+  imaginable colors; then they paint the body with red vermilion and
+  white chalk, giving it a most fantastic as well as ludicrous
+  appearance. They also place a variety of food in the grave as a wise
+  provision for its long journey to the happy hunting-ground beyond
+  the clouds.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar. First, after
+  death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo robe spread out on
+  the ground, then they dress the body in the best possible manner in
+  their style of dress; if a male, they put on his beaded leggins and
+  embroidered _saco_, and his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large
+  brass or shell ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or
+  dress, tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her
+  fancy dancing-moccasins; her _rosario_ around her neck, her brass or
+  shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed black hair tied up
+  with red tape or ribbon, this completes her wardrobe for her long
+  and happy chase. When they get through dressing the body, they place
+  about a dozen lighted candles around it, and keep them burning
+  continually until the body is buried. As soon as the candles are
+  lighted, the _veloris_, or wake, commences; the body lies in state
+  for about twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends,
+  relatives, and neighbors of the deceased or "_difunti_" visit the
+  wake, chant, sing, and pray for the soul of the same, and tell one
+  another of the good deeds and traits of valor and courage manifested
+  by the deceased during his earthly career, and at intervals in their
+  praying, singing, &c., some near relative of the deceased will step
+  up to the corpse and every person in the room commences to cry
+  bitterly and express aloud words of endearment to the deceased and
+  of condolence to the family of the same in their untimely
+  bereavement.
+
+  At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in
+  attendance marches out into another room and partakes of a frugal
+  Indian meal, generally composed of wild game; Chile Colorado or
+  red-pepper tortillas, and guayaves, with a good supply of mush and
+  milk, which completes the festive board of the _veloris_ or wake.
+  When the deceased is in good circumstances, the crowd in attendance
+  is treated every little while during the wake to alcoholic
+  refreshments. This feast and feasting is kept up until the Catholic
+  priest arrives to perform the funeral rites.
+
+  When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather baled up in
+  a large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied around tight with a
+  rope or lasso made for the purpose; then six or eight men act as
+  pall-bearers, conducting the body to the place of burial, which is
+  in front of their church or chapel. The priest conducts the funeral
+  ceremonies in the ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings
+  observed by the Catholic church all over the world. While the
+  grave-diggers are filling up the grave, the friends, relatives,
+  neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that attend the funeral, give
+  vent to their sad feelings by making the whole pueblo howl; after
+  the tremendous uproar subsides, they disband and leave the body to
+  rest until Gabriel blows his trumpet. When the ceremonies are
+  performed with all the pomp of the Catholic church, the priest
+  receives a fair compensation for his services; otherwise he
+  officiates for the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo
+  pay him, which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.
+
+  These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning observance,
+  which last for one year after the demise of the deceased. While in
+  mourning for the dead, the mourners do not participate in the
+  national festivities of the tribe, which are occasions of state with
+  them, but they retire into a state of sublime quietude which makes
+  more civilized people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning
+  ceases, at the end of the year, they have high mass said for the
+  benefit of the soul of the departed; after this they again appear
+  upon the arena of their wild sports and continue to be gay and happy
+  until the next mortal is called from this terrestrial sphere to the
+  happy hunting-ground, which is their pictured celestial paradise.
+  The above cited facts, which are the most interesting points
+  connected with the burial customs of the Indians of the pueblo San
+  Geronimo de Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but are the
+  absolute facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances for
+  a period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a short
+  distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer of their
+  peculiar burial customs, am able to give you this true and
+  undisguised information relative to your circular on "burial
+  customs."
+
+Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth coming
+in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the burial of
+the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. Fordyce
+Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection with the
+Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves _Kitty-ka-tats_, or those
+of the tattooed eyelids.
+
+  When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the
+  village and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made
+  for the burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave
+  prepared for its reception. If the grave is some distance from the
+  village, the body is carried thither on the back of a pony, being
+  first wrapped in blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle,
+  one person walking on either side to support it. The grave is dug
+  from three to four feet deep and of sufficient length for the
+  extended body. First blankets and buffalo-robes are laid in the
+  bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken from the horse and
+  unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and with ornaments is
+  placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the head towards the
+  west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging to the
+  deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are
+  deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+  utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are
+  placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when
+  the earth is filled in, it need not come in contact with the body or
+  its trappings. After the grave is filled with earth, a pen of poles
+  is built around it, or as is frequently the case, stakes are driven
+  so that they cross each other from either side about midway over the
+  grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild
+  animals. After all this is done, the grass or other _debris_ is
+  carefully scraped from about the grave for several feet, so that the
+  ground is left smooth and clean. It is seldom the case that the
+  relatives accompany the remains to the grave, but they more often
+  employ others to bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is
+  similar in this tribe, as in others, and it consists in cutting off
+  the hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave.
+
+The Caddoes, _Ascena_, or Timber Indians, as they call themselves,
+follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but one custom
+prevailing is worthy of mention:
+
+  If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is
+  left to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and the condition of
+  such individuals in the other world is considered to be far better
+  than that of persons dying a natural death.
+
+In a work by Bruhier[9] the following remarks, freely translated by the
+writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the
+exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:
+
+  The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the
+  roads, and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was
+  esteemed a great honor, a misfortune if not. Sometimes they
+  interred, always wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor.
+
+M. Pierre Muret,[10] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his
+information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar
+method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:
+
+  It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_ have ever
+  had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the
+  world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous
+  customs about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some
+  Historians; and the rather because at this day there are still to be
+  seen among them those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie
+  us, that their Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet
+  nevertheless, if we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_,
+  the _Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far
+  were they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them: But, as
+  these Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in the open
+  fields, which is the greatest shame our Laws do allot to the most
+  infamous Criminals, by laying them open to the view of all upon the
+  highways: Yea, in their opinion it was a great unhappiness, if
+  either Birds or Beasts did not devour their Carcases; and they
+  commonly made an estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies,
+  according as they were sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning
+  these, they resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed,
+  since even the beasts themselves would not touch them; which caused
+  an extream sorrow to their Relations, they taking it for an ill
+  boding to their Family, and an infallible presage of some great
+  misfortune hanging over their heads; for they persuaded themselves,
+  that the Souls which inhabited those Bodies being dragg'd into Hell,
+  would not fail to come and trouble them; and that being always
+  accompanied with the Devils, their Tormentors, they would certainly
+  give them a great deal of disturbance.
+
+  And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured,
+  their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the
+  Deceased; every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to
+  congratulate their relations on that account: For as they believed
+  assuredly, that they were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so they
+  were persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all those
+  of their family.
+
+  They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered
+  up and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see
+  those of Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane
+  Bodies, (the sight whereof gives us so much horror, that we
+  presently bury them out of our sight, whenever we find them
+  elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or Church-yards) were the occasion
+  of their greatest joy; beecause they concluded from thence the
+  happiness of those that had been devoured, wishing after their Death
+  to meet with the like good luck.
+
+The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that the
+Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and
+of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the
+open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief being
+that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy at
+least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite
+probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians
+trained dogs for this special purpose, called _Canes sepulchrales_,
+which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper
+that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to
+dwell in.
+
+The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead on
+top of high rocks.
+
+According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London Times
+of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta regarding
+the "Towers of Silence," so called, of the Parsees, who, it is well
+known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from Persia
+by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 years
+since. This gentleman's narrative is freely made use of to show how the
+custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has continued up to
+the present time.
+
+  The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a garden on
+  the highest point of Malabar Hill, a beautiful, rising ground on one
+  side of Black Bay, noted for the bungalows and compounds of the
+  European and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every
+  direction over its surface.
+
+  The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private road, all
+  access to which, except to Parsees, is barred by strong iron gates.
+
+The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:
+
+  No English nobleman's garden could be better kept, and no pen could
+  do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses, and
+  palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred
+  silence, but of peaceful rest.
+
+The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about 40
+feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as almost
+to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest of the
+towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees first
+settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next
+oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next
+century. A sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only used
+for criminals.
+
+The writer proceeds as follows:
+
+  Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest
+  moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an extraordinary
+  coping, which instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a
+  coping formed not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These
+  birds, on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves side by
+  side in perfect order and in a complete circle around the parapets
+  of the towers, with their heads pointing inwards, and so lazily did
+  they sit there, and so motionless was their whole mien, that except
+  for their color, they might have been carved out of the stonework.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Parsee Towers of Silence (interior).]
+
+No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor is
+any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. A model
+was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this description:
+
+  Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet high and
+  at least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of solid stone except
+  in the center, where a well, 5 or 6 feet across, leads down to an
+  excavation under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles
+  to each other, terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the
+  upper surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely hiding
+  the interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12 feet in height.
+  This it is which, when viewed from the outside, appears to form one
+  piece with the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered with
+  chunam, gives the whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper
+  surface of the solid stone column is divided into 72 compartments,
+  or open receptacles, radiating like the spokes of a wheel from the
+  central well, and arranged in three concentric rings, separated from
+  each other by narrow ridges of stone, which are grooved to act as
+  channels for conveying all moisture from the receptacles into the
+  well and into the lower drains. It should be noted that the number
+  "3" is emblematical of Zoroaster's three precepts, and the number
+  "72" of the chapters of his Yasna, a portion of the Zend-Avesta.
+
+  Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next by a
+  pathway, so that there are three circular pathways, the last
+  encircling the central well, and these three pathways are crossed by
+  another pathway conducting from the solitary door which admits the
+  corpse-bearers from the exterior. In the outermost circle of the
+  stone coffins are placed the bodies of males, in the middle those of
+  the females, and in the inner and smallest circle nearest the well
+  those of children.
+
+  While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the model,
+  a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our heads. At least a
+  hundred birds collected round one of the towers began to show
+  symptoms of excitement, while others swooped down from neighboring
+  trees. The cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy
+  soon revealed itself. A funeral was seen to be approaching. However
+  distant the house of a deceased person, and whether he be rich or
+  poor, high or low in rank, his body is always carried to the towers
+  by the official corpse-bearers, called _Nasasalar_, who form a
+  distinct class, the mourners walking behind.
+
+  Before they remove the body from the house where the relatives are
+  assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and the corpse is exposed to
+  the gaze of a dog, regarded by the Parsees as a sacred animal. This
+  latter ceremony is called _sagdid_.
+
+  Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a curved metal
+  trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed in pure
+  white garments, proceed with it towards the towers. They are
+  followed by the mourners at a distance of at least 30 feet, in
+  pairs, also dressed in white, and each couple joined by holding a
+  white handkerchief between them. The particular funeral I witnessed
+  was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers reached the path
+  leading by a steep incline to the door of the tower, the mourners,
+  about eight in number, turned back and entered one of the
+  prayer-houses. "There," said the secretary, "they repeat certain
+  gathas, and pray that the spirit of the deceased may be safely
+  transported, on the fourth day after death, to its final
+  resting-place."
+
+  The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which other
+  members of the same family had before been laid. The two bearers
+  speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed the body of the
+  child into the interior, and, unseen by any one, laid it uncovered
+  in one of the open stone receptacles nearest the central well. In
+  two minutes they reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and
+  scarcely had they closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down
+  upon the body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes
+  more we saw the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again
+  upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind but a skeleton.
+  Meanwhile, the bearers were seen to enter a building shaped like a
+  high barrel. There, as the secretary informed me, they changed their
+  clothes and washed themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come
+  out and deposit their cast-off funeral garments in a stone
+  receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden, lest it
+  should carry defilement into the city. Perfectly new garments are
+  supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or, at most, four weeks,
+  the same bearers return, and, with gloved hands and implements
+  resembling tongs, place the dry skeleton in the central well. There
+  the bones find their last resting-place, and there the dust of whole
+  generations of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for
+  centuries.
+
+  The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my back on
+  the towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I asked the secretary how
+  it was possible to become reconciled to such usage. His reply was
+  nearly in the following words: "Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived
+  6,000 years ago, taught us to regard the elements as symbols of the
+  Deity. Earth, fire, water, he said, ought never, under any
+  circumstances, to be defiled by contact with putrefying flesh.
+  Naked, he said, came we into the world and naked we ought to leave
+  it. But the decaying particles of our bodies should be dissipated as
+  rapidly as possible and in such a way that neither Mother Earth nor
+  the beings she supports should be contaminated in the slightest
+  degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest of health officers,
+  and, following his sanitary laws, we build our towers on the tops of
+  the hills, above all human habitations. We spare no expense in
+  constructing them of the hardest materials, and we expose our
+  putrescent bodies in open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen
+  feet of solid granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures,
+  but to be dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without
+  the possibility of polluting the earth or contaminating a single
+  being dwelling thereon. God, indeed, sends the vultures, and, as a
+  matter of fact, these birds do their appointed work much more
+  expeditiously than millions of insects would do if we committed our
+  bodies to the ground. In a sanitary point of view, nothing can be
+  more perfect than our plan. Even the rain-water which washes our
+  skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying charcoal. Here in
+  these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees that have lived
+  in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We form a united body in
+  life and we are united in death."
+
+It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of
+disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with
+the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which
+allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat
+similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the
+North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees,
+but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care
+is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the
+corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes
+or thongs.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence,
+drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Parsee Towers of Silence.]
+
+George Gibbs[11] gives the following account of burial among the Klamath
+and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been
+originally furnished him by James G. Swan.
+
+  The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses,
+  exhibit very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are
+  inclosed in rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the
+  body, and covered with earth to some depth; a heavy plank, often
+  supported by upright head and foot stones, is laid upon the top, or
+  stones are built up into a wall about a foot above the ground, and
+  the top flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are surrounded
+  by neat wooden palings, each pale ornamented with a feather from the
+  tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are usually staked down by the side,
+  according to the wealth or popularity of the individual, and
+  sometimes other articles for ornament or use are suspended over
+  them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three days, during which the
+  soul of the deceased is in danger from _O-mah-a_, or the devil. To
+  preserve it from this peril, a fire is kept up at the grave, and the
+  friends of the deceased howl around it to scare away the demon.
+  Should they not be successful in this the soul is carried down the
+  river, subject, however, to redemption by _Peh-ho-wan_ on payment of
+  a big knife. After the expiration of three days it is all well with
+  them.
+
+The question may well be asked, is the big knife a "sop to Cerberus"?
+
+To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States
+Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer
+is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary
+customs of the
+
+WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.
+
+  A large proportion of these Indians being members of the
+  Presbyterian church (the missionaries of which church have labored
+  among them for more than forty years past), the dead of their
+  families are buried after the customs of that church, and this
+  influence is felt to a great extent among those Indians who are not
+  strict church members, so that they are dropping one by one the
+  traditional customs of their tribe, and but few can now be found who
+  bury their dead in accordance with their customs of twenty or more
+  years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to their
+  modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated below.
+
+  _Warrior._--After death they paint a warrior red across the mouth,
+  or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb on one side of
+  the mouth and the fingers separated on the other cheek, the rest of
+  the face being painted red. (This latter is only done as a mark of
+  respect to a specially brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the
+  medicine-bag of the deceased when alive are buried with the body,
+  the medicine-bag being placed on the bare skin over the region of
+  the heart. There is not now, nor has there been, among these Indians
+  any special preparation of the grave. The body of a warrior is
+  generally wrapped in a blanket or piece of cloth (and frequently in
+  addition is placed in a box) and buried in the grave prepared for
+  the purpose, always, as the majority of these Indians inform me,
+  with the head towards the _south_. (I have, however, seen many
+  graves in which the head of the occupant had been placed to the
+  _east_. It may be that these graves were those of Indians who
+  belonged to the church; and a few Indians inform me that the head is
+  sometimes placed towards the _west_, according to the occupant's
+  belief when alive as to the direction from which his guiding
+  medicine came, and I am personally inclined to give credence to this
+  latter as sometimes occurring.) In all burials, when the person has
+  died a natural death, or had not been murdered, and whether man,
+  woman, or child, the body is placed in the grave with the face _up_.
+  In cases, however, when a man or woman has been murdered by one of
+  their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the grave
+  with the face _down_, head to the _south_, and a piece of fat (bacon
+  or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of fat is placed in the
+  mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent the spirit of the murdered
+  person driving or scaring the game from that section of country.
+  Those Indians who state that their dead are always buried with the
+  head towards the south say they do so in order that the spirit of
+  the deceased may go to the south, the land from which these Indians
+  believe they originally came.
+
+  _Women and children._--Before death the face of the person expected
+  to die is often painted in a red color. When this is not done before
+  death it is done afterwards; the body being then buried in a grave
+  prepared for its reception, and in the manner described for a
+  warrior, cooking-utensils taking the place of the warrior's weapons.
+  In cases of boys and girls a kettle of cooked food is sometimes
+  placed at the head of the grave after the body is covered. Now, if
+  the dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go up
+  and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls do
+  likewise. This, however, has never obtained as a custom, but is
+  sometimes done in cases of warriors and women also.
+
+  Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is now, and
+  always has been, a custom among them to remove a lock of hair from
+  the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or from the left side of the
+  head of a woman, which is carefully preserved by some near relative
+  of the deceased, wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in
+  the lodge of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the dead
+  person. To the bundle is attached a tin cup or other vessel, and in
+  this is placed some food for the spirit of the dead person. Whenever
+  a stranger happens in at meal time, this food, however, is not
+  allowed to go to waste; if not consumed by the stranger to whom it
+  is offered, some of the occupants of the lodge eat it. They seem to
+  take some pains to please the ghost of the deceased, thinking
+  thereby they will have good luck in their family so long as they
+  continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they smoke to
+  offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time asking it to confer
+  some favor on them, or aid them in their work or in hunting, &c.
+
+  There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost of the
+  deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This feast may be at
+  any time, and is not at any particular time, occurring, however,
+  generally as often as once a year, unless, at the time of the first
+  feast, the friends designate a particular time, such, for instance,
+  as when the leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle
+  is never permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the dead
+  person, except to be buried in the grave of one of them. Much of the
+  property of the deceased person is buried with the body, a portion
+  being placed under the body and a portion over it. Horses are
+  sometimes killed on the grave of a warrior, but this custom is
+  gradually ceasing, in consequence of the value of their ponies.
+  These animals are therefore now generally given away by the person
+  before death, or after death disposed of by the near relatives. Many
+  years ago it was customary to kill one or more ponies at the grave.
+  In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an Indian, much of his
+  personal property is now, and has ever been, reserved from burial
+  with the body, and forms the basis for a gambling party, which will
+  be described hereafter. No food is ever buried in the grave, but
+  some is occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case it is
+  consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the method that
+  was in vogue with these Indians twenty years ago, and which is still
+  adhered to, with more or less exactness, by the majority of them,
+  the exceptions being those who are strict church members and those
+  very few families who adhere to their ancient customs.
+
+  Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as the oldest
+  members of these tribes can remember, and with the usual tribal
+  traditions handed down from generation to generation, in regard to
+  this as well as to other things, for these Indians to bury in a tree
+  or on a platform, and in those days an Indian was only buried in the
+  ground as a mark of disrespect in consequence of the person having
+  been murdered, in which case the body would be buried in the ground,
+  _face down_, head toward the south and with a piece of fat in the
+  mouth. * * * The platform upon which the body was deposited was
+  constructed of four crotched posts firmly set in the ground, and
+  connected near the top by cross-pieces, upon which was placed
+  boards, when obtainable, and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so
+  as to give a firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an
+  elevation of from six to eight or more feet, and never contained but
+  one body, although frequently having sufficient surface to
+  accommodate two or three. In burying in the crotch of a tree and on
+  platforms, the head of the dead person was always placed towards the
+  south; the body was wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely
+  tied, and many of the personal effects of the deceased were buried
+  with it; as in the case of a warrior, his bows and arrows,
+  war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the body, the Indians
+  saying he would need such things in the next world.
+
+  I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before their
+  outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near relative whom they
+  held in great respect with them on their moves, for a greater or
+  lesser time, often as long as two or three years before burial.
+  This, however, never obtained generally among them, and some of them
+  seem to know nothing about it. It has of late years been entirely
+  dropped, except when a person dies away from home, it being then
+  customary for the friends to bring the body home for burial.
+
+  _Mourning ceremonies._--The mourning ceremonies before the year 1860
+  were as follows: After the death of a warrior the whole camp or
+  tribe would be assembled in a circle, and after the widow had cut
+  herself on the arms, legs, and body with a piece of flint, and
+  removed the hair from her head, she would go around the ring any
+  number of times she chose, but each time was considered as an oath
+  that she would not marry for a year, so that she could not marry for
+  as many years as times she went around the circle. The widow would
+  all this time keep up a crying and wailing. Upon the completion of
+  this the friends of the deceased would take the body to the platform
+  or tree where it was to remain, keeping up all this time their
+  wailing and crying. After depositing the body, they would stand
+  under it and continue exhibiting their grief, the squaws by hacking
+  their arms and legs with flint and cutting off the hair from their
+  head. The men would sharpen sticks and run them through the skin of
+  their arms and legs, both men and women keeping up their crying
+  generally for the remainder of the day, and the near relatives of
+  the deceased for several days thereafter. As soon as able, the
+  warrior friends of the deceased would go to a near tribe of their
+  enemies and kill one or more of them if possible, return with their
+  scalps, and exhibit them to the deceased person's relatives, after
+  which their mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as
+  properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when their
+  enemies were within reasonable striking distance, such, for
+  instance, as the Chippewas and the Arickarees, Gros Ventres and
+  Mandan Indians. In cases of women and children, the squaws would cut
+  off their hair, hack their persons with flint, and sharpen sticks
+  and run them through the skin of the arms and legs, crying as for a
+  warrior.
+
+  It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for a squaw
+  when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by hanging herself
+  with a lariat over the limb of a tree. This could not have prevailed
+  to any great extent, however, although the old men recite several
+  instances of its occurrence, and a very few examples within recent
+  years. Such was their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since
+  which time it has gradually died out, and at the present time these
+  ancient customs are adhered to by but a single family, known as the
+  seven brothers, who appear to retain all the ancient customs of
+  their tribe. At the present time, as a mourning observance, the
+  squaws hack themselves on their legs with knives, cut off their
+  hair, and cry and wail around the grave of the dead person, and the
+  men in addition paint their faces, but no longer torture themselves
+  by means of sticks passed through the skin of the arms and legs.
+  This cutting and painting is sometimes done before and sometimes
+  after the burial of the body. I also observe that many of the women
+  of these tribes are adopting so much of the customs of the whites as
+  prescribes the wearing of black for certain periods. During the
+  period of mourning these Indians never wash their face, or comb
+  their hair, or laugh. These customs are observed with varying degree
+  of strictness, but not in many instances with that exactness which
+  characterized these Indians before the advent of the white man among
+  them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of the person
+  practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That mutilation of a
+  finger by removing one or more joints, so generally observed among
+  the Minnetarree Indians at the Fort Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not
+  here seen, although the old men of these tribes inform me that it
+  was an ancient custom among their women, on the occasion of the
+  burial of a husband, to cut off a portion of a finger and have it
+  suspended in the tree above his body. I have, however, yet to see an
+  example of this having been done by any of the Indians now living,
+  and the custom must have fallen into disuse more than seventy years
+  ago.
+
+  In regard to the period of mourning, I would say that there does not
+  now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never was, any fixed
+  period of mourning, but it would seem that, like some of the whites,
+  they mourn when the subject is brought to their minds by some remark
+  or other occurrence. It is not unusual at the present time to hear a
+  man or woman cry and exclaim, "O, my poor husband!" "O, my poor
+  wife!" or "O, my poor child!" as the case may be, and, upon
+  inquiring, learn that the event happened several years before.
+  I have elsewhere mentioned that in some cases much of the personal
+  property of the deceased was and is reserved from burial with the
+  body, and forms the basis of a gambling party. I shall conclude my
+  remarks upon the burial customs, &c., of these Indians by an account
+  of this, which they designate as the "ghost's gamble."
+
+The account of the game will be found in another part of this paper.
+
+As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the
+tomb, a translation of Schiller's beautiful burial song is here given.
+It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:
+
+BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.
+
+  See on his mat, as if of yore,
+    How lifelike sits he here;
+  With the same aspect that he wore
+    When life to him was dear.
+  But where the right arm's strength, and where
+    The breath he used to breathe
+  To the Great Spirit aloft in air,
+    The peace-pipe's lusty wreath?
+  And where the hawk-like eye, alas!
+    That wont the deer pursue
+  Along the waves of rippling grass,
+    Or fields that shone with dew?
+  Are these the limber, bounding feet
+    That swept the winter snows?
+  What startled deer was half so fleet,
+    Their speed outstripped the roe's.
+  These hands that once the sturdy bow
+    Could supple from its pride,
+  How stark and helpless hang they now
+    Adown the stiffened side!
+  Yet weal to him! at peace he strays
+    Where never fall the snows,
+  Where o'er the meadow springs the maize
+    That mortal never sows;
+  Where birds are blithe in every brake,
+    Where forests teem with deer,
+  Where glide the fish through every lake,
+    One chase from year to year!
+  With spirits now he feasts above;
+    All left us, to revere
+  The deeds we cherish with our love,
+    The rest we bury here.
+  Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill
+    Wail death-dirge of the brave
+  What pleased him most in life may still
+    Give pleasure in the grave.
+  We lay the axe beneath his head
+    He swung when strength was strong,
+  The bear on which his hunger fed--
+    The way from earth is long!
+  And here, new-sharpened, place the knife
+    Which severed from the clay,
+  From which the axe had spoiled the life,
+    The conquered scalp away.
+  The paints that deck the dead bestow,
+    Aye, place them in his hand,
+  That red the kingly shade may glow
+    Amid the spirit land.
+
+The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. McChesney,
+face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of Indians,
+is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a cemetery
+belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near Abiquiu,
+N. Mex., a number of bodies, all of which had been buried face downward.
+The account originally appeared in Field and Forest, 1877, vol. iii,
+No. 1, p. 9.
+
+  On each side of the town were noticed two small arroyas or water
+  washed ditches, within 30 feet of the walls, and a careful
+  examination of these revealed the objects of our search. At the
+  bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly formed subsequent to the
+  occupation of the village, we found portions of human remains, and
+  following up the walls of the ditch soon had the pleasure of
+  discovering several skeletons _in situ_. The first found was in the
+  eastern arroya, and the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the
+  surface of the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face
+  downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the
+  skeleton were two shining black earthen vases, containing small bits
+  of charcoal, the bones of mammals, birds, and partially consumed
+  corn, and above these "_ollas_" the earth to the surface was filled
+  with pieces of charcoal. Doubtless the remains found in the vases
+  served at a funeral feast prior to the inhumation. We examined very
+  carefully this grave, hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or
+  weapons, but none rewarded our search. In all of the graves examined
+  the bodies were found in similar positions and under similar
+  circumstances in both arroyas, several of the skeletons being those
+  of children. No information could be obtained as to the probable age
+  of these interments, the present Indians considering them as dating
+  from the time when their ancestors with Moctezuma came from the
+  _north_.
+
+The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman,[12] in disposing
+of their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any
+needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner:
+
+  The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially
+  wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the
+  removal of a small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has
+  been crammed into the smallest possible space the rock or stump is
+  again rolled into its former position, when a number of stones are
+  placed around the base to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin
+  usually mourn for the period of one month, during that time giving
+  utterance at intervals to the most dismal lamentations, which are
+  apparently sincere. During the day this obligation is frequently
+  neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of his duty
+  he renews his howling with evident interest. This custom of mourning
+  for the period of thirty days corresponds to that formerly observed
+  by the Natchez.
+
+Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in the
+life of Moses Van Campen,[13] which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:
+
+  Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen
+  in battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and
+  laying the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a
+  little earth.
+
+As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:
+
+CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.
+
+  Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians
+  plant a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury
+  them in a bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring
+  provisions to the place where their fathers are buried. One of the
+  graves had fallen in, and we observed in the soil some sticks for
+  stretching skins, the remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps
+  for carrying it, and near the place where the head lay were the
+  traces of a fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased
+  to come and warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited
+  near it.
+
+  These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the
+  north shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the
+  country being claimed by the Oneidas.
+
+It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was
+discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may
+have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his
+vocation--nets, fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was
+only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians,
+that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were
+employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of
+skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the
+only example of the kind.
+
+Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus
+described:
+
+  The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan
+  which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and
+  drown their grief in _mushla_, the women giving vent to their sorrow
+  by dashing themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and
+  inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As
+  it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of
+  the body, musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while
+  preparations are made for its removal. All at once four naked men,
+  who have disguised themselves with paint so as not to be recognized
+  and punished by _Wulasha_, rush out from a neighboring hut, and,
+  seizing a rope attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods,
+  followed by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into
+  the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to
+  serve the departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the
+  boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the
+  grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other
+  articles placed there from time to time by relatives.
+
+
+_STONE GRAVES OR CISTS._
+
+These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in
+the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the
+class of graves previously described.
+
+A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus described
+by Moses Fiske:[14]
+
+  There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular
+  graves. They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the
+  bottom ends and sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after
+  laying in the body, covered it over with earth.
+
+It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a
+number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutre, in France,
+and they were almost identical in construction with those described by
+Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, this,
+however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a deposition
+of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which have
+elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer in
+1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom and
+sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were none
+directly over the skeletons.
+
+The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his own
+observation in Tennessee.
+
+  The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant throughout
+  the State. Often hundreds of graves may be found on a single
+  hillside. The same people sometimes bury in scattered graves and in
+  mounds--the mounds being composed of a large number of cist graves.
+  The graves are increased by additions from time to time. The
+  additions are sometimes placed above and sometimes at the sides of
+  the others. In the first burials there is a tendency to a concentric
+  system with the feet towards the center, but subsequent burials are
+  more irregular, so that the system is finally abandoned before the
+  place is desired for cemetery purposes.
+
+  Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of
+  interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before
+  the decay of the flesh, and in many instances collections of bones
+  are buried. Sometimes these bones are placed in some order about the
+  crania, and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of
+  bones had been emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers,
+  knives, arrowheads, &c., were usually found, with women, pottery,
+  rude beads, shells, &c., with children, toys of pottery, beads,
+  curious pebbles, &c.
+
+  Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous
+  burial was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists
+  were covered with slabs.
+
+Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work[15] the reader is referred for a
+more detailed account of this mode of burial.
+
+G. K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the
+writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to
+their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a
+receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the
+hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the
+dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave
+by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground
+after the grave is filled in.
+
+The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George Escoll
+Sellers,[16] inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which is
+as follows:
+
+  Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about 30 deg., it
+  has been terraced and the terrace as well as the crown of the spur
+  have been used as a cemetery; portions of the terraces are still
+  perfect; all the burials appear to have been made in rude stone
+  cists, that vary in size from 13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4
+  feet, and from 18 inches to 2 feet deep. They are made of
+  thin-bedded sandstone slabs, generally roughly shaped, but some of
+  them have been edged and squared with considerable care,
+  particularly the covering slabs. The slope below the terraces was
+  thickly strewed with these slabs, washed out as the terraces have
+  worn away, and which have since been carried off for door-steps and
+  hearth-stones. I have opened many of these cists; they nearly all
+  contain fragments of human bones far gone in decay, but I have never
+  succeeded in securing a perfect skull; even the clay vessels that
+  were interred with the dead have disintegrated, the portions
+  remaining being almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some of the
+  cists that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water shells,
+  but most generally with the fragments of the great salt-pans, which
+  in every case are so far gone in decay as to have lost the outside
+  markings. This seems conclusively to couple the tenants of these
+  ancient graves with the makers and users of these salt-pans. The
+  great number of graves and the quantity of slabs that have been
+  washed out prove either a dense population or a long occupancy, or
+  both.
+
+W. J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a
+description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from
+other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.
+
+  I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some twenty-five
+  years ago, of seeing what was called "Indian graves," and those that
+  I examined were close to small streams of water, and were buried in
+  a sitting or squatting posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones,
+  and were then buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves
+  which I examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to
+  be isolated, no two being found in the same locality. When the
+  burials took place I could hardly conjecture, but it must have been,
+  from appearances, from fifty to one hundred years. The bones that I
+  took out on first appearance seemed tolerably perfect, but on short
+  exposure to the atmosphere crumbled, and I was unable to save a
+  specimen. No implements or relics were observed in those examined by
+  me, but I have heard of others who have found such. In that State,
+  Kentucky, there are a number of places where the Indians buried
+  their dead and left mounds of earth over the graves, but I have not
+  examined them myself. * * *
+
+According to Bancroft,[17] the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central
+America, also followed the cist form of burial.
+
+  In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the
+  principal men, constructed with flat stones laid together with much
+  care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food
+  and wine for the dead. Those for the plebians were merely trenches,
+  in which were deposited some gourds of maize and wine, and the place
+  filled with stones. In some parts of Panama and Darien only the
+  chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the common people a
+  person feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led to
+  the woods by his wife, family, or friends, who, supplying him with
+  some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, then left him to die
+  alone or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others, with more respect
+  for their dead, buried them in sepulchers made with niches, where
+  they placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some,
+  a mother dying while suckling her infant, the living child was
+  placed at her breast and buried with her, in order that in her
+  future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk.
+
+
+_BURIAL IN MOUNDS._
+
+In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote
+any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting
+examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.
+
+The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F. W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology,
+Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is
+published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:
+
+  * * * He then stated that it would be of interest to the members, in
+  connection with the discovery of dolmens in Japan, as described by
+  Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four hours there had
+  been received at the Peabody Museum a small collection of articles
+  taken from rude dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they would be
+  called in England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now
+  engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody Museum.
+
+  These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay
+  County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the
+  Missouri River. The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr.
+  Curtiss, about 8 feet square, and from 4-1/2 to 5 feet high, each
+  chamber having a passage-way several feet in length and 2 in width,
+  leading from the southern side and opening on the edge of the mound
+  formed by covering the chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls
+  of the chambered passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and
+  well made of stones, which were evenly laid without clay or mortar
+  of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a covering of large,
+  flat rocks, but the others seem to have been closed over with wood.
+  The chambers were filled with clay which had been burnt, and
+  appeared as if it had fallen in from above. The inside walls of the
+  chambers also showed signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each
+  chamber, were found the remains of several human skeletons, all of
+  which had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small
+  fragments of the bones, which were mixed with the ashes and
+  charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in one chamber he found the
+  remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these skeletons there
+  were a few flint implements and minute fragments of vessels of clay.
+
+  A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this
+  no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This
+  mound proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also
+  contained well-made pottery and a peculiar "gorget" of red stone.
+  The connection of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in
+  the stone chambers with those who buried their dead in the earth
+  mounds is, of course, yet to be determined.
+
+It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used for
+secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.
+
+In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same investigator
+gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the
+preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:
+
+  Mr. F. W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account of
+  his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the
+  Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.
+
+  The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr.
+  Edwin Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody
+  Museum at Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds
+  had been thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular
+  stone graves of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully
+  opened. * * * Mr. Putnam's remarks were illustrated by drawings of
+  several hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds,
+  particularly to show the great variety of articles of pottery and
+  several large and many unique forms of implements of chipped flint.
+  He also exhibited and explained in detail a map of a walled town of
+  this old nation. This town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a
+  bend of Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying
+  ditch, encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this inclosure
+  there was one large mound with a flat top, 15 feet high, 130 feet
+  long, and 90 feet wide, which was found not to be a burial mound.
+  Another mound near the large one, about 50 feet in diameter, and
+  only a few feet high, contained 60 human skeletons, each in a
+  carefully-made stone grave, the graves being arranged in two rows,
+  forming the four sides of a square, and in three layers. * * * The
+  most important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of
+  finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived in this
+  old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located on the map by
+  Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr. Putnam.
+  Under the floors of hard clay, which was in places much burnt, Mr.
+  Putnam found the graves of children. As only the bodies of adults
+  had been placed in the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly
+  every site of a house he explored had from one to four graves of
+  children under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a
+  regular custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that
+  the children had undoubtedly been treated with affection, as in
+  their small graves were found many of the best pieces of pottery he
+  obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several large pearls,
+  and many other objects which were probably the playthings of the
+  little ones while living.[18]
+
+This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it is
+frequently mentioned by writers on North American archaeology.
+
+The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part
+used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless common.
+
+Caleb Atwater[19] gives this description of the
+
+BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.
+
+  Near the center of the round fort * * * was a tumulus of earth about
+  10 feet in height and several rods in diameter at its base. On its
+  eastern side, and extending 6 rods from it, was a semicircular
+  pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in the bed of the
+  Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been brought. The
+  summit of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was
+  a raised way to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike.
+  The summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement and
+  the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this mound was
+  entirely removed several years since. The writer was present at its
+  removal and carefully examined the contents. It contained--
+
+  1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the original
+  surface of the earth.
+
+  2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as
+  to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.
+
+  3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made of an
+  elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a
+  ferule of silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time.
+  Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted,
+  yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and
+  size.
+
+  4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were
+  surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared
+  to have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost
+  consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a
+  little to the south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet
+  to the north of it was another, with which were--
+
+  5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1-1/2 inches in
+  thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica membranacea_), and
+  on it--
+
+  6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was
+  disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour
+  answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This
+  skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal
+  and a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is
+  in my possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at
+  the time. The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum,
+  at Philadelphia.
+
+  To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another,
+  more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate
+  representing these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears
+  to be artificial. This must have been the common cemetery, as it
+  contains an immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages.
+  The skeletons are laid horizontally, with their heads generally
+  towards the center and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus.
+  A considerable part of this work still stands uninjured, except by
+  time. In it have been found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and
+  knives, and several ornaments, with holes through them, by means of
+  which, with a cord passing through these perforations, they could be
+  worn by their owners. On the south side of this tumulus, and not far
+  from it, was a semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw it, was 6
+  feet deep. On opening it was discovered at the bottom a great
+  quantity of human bones, which I am inclined to believe were the
+  remains of those who had been slain in some great and destructive
+  battle: first, because they belonged to persons who had attained
+  their full size, whereas in the mound adjoining were found the
+  skeletons of persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were here in
+  the utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not conjecture
+  that they belonged to the people who resided in the town, and who
+  were victorious in the engagement? Otherwise they would not have
+  been thus honorably buried in the common cemetery.
+
+  _Chillicothe mound._--Its perpendicular height was about 15 feet,
+  and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was composed of sand
+  and contained human bones belonging to skeletons which were buried
+  in different parts of it. It was not until this pile of earth was
+  removed and the original surface exposed to view that a probable
+  conjecture of its original design could be formed. About 20 feet
+  square of the surface had been leveled and covered with bark. On the
+  center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been spread a
+  mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the breast lay what
+  had been a piece of copper, in the form of a cross, which had now
+  become verdigris. On the breast also lay a stone ornament with two
+  perforations, one near each end, through which passed a string, by
+  means of which it was suspended around the wearer's neck. On this
+  string, which was made of sinews, and very much injured by time,
+  were placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I cannot
+  certainly say which. * * *
+
+  _Mounds of stone._--Two such mounds have been described already in
+  the county of Perry. Others have been found in various parts of the
+  country. There is one at least in the vicinity of Licking River, not
+  many miles from Newark. There is another on a branch of Hargus's
+  Creek, a few miles to the northeast of Circleville. There were
+  several not very far from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds
+  were sometimes used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they
+  were also used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the
+  recollection of some great transaction or event. In the former not
+  more generally than one or two skeletons are found; in the latter
+  none. These mounds are like those of earth, in form of a cone,
+  composed of small stones on which no marks of tools were visible. In
+  them some of the most interesting articles are found, such as urns,
+  ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal, as
+  well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; * * * works of
+  this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they are none
+  of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of
+  Circleville, which belong to the first class. I saw one of these
+  stone tumuli which had been piled on the surface of the earth on the
+  spot where three skeletons had been buried in stone coffins, beneath
+  the surface. It was situated on the western edge of the hill on
+  which the "walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to
+  have been dug to about the depth of ours in the present times. After
+  the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat stones, the corpses
+  were placed in these graves in an eastern and western direction, and
+  large flat stones were laid over the graves; then the earth which
+  had been dug out of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of
+  stones was placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however,
+  that this was a work of our present race of Indians. Such graves are
+  more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except the skeletons,
+  was found in these graves; and the skeletons resembled very much the
+  present race of Indians.
+
+The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C.
+Holbrook[20] as follows:
+
+  I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian mounds
+  found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first
+  one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and
+  7 feet high. In the interior of this I found a _dolmen_ or
+  quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4-1/2 feet
+  wide. It had been built of lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was
+  covered with large flat stones. No mortar or cement had been used.
+  The whole structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
+  interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the chamber.
+  Inside of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed remains of eight
+  human skeletons, two very large teeth of an unknown animal, two
+  fossils, one of which is not found in this place, and a plummet. One
+  of the long bones had been splintered; the fragments had united, but
+  there remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several
+  places. One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the
+  size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during life,
+  for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. I later examined three
+  circular mounds, but in them I found no dolmens. The first mound
+  contained three adult human skeletons, a few fragments of the
+  skeleton of a child, the lower maxillary of which indicated it to be
+  about six years old. I also found claws of some carnivorous animal.
+  The surface of the soil had been scooped out and the bodies laid in
+  the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth; fires had
+  then been made upon the grave and the mound afterwards completed.
+  The bones had not been charred. No charcoal was found among the
+  bones, but occurred in abundance in a stratum about one foot above
+  them. Two other mounds, examined at the same time, contain no
+  remains.
+
+  Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4
+  feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on
+  an elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the
+  top of this mound one might view the country for many miles in
+  almost any direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long
+  and 4-1/2 wide. It was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which
+  had been burned red, some portions having been almost converted into
+  lime. On and about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the
+  sides of the altar were fragments of human bones, some of which had
+  been charred. It was covered by a natural growth of vegetable mold
+  and sod, the thickness of which was about 10 inches. Large trees had
+  once grown in this vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed
+  I could not tell with certainty; to what species they belonged.
+  Another large mound was opened which contained nothing.
+
+The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
+was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army:[21]
+
+  Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were
+  buried in it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his
+  head. This idea was based upon some superficial explorations which
+  had been made from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their
+  excavations had, indeed, brought to light pots containing fragments
+  of skulls, but not buried in the position they imagined. Very
+  extensive explorations, made at different times by myself, have
+  shown that only fragments of skulls and of the long bones of the
+  body are to be found in the mound, and that these are commonly
+  associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but more frequently
+  broken fragments only. In some instances portions of the skull were
+  placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited in its immediate
+  vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand, and fragments of
+  bones would be found near them. The most successful "find" I made
+  was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all in a
+  good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of skull,
+  which I take, from its small size, to have been that of a female.
+  Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried
+  in the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains
+  because of her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason
+  of the unusual wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter
+  of conjecture. I found, altogether, fragments of skulls and
+  thigh-bones belonging to at least fifty individuals, but in no
+  instance did I find anything like a complete skeleton. There were no
+  vertebrae, no ribs, no pelvic bones, and none of the small bones of
+  the hands and feet. Two or three skulls, nearly perfect, were found,
+  but they were so fragile that it was impossible to preserve them. In
+  the majority of instances, only fragments of the frontal and
+  parietal bones were found, buried in pots or in fragments of pots
+  too small to have ever contained a complete skull. The conclusion
+  was irresistible that this was not a burial-place for _the bodies_
+  of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been gathered from some
+  other locality for burial in this mound, or that cremation was
+  practiced before burial, and the fragments of bone not consumed by
+  fire were gathered and deposited in the mound. That the latter
+  supposition is the correct one I deem probable from the fact that in
+  digging in the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places,
+  but without any regularity as to depth and position. These evidences
+  consist in strata of from one to four inches in thickness, in which
+  the sand is of a dark color and has mixed with it numerous small
+  fragments of charcoal.
+
+  My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the
+  following manner: That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was
+  erected on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the
+  body was consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered,
+  placed in a pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were
+  covered by a layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for
+  that purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that only
+  the shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded extremities,
+  which would be most easily consumed, having disappeared; also, by
+  the fact that no bones of children were found. Their bones being
+  smaller, and containing a less proportion of earthy matter, would be
+  entirely consumed. * * *
+
+  At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I
+  found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved
+  skulls. * * * The bodies were not, apparently, deposited upon any
+  regular system, and I found no objects of interest associated with
+  the remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the
+  skeletons found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in
+  which they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the fact
+  that they were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of
+  ante-mortem injuries which must have been of a fatal character.
+
+Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,[22] in alluding to the ossuary, or
+bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation
+takes place, in this manner:
+
+  Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of
+  the deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one
+  upon another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth
+  heaped above.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of a
+  festival called the feast of the dead.
+
+Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a somewhat
+curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley of Ohio:
+
+  A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a
+  central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons
+  buried around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture, but leaning
+  against one another, tipped over towards the right, facing inwards.
+  I did not see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many
+  ornaments, awls, &c., said to have been found near the central body.
+  The parties informing me are trustworthy.
+
+As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting as
+being _sui generis_, the following description by Dr. J. Mason
+Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11,
+1871, on the farm of R. V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke
+County, N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer
+of undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:
+
+EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.
+
+  In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he
+  informed me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was
+  formerly of considerable height, but had gradually been plowed down;
+  that several mounds in the neighborhood had been excavated, and
+  nothing of interest found in them. I asked permission to examine
+  this mound, which was granted, and upon investigation the following
+  facts were revealed:
+
+  Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length
+  and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a
+  rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was
+  found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth,
+  about 18 inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length,
+  and 16 inches in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with
+  the corners rounded.
+
+  Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an excavation in
+  the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which, upon
+  examination, proved to be in front of the remains of a human
+  skeleton in a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right
+  hand were resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a
+  small stone about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian
+  hatchet. Upon a further examination many of the bones were found,
+  though in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air
+  soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable
+  portion of the skull, maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the
+  vertebra, were in their proper places, though the weight of the
+  earth above them had driven them down, yet the entire frame was so
+  perfect that it was an easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones
+  of the cranium were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the
+  neck were found coarse beads that seemed to be of some hard
+  substance and resembled chalk. A small lump of red paint about the
+  size of an egg was found near the right side of this skeleton. The
+  sutures of the cranium indicated the subject to have been 25 or 28
+  years of age, and its top rested about 12 inches below the mark of
+  the plow.
+
+  I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave and found
+  another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing
+  the east. A rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right
+  hand were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been
+  about 7 inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was
+  much better finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck
+  of this one, but were much smaller and of finer quality than those
+  on the neck of the first. The material, however, seems to be the
+  same. A much larger amount of paint was found by the side of this
+  than the first. The bones indicated a person of large frame, who,
+  I think, was about 50 years of age. Everything about this one had
+  the appearance of superiority over the first. The top of the skull
+  was about 6 inches below the mark of the plane.
+
+  I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found
+  nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east,
+  found another skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing
+  the west. On the right side of this was a rock on which the bones of
+  the right hand were resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk,
+  which had been about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
+  pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better
+  finished than the others. Beads were also found on the neck of this,
+  but much smaller and finer than those of the others. A larger amount
+  of paint than both of the others was found near this one. The top of
+  the cranium had been moved by the plow. The bones indicated a person
+  of 40 years of age.
+
+  There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller
+  bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken
+  from their bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with
+  the fact that the farm on which this grave was found was the first
+  settled in that part of the country, the date of the first deed made
+  from Lord Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years
+  (the land still belonging to the descendants of the same family that
+  first occupied it), would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old
+  grave.
+
+  The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet,
+  the line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of
+  the soil. It was dug in rich, black loam, and filled around the
+  bodies with white or yellow sand, which I suppose was carried from
+  the river-bank, 200 yards distant. The skeletons approximated the
+  walls of the grave, and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth,
+  and so decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both in
+  quality and odor, that the line of the bodies could be readily
+  traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had been flesh, was
+  similar to clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when compressed
+  in the hand.
+
+  This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots
+  made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the
+  warrior had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need,
+  in the "hunting-grounds beyond," his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and
+  scalping-knife.
+
+  The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will
+  carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the
+  American Indians were in possession of at least some of the
+  mysteries of our order, and that it was evidently the grave of
+  Masons, and the three highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave
+  was situated due east and west; an altar was erected in the center;
+  the south, west, and east were occupied--_the north was not_;
+  implements of authority were near each body. The difference in the
+  quality of the beads, the tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces,
+  and the difference in distance that the bodies were placed from the
+  surface, indicate beyond doubt that these three persons had been
+  buried by Masons, and those, too, that understood what they were
+  doing.
+
+  Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the Masonic
+  world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic information?
+
+  The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other
+  bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at
+  Washington, D.C., to be placed among the archives of that
+  institution for exhibition, at which place they may be seen.
+
+Should Dr. Spainhour's inferences be incorrect, there is still a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.
+
+In support of this gentleman's views, attention is called to the
+description of the _Midawan_--a ceremony of initiation for would-be
+medicine men--in Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of the
+United States, 1855, p. 428, relating to the Sioux and Chippewas. In
+this account are found certain forms and resemblances which have led
+some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of Masonry.
+
+
+_BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES._
+
+While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--they
+differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial burial,
+and must consequently fall under another caption. The narratives which
+are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former kinds of burial.
+
+Bartram[23] relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the
+Carolinas:
+
+  The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a
+  four-foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the
+  deceased laid on in his house, lining the grave with cypress bark,
+  when they place the corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were
+  alive, depositing with him his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other
+  matters as he had the greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest
+  wife, or the queen dowager, has the second choice of his
+  possessions, and the remaining effects are divided among his other
+  wives and children.
+
+According to Bernard Roman,[24] the "funeral customs of the Chickasaws
+did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred
+the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired."
+
+The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:
+
+  The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the
+  house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case
+  the body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown
+  in, and stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body
+  first takes off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with
+  water before putting them on or mingling with the living. When a
+  body is removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and
+  the place in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the devil
+  comes to the place of death and remains where a dead body is. Wild
+  animals frequently (indeed, generally) get the bodies, and it is a
+  very easy matter to pick up skulls and bones around old camping
+  grounds, or where the dead are laid. In case it is not desirable to
+  abandon a place, the sick person is left out in some lone spot
+  protected by brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or
+  food brought to them until they die. This is done only when all hope
+  is gone. I have found bodies thus left so well inclosed with brush
+  that wild animals were unable to get at them; and one so left to die
+  was revived by a cup of coffee from our house and is still living
+  and well.
+
+Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal
+communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr.
+Menard, as follows:
+
+  This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a reservation in the
+  extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona.
+  The funeral ceremonies of the Navajos are of the most simple
+  character. They ascribe the death of an individual to the direct
+  action of _Chinde_, or the devil, and believe that he remains in the
+  vicinity of the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the
+  tribe dies a shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by
+  one of the near male relatives, and into this the corpse is
+  unceremoniously tumbled by the relatives, who have previously
+  protected themselves from the evil influence by smearing their naked
+  bodies with tar from the pinon tree. After the body has thus been
+  disposed of, the hogan (composed of logs and branches of trees
+  covered with earth) is pulled down over it and the place deserted.
+  Should the deceased have no near relatives or was of no importance
+  in the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed with,
+  the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This carelessness does
+  not appear to arise from want of natural affection for the dead, but
+  fear of the evil influence of _Chinde_ upon the surviving relatives
+  causes them to avoid doing anything that might gain for them his
+  ill-will. A Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the logs
+  of a fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have been
+  years in that condition. There are no mourning observances other
+  than smearing the forehead and under the eyes with tar, which is
+  allowed to remain until worn off, and then not renewed. The deceased
+  is apparently forgotten, as his name is never spoken by the
+  survivors for fear of giving offense to _Chinde_.
+
+J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the Navajos:
+
+  When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the
+  ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body
+  into as small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with
+  cords, place them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing,
+  everything owned by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all
+  gathered around the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their
+  faces with their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks,
+  pull out their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These
+  burials were generally made under their thatch houses or very near
+  thereto. The house where one died was always torn down, removed,
+  rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks, &c., were in their own
+  jargon; none else could understand, and they seemingly knew but
+  little of its meaning (if there was any meaning in it); it simply
+  seemed to be the promptings of grief, without sufficient
+  intelligence to direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out his own
+  impulse.
+
+The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,[25] relating to the
+Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example
+of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to
+consider the receptacles as temples.
+
+  Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n'enterent point leur Chef,
+  lorsqu'il est decede; mais-ils font secher son cadavre au feu et a
+  la fumee de facon qu'ils en font un vrai squelette. Apres l'avoir
+  reduit en cet etat, ils le portent au Temple (car ils en ont un
+  ainsi que les Natchez), et le mettent a la place de son
+  predecesseur, qu'ils tirent de l'endroit qu'il occupoit, pour le
+  porter avec les corps de leurs autres Chefs dans le fond du Temple
+  ou ils sont tous ranges de suite dresses sur leurs pieds comme des
+  statues. A l'egard du dernier mort, il est expose a l'entree de ce
+  Temple sur une espece d'autel ou de table faite de cannes, et
+  couverte d'une natte tres-fine travaillee fort proprement en
+  quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces memes cannes. Le
+  cadavre du Chef est expose au milieu de cette table droit sur ses
+  pieds, soutenu par derriere par une longue perche peinte en rouge
+  dont le bout passe au dessus de sa tete, et a laquelle il est
+  attache par le milieu du corps avec une liane. D'une main il tient
+  un casse-tete ou une petite hache, de l'autre un pipe; et au-dessus
+  de sa tete, est attache au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le
+  Calumet le plus fameux de tous ceux qui lui ont ete presentes
+  pendant sa vie. Du reste cette table n'est gueres elevee de terre
+  que d'un demi-pied; mais elle a au moins six pieds de large et dix
+  de longueur.
+
+  C'est sur cette table qu'on vient tous les jours servir a manger a
+  ce Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de sagamite, du bled
+  grole ou boucane, &c. C'est-la aussi qu'au commencement de toutes
+  les recoltes ses Sujets vont lui offrir les premiers de tous les
+  fruits qu'ils peuvent recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est presente de la
+  sorte reste sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est
+  toujours ouverte, qu'il n'y a personne prepose pour y veiller, que
+  par consequent y entre qui veut, et que d'ailleurs il est eloigne du
+  Village d'un grand quart de lieue, il arrive que ce sont
+  ordinairement des Etrangers, Chasseurs ou Sauvages, qui profitent de
+  ces mets et de ces fruits, ou qu'ils sont consommes par les animaux.
+  Mais cela est egal a ces sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu'ils
+  retournent le lendemain, plus ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur
+  Chef a bien mange, et que par consequent il est content d'eux
+  quoiqu'il les ait abandonnes. Pour leur ouvrir les yeux sur
+  l'extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur representer ce
+  qu'ils ne peuvent s'empecher de voir eux-memes, que ce n'est point
+  ce mort qui mange; ils repondent que si ce n'est pas lui, c'est
+  toujours lui au moins qui offre a qui il lui plait ce qui a ete mis
+  sur la table; qu'apres tout c'etoit la la pratique de leur pere, de
+  leur mere, de leurs parens; qu'ils n'ont pas plus d'esprit qu'eux,
+  et qu'ils ne sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.
+
+  C'est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la veuve
+  du Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent de tems en
+  tems lui rendre visite et lui faire leur harangue, comme s'il etoit
+  en etat de les entendre. Les uns lui demandent pourquoi il s'est
+  laisse mourir avant eux? d'autres lui disent que s'il est mort ce
+  n'est point leur faute; que c'est lui meme qui s'est tue par telle
+  debauche on par tel effort; enfin s'il y a eu quelque defaut dans
+  son gouvernement, on prend ce tems-la pour le lui reprocher.
+  Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui disant de
+  n'etre pas fache contre eux, de bien manger, et qu'ils auront
+  toujours bien soin de lui.
+
+Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the
+publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p. 89, taken from Strachey's
+Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early writer on
+American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess as a
+truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of
+Virginia:
+
+  Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the
+  cenotaphies or the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes, so soon
+  as they be dead, they embowell, and, scraping the flesh from off the
+  bones, they dry the same upon hurdells into ashes, which they put
+  into little potts (like the anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the
+  bones they bind together or case up in leather, hanging braceletts,
+  or chaines of copper, beads, pearle, or such like, as they used to
+  wear about most of their joints and neck, and so repose the body
+  upon a little scaffold (as upon a tomb), laying by the dead bodies'
+  feet all his riches in severall basketts, his apook, and pipe, and
+  any one toy, which in his life he held most deare in his fancy;
+  their inwards they stuff with pearle, copper, beads, and such trash,
+  sowed in a skynne, which they overlapp againe very carefully in whit
+  skynnes one or two, and the bodyes thus dressed lastly they rowle in
+  matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay them orderly one by one, as
+  they dye in their turnes, upon an arche standing (as aforesaid) for
+  the tomb, and thes are all the ceremonies we yet can learne that
+  they give unto their dead. We heare of no sweet oyles or oyntments
+  that they use to dresse or chest their dead bodies with; albeit they
+  want not of the pretious rozzin running out of the great cedar,
+  wherewith in the old time they used to embalme dead bodies, washing
+  them in the oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the priests the care
+  of these temples and holy interments are committed, and these
+  temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or ministers to
+  exercise themselves in contemplation, for they are seldome out of
+  them, and therefore often lye in them and maynteyne contynuall fier
+  in the same, upon a hearth somewhat neere the east end.
+
+  For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the earth with
+  sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in skynns and matts with
+  their jewells, they laye uppon sticks in the ground, and soe cover
+  them with earth; the buryall ended, the women (being painted all
+  their faces with black coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in
+  their howses, mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling
+  and howling as may expresse their great passions.
+
+While this description brings the subject under the head before
+given--house burial--at the same time it might also afford an example of
+embalmment or mummifying.
+
+Figure 1 may be referred to as a probable representation of the temple
+or charnel-house described.
+
+The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be
+considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices
+prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the
+Rev. J. G. Wood,[26] bury their dead within the inclosure of the
+home-stead, fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems.
+The Apingi, according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in
+its dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and
+deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas
+bury within the inclosure of a man's house, although the bones are
+subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside
+the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle
+inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the
+Bechuanas follow the same general plan.
+
+The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted above
+(p. 314), is added as containing an account of certain details which
+resemble somewhat those followed by North American Indians. In the
+narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed only if
+specially desired by the expiring person:
+
+  When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar fashion.
+  As soon as life is extinct--some say even before the last breath is
+  drawn--the bystanders break the spine by a blow from a large stone.
+  They then unwind the long rope that encircles the loins, and lash
+  the body together in a sitting posture, the head being bent over the
+  knees. Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its
+  face to the north, as already described when treating of the
+  Bechuanas. Cattle are then slaughtered in honor of the dead chief,
+  and over the grave a post is erected, to which the skulls and hair
+  are attached as a trophy. The bow, arrows, assagai, and clubs of the
+  deceased are hung on the same post. Large stones are pressed into
+  the soil above and around the grave, and a large pile of thorns is
+  also heaped over it, in order to keep off the hyenas, who would be
+  sure to dig up and devour the body before the following day. The
+  grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. Now and then a
+  chief orders that his body shall be left in his own house, in which
+  case it is laid on an elevated platform, and a strong fence of
+  thorns and stakes built round the hut.
+
+  The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief forsakes the
+  place and takes the whole of the people under his command. He
+  remains at a distance for several years, during which time he wears
+  the sign of mourning, i.e., a dark-colored conical cap, and round
+  the neck a thong, to the ends of which are hung two small pieces of
+  ostrich-shell. When the season of mourning is over, the tribe
+  return, headed by the chief, who goes to the grave of his father,
+  kneels over it, and whispers that he has returned, together with the
+  cattle and wives which his father gave him. He then asks for his
+  parent's aid in all his undertakings, and from that moment takes the
+  place which his father filled before him. Cattle are then
+  slaughtered, and a feast held to the memory of the dead chief and in
+  honor of the living one, and each person present partakes of the
+  meat, which is distributed by the chief himself. The deceased chief
+  symbolically partakes of the banquet. A couple of twigs cut from the
+  tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased belonged are
+  considered as his representative, and with this emblem each piece of
+  meat is touched before the guests consume it. In like manner, the
+  first pail of milk that is drawn is taken to the grave and poured
+  over it.
+
+
+_CAVE BURIAL._
+
+Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only
+the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation
+and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of
+artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have
+actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of place at this
+time, except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so far
+as can be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient
+resting places for their deceased relatives and friends.
+
+In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.
+
+While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a natural
+cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to which
+resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had
+deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was
+quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination
+made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the
+same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the
+Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it,
+which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian,
+a Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of his
+tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the
+party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted
+in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew
+a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if
+an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some
+years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent
+game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it
+was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full
+extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many
+refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and
+the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of
+a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
+pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This entrance
+was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As the
+Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones and
+roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of uninterrupted,
+faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. The guide was
+asked if many bodies were therein, and replied "Heaps, heaps," moving
+the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There is no reason to
+doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it was voluntarily
+imparted.
+
+In a communication received from Dr. A. J. McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of crevice or
+rock-fissure burial, which follows:
+
+  As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the
+  medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged
+  in preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long;
+  whatever articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time
+  of death are not removed. The dead man's limbs are straightened out,
+  his weapons of war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets
+  wrapped securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready
+  for burial. It is the custom to secure if possible, for the purpose
+  of wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in which the
+  Indian died. At the same time that the body is being fitted for
+  internment, the squaws having immediate care of it, together with
+  all the other squaws in the neighborhood, keep up a continued chant
+  or dirge, the dismal cadence of which may, when the congregation of
+  women is large, be heard for quite a long distance. The death song
+  is not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces expressions
+  eulogistic in character, but whether or not any particular formula
+  of words is adopted on such occasion is a question which I am
+  unable, with the materials at my disposal, to determine with any
+  degree of certainty.
+
+  The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing
+  the dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot
+  chosen for burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as
+  can be ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to
+  select sepulchers of this character. From descriptions given by Mr.
+  Harris, who has several times been fortunate enough to discover
+  remains, it would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by
+  this tribe with respect to the position in which the body is placed,
+  the space accommodation of the sepulcher probably regulating this
+  matter; and from the same source I learn that it is not usual to
+  find the remains of more than one Indian deposited in one grave.
+  After the body has been received into the cleft, it is well covered
+  with pieces of rock, to protect it against the ravages of wild
+  animals. The chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the burial
+  ceremonies are at an end. The men during all this time have not been
+  idle, though they have in no way participated in the preparation of
+  the body, have not joined the squaws in chanting praises to the
+  memory of the dead, and have not even as mere spectators attended
+  the funeral, yet they have had their duties to perform. In
+  conformity with a long-established custom, all the personal property
+  of the deceased is immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle
+  are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The performance of
+  this part of the ceremonies is assigned to the men; a duty quite in
+  accord with their taste and inclinations. Occasionally the
+  destruction of horses and other properly is of considerable
+  magnitude, but usually this is not the case, owing to a practice
+  existing with them of distributing their property among their
+  children while they are of a very tender age, retaining to
+  themselves only what is necessary to meet every-day requirements.
+
+  The widow "goes into mourning" by smearing her face with a substance
+  composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once,
+  and is allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only
+  mourning observance of which I have any knowledge.
+
+  The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as
+  those in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property
+  takes place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse.
+  Should a youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the
+  Indians will not as a role have anything to do with the interment of
+  the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this agency some
+  time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the usual manner; the men
+  of the tribe selected a spot for the burial, and the employee at the
+  agency, after digging a grave and depositing the corpse therein,
+  filled it up according to the fashion of civilized people, and then
+  at the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks on
+  top. Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have the employes
+  perform the service as expeditiously as possible.
+
+Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos
+agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock
+fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.
+
+An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been used
+for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J. D. Whitney:[27]
+
+  The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now
+  in the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is near the Stanislaus
+  River, in Calaveras County, on a nameless creek, about two miles
+  from Abbey's Ferry, on the road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr.
+  Robinson. There were two or three persons with me, who had been to
+  the place before and knew that the skulls in question were taken
+  from it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and since that the
+  condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing to some
+  alteration in the road, mining operations, or some other cause which
+  I could not ascertain, there has accumulated on the formerly clean
+  stalagmitic floor of the cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface
+  earth that completely conceals the bottom, and which could not be
+  removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet
+  deep at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet
+  in diameter. It is the general opinion of those who have noticed
+  this cave and saw it years ago that it was a burying-place of the
+  present Indians. Dr. Jones said he found remains of bows and arrows
+  and charcoal with the skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed
+  at the time the village of Murphy's was burned. All the people spoke
+  of the skulls as lying on the surface and not as buried in the
+  stalagmite.
+
+The next description of cave burial, by W. H. Dall,[28] is so remarkable
+that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to
+the Innuits of Alaska.
+
+  The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of
+  writing I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are
+  some crania found by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave
+  and a cranium obtained at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of
+  Islands. These were deposited in a remarkable manner, precisely
+  similar to that adopted by most of the continental Innuit, but
+  equally different from the modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave
+  we found what at first appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which
+  proved to be made of the very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of
+  some large cetacean. These were arranged so as to form a rude
+  rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces of bone. This
+  was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 18 inches deep.
+  The bottom was formed of flat pieces of stone. Three such were found
+  close together, covered with and filled by an accumulation of fine
+  vegetable and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton in
+  the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in the
+  Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all the bones,
+  with the exception of the skull, were minced to a soft paste, or
+  even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted me to dig into a small
+  knoll near the ancient shell-heap, and here we found, in a precisely
+  similar sarcophagus, the remains of a skeleton, of which also only
+  the cranium retained sufficient consistency to admit of
+  preservation. This inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty
+  mass not reduced to mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous
+  growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly 2 feet above the
+  remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness of this kind
+  of growth in these northern regions, attested by numerous Arctic
+  travelers, the antiquity of the remains becomes evident.
+
+It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments
+were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many
+mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles
+were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary
+skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.
+
+
+
+
+EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.
+
+
+Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying
+or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind
+have generally been found in such repositories.
+
+It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss
+the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain
+processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh
+must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of
+this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories
+advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians.
+Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their
+dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on
+this point no definite information has been procured. In the final
+volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification
+among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.
+
+The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time of
+the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more
+than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by
+others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. "They did not
+inter them," says he, "for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched." According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief,
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived,
+provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the
+ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising
+that this theory has obtained many believers. M. Gannal believes
+embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our
+nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains of
+loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariset think it was intended to obviate,
+in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being primarily a
+cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; and the
+Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from the
+finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had
+hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is
+thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction
+to embalmment in North America.
+
+From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it
+appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly,[29] being as follows:
+
+  The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of their Kings
+  and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following manner:
+  First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can, slitting
+  it only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from the Bones
+  as clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that
+  they may preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in
+  the Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean time
+  has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed
+  right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very
+  fine white Sand. After this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body
+  looks as if the Flesh had not been removed. They take care to keep
+  the Skin from shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease,
+  which saves it also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar'd,
+  they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, upon a large Shelf
+  rais'd above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with Mats, for the
+  Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the same, to keep it from
+  the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and
+  when it is thoroughly dried, it is sewed up in a Basket, and set at
+  the Feet of the Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also they
+  set up a _Quioccos_, or Idol, which they believe will be a Guard to
+  the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the Priests must
+  give his Attendance, to take care of the dead Bodies. So great an
+  Honour and Veneration have these ignorant and unpolisht People for
+  their Princes even after they are dead.
+
+It should be added that, in the writer's opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.
+
+According to Pinkerton,[30] who took the account from Smith's Virginia,
+the Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:
+
+  In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the Devil's] image
+  euill favouredly carved, and then painted and adorned with chaines
+  of copper, and beads, and covered with a skin, in such manner as the
+  deformitie may well suit with such a God. By him is commonly the
+  sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then
+  dried upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of
+  their ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of copper,
+  pearle, and such like, as they use to wear. Their inwards they
+  stuffe with copper beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lappe they
+  them very carefully in white skins, and so rowle them in mats for
+  their winding-sheets. And in the Tombe, which is an arch made of
+  mats, they lay them orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth
+  their Kings have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples
+  and bodies are kept by their Priests.
+
+  For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the earth with
+  sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with
+  their Jewels they lay them upon stickes in the ground, and so cover
+  them with earth. The buriale ended, the women being painted all
+  their faces with blacke cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in
+  the houses mourning and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and
+  howling as may expresse their great passions. * * *
+
+  Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three
+  great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and the
+  tombes of their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in
+  length, built harbourwise after their building. This place they
+  count so holey as that but the priests and Kings dare come into
+  them; nor the savages dare not go up the river in boates by it, but
+  that they solemnly cast some piece of copper, white beads or pocones
+  into the river for feare their Okee should be offended and revenged
+  of them.
+
+  They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteeme
+  quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond the mountains
+  towards the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of
+  their Okee, with their bedes paynted rede with oyle and pocones,
+  finely trimmed with feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets,
+  copper, and tobacco, doing nothing but dance and sing with all their
+  predecessors. But the common people they suppose shall not live
+  after deth, but rot in their graves like dede dogges.
+
+This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former
+page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding
+truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.
+
+Figure 1 may again be referred to as an example of the dead-house
+described.
+
+The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson,
+used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the subjoined
+extract from Schoolcraft;[31] but instead of laying away the remains in
+caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched
+sticks.
+
+  The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of earth is
+  raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even,
+  sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity of the person
+  whose monument it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made
+  ridgeways, like the roof of a house. This in supported by nine
+  stakes or small posts, the grave being about 6 to 8 feet in length
+  and 4 feet in breadth, about which is hung gourds, feathers, and
+  other such like trophies, placed there by the dead man's relations
+  in respect to him in the grave. The other parts of the funeral rites
+  are thus: As soon as the party is dead they lay the corpse upon a
+  piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or embalming it with a small
+  root beaten to powder, which looks as red as vermillion; the same is
+  mixed with bear's oil to beautify the hair. After the carcass has
+  laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and lay it upon crotches
+  cut on purpose for the support thereof from the earth; then they
+  anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients of the powder
+  of this root and bear's oil. When it is so done they cover it over
+  very exactly with the bark or pine of the cypress tree to prevent
+  any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean all about
+  it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal estate he was
+  possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads,
+  feathers, match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being
+  clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty for
+  three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch
+  pine mixed with bear's oil. All the while he tells the dead man's
+  relations and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was,
+  and of the great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks
+  tending to the praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows
+  mellow and will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it,
+  making the bones very clean, then anoint them with the ingredients
+  aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very carefully) in a cloth
+  artificially woven of opossum's hair. The bones they carefully
+  preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and cleansing them. By
+  these means they preserve them for many ages, that you may see an
+  Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or some of his
+  relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs, as
+  when an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of
+  stones (or sticks where stones are not to be found); to this
+  memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the
+  heap in respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of
+  light wood or pitch-pine over the graves of the more distinguished,
+  covering it with bark and then with earth, leaving the body thus in
+  a subterranean vault until the flesh quits the bones. The bones are
+  then taken up, cleaned, jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins,
+  and laid away in the _Quiogozon_, which is the royal tomb or
+  burial-place of their kings and war-captains, being a more
+  magnificent cabin reared at the public expense. This Quiogozon is an
+  object of veneration, in which the writer says he has known the
+  king, old men, and conjurers to spend several days with their idols
+  and dead kings, and into which he could never gain admittance.
+
+Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt
+with archaeologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve
+these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with
+certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens
+were found. Charles Wilkins[32] thus describes one:
+
+  * * * An exsiccated body of a female[33] * * * was found at the
+  depth of about 10 feet from the surface of the cave bedded in clay
+  strongly impregnated with nitre, placed in a sitting posture,
+  incased in broad stones standing on their edges, with a flat atone
+  covering the whole. It was enveloped in coarse clothes, * * * the
+  whole wrapped in deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the
+  manner in which the Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the
+  stone coffin were the working utensils, beads, feathers, and other
+  ornaments of dress which belonged to her.
+
+The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.[34*]
+
+  AUG. 24th, 1815.
+
+  DEAR SIR: I offer you some observations on a curious piece of
+  American antiquity now in New York. It is a human body: found in one
+  of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect desiccation;
+  all the fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other firm parts
+  are in a state of entire preservation. I think it enough to have
+  puzzled Bryant and all the archaeologists.
+
+  This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of
+  Glasgow for saltpetre.
+
+  These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract
+  and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash; and
+  probably the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good
+  proportion of calcareous carbonate. Amidst them drying and
+  antiseptick ingredients, it may be conceived that putrefaction would
+  be stayed, and the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope
+  of the body is a deer-skin, probably dried in the usual way, and
+  perhaps softened before its application by rubbing. The next
+  covering is a deer's skin, whose hair had been cut away by a sharp
+  instrument resembling a batter's knife. The remnant of the hair and
+  the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a sheared pelt of beaver. The
+  next wrapper is of cloth made of twine doubled and twisted. But the
+  thread does not appear to have been formed by the wheel, nor the web
+  by the loom. The warp and filling seem to have been crossed and
+  knotted by an operation like that of the fabricks of the northwest
+  coast, and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the lamented
+  Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the fibrous
+  material.
+
+  The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the preceding, but
+  furnished with large brown feathers, arranged and fashioned with
+  great art, so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from
+  wet and cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole
+  bears a near similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the
+  nations of the northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell
+  from what bird they were derived.
+
+  The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm reclining
+  forward, and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs
+  down, with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual,
+  who was a male, did not probably exceed the age of fourteen at his
+  death. There is near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of
+  the skull, which probably killed him. The skin has sustained little
+  injury; it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be
+  decided with exactness, from its present appearance. The scalp, with
+  small exceptions, is covered with sorrel or foxey hair. The teeth
+  are white and sound. The hands and feet, in their shrivelled state,
+  are slender and delicate. All this is worthy the investigation of
+  our acute and perspicacious colleague, Dr. Holmes.
+
+  There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like
+  the Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except
+  the several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of
+  a suture or incision about the belly; whence it seems that the
+  viscera were not removed.
+
+  It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as to the
+  antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.
+
+  First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that class of
+  white men of which we are members.
+
+  2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of
+  Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled
+  up the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this
+  head I should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious
+  friend, Noah Webster.
+
+  3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged to
+  any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting Kentucky.
+
+  4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted
+  threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash
+  and the Pacifick Islands, that I refer this individual to that era
+  of time, and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of
+  the Green River, and of the place where these relicks were found.
+  This conclusion is strengthened by the consideration that such
+  manufactures are not prepared by the actual and resident red men of
+  the present day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him,
+  he would have thought of the people who constructed those ancient
+  forts and mounds, whose exact history no man living can give. But I
+  forbear to enlarge; my intention being merely to manifest my respect
+  to the society for having enrolled me among its members, and to
+  invite the attention of its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a
+  subject of such curiousity.
+
+  With respect, I remain yours,
+
+    SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.
+
+It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that the
+natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W. H. Dall,[35] the description
+of the mummies being as follows:
+
+  We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment
+  in their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already
+  described; second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or
+  stones in some convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss,
+  covered by matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or
+  carvings associated with them. We found only three or four specimens
+  in all in these places, of which we examined a great number. This
+  was apparently the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and
+  one which more recently was still pursued in the case of poor or
+  unpopular individuals.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Alaskan Mummies.]
+
+  Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few
+  centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was
+  adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The
+  bodies were eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running
+  water, dried, and usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of
+  fur and fine grass matting. The body was usually doubled up into the
+  smallest compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of
+  children, was usually suspended (so as not to touch the ground) in
+  some convenient rock shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body
+  was placed in a lifelike position, dressed and armed. They were
+  placed as if engaged in some congenial occupation, such as hunting,
+  fishing, sewing, &c. With them were also placed effigies of the
+  animals they were pursuing, while the hunter was dressed in his
+  wooden armor and provided with an enormous mask all ornamented with
+  feathers, and a countless variety of wooden pendants, colored in gay
+  patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the weapons even were only
+  fac-similes in wood of the original articles. Among the articles
+  represented were drums, rattles, dishes, weapons, effigies of men,
+  birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of rods or scales of wood,
+  and remarkable masks, so arranged that the wearer when erect could
+  only see the ground at his feet. These were worn at their religious
+  dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to animate a
+  temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look upon it while so
+  occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the masking of those
+  who had gone into the land of spirits.
+
+  The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the
+  whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit--has
+  erroneously been confounded with the one now described. The latter
+  included women as well as men, and all those whom the living desired
+  particularly to honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the
+  bodies of males, and they were not associated with the paraphernalia
+  of those I have described. Indeed, the observations I have been able
+  to make show the bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with
+  stone weapons and actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the
+  meanest apparel, and no carvings of consequence. These details, and
+  those of many other customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear
+  no testimony * * * do not come within my line.
+
+Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.
+
+Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings' Expedition,[36] speaks of the
+Aleutian Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:
+
+  They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they
+  embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in
+  their best attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their
+  darts and instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured
+  mats, embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less
+  ceremony. A mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut
+  for some months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it
+  begins to smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with it.
+
+Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account:
+
+  The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial
+  Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the
+  mummified remains of Indians who lived on an island north of
+  Ounalaska one hundred and fifty years ago. This contribution to
+  science was secured by Captain Henning, an agent of the company who
+  has long resided at Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians
+  he learned that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the
+  island in question, as the last resting-place of a great chief,
+  known as Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the
+  neighborhood of Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and other furs, and
+  he bore up for the island, with the intention of testing the truth
+  of the tradition he had heard. He had more difficulty in entering
+  the cave than in finding it, his schooner having to beat on and off
+  shore for three days. Finally he succeeded in affecting a landing,
+  and clambering up the rocks he found himself in the presence of the
+  dead chief, his family and relatives.
+
+  The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care
+  the mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments
+  scattered around were also taken away.
+
+  In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have
+  as yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large
+  basket-like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the
+  wrappings are finely wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in
+  texture, and skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of
+  thinly cut wood, and adjoining the center portions are pieces of
+  body armor composed of reeds bound together. The body is covered
+  with the fine skin of the sea-otter, always a mark of distinction in
+  the interments of the Aleuts, and round the whole package are
+  stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the sinews of the sea
+  lion; also those of a bird-net. There are evidently some bulky
+  articles inclosed with the chief's body, and the whole package
+  differs very much from the others, which more resemble, in their
+  brown-grass matting, consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich
+  Islands than the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose
+  and of a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon
+  after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet of the
+  latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The remaining mummies are
+  of adults.
+
+  One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man's body in
+  tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face
+  decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by
+  severing some of the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending
+  the limbs downward horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most
+  peculiar package, next to that of the chief, is one which incloses
+  in a single matting, with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and
+  woman. The collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and
+  female, which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The hair
+  has changed its color to a brownish red. The relics obtained with
+  the bodies include a few wooden vessels scooped out smoothly:
+  a piece of dark, greenish, flat stone, harder than the emerald,
+  which the Indians use to tan skins; a scalp-lock of jet-black hair;
+  a small rude figure, which may have been a very ugly doll or an
+  idol; two or three tiny carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very
+  neatly executed; a comb, a necklet made of bird's claws inserted
+  into one another, and several specimens of little bags, and a cap
+  plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.
+
+In Cary's translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following passage
+occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the Macrobrian
+Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a matter of
+curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved have ever
+been discovered.
+
+  After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which are
+  said to be prepared from crystal in the following manner. When they
+  have dried the body, either as the Egyptians do, or in some other
+  way, they plaster it all over with gypsum, and paint it, making it
+  as much as possible resemble real life; they then put round it a
+  hollow column made of crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and
+  is easily wrought. The body being in the middle of the column is
+  plainly seen, nor does it emit an unpleasant smell, nor is it in any
+  way offensive, and it is all visible as the body itself. The nearest
+  relations keep the column in their houses for a year, offering to it
+  the first-fruits of all, and performing sacrifices; after that time
+  they carry it out and place it somewhere near the city.
+
+  NOTE.--The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back
+  being covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen
+  all round, as the column of glass was transparent.
+
+With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil
+of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.
+
+
+
+
+URN-BURIAL.
+
+
+To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster[37] may be added:
+
+  Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the
+  mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the
+  mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S.C., according to Dr.
+  Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human
+  remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small
+  the skull is placed with the face downward in the opening,
+  constituting a sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in
+  which urn-burial alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was
+  accidentally discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine's
+  Island, off the coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that
+  from a mound at New Madrid, Mo., he obtained a human skull inclosed
+  in an earthen jar, the lips of which were too small to admit of its
+  extraction. It must therefore have been molded on the head after
+  death.
+
+  A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the
+  funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to
+  admit of the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either
+  the clay must have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or
+  the neck of the jar must have been added subsequently to the other
+  rites of interment.[38]
+
+It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but
+_to a very limited extent_, in North America, except as a secondary
+interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or
+ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of
+ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as
+the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply
+tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been
+that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the
+fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in
+urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution,
+furnishes the following account of urns used for burial:
+
+  I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover,
+  Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received
+  from Mr. William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on
+  his plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of
+  the Oconee River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes,
+  tall grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same
+  source one of the covers, of which the ornamentation was different
+  but more entire. A portion of a similar cover has been received also
+  from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. McKinley ascribes the use of these urns
+  and covers to the Muscogees, a branch of the Creek Nation.
+
+These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was
+a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around
+the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented
+scroll ornamentations.
+
+The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:[39]
+
+  Burial-urns * * * comprise vessels or ollas without handles, for
+  cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height, with broad,
+  open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a laminated exterior
+  (partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the indentations
+  extend simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion being plain.
+
+So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J. C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of possibility
+that future researches in regions not far distant from that which he
+explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents different
+forms of burial-urns, _a_, _b_, and _e_, after Foster, are from Laporte,
+Ind. _f_, after Foster, is from Greenup County, Kentucky; _d_ is from
+Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian collection, No. 27976; and _c_ is one
+of the peculiar shoe-shaped urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake
+Nicaragua, by Surgeon J. C. Bransford, U.S.N.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Burial Urns.]
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Indian Cemetery.]
+
+SURFACE BURIAL.
+
+
+This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far as
+can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was
+employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for
+time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees,
+the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead
+being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the
+Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently
+large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and
+permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen
+was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by R. S.
+Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a communication received
+in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial in two different ways:
+
+  * * * 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have been found
+  in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split and the two halves
+  hollowed out to receive the body, when it was either closed with
+  withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes; and sometimes
+  a hollow tree is used by closing the ends.
+
+  2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs
+  laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they
+  meet in a single log at the top.
+
+The writer has recently received from Prof. C. Engelhardt, of
+Copenhagen, Denmark, a brochure describing the oak coffins of
+Borum-AEshoei. From an engraving in this volume it would appear that the
+manner employed by the ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins
+has its analogy among the North American Indians.
+
+Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent
+in accordance with the _ante mortem_ wishes of the dead, were the
+obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is
+given by George Catlin:[40]
+
+  He requested them to take his body down the river to this his
+  favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury
+  him on the back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried
+  alive under him, from whence he could see, as he said, "the
+  Frenchmen passing up and down the river in their boats." He owned,
+  amongst many horses, a noble white steed, that was led to the top of
+  the grass-covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the
+  presence of the whole nation and several of the fur-traders and the
+  Indian agent, he was placed astride of his horse's back, with his
+  bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver slung, with his pipe and
+  his medicine bag, with his supply of dried meat, and his
+  tobacco-pouch replenished to last him through the journey to the
+  beautiful hunting grounds of the shades of his fathers, with his
+  flint, his steel, and his tinder to light his pipe by the way; the
+  scalps he had taken from his enemies' heads could be trophies for
+  nobody else, and were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in
+  full dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved to the last
+  moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles' plumes. In this
+  plight, and the last funeral honors having been performed by the
+  medicine-men, every warrior of his band painted the palm and fingers
+  of his right hand with vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly
+  impressed on the milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This all
+  done, turfs were brought and placed around the feet and legs of the
+  horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over the back
+  and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of all over the head
+  and even the eagle plumes of its valiant rider, where all together
+  have smouldered and remained undisturbed to the present day.
+
+Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a
+high bluff of the Missouri River.
+
+According to the Rev. J. G. Wood,[41] the Obongo, an African tribe,
+buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of
+the Seminoles:
+
+  When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow tree in
+  the forest and drop it into the hollow, which is afterwards filled
+  to the top with earth, leaves, and branches.
+
+M. de la Potherie[42] gives an account of surface burial as practiced by
+the Iroquois of New York:
+
+  Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son seant, on oint ses
+  cheveux et tout son corps d'huile d'animaux, on lui applique du
+  vermillon sur le visage; on lui met toutes sortes de beaux plumages
+  de la rassade de la porcelaine et on le pare des plus beaux habits
+  que l'on peut trouver, pendant que les parens et des vieilles
+  continuent toujours a pleurer. Cette ceremonie finie, les alliez
+  apportent plusieurs presens. Les uns sont pour essuyer les larmes et
+  les autres pour servir de matelas au defunt, on en destine certains
+  pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, disent-ils, que la plague ne
+  l'incommode, on y etend fort proprement des peaux d'ours et de
+  chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui met ses ajustemens avec
+  un sac de farine de bled d'Inde, de la viande, sa cuilliere, et
+  generalement tout ce qu'il faut a un homme qui veut faire un long
+  voyage, avec toux les presens qui lui ont ete faits a sa mort, et
+  s'il a ete guerrier on lui donne ses armes pour s'en servir au pais
+  des morts. L'on couvre ensuite ce cadavre d'ecorce d'arbres sur
+  lesquelles on jette de la terre et quantite de pierres, et on
+  l'entoure de pierres pour empecher que les animaux ne le deterrent.
+  Ces sortes de funerailles ne se font que dans leur village.
+  Lorsqu'ils meurent en campagne on les met dans un cercueil d'ecorce,
+  entre les branches des arbres ou on les eleve sur quatre pilliers.
+
+  On observe ces memes funerailles aux femmes et aux filles. Tous ceux
+  qui ont assiste aux obseques profitent de toute la depouille du
+  defunt et s'il n'avoit rien, les parens y supleent. Ainsi ils ne
+  pleurent pas en vain. Le deuil consiste a ne se point couper ni
+  graisser les cheveux et de se tenir neglige sans aucune parure,
+  couverts de mechantes hardes. Le pere et la mere portent le deuil de
+  leur fils. Si le pere meurt les garcons le portent, et les filles de
+  leur mere.
+
+Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to forward
+to the writer an interesting work by J. V. Spencer,[43] containing
+annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and
+partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly
+inhabiting Illinois:
+
+  Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his
+  hands grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow hole in the
+  ground, setting the body in up to the waist, so the most of the body
+  was above ground. The part above ground was then covered by a
+  buffalo robe, and a trench about eight feet square was then dug
+  about the grave. In this trench they set picketing about eight feet
+  high, which secured the grave against wild animals. When I first
+  came here there were quite a number of these high picketings still
+  standing where their chiefs had been buried, and the body of a chief
+  was disposed of in this way while I lived near their village. The
+  common mode of burial was to dig a shallow grave, wrap the body in a
+  blanket, place it in the grave, and fill it nearly full of dirt;
+  then take split sticks about three feet long and stand them in the
+  grave so that their tops would come together in the form of a roof;
+  then they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks in place.
+  I saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their child about
+  a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a blanket and putting
+  a long stick through the blanket, each taking an end of the stick.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Grave Pen.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Grave Pen.]
+
+  I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is done by
+  digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in it, and covering
+  it. I have seen several bodies in one tree. I think when they are
+  disposed of in this way it is by special request, as I knew of an
+  Indian woman who lived with a white family who desired her body
+  placed in a tree, which was accordingly done.[44*] Doubtless there
+  was some peculiar superstition attached to this mode, though I do
+  not remember to have heard what it was.
+
+Judge H. Welch[45] states that "the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies
+buried by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of
+sticks or logs. I think the bodies lay heads to the east." And C. C.
+Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as follows:
+
+  I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge Welch.
+  * * * In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, Judge Gibson, to Fort
+  Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of an Ottawa or Pottawatomie
+  chief. The body lay on the ground covered with notched poles. It had
+  been there but a few days and the worms were crawling around the
+  body. My special interest in the case was the accusation of
+  witchcraft against a young squaw who was executed for killing him by
+  her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only parts of
+  skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been burned.
+
+W. A. Brice[46] mentions a curious variety of surface burial not
+heretofore met with:
+
+  And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough of a
+  tree, or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the infant of the
+  Indian mother; or a few little log inclosures, where the bodies of
+  adults sat upright, with all their former apparel wrapped about
+  them, and their trinkets, tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be
+  seen at any time for many years by the few pale-faces visiting or
+  sojourning here.
+
+A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may be
+considered under that head is the one employed by some of the Ojibways
+and Swampy Crees of Canada. A small cavity is scooped out, the body
+deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus formed
+being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.
+
+Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River
+exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the
+Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave,
+which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and
+they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and 9.
+
+
+_CAIRN-BURIAL._
+
+The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent
+among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas.
+
+In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries in
+Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen or
+twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the
+side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully
+chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find
+it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have
+been constructed in the following manner: A number of bowlders had been
+removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had been
+obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, with
+weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the mountain
+aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, forming a
+huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the last resting
+place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the graves were
+scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which had been
+sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of the
+graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number of
+articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a
+boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this
+place.
+
+From Dr. O. G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, Indian
+Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was received.
+According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves _Kaw-a-wah_, the
+Comanches _Nerm_, and the Apaches _Tah-zee_.
+
+  They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not seem to
+  have any particular rule with regard to the position. Sometimes
+  prone, sometimes supine, but always decumbent. They select a place
+  where the grave is easily prepared, which they do with such
+  implements as they chance to have, viz, a squaw-axe, or hoe. If they
+  are traveling, the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much
+  time is spent in finishing. I was present at the burial of Black
+  Hawk, an Apache chief, some two years ago, and took the body in my
+  light wagon up the side of a mountain to the place of burial. They
+  found a crevice in the rocks about four feet wide and three feet
+  deep. By filling in loose rocks at either end they made a very nice
+  tomb. The body was then put in face downwards, short sticks were put
+  across, resting on projections of rock at the sides, brush was
+  thrown on this, and flat rocks laid over the whole of it.
+
+  The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing, together
+  with all the ornaments most admired by the person when living. The
+  face is painted with any colored paint they may have, mostly red and
+  yellow, as I have observed. The body is then wrapped in skins,
+  blankets, or domestic, with the hands laid across the breast, and
+  the legs placed upon the thighs. They put into the grave their guns,
+  bows and arrows, tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins,
+  and trinkets of various kinds. One or more horses are killed over or
+  near the grave. Two horses and a mule were killed near Black Hawk's
+  grave. They were led up near and shot in the head. At the death of a
+  Comanche chief, some years ago, I am told about seventy horses were
+  killed, and a greater number than that were said to have been killed
+  at the death of a prominent Kiowa chief a few years since.
+
+  The mourning is principally done by the relatives and immediate
+  friends, although any one of their own tribe, or one of another
+  tribe, who chances to be passing, will stop and moan with the
+  relatives. Their mourning consists in a weird wail, which to be
+  described must be heard, and once heard is never forgotten, together
+  with the scarifying of their faces, arms, and legs with some sharp
+  instrument, the cutting off of the hair, and oftentimes the cutting
+  off of a joint of a finger, usually the little finger (Comanches do
+  not cut off fingers). The length of time and intensity of their
+  mourning depends upon the relation and position of the deceased in
+  the tribe. I have known instances where, if they should be passing
+  along where any of their friends had died, even a year after their
+  death, they would mourn.
+
+The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath heaps
+of rocks, according to H. Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, Nevada,
+although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as reasons
+for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, because
+they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural indolence of
+the Indians--indisposition to work any more than can be helped.
+
+The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as
+did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact,
+a number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom
+prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION.
+
+
+Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common custom
+to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially those
+living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we have
+undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more eastern
+ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from its
+great antiquity, for Tegg[47] informs us that it reached as far back as
+the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the burning
+of Menoeacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, eighth
+judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among the
+ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos up
+to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom among
+civilized people.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance of
+this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North America,
+yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be entered upon
+regarding the details of it among the ancients and the origin of the
+ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the country, with
+discursive notes and an account of its origin among the Nishinams of
+California, by Stephen Powers,[48] seem to be all that is required at
+this time:
+
+  The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that
+  exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and
+  women, the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died
+  they should return to the earth after two or three days as he
+  himself does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said
+  this should not be; but that when men died their friends should burn
+  their bodies and once a year make a great mourning for them and the
+  coyote prevailed. So, presently when deer died, they burned his
+  body, as the coyote had decreed and after a year they made a great
+  mourning for him. But the moon created the rattlesnake and caused it
+  to bite the coyote's son, so that he died. Now, though the coyote
+  had been willing to burn the deer's relations, he refused to burn
+  his own son. Then the moon said unto him, "This is your own rule.
+  You would have it so, and now your son shall be burned like the
+  others." So he was burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for
+  him. Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, as he
+  had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.
+
+  This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in
+  that it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not
+  practice cremation, which is also established by other traditions.
+  It hints at the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set
+  great store by the moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred
+  ways and observe its changes for a hundred purposes.
+
+Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in
+Schoolcraft[49] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:
+
+  The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number
+  died the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they
+  thought then. After crawling over the body for a time they took all
+  manner of shapes, some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope,
+  etc. It was discovered however, that great numbers were taking wings
+  and for a while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they
+  would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the
+  earth might become depopulated in this way, concluded to stop it at
+  once and ordered that when one of their people died the body must be
+  burnt. Ever after they continued to burn the bodies of deceased
+  persons.
+
+Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins
+of Oregon:[50]
+
+  The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and quite
+  peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days
+  laid out in his lodge and on the tenth it is buried. For this
+  purpose a rising ground is selected, on which are laid a number of
+  sticks, about 7 feet long, of cypress, neatly split and in the
+  interstices, placed a quantity of gummy wood. During these
+  operations invitations are dispatched to the natives of the
+  neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the ceremony.
+  When the preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on the
+  pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of
+  burning, the bystanders appear to be in a high state of merriment.
+  If a stranger happen to be present they invariably plunder him, but
+  if that pleasure be denied them, they never separate without
+  quarreling among themselves. Whatever property the deceased
+  possessed is placed about the corpse, and if he happened to be a
+  person of consequence, his friends generally purchase a capote,
+  a shirt, a pair of trousers, &c, which articles are also laid around
+  the pile. If the doctor who attended him has escaped uninjured, he
+  is obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last time
+  tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation. Failing in
+  this, he throws on the body a piece of leather, or some other
+  article, as a present, which in some measure appeases the resentment
+  of his relatives, and preserves the unfortunate quack from being
+  maltreated. During the nine days the corpse is laid out, the widow
+  of the deceased is obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to
+  sunrise, and from this custom there is no relaxation even during the
+  hottest days of summer! While the doctor is performing his last
+  operations she must lie on the pile, and after the fire is applied
+  to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her to be removed,
+  which, however, is never done until her body is completely covered
+  with blisters. After being placed on her legs, she is obliged to
+  pass her hands gently through the flame and collect some of the
+  liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which she is permitted
+  to wet her face and body. When the friends of the deceased observe
+  the sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they compel
+  the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint of hard
+  pressing to straighten those members.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Tolkotin cremation.]
+
+  If during her husband's life time she has been known to have
+  committed any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him
+  savory food or neglected his clothing, &c. she is now made to suffer
+  severely for such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently
+  fling her in the funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her
+  friends, and thus between alternate scorching and cooling she is
+  dragged backwards and forwards until she falls into a state of
+  insensibility.
+
+  After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow
+  collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of
+  birch bark and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to
+  carry on her back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all
+  the laborious duties of cooking, collecting food, &c. devolve on
+  her. She must obey the orders of all the women, and even of the
+  children belonging to the village, and the slightest mistake or
+  disobedience subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment.
+  The ashes of her husband are carefully collected and deposited in a
+  grave which it is her duty to keep free from weeds, and should any
+  such appear, she is obliged to root them out with her fingers.
+  During this operation her husband's relatives stand by and beat her
+  in a cruel manner until the task is completed or she falls a victim
+  to their brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid this complicated
+  cruelty, frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on
+  for three or four years, the friends of her husband agree to relieve
+  her from the her painful mourning. This is a ceremony of much
+  consequence and the preparations for it occupy a considerable time
+  generally from six to eight months. The hunters proceed to the
+  various districts in which deer and beaver abound and after
+  collecting large quantities of meat and fur return to the village.
+  The skins are immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing,
+  trinkets, &c. Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants of the
+  various friendly villages, and when they have all assembled the
+  feast commences, and presents are distributed to each visitor. The
+  object of their meeting is then explained, and the woman is brought
+  forward, still carrying on her back the bones of her late husband,
+  which are now removed and placed in a covered box, which is nailed
+  or otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her conduct as a
+  faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the ceremony of her
+  manumission is completed by one man powdering on her head the down
+  of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a bladder of oil.
+  She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of single
+  blessedness, but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter the risk
+  attending a second widowhood.
+
+  The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it
+  with equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid
+  the brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of
+  religious rite.
+
+Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the
+description given.
+
+Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted.
+
+It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after death--certainly a
+long period of time, when it is remembered that Indians as a rule
+endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. This may be
+accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the friends and
+relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, and of
+making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the
+verification of the dead person, William Sheldon[51] gives an account of
+a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and
+which seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased
+persons by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this
+is mere hypothesis:
+
+  They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased
+  persons. When one of them died, it was necessary that all his
+  relations should see him and examine the body in order to ascertain
+  that he died a natural death. They acted so rigidly on this
+  principle, that if one relative remained who had not seen the body
+  all the others could not convince that one that the death was
+  natural. In such a case the absent relative considered himself as
+  bound in honor to consider all the other relatives as having been
+  accessories to the death of the kinsman, and did not rest until he
+  had killed one of them to revenge the death of the deceased. If a
+  Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his relations lived
+  in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon them to see the body,
+  and several months sometimes elapsed before it could be finally
+  interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately painted all over
+  with _roucou_, and had his mustachios and the black streaks in his
+  face made with a black paint, which was different from that used in
+  their lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the _carbet_ where
+  he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body was let
+  down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to the knees, and
+  the body was placed in it in a sitting posture, resembling that in
+  which they crouched round the fire or the table when alive, with the
+  elbows on the knees and the palms of the hands against the cheeks.
+  No part of the body touched the outside of the grave, which was
+  covered with wood and mats until all the relations had examined it.
+  When the customary examinations and inspections were ended the hole
+  was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained undisturbed. The hair
+  of the deceased was kept tied behind. In this way bodies have
+  remained several months without any symptoms of decay or producing
+  any disagreeable smell. The _roucou_ not only preserved them from
+  the sun, air, and insects during their lifetime, but probably had
+  the same effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs were placed by
+  them when they were covered over for inspection, and they were
+  finally buried with them.
+
+Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over
+for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be
+remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As
+already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the
+widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but,
+if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable
+to such torments.
+
+It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a husband
+died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her severely.
+Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to take good
+care of their husbands.
+
+George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,[52] states that among the Indians of Clear
+Lake, California, "the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a
+hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered."
+
+According to Stephen Powers,[53] cremation was common among the Se-nel
+of California. He thus relates it.
+
+  The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of
+  incremation that he once witnessed, which was frightful for its
+  exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that
+  of a wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they
+  placed in his month two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in
+  his ears and hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his
+  feather mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows,
+  painted arrows, &c. When the torch was applied they set up a
+  mournful ululation, chanting and dancing about him, gradually
+  working themselves into a wild and ecstatic raving, which seemed
+  almost a demoniacal possession, leaping, howling, lacerating their
+  flesh. Many seemed to lose all self-control. The younger
+  English-speaking Indians generally lend themselves charily to such
+  superstitious work, especially if American spectators are present,
+  but even they were carried away by the old contagious frenzy of
+  their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, quite new and fine,
+  and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the blazing pile.
+  Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a pile of California
+  blankets, when a white man, to test his sincerity, offend him $16
+  for them, jingling the bright coins before his eyes, but the savage
+  (for such he had become again for the moment) otherwise so
+  avaricious, hurled him away with a yell of execration and ran and
+  threw his offering into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied,
+  wildly flung upon the pyre all they had in the world--their dearest
+  ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings of glittering
+  shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair, beating their
+  breasts in their mad and insensate infatuation, some of them would
+  have cast themselves bodily into the flaming ruins and perished with
+  the chief had they not been restrained by their companions. Then the
+  bright, swift flames, with their hot tongues, licked this "cold
+  obstruction" into chemic change, and the once "delighted spirit" of
+  the savage was borne up. * * *
+
+  It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare's shudder at the
+  thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of
+  his superstition to think of the soul, of his departed friend set
+  free and purified by the swift purging heat of the flames not
+  dragged down to be clogged and bound in the mouldering body, but
+  borne up in the soft, warm chariots of the smoke toward the
+  beautiful sun, to bask in his warmth and light, and then to fly away
+  to the Happy Western Land. What wonder if the Indian shrinks with
+  unspeakable horror from the thought of _burying his friend's
+  soul!_--of pressing and ramming down with pitiless clods that inner
+  something which once took such delight in the sweet light of the
+  sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade him to do otherwise
+  and follow our custom! What wonder if even then he does it with sad
+  fears and misgivings! Why not let him keep his custom! In the
+  gorgeous landscapes and balmy climate of California an Indian
+  incremation is as natural to the savage as it is for him to love the
+  beauty of the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian
+  bury their dead if they will; it matters little, the earth is the
+  same above as below; or to them the bosom of the earth may seem even
+  the better; but in California do not blame the savage if he recoils
+  at the thought of going underground! This soft pale halo of the
+  lilac hills--ah, let him console himself if he will with the belief
+  that his lost friend enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by
+  saying that they destroyed full $500 worth of property. "The
+  blankets," said he with a fine Californian scorn of much absurd
+  insensibility to such a good bargain, "the blankets that the
+  American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money."
+
+  After death the Se-nel hold that bad Indians return into coyotes.
+  Others fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are
+  hooked off by a raging bull at the further end, while the good
+  escape across. Like the Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it
+  necessary to nourish the spirits of the departed for the space of a
+  year. This is generally done by a squaw, who takes pinole in her
+  blanket, repairs to the scene of the incremation, or to places
+  hallowed by the memory of the dead, when she scatters it over the
+  ground, meantime rocking her body violently to and fro in a dance
+  and chanting the following chorous:
+
+    Hel-lel-li-ly,
+    Hel-lel-lo,
+    Hel-lel-lu.
+
+  This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words
+  have no meaning whatever.
+
+Henry Gillman[54] has published an interesting account of the
+exploration of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant
+evidence that cremation had existed among the former Indian population.
+It is as follows:
+
+  In opening a burial-mound at Cade's Pond, a small body of water
+  situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fe Lake, Fla., the
+  writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull
+  of the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of
+  his ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human
+  burials, the bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a
+  great number of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in
+  brilliant colors, chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them
+  ornamented with indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in
+  the ceramic art, though they are reduced to fragments. The first of
+  the skulls referred to was exhumed at a depth of 2-1/2 feet. It rested
+  on its apex (base uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half
+  incinerated human bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the
+  sand which invariably sifts into crania under such circumstances.
+  Immediately beneath the skull lay the greater part of a human tibia,
+  presenting the peculiar compression known as a platycnemism to the
+  degree of affording a latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and
+  surrounding it lay the fragments of a large number of human bones,
+  probably constituting an entire individual. In the second instance
+  of this peculiar mode in cremation, the cranium was discovered on
+  nearly the opposite side of the mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and,
+  like the former, resting on its apex. It was filled with a black
+  mass--the residuum of burnt human bones mingled with sand. At three
+  feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a flattened tibia, which
+  presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both the skulls were free
+  from all action of fire, and though subsequently crumbling to pieces
+  on their removal, the writer had opportunity to observe their strong
+  resemblance to the small, orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed
+  from mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was perceptible in the
+  other cranium belonging to this mound. The small narrow, retreating
+  frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather protuberant
+  occipital, which was not in the least compressed, the well defined
+  supraciliary ridges, and the superior border of the orbits,
+  presenting a quadrilateral outline, were also particularly noticed.
+  The lower facial bones, including the maxillaries, were wanting. On
+  consulting such works as are accessible to him, the writer finds no
+  mention of any similar relics having been discovered in mounds in
+  Florida, or elsewhere. For further particulars reference may be had
+  to a paper on the subject read before the Saint Louis meeting of the
+  American Association, August, 1878.
+
+The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use
+of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.
+
+The fact is well-known to archaeologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as
+occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E.
+Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account
+of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at
+the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but
+all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had
+served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained
+unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.
+
+A. S. Tiffany[55] describes what he calls a cremation-furnace,
+discovered within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.
+
+  * * * Mound seven miles, below the city, a projecting point known as
+  Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black soil to the depth of
+  from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a burnt indurated clay,
+  resembling in color and texture a medium-burned brick, and about 30
+  inches in depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred
+  human remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged
+  and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor of the
+  pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much
+  decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind
+  were discovered. The furnace appears to have been constructed by
+  excavating the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or
+  skeletons which had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and
+  placing the fuel among and above the bodies, with a covering of
+  poles or split timbers extending over and resting upon the earth,
+  with the clay covering above, which latter we now find resting upon
+  the charred remains. The ends of the timber covering, where they
+  were protected by the earth above and below, were reduced to
+  charcoal, parallel pieces of which were found at right angles to the
+  length of the mound. No charcoal was found among or near the
+  remains, the combustion there having been complete. The porous and
+  softer portions of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black.
+  Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably not
+  been opened after the burning.
+
+This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect.
+
+Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given to
+show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.
+
+
+_PARTIAL CREMATION._
+
+Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of
+North Carolina, and which is thus described by J. W. Foster:[56]
+
+  Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region, when, in
+  pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in
+  the valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell
+  commenced farming. During the first season's operations the
+  plowshare, in passing over a certain portion of a field, produced a
+  hollow rumbling sound, and in exploring for the cause the first
+  object met with was a shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a
+  slab of burnt clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which,
+  in the attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing
+  beneath this slab was found, but on examining its under side, to his
+  great surprise there was the mould of a naked human figure. Three of
+  these burned-clay sepulchers were thus raised and examined during
+  the first year of his occupancy, since which time none have been
+  found until recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow
+  brought up another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the
+  impress of a plump human arm.
+
+  Col. C. W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which
+  have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus:
+
+  "We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for
+  500 years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles
+  of stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under
+  one pile, but a grave has just been opened of the following
+  construction: A pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face
+  upward; then over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the
+  form and features. On this was built a hot fire, which formed an
+  entire shield of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such
+  tomb gives a perfect cast of the form of the occupant."
+
+  Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these
+  archeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the
+  exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the mould, which
+  he reached through a layer of charcoal, and then with a trowel
+  excavated beneath it. The clay was not thoroughly baked, and no
+  impression of the corpse was left, except of the forehead and that
+  portion of the limbs between the ankles and the knees, and even
+  these portions of the mould crumbled. The body had been placed east
+  and west, the head toward the east. "I had hoped," continues Mr.
+  McDowell, "that the cast in the clay would be as perfect as one I
+  found 51 years ago, a fragment of which I presented to Colonel
+  Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on one side and on
+  the other of the fingers, that had pressed down the soft clay upon
+  the body interred beneath it." The mound-builders of the Ohio
+  valley, as has been shown, often placed a layer of clay over the
+  dead, but not in immediate contact, upon which they builded fires;
+  and the evidence that cremation was often resorted to in their
+  disposition are too abundant to be gainsaid.
+
+This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:[57]
+
+  Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his
+  attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient
+  race of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial
+  places were discovered where the bodies had been placed with the
+  face up and covered with a coating of plastic clay about an inch
+  thick. A pile of wood was then placed on top and fired, which
+  consumed the body and baked the clay, which retained the impression
+  of the body. This was then lightly covered with earth.
+
+It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the cases
+are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in the
+extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of
+burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the
+ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster
+(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.
+
+Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been practiced
+by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who
+
+  Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders
+  nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole
+  of sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head
+  being cut off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows,
+  bead-work, trappings, &c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of
+  food, consisting of dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with
+  the body also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless
+  body; then a bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the grave by
+  the different members of the tribe, and on these fagots the head was
+  placed, the pile fired, and the head consumed to ashes; after this
+  was done the female relatives of the deceased, who had appeared as
+  mourners with their faces blackened with a preparation resembling
+  tar or paint, dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head
+  and made three marks on their right cheek. This constituted the
+  mourning garb, the period of which lasted until this black substance
+  wore off from the face. In addition to this mourning, the blood
+  female relatives of the deceased (who, by the way, appeared to be a
+  man of distinction) had their hair cropped short. I noticed while
+  the head was burning that the old women of the tribe sat on the
+  ground, forming a large circle, inside of which another circle of
+  young girls were formed standing and swaying their bodies to and fro
+  and singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male
+  that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very different,
+  their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins and laid away in
+  caves, with their valuables and in some cases food being placed with
+  them in their mouths. Occasionally money is left to pay for food in
+  the spirit land.
+
+This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E. A. Barber[58] has
+described what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one
+above noted:
+
+  A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice
+  recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New
+  Jersey bank of the Delaware River, a short distance below Gloucester
+  City, the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position,
+  in a high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few
+  inches below the surface the neck bones were found, and below these
+  the remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of
+  the hands and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be
+  determined whether the remains were those of an Indian or of a white
+  man, but in either case the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal.
+  A careful exhumation and critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil
+  disclosed the fact that around the lower extremities of the body had
+  been placed a number of large stones, which revealed traces of fire,
+  in conjunction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had
+  undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes it appear reasonably
+  certain that the subject had been executed, probably as a prisoner
+  of war. A pit had been dug, in which he was placed erect, and a fire
+  kindled around him. Then he had been buried alive, or, at least, if
+  he did not survive the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the
+  earth, with the exception of his head, which was left protruding
+  above the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it
+  seems probable that the head had either been burned or severed from
+  the body and removed, or else left a prey to ravenous birds. The
+  skeleton, which would have measured fully six feet in height, was
+  undoubtedly that of a man.
+
+Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning.
+The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an
+outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient
+Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with
+the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in
+the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment,
+placed a piece of money in the corpse's mouth, which was thought to be
+Charon's fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River.
+Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a certain cake,
+composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury of
+Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet
+entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.
+
+
+
+
+AERIAL SEPULTURE.
+
+
+_LODGE-BURIAL._
+
+Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,[59]
+and relates to the Sioux:
+
+  I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to
+  the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our
+  curiosity. There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie,
+  and in them we found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the
+  ground, wrapped in their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles,
+  spears, camp-kettles, and all their accoutrements piled up around
+  them. Some lodges contained three, others only one body, all of
+  which were more or less in a state of decomposition. A short
+  distance apart from these was one lodge which, though small, seemed
+  of rather superior pretensions, and was evidently pitched with great
+  care. It contained the body of a young Indian girl of sixteen or
+  eighteen years, with a countenance presenting quite an agreeable
+  expression: she was richly dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth
+  elaborately ornamented; a new pair of moccasins, beautifully
+  embroidered with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her body was
+  wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner; she had
+  evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our surprise a portion
+  of the upper part of her person was bare, exposing the face and a
+  part of the breast, as if the robes in which she was wrapped had by
+  some means been disarranged, whereas all the other bodies were
+  closely covered up. It was, at the time, the opinion of our
+  mountaineers, that these Indians must have fallen in an encounter
+  with a party of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they had all
+  died of the cholera, and that this young girl, being considered past
+  recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the habiliments of the
+  dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and abandoned to her fate, so
+  fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this to them novel and
+  terrible disease.
+
+It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, and
+due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the homes
+of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was not the
+case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among the same
+tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of their chiefs
+(Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:
+
+  The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the
+  base, converging to a point, at least 30 feet high, covered with
+  buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch,
+  which floats outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The
+  different skins are neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and
+  all painted in seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and
+  yellow, decorated with various lifelike war scenes. Over the small
+  entrance is a large bright cross, the upright being a large stuffed
+  white wolf-skin upon his war lance, and the cross-bar of bright
+  scarlet flannel, containing the quiver of bow and arrows, which
+  nearly all warriors still carry, even when armed with repeating
+  rifles. As the cross is not a pagan but a Christian (which Long
+  Horse was not either by profession or practice) emblem, it was
+  probably placed there by the influence of some of his white friends.
+  I entered, finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war
+  dress, paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about
+  breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A large
+  opening and wind-flap at the top favored ventilation, and though he
+  had lain there in an open coffin a full month, some of which was hot
+  weather, there was but little effluvia; in fact, I have seldom found
+  much in a burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus
+  performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.
+
+This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is
+admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal
+of his article, that the facts are correct.
+
+General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the
+Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small
+scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins
+deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his
+side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then closed up.
+
+Dr. W. J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of the
+Shoshones of Nevada:
+
+  The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known to have
+  at any time practiced cremation. In Independence Valley, under a
+  deserted and demolished _wickeup_ or "brush tent," I found the
+  dried-up corpse of a boy, about twelve years of age. The body had
+  been here for at least six weeks, according to information received,
+  and presented a shriveled and hideous appearance. The dryness of the
+  atmosphere prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region
+  usually leave the body when life terminates, merely throwing over it
+  such rubbish as may be at hand, or the remains of their primitive
+  shelter tents, which are mostly composed of small branches, leaves,
+  grass, &c.
+
+  The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the eastern banks
+  of the Owyhee River, upper portion of Nevada, did not bury their
+  dead at the time of my visit in 1871. Whenever the person died, his
+  lodge (usually constructed of poles and branches of _Salix_) was
+  demolished and placed in one confused mass over his remains, when
+  the band removed a short distance. When the illness is not too
+  great, or death sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable
+  place, some distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to
+  avoid the necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens, and other
+  carnivores soon remove all the flesh so that there remains nothing
+  but the bones, and even these are scattered by the wolves. The
+  Indians at Tuscarora, Nevada, stated that when it was possible and
+  that they should by chance meet the bony remains of any Shoshone,
+  they would bury it, but in what manner I failed to discover as the
+  were very reticent, and avoided giving any information regarding the
+  dead. One corpse was found totally dried and shrivelled, owing to
+  the dryness of the atmosphere in this region.
+
+Capt. F. W. Beechey[60] describes a curious mode of burial among the
+Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat
+similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a
+good idea of these burial receptacles.
+
+  Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to what we had
+  already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished several examples of the
+  manner in which this tribe of natives dispose of their dead. In some
+  instances a platform was constructed of drift-wood raised about two
+  feet and a quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed,
+  with its head to the westward and a double tent of drift-wood
+  erected over it, the inner one with spars about seven feet long, and
+  the outer one with some that were three times that length. They were
+  placed close together, and at first no doubt sufficiently so to
+  prevent the depredations of foxes and wolves, but they had yielded
+  at last, and all the bodies, and even the hides that covered them,
+  had suffered by these rapacious animals.
+
+  In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks, as at
+  Cape Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock made of eider
+  duck skins, with one of deer skin over it, and were covered with a
+  sea horse hide, such as the natives use for their _baidars_.
+  Suspended to the poles, and on the ground near them, were several
+  Esquimaux implements, consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a
+  tamborine, which, we were informed as well as signs could convey the
+  meaning of the natives, were placed there for the use of the
+  deceased, who, in the next world (pointing to the western sky) ate,
+  drank, and sang songs. Having no interpreter, this was all the
+  information I could obtain, but the custom of placing such
+  instruments around the receptacles of the dead is not unusual, and
+  in all probability the Esquimaux may believe that the soul has
+  enjoyments in the next world similar to those which constitute their
+  happiness in this.
+
+The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the
+Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J. F. Hammond, U.S.A., place
+their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the
+northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in Figure 12.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Burial Houses.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Eskimo lodge burial.]
+
+Bancroft[61] states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a
+death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited
+palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
+attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently
+informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic
+accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the
+Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the
+floors of their houses, a custom which has been followed by the Mosquito
+Indians of Central America and one or two of our own tribes.
+
+
+_BOX-BURIAL._
+
+Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain tribes
+on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead wonderfully
+carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a low platform
+or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small house with an
+angular roof, and each one has an opening through which food may be
+passed to the corpse.
+
+Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did
+the same.
+
+Capt. J. H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following relating
+to the Creeks in Indian Territory.
+
+  * * * are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute made of
+  branches of trees, covered with small branches, leaves, and earth.
+  I have seen several of their graves, which after a few weeks had
+  become uncovered and the remains exposed to view. I saw in one Creek
+  grave (a child's) a small sum of silver, in another (adult male)
+  some implements of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred
+  with the feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies
+  of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and faces with
+  a composition made of grease and wood ashes, and would remain in
+  that condition for several days, and probably a month.
+
+Josiah Priest[62] gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe
+of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The
+writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an
+example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.
+
+  The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there was no
+  bad smell, they were deposited in large wooden coffins, well
+  constructed, and placed upon benches two feet from the ground. In
+  smaller coffins, and in baskets, the Spaniards found the clothes of
+  the deceased men and women, and so many pearls that they distributed
+  them among the officers and soldiers by handsfulls.
+
+In Bancroft[63] may be found the following account of the burial boxes
+of the Esquimaux.
+
+  The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the body up
+  and place it on the side in a plank box which is elevated three or
+  four feet from the ground and supported by four posts. The grave-box
+  is often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes and animals.
+  Sometimes it is wrapped in skins placed upon an elevated frame and
+  covered with planks or trunks of trees so as to protect it from wild
+  beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are deposited the arms,
+  clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the deceased.
+  Frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where the
+  bodies lie exposed with their heads placed towards the north.
+
+Frederic Whymper[64] describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that
+Territory.
+
+  Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain only the
+  ashes of the dead. These people invariably burn the deceased. On one
+  of the boxes I saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human
+  hair depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of the
+  (happily) deceased one's ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more
+  esteemed than if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are
+  much ornamented with carved and painted faces and other devices.
+
+W. H. Dall,[65] well known as one of the most experienced and careful of
+American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the Innuits
+of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as follows: Figs.
+13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume noted.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Innuit Grave.]
+
+INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK.
+
+  The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its side in a
+  box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long. This
+  is elevated several feet above the ground on four posts which
+  project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with
+  red chalk in figures of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to
+  the wealth of the dead man, a number of articles which belonged to
+  him are attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them
+  have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even
+  kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably
+  the wooden dish, or "kantag," from which the deceased was accustomed
+  to eat, is hung on one of the posts.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ingalik grave.]
+
+INNUIT OF YUKON.
+
+  The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner previously
+  described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the sarcophagus,
+  which, in this case, is ornamented with snow-shoes, a reel for
+  seal-lines, a fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kantag. The latter
+  is found with every grave, and usually one is placed in the box with
+  the body. Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is
+  placed in the coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is thus
+  disposed of. Generally the furs, possessions, and clothing (except
+  such as has been worn) are divided among the nearer relatives of the
+  dead, or remain in possession of his family if he has one; such
+  clothing, household utensils, and weapons as the deceased had in
+  daily use are almost invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are
+  many deaths about the same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything
+  belonging to the dead is destroyed. The house in which a death
+  occurs is always deserted and usually destroyed. In order to avoid
+  this, it is not uncommon to take the sick person out of the house
+  and put him in a tent to die. A woman's coffin may be known by the
+  kettles and other feminine utensils about it. There is no
+  distinction between the sexes in method of burial. On the outside of
+  the coffin, figures are usually drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur
+  animals usually indicate that the dead person was a good trapper; if
+  seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter; representation of
+  parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of his death is also
+  occasionally indicated. For four days after a death the women in the
+  village do no sewing; for five days the men do not cut wood with an
+  axe. The relatives of the dead must not seek birds' eggs on the
+  overhanging cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under
+  them and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or
+  indicated, except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body,
+  chanting a mournful refrain until he is interred. They seldom
+  suspect that others have brought the death about by shamanism, as
+  the Indians almost invariably do.
+
+  At the end of a year from the death, a festival is given, presents
+  are made to those who assisted in making the coffin, and the period
+  of mourning is over. Their grief seldom seems deep but they indulge
+  for a long time in wailing for the dead at intervals. I have seen
+  several women who refused to take a second husband, and had remained
+  single in spite of repeated offers for many years.
+
+INGALIKS OF ULUKUK.
+
+  As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mikala, one of
+  my men, informed me that it was women lamenting for the dead. On
+  landing, I saw several Indians hewing out the box in which the dead
+  are placed. * * * The body lay on its side on a deer skin, the heels
+  were lashed to the small of the back, and the head bent forward on
+  the chest so that his coffin needed to be only about four feet long.
+
+
+_TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL._
+
+We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the most
+common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite extensively
+practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned the choice
+of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where timber
+abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being employed.
+
+From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has
+been received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the
+Brule or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are
+called _Sicaugu_, in the Indian tongue _Seechaugas_, or the "burned
+thigh" people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only on
+account of its careful attention to details, but from its known
+truthfulness of description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.
+
+FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+  Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude boxes,
+  either burying them when implements for digging can be had, or, when
+  they have no means of making a grave, placing them on top of the
+  ground on some hill or other slight elevation, yet this is done in
+  imitation of the whites, and their general custom, as a people,
+  probably does not differ in any essential way from that of their
+  forefathers for many generations in the past. In disposing of the
+  dead, they wrap the body tightly in blankets or robes (sometimes
+  both) wind it all over with thongs made of the hide of some animal
+  and place it reclining on the back at full length, either in the
+  branches of some tree or on a scaffold made for the purpose. These
+  scaffolds are about eight feet high and made by planting four forked
+  sticks firmly in the ground, one at each corner and then placing
+  others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the body is
+  securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is placed on the
+  same scaffold, though generally a separate one is made for each
+  occasion. These Indians being in all things most superstitious,
+  attach a kind of sacredness to these scaffolds and all the materials
+  used or about the dead. This superstition is in itself sufficient to
+  prevent any of their own people from disturbing the dead, and for
+  one of another nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered
+  an offense not too severely punished by death. The same feeling also
+  prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or any of the wood which
+  has been used about them, even for firewood, though the necessity
+  may be very great, for fear some evil consequences will follow. It
+  is also the custom, though not universally followed, when bodies
+  have been for two years on the scaffolds to take them down and bury
+  them under ground.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Dakota Scaffold Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Offering Food to the Dead.]
+
+  All the work about winding up the dead, building the scaffold, and
+  placing the dead upon it is done by women only, who, after having
+  finished their labor, return and bring the men, to show them where
+  the body is placed, that they may be able to find it in future.
+  Valuables of all kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.--in
+  short, whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and
+  locks of hair cut from the heads of the mourners at his death, are
+  always bound up with the body. In case the dead was a man of
+  importance, or if the family could afford it, even though he were
+  not, one or several horses (generally, in the former case, those
+  which the departed thought most of) are shot and placed under the
+  scaffold. The idea in this is that the spirit of the horse will
+  accompany and be of use to his spirit in the "happy hunting
+  grounds," or, as these people express it, "the spirit land."
+
+  When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death occurs, the
+  friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and begin crying over
+  the departed or departing one. This consists in uttering the most
+  heartrending, almost hideous wails and lamentations, in which all
+  join until exhausted. Then the mourning ceases for a time until some
+  one starts it again, when all join in as before and keep it up until
+  unable to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is removed.
+  This crying is done almost wholly by women, who gather in large
+  numbers on such occasions, and among them a few who are professional
+  mourners. These are generally old women and go whenever a person is
+  expected to die, to take the leading part in the lamentations,
+  knowing that they will be well paid at the distribution of goods
+  which follows. As soon as death takes place, the body is dressed by
+  the women in the best garments and blankets obtainable, new ones if
+  they can be afforded. The crowd gathered near continue wailing
+  piteously, and from time to time cut locks of hair from their own
+  heads with knives, and throw them on the dead body. Those who wish
+  to show their grief most strongly, cut themselves in various places,
+  generally in the legs and arms, with their knives or pieces of
+  flint, more commonly the latter, causing the blood to flow freely
+  over their persons. This custom is followed to a less degree by the
+  men.
+
+  A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the desire to
+  get the dead out of sight, the fear that the disease which caused
+  the death will communicate itself to others of the family causes
+  them to hasten the disposition of it as soon as they are certain
+  that death has actually taken place.
+
+  Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After that is
+  done, connected with which there seems to be no particular ceremony,
+  the few women who attend to it return to the lodge and a
+  distribution is made among them and others, not only of the
+  remaining property of the deceased, but of all the possessions, even
+  to the lodge itself of the family to which he belonged. This custom
+  in some cases has been carried so far as to leave the rest of the
+  family not only absolutely destitute but actually naked. After
+  continuing in this condition for a time, they gradually reach the
+  common level again by receiving gifts from various sources.
+
+  The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the dead,
+  a strict observance of the ten days following the death, as follows:
+  They are to rise at a very early hour and work unusually hard all
+  day, joining in no feast, dance, game, or other diversion, eat but
+  little, and retire late, that they may be deprived of the usual
+  amount of sleep as of food. During this they never paint themselves,
+  but at various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead
+  in loud cries and lamentations for hours together. After the ten
+  days have expired they paint themselves again and engage in the
+  usual amusements of the people as before. The men are expected to
+  mourn and fast for one day and then go on the war-path against some
+  other tribe, or on some long journey alone. If he prefers, he can
+  mourn and fast for two or more days and remain at home. The custom
+  of placing food at the scaffold also prevails to some extent. If but
+  little is placed there it is understood to be for the spirit of the
+  dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If much is provided, it is
+  done with the intention that those of the same sex and age as the
+  deceased shall meet there and consume it. If the dead be a little
+  girl, the young girls meet and eat what is provided; if it be a man,
+  then men assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never mention
+  the name of the dead.
+
+"KEEPING THE GHOST."
+
+  Still another custom, though at the present day by no means
+  generally followed, is still observed to some extent among them.
+  This is called _wanagee yuhapee_, or "keeping the ghost." A little
+  of the hair from the head of the deceased being preserved is bound
+  up in calico and articles of value until the roll is about two feet
+  long and ten inches or more in diameter, when it is placed in a case
+  made of hide handsomely ornamented with various designs in different
+  colored paints. When the family is poor, however, they may
+  substitute for this case blue or scarlet blanket or cloth. The roll
+  is then swung lengthwise between two supports made of sticks, placed
+  thus x in front of a lodge which has been set apart for the purpose.
+  In this lodge are gathered presents of all kinds, which are given
+  out when a sufficient quantity is obtained. It is often a year and
+  sometimes several years before this distribution is made. During all
+  this time the roll containing the hair of the deceased is left
+  undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they are brought in
+  are piled in the back part of the lodge, and are not to be touched
+  until given out. No one but men and boys are admitted to the lodge
+  unless it be a wife of the deceased, who may go in if necessary very
+  early in the morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke,
+  eat, and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their
+  pipes in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left
+  undisturbed until after the distribution. When they eat, a portion
+  is always placed first under the roll outside for the spirit of the
+  deceased. No one is allowed to take this unless a large quantity is
+  so placed, in which case it may be eaten by any persons actually in
+  need of food, even though strangers to the dead. When the proper
+  time comes the friends of the deceased and all to whom presents are
+  to be given are called together to the lodge and the things are
+  given out by the man in charge. Generally this is some near relative
+  of the departed. The roll is now undone and small locks of the hair
+  distributed with the other presents, which ends the ceremony.
+
+  Sometimes this "keeping the ghost" is done several times, and it is
+  then looked upon as a repetition of the burial or putting away of
+  the dead. During all the time before the distribution of the hair,
+  the lodge, as well as the roll, is looked upon as in a manner
+  sacred, but after that ceremony it becomes common again and may be
+  used for any ordinary purpose. No relative or near friend of the
+  dead wishes to retain anything in his possession that belonged to
+  him while living, or to see, hear, or own anything which will remind
+  him of the departed. Indeed, the leading idea in all their burial
+  customs in the laying away with the dead their most valuable
+  possessions, the giving to others what is left of his and the family
+  property, the refusal to mention his name, &c., is to put out of
+  mind as soon and as effectual as possible the memory of the
+  departed.
+
+  From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they believe
+  each person to have a spirit which continues to live after the death
+  of the body. They have no idea of a future life in the body, but
+  believe that after death their spirits will meet and recognize the
+  spirits of their departed friends in the spirit land. They deem it
+  essential to their happiness here, however, to destroy as far as
+  practicable their recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of
+  death as a sleep, and of the dead as asleep or having gone to sleep
+  at such a time. These customs are gradually losing their hold upon
+  them, and are much less generally and strictly observed than
+  formerly.
+
+Figure 15 furnishes a good example of scaffold burial. Figure 16,
+offering of food and drink to the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead
+upon the scaffold.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Depositing the Corpse.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Tree-burial.]
+
+A. Delano,[66] mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he
+noticed in Nebraska.
+
+  * * * During the afternoon we passed a Sioux burying-ground, if I
+  may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a hackberry tree, elevated
+  about twenty feet from the ground, a kind of rack was made of broken
+  tent poles, and the body (for there was but one) was placed upon it,
+  wrapped in his blanket, and a tanned buffalo skin, with his tin cup,
+  moccasins, and various things which he had used in life, were placed
+  upon his body, for his use in the land of spirits.
+
+Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend Dr.
+Washington Matthews, United States Army.
+
+John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:
+
+  Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose
+  the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed,
+  closely sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the
+  branches of a tree so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and
+  then left to slowly waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of
+  a squaw or child, it was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where
+  it soon became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes,
+  &c., of men were inclosed, and the small toys of children with them.
+  The ceremonies were equally barbarous, the relatives cutting off,
+  according to the depth of their grief, one or more joints of the
+  fingers, divesting themselves of clothing even in the coldest
+  weather, and filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing
+  up and burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men would
+  not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead body.
+
+The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and
+Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E. H. Alden, United States Indian
+agent at Fort Berthold:
+
+  The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but always on
+  a scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet high, on which the
+  box is placed, or, if no box is used, the body wrapped in red or
+  blue cloth if able, or, if not, a blanket of cheapest white cloth,
+  the tools and weapons being placed directly under the body, and
+  there they remain forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of
+  them. It would be bad medicine to touch the dead or anything so
+  placed belonging to him. Should the body by any means fall to the
+  ground, it is never touched or replaced on the scaffold. As soon as
+  one dies he is immediately buried, sometimes within an hour, and the
+  friends begin howling and wailing as the process of interment goes
+  on, and continue mourning day and night around the grave, without
+  food sometimes three or four days. Those who mourn are always paid
+  for it in some way by the other friends of the deceased, and those
+  who mourn the longest are paid the most. They also show their grief
+  and affection for the dead by a fearful cutting of their own bodies,
+  sometimes only in part, and sometimes all over their whole flesh,
+  and this sometimes continues for weeks. Their hair, which is worn in
+  long braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They seem proud
+  of their mutilations. A young man who had just buried his mother
+  came in boasting of, and showing his mangled legs.
+
+According to Thomas L. McKenney,[67] the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis.,
+buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as
+follows:
+
+  One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place the
+  coffin or box containing their remains on two cross-pieces, nailed
+  or tied with wattap to four poles. The poles are about ten feet
+  high. They plant near these posts the wild hop or some other kind of
+  running vine, which spreads over and covers the coffin. I saw one of
+  these on the island, and as I have described it. It was the coffin
+  of a child about four years old. It was near the lodge of the sick
+  girl. I have a sketch of it. I asked the chief why his people
+  disposed of their dead in that way. He answered they did not like to
+  put them out of their sight so soon by putting them under ground.
+  Upon a platform they could see the box that contained their remains,
+  and that was a comfort to them.
+
+Figure 19 is copied from McKenney's picture of this form of burial.
+
+Keating[68] thus describes burial scaffolds:
+
+  On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high, corpses
+  were deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair
+  was suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide
+  informed us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by
+  the relatives to testify their grief. In the center, between the
+  four posts which supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the
+  ground, it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human
+  figures, five of which had a design of a petticoat indicating them
+  to be females; the rest amounting to seven, were naked and were
+  intended for male figures; of the latter four were headless, showing
+  that they had been slain, the three other male figures were
+  unmutilated, but held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide
+  informed us designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an
+  usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a warrior's
+  remains, does not represent the achievements of the deceased, but
+  those of the warriors that assembled near his remains danced the
+  dance of the post, and related their martial exploits. A number of
+  small bones of animals were observed in the vicinity, which were
+  probably left there after a feast celebrated in honor of the dead.
+
+  The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man
+  could not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country
+  where boxes and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the
+  corpses have remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down
+  and burned. Our guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a
+  witness to an interesting, though painful, circumstance that
+  occurred here. An Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing
+  that his son had died at this spot, came up in a canoe to take
+  charge of the remains and convey them down the river to his place of
+  abode but on his arrival he found that the corpse had already made
+  such progress toward decomposition as rendered it impossible for it
+  to be removed. He then undertook with a few friends, to clean off
+  the bones. All the flesh was scraped off and thrown into the stream,
+  the bones were carefully collected into his canoe, and subsequently
+  carried down to his residence.
+
+Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is
+the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis,
+United States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to
+the Cheyennes of Kansas.
+
+  The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of
+  Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by
+  four notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The
+  unusual care manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr.
+  Sternberg to infer that some important chief was inclosed in it.
+  Believing that articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and
+  that their value would be enhanced if the were received at the
+  Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to send the
+  case unopened.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Chippewa Scaffold Burial.]
+
+  I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the
+  contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of
+  white willow, about six feet long, three feet broad, and three feet
+  high, with a flooring of buffalo thongs arranged as a net-work. This
+  cradle was securely fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles
+  of ironwood and cottonwood, about twelve feet in length. These poles
+  doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of the vertical poles
+  described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in two buffalo
+  robes of large size and well preserved. On removing these an
+  aperture eighteen inches square was found at the middle of the
+  right-side of the cradle or basket. Within appeared other buffalo
+  robes folded about the remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes.
+  Five robes were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we
+  came to a series of new blankets folded about the remains. There
+  were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one white. These being
+  removed, the next wrappings consisted of a striped white and gray
+  sack, and of a United States Infantry overcoat, like the other
+  coverings nearly new. We had now come apparently upon the immediate
+  envelope of the remains, which it was now evident must be those of a
+  child. These consisted of three robes, with hoods very richly
+  ornamented with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of
+  buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated
+  with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of blue
+  and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow, and the third
+  blue and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass bells
+  attached all about the borders by strings of beads.
+
+  The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that
+  used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and
+  upon a pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red
+  paint, bits of antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &c. The
+  three bead-work hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we
+  successively unwrapped a gray woolen double shawl, five yards of
+  blue cassimere, six yards of red calico, and six yards of brown
+  calico, and finally disclosed the remains of a child, probably about
+  a year old, in an advanced stage of decomposition. The cadaver had a
+  beaver-cap ornamented with disks of copper containing the bones of
+  the cranium, which had fallen apart. About the neck were long wampum
+  necklaces, with _Dentalium_, _Unionidae_, and _Auriculae_,
+  interspersed with beads. There were also strings of the pieces of
+  _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so valued by the Indians on
+  this side of the Rocky Mountains. The body had been elaborately
+  dressed for burial, the costume consisting of a red-flannel cloak,
+  a red tunic, and frock-leggins adorned with bead-work, yarn
+  stockings of red and black worsted, and deer-skin beadwork
+  moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets, a porcelain
+  image, a China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a pair of
+  mittens, a fur collar, a pouch of the skin of _Putorius vison_, &c.
+
+Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished by
+Dr. L. S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to
+the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious
+mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the
+entire globe:
+
+  The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be
+  found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay
+  the body, but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more
+  general practice is to lay them upon scaffolds from seven to ten
+  feet high and out of the reach of carnivorous animals, as the wolf.
+  These scaffolds are constructed upon four posts set into the ground
+  something after the manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like
+  all labors of a domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to
+  the women, usually the old women. The work begins as soon as life is
+  extinct. The face, neck, and hands are thickly painted with
+  vermilion, or a species of red earth found in various portions of
+  the Territory when the vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The
+  clothes and personal trinkets of the deceased ornament the body.
+  When blankets are available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts of
+  the body being completely enveloped. Around this a dressed skin of
+  buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the flesh side out, and the
+  whole securely bound with thongs of skins, either raw or dressed;
+  and for ornament, when available, a bright-red blanket envelopes all
+  other coverings, and renders the general scene more picturesque
+  until dimmed by time and the elements. As soon as the scaffold is
+  ready, the body is borne by the women, followed by the female
+  relatives, to the place of final deposit, and left prone in its
+  secure wrappings upon this airy bed of death. This ceremony is
+  accompanied with lamentations wild and weird that one must see and
+  hear in order to appreciate. If the deceased be a brave, it is
+  customary to place upon or beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads
+  which time has rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been
+  brave in war some of his implements of battle are placed on the
+  scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If the deceased has been a
+  chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it is not uncommon to slay
+  his favorite pony and place the body beneath the scaffold, under the
+  superstition, I suppose, that the horse goes with the man. As
+  illustrating the propensity to provide the dead with the things used
+  while living, I may mention that some years ago I loaned to an old
+  man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a young man who was
+  slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made him promise faithfully
+  that he would return it as soon as his son was done using it. Not
+  long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which held the
+  remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been
+  returned I presume the young man is not done using it.
+
+  The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be
+  of universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never
+  cut under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck,
+  and the top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole
+  body, are smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk,
+  moistened with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family
+  possessions except the few shabby articles of apparel worn by the
+  mourners, are given away and the family left destitute. Thus far the
+  custom is universal or nearly so. The wives, mother, and sisters of
+  a deceased man, on the first, second, or third day after the
+  funeral, frequently throw off their moccasins and leggings and gash
+  their legs with their butcher-knives, and march through the camp and
+  to the place of burial with bare and bleeding extremities, while
+  they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. The men likewise
+  often gash themselves in many places, and usually seek the solitude
+  of the higher point on the distant prairie, where they remain
+  fasting, smoking, and wailing out their lamentations for two or
+  three days. A chief who had lost a brother once came to me after
+  three or four days of mourning in solitude almost exhausted from
+  hunger and bodily anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both
+  lower extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from the
+  ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed from
+  exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me that he had not
+  slept for several days or nights. I dressed his wounds with a
+  soothing ointment, and gave him a full dose of an effective anodyne,
+  after which he slept long and refreshingly, and awoke to express his
+  gratitude and shake my hand in a very cordial and sincere manner.
+  When these harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the mourners
+  usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial, toward
+  the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until it is apparently
+  assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up for more than
+  four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at intervals,
+  for weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the bereft.
+  I have seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle of an
+  old father going daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows
+  are lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would move
+  a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when, silent
+  and solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect of
+  this observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a
+  grown-up son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of
+  the scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence.
+  The foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during
+  a period of more than six years' constant intercourse with several
+  subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory
+  has failed to recall upon a brief consideration.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Scarification at Burial.]
+
+Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for the
+dead.
+
+Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner's narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.
+
+Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to
+have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation,
+and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., were
+thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles supposed or
+known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also consumed. The
+Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, Caribs, and many of
+the tribes of North American Indians followed these customs. The cutting
+of hair as a mourning observance is of very great antiquity, and Tegg
+relates that among the ancients whole cities and countries were shaved
+(_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians not only shaved themselves
+on such occasions, but extended the same process to their domestic
+animals, and Alexander, at the death of Hephaestin, not only cut off the
+manes of his horses and mules, but took down the battlements from the
+city walls, that even towns might seem in mourning and look bald.
+Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed from a remote period of
+time, having possibly replaced, in the process of evolution, to a
+certain extent, the more barbarous practice of absolute personal
+sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human sacrifices have taken
+place to only a limited extent, but formerly many victims were
+immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida and Carolina
+Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for the reason,
+according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun
+descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as all other
+members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only persons of
+an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among some tribes
+of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by
+no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans,
+and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutre,
+in France, the writer saw horses' bones exhumed from the graves examined
+in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this
+subject, and they have invariably informed him that when horses were
+slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the band.
+
+Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+Colchians enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to trees;
+the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to the use
+of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it seems
+somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the eastern
+portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in this way,
+which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much easier
+method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living in
+sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that the
+Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, the
+fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to the
+supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the
+desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This
+desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.
+
+The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in loud
+cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a greater
+significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and on this
+point Bruhier[69] seems quite positive, his interpretation being that
+such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some
+interesting examples, which may be admitted here:
+
+  The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with
+  comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to
+  leave this world, having everything to make life comfortable. They
+  place the corpse on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five
+  feet deep, and for ten days they bring food, requesting the corpse
+  to eat. Finally, being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor
+  return to life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and
+  fill up the grave.
+
+When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the body,
+closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received the
+last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased
+by name was known as the _conclamation_, and was a custom anterior even
+to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately
+removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater
+propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves
+on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the
+Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number,
+performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village
+church steeple and again at the grave[70*]. This custom, however, was
+probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to
+prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad
+spirits.
+
+W. L. Hardisty[71] gives a curious example of log-burial in trees,
+relating to the Loucheux of British America:
+
+  They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure
+  it to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A log about
+  eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts
+  carefully hollowed out to the required size. The body is then
+  inclosed and the two pieces well lashed together, preparatory to
+  being finally secured, as before stated, to the trees.
+
+The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing
+scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood[72] gives a number
+of examples of this mode of burial.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Australian Scaffold Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Preparing the Dead.]
+
+  In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming the
+  body by fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make it a
+  peculiarly conspicuous object. Should a tree grow favorably for
+  their purpose, they will employ it as the final resting place for
+  the dead body. Lying in its canoe coffin, and so covered over with
+  leaves and grass that its shape is quite disguised, the body is
+  lifted into a convenient fork of the tree and lashed to the boughs,
+  by native ropes. No farther care is taken of it, and if in process
+  of time it should be blown out of the tree, no one will take the
+  trouble of replacing it.
+
+  Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an artificial
+  platform is made for the body, by fixing the ends of stout branches
+  in the ground and connecting them at their tops by smaller
+  horizontal branches. Such are the curious tombs which are
+  represented in the illustration. * * * These strange tombs are
+  mostly placed among the reeds, so that nothing can be more mournful
+  than the sound of the wind as it shakes the reeds below the branch
+  in which the corpse is lying. The object of this aerial tomb is
+  evident enough, namely, to protect the corpse from the dingo, or
+  native dog. That the ravens and other carrion-eating birds should
+  make a banquet upon the body of the dead man does not seem to
+  trouble the survivors in the least, and it often happens that the
+  traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed ravens that the body
+  of a dead Australian is lying in the branches over his head.
+
+  The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old men who
+  have died a natural death; but when a young warrior has fallen in
+  battle the body is treated in a very different manner. A moderately
+  high platform is erected, and upon this is seated the body of the
+  dead warrior with the face toward the rising sun. The legs are
+  crossed and the arms kept extended by means of sticks. The fat is
+  then removed, and after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over
+  the body, which has previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is
+  done in the ceremony of initiation. The legs and arms are covered
+  with zebra-like stripes of red, white, and yellow, and the weapons
+  of the dead man are laid across his lap.
+
+  The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the platform,
+  and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole of which time the
+  friends and mourners remain by the body, and are not permitted to
+  speak. Sentinels relieve each other at appointed intervals, their
+  duty being to see that the fires are not suffered to go out, and to
+  keep the flies away by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu
+  feathers. When a body has been treated in this manner it becomes
+  hard and mummy-like, and the strongest point is that the wild dogs
+  will not touch it after it has been so long smoked. It remains
+  sitting on the platform for two months or so, and is then taken down
+  and buried, with the exception of the skull, which is made into a
+  drinking-cup for the nearest relative. * * *
+
+This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as the
+process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from decomposition.
+
+Figs. 21 and 22 represent the Australian burials described, and are
+after the original engravings in Wood's work. The one representing
+scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of our own Indians.
+
+With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead,
+the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are given:
+
+  If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead
+  bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds
+  resembling trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning
+  them and preserving their ashes in urns, I think we can answer the
+  inquiry by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American
+  Indians, as well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed
+  that the human soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and
+  nature of a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their
+  habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the soul-bird would
+  have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place if it was
+  placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the earth;
+  moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest
+  secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard
+  like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.
+
+This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the writer's
+possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct without
+farther investigation.
+
+
+_PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES._
+
+Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by
+writers "bone-houses." Roman[73] relates the following concerning the
+Choctaws:
+
+  The following treatment of the dead is very strange. * * * As soon
+  as the deceased is departed, a stage is erected (as in the annexed
+  plate is represented) and the corpse is laid on it and covered with
+  a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it is decorated, and the poles
+  painted red with vermillion and bear's oil; if a child, it is put
+  upon stakes set across; at this stage the relations come and weep,
+  asking many questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did
+  not his wife serve him well? was he not contented with his children?
+  had he not corn enough? did not his land produce sufficient of
+  everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c., and this accompanied
+  by loud howlings; the women will be there constantly, and sometimes,
+  with the corrupted air and heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige
+  the bystanders to carry them home; the men will also come and mourn
+  in the same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable times
+  when they are least likely to be discovered.
+
+  The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain
+  time, but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or
+  four months, but seldom more than half that time. A certain set of
+  venerable old Gentlemen, who wear very long nails as a
+  distinguishing badge on the thumb, fore, and middle finger of each
+  hand, constantly travel through the nation (when I was there I was
+  told there were but five of this respectable order) that one of them
+  may acquaint those concerned, of the expiration of this period,
+  which is according to their own fancy; the day being come, the
+  friends and relations assemble near the stage, a fire is made, and
+  the respectable operator, after the body is taken down, with his
+  nails tears the remaining flesh off the bones, and throws it with
+  the entrails into the fire, where it is consumed; then he scrapes
+  the bones and burns the scrapings likewise; the head being painted
+  red with vermillion is with the rest of the bones put into a neatly
+  made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and deposited in the
+  loft of a hut built for that purpose, and called bone house; each
+  town has one of these; after remaining here one year or thereabouts,
+  if he be a man of any note, they take the chest down, and in an
+  assembly of relations and friends they weep once more over him,
+  refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him
+  to lasting oblivion.
+
+  An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as
+  one to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial
+  obsequies and mourning.
+
+Jones[74] quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the
+Natchez tribe:
+
+  Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs.
+  These tombs were located within or very near their temples. They
+  rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were
+  raised some three feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a
+  foot and a half wide, they were prepared for the reception of a
+  single corpse. After the body was placed upon it, a basket-work of
+  twigs was woven around and covered with mud, an opening being left
+  at the head, through which food was presented to the deceased. When
+  the flesh had all rotted away, the bones were taken out, placed in a
+  box made of canes, and then deposited in the temple. The common dead
+  were mourned and lamented for a period of three days. Those who fell
+  in battle were honored with a more protracted and grievous
+  lamentation.
+
+Bartram[75] gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial
+among the Choctaws of Carolina:
+
+  The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a
+  very different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a
+  scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where
+  they lay the corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is
+  suffered to remain, visited and protected by the friends and
+  relations, until the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from
+  the bones; then undertakers, who make it their business, carefully
+  strip the flesh from the bones, wash and cleanse them, and when dry
+  and purified by the air, having provided a curiously-wrought chest
+  or coffin, fabricated of bones and splints, they place all the bones
+  therein, which is deposited in the bone-house, a building erected
+  for that purpose in every town; and when this house is full a
+  general solemn funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or
+  friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the
+  bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following one
+  another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and connections
+  attending their respective corps, and the multitude following after
+  them, all as one family, with united voice of alternate allelujah
+  and lamentation, slowly proceeding on to the place of general
+  interment, when they place the coffins in order, forming a
+  pyramid;[76*] and, lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a
+  conical hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn
+  procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is called the
+  feast of the dead.
+
+Morgan[77] also alludes to this mode of burial:
+
+  The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding erected
+  upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to
+  waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of
+  decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the
+  former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house by its side,
+  prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the
+  whole family were preserved from generation to generation by the
+  filial or parental affection of the living. After the lapse of a
+  number of years, or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve
+  of abandoning a settlement, it was customary to collect these
+  skeletons from the whole community around and consign them to a
+  common resting-place.
+
+  To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless
+  to be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which have been found in
+  such numbers in various parts of the country. On opening these
+  mounds the skeletons are usually found arranged in horizontal
+  layers, a conical pyramid, those in each layer radiating from a
+  common center. In other cases they are found placed promiscuously.
+
+Dr. D. G. Brinton[78] likewise gives an account of the interment of
+collected bones:
+
+  East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated
+  periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to collect and clean
+  the osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the
+  intervening time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with
+  choice furs, and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such
+  is the origin of those immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains
+  of nations and generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent
+  curiosity, so frequently chances upon in all portions of our
+  territory. Throughout Central America the same usage obtained in
+  various localities, as early writers and existing monuments
+  abundantly testify. Instead of interring the bones, were they those
+  of some distinguished chieftain, they were deposited in the temples
+  or the council-houses, usually in small chests of canes or splints.
+  Such were the charnel-houses which the historians of De Soto's
+  expedition so often mention, and these are the "arks" Adair and
+  other authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians
+  from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient Israelites bore
+  with them in their migration.
+
+  A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her
+  deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them
+  in such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc.
+  Exp., p. 200). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for
+  all, without exception. About a year after death the bones were
+  cleaned, bleached, painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a
+  wicker basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling
+  (Gumilla Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity
+  of these heirlooms became burdensome they were removed to some
+  inaccessible cavern and stowed away with reverential care.
+
+George Catlin[79] describes what he calls the "Golgothas" of the
+Mandans:
+
+  There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty
+  feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a
+  little mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo
+  skulls (a male and female), and in the center of the little mound is
+  erected "a medicine pole," of about twenty feet high, supporting
+  many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they
+  suppose have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred
+  arrangement.
+
+  Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to
+  evince their further affections for the dead, not in groans and
+  lamentations, however, for several years have cured the anguish, but
+  fond affection and endearments are here renewed, and conversations
+  are here held and cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls
+  is placed upon a bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and
+  placed under it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the
+  skull of her husband or her child which lies in this group, and
+  there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it with a dish of
+  the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, which she sets before
+  the skull at night, and returns for the dish in the morning. As soon
+  as it is discovered that the sage on which the skull rests is
+  beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and places the
+  skull carefully upon it, removing that which was under it.
+
+  Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this
+  spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold
+  converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a
+  pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or
+  lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the
+  most pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as they were
+  wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Canoe Burial.]
+
+From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which have
+been described by the authors cited were not confined to any special
+tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have prevailed
+among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.
+
+
+_SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES._
+
+The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.
+
+The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington Territory,
+and may be found in Swan.[80]
+
+  In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a celebrated doctor,
+  were the chief mourners, probably from being the smartest scamps
+  among the relatives. Their duty was to prepare the canoe for the
+  reception of the body. One of the largest and best the deceased had
+  owned was then hauled into the woods, at some distance back of the
+  lodge, after having been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two
+  large square holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and
+  stern, for the twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for
+  further use, and therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the
+  whites (who are but too apt to help themselves to these depositories
+  for the dead), and also to allow any rain to pass off readily.
+
+  When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets, was
+  brought out, and laid in it on mats previously spread. All the
+  wearing apparel was next put in beside the body, together with her
+  trinkets, beads, little baskets, and various trifles she had prized.
+  More blankets were then covered over the body, and mats smoothed
+  over all. Next, a small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was
+  placed, bottom up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with
+  mats. The canoe was then raised up and placed on two parallel bars,
+  elevated four or five feet from the ground, and supported by being
+  inserted through holes mortised at the top of four stout posts
+  previously firmly planted in the earth. Around these holes were then
+  hung blankets, and all the cooking utensils of the deceased, pots,
+  kettles, and pans, each with a hole punched through it, and all her
+  crockery-ware, every piece of which was first cracked or broken, to
+  render it useless; and then, when all was done, they left her to
+  remain for one year, when the bones would be buried in a box in the
+  earth directly under the canoe; but that, with all its appendages,
+  would never be molested, but left to go to gradual decay.
+
+  They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and would
+  no more think of using one than we would of using our own graveyard
+  relics; and it is, in their view, as much of a desecration for a
+  white man to meddle or interfere with these, to them, sacred
+  mementoes, as it would be to us to have an Indian open the graves of
+  our relatives. Many thoughtless white men have done this, and
+  animosities have been thus occasioned.
+
+Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.
+
+From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the Twanas,
+and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency,
+Washington Territory, is selected:
+
+  The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age,
+  dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I
+  went to the house to attend the funeral. She had then been placed in
+  a Hudson's Bay Company's box for a coffin, which was about 3-1/2
+  feet long, 1-1/2 wide, and 1-1/2 high. She was very poor when she died,
+  owing to her disease, or she could not have been put in this box.
+  A fire was burning near by, where a large number of her things had
+  been consumed, and the rest was in three boxes near the coffin. Her
+  mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with others, and often
+  saying, "My daughter, my daughter, why did you die?" and similar
+  words. The burial did not take place until the next day, and I was
+  invited to go. It was an aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was
+  about 25 feet long. The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were
+  about a foot wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were
+  placed, on which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this
+  was done which was new to me, but the significance of which I did
+  not learn. As fast as the holes were cut in the posts, green leaves
+  were gathered and placed over the holes until the posts were put in
+  the ground. The coffin-box and the three others containing her
+  things were placed in the canoe and a roof of boards made over the
+  central part, which was entirely covered with white cloth. The head
+  part and the foot part of her bedstead were then nailed on to the
+  posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed on each of these.
+  After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull and went to the
+  beach except her father, mother, and brother, who remained ten or
+  fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning. They then came
+  down and made a present to those persons who were there--a gun to
+  one, a blanket to each of two or three others, and a dollar and a
+  half to each of the rest, including myself, there being about
+  fifteen persons present. Three or four of them then made short
+  speeches, and we came home.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Twana Canoe-Burial.]
+
+  The reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a
+  prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected
+  that there will be a "_pot-latch_" or distribution of money near
+  this place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation
+  of two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at the
+  grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried in the
+  ground. Shortly after her death both her father and mother cut off
+  their hair as a sign of their grief.
+
+Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and represents
+the burial mentioned in his narrative.
+
+The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed
+canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by
+Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of
+the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized
+by painstaking attention to detail:
+
+  I divide this subject into five periods, varying according to time,
+  though they are somewhat intermingled.
+
+  (_a_) There are places where skulls and skeletons have been plowed
+  up or still remain in the ground and near together, in such a way as
+  to give good ground for the belief which is held by white residents
+  in the region, that formerly persons were buried in the ground and
+  in irregular cemeteries. I know of such places in Duce Waillops
+  among the Twanas, and at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the
+  Clallams. These graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the
+  present day profess to have no knowledge as to who is buried in
+  them, except that they believe, undoubtedly, that they are the
+  graves of their ancestors. I do not know that any care has ever been
+  exercised by any one in exhuming these skeletons so as to learn any
+  particulars about them. It is possible, however, that these persons
+  were buried according to the (_b_) or canoe method, and that time
+  has buried them where they now are.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Posts for Burial Canoes.]
+
+  (_b_) Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the forks
+  of two trees and left there. There was no particular cemetery, but
+  the person was generally left near the place where the death
+  occurred. The Skokomish Valley is said to have been full of canoes
+  containing persons thus buried. What their customs were while
+  burying, or what they placed around the dead, I am not informed but
+  am told that they did not take as much care then of their dead as
+  they do now. I am satisfied, however, that they then left some
+  articles around the dead. An old resident informs me that the
+  Clallam Indians always bury their dead in a sitting posture.
+
+  (_c_) About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in British
+  Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region, unprincipled white
+  men took many of the canoes in which the Indian dead had been left,
+  emptying them of their contents. This incensed the Indians and they
+  changed their mode of burial somewhat by burying the dead in one
+  place, placing them in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by
+  building scaffolds for them instead of placing them in forks of
+  trees, and in cutting their canoes so as to render them useless,
+  when they were used as coffins or left by the side of the dead. The
+  ruins of one such graveyard now remain about two miles from this
+  agency. Nearly all the remains were removed a few years ago.
+
+  With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I have
+  drawn. Fig. 25 shows that at present only one pair of posts remains.
+  I have supplied the other pair as they evidently were.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Tent on Scaffold.]
+
+  Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part which is
+  covered with board and cloth incloses the coffin which is on a
+  scaffold.
+
+  As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites they have
+  learned to bury in the ground, and this is the most common method at
+  the present time. There are cemeteries everywhere where Indians have
+  resided any length of time. After a person has died a coffin is made
+  after the cheaper kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it,
+  and also with it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes,
+  though occasionally money. I lately heard of a child being buried
+  with a twenty-dollar gold piece in each hand and another in its
+  month, but I am not able to vouch for the truth of it. As a general
+  thing, money is too valuable with them for this purpose and there is
+  too much temptation for some one to rob the grave when this is left
+  in it.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.--House-Burial.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.--House-Burial.]
+
+  (_d_) The grave is dug after the style of the whites and the coffin
+  then placed in it. After it has been covered it is customary though
+  not universal, to build some kind of an inclosure over it or around
+  it in the shape of a small house, shed, lodge or fence. These are
+  from 2 to 12 feet high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet
+  long. Some of these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to
+  see within and some are quite open. Occasionally a window is placed
+  in the front side. Sometimes these enclosures are covered with
+  cloth, which is generally white, sometimes partly covered, and some
+  have none. Around the grave, both outside and inside of the
+  inclosure, various articles are placed, as guns, canoes, dishes,
+  pails, cloth, sheets, blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and
+  occasionally a roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said
+  that around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few
+  years ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of these
+  articles are cut or broken so as to render them valueless to man and
+  to prevent their being stolen. Poles are also often erected, from 10
+  to 30 feet long, on which American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes,
+  and cloths of various colors are hung. A few graves have nothing of
+  this kind. On some graves these things are renewed every year or
+  two. This depends mainly on the number of relatives living and the
+  esteem in which they hold the deceased.
+
+  The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it away
+  particle by particle to the spirit of the deceased in the spirit
+  land, and also as these articles decay they are also carried away in
+  a similar manner. I have never known of the placing food near a
+  grave. Figures 27 and 28 will give you some idea of this class of
+  graves. Figure 27 has a paling fence 12 feet square around it.
+  Figure 28 is simply a frame over a grave where there is no
+  enclosure.
+
+  (_e_) _Civilized mode._--A few persons, of late, have fallen almost
+  entirely into the American custom of burying, building a simple
+  paling fence around it, but placing no articles around it; this is
+  more especially true of the Clallams.
+
+FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
+
+  In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances of
+  sections (_a_) and (_b_) of the preceding subject I know nothing. In
+  regard to (_c_) and (_d_), they begin to mourn, more especially the
+  women, as soon as a person dies. Their mourning song consists
+  principally of the sounds represented by the three English notes mi
+  mi, do do, la la; those who attend the funeral are expected to bring
+  some articles to place in the coffin or about the grave as a token
+  of respect for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this
+  purpose have been cloth of some kind; a small piece of cloth is
+  returned by the mourners to the attendants as a token of
+  remembrance. They bury much sooner after death than white persons
+  do, generally as soon as they can obtain a coffin. I know of no
+  other native funeral ceremonies. Occasionally before being taken to
+  the grave, I have held Christian funeral ceremonies over them, and
+  these services increase from year to year. One reason which has
+  rendered them somewhat backward about having these funeral services
+  is, that they are quite superstitions about going near the dead,
+  fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased will enter
+  the living and kill them also. Especially are they afraid of having
+  children go near, being much more fearful of the effect of the evil
+  spirit on them than on older persons.
+
+MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+  They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning, but
+  often continue it after the burial, though I do not know that they
+  often visit the grave. If they feel the loss very much, sometimes
+  they will mourn nearly every day for several weeks; especially is
+  this true when they meet an old friend who has not been seen since
+  the funeral, or when they see an article owned by the deceased which
+  they have not seen for a long time. The only other thing of which I
+  think, which bears on this subject, is an idea they have, that
+  before a person dies--it may be but a short time or it may be
+  several months--a spirit from the spirit land comes and carries off
+  the spirit of the individual to that place. There are those who
+  profess to discover when this is done, and if by any of their
+  incantations they can compel that spirit to return, the person will
+  not die, but if they are not able, then the person will become dead
+  at heart and in time die, though it may not be for six months or
+  even twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a
+  pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has recently
+  been published by the Department of the Interior, under Prof. F. V.
+  Hayden, United States Geologist.
+
+George Gibbs[81] gives a most interesting account of the burial
+ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, which is
+here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples of other
+modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative
+would destroy the thread of the story:
+
+  The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes
+  was in canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some
+  prominent point a short distance from the village, and sometimes
+  placed between the forks of trees or raised from the ground on
+  posts. Upon the Columbia River the Tsinuk had in particular two very
+  noted cemeteries, a high isolated bluff about three miles below the
+  mouth of the Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance
+  above, called Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been
+  very ancient. Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver's lieutenants, who
+  explored the river, makes mention only of _several_ canoes at this
+  place; and Lewis and Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of
+  them at all, but at the time of Captain Wilkes's expedition it is
+  conjectured that there were at least 3,000. A fire caused by the
+  carelessness of one of his party destroyed the whole, to the great
+  indignation of the Indians.
+
+  Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river
+  in 1839, remarks: "In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great
+  ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague.
+  Consequently Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent
+  shores, were studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our
+  visit the skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all
+  directions." This method generally prevailed on the neighboring
+  coasts, as at Shoal Water Bay, &c. Farther up the Columbia, as at
+  the Cascades, a different form was adopted, which is thus described
+  by Captain Clarke:
+
+  "About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the
+  woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight
+  vaults, made of pine cedar boards, closely connected, about 8 feet
+  square and 6 in height, the top securely covered with wide boards,
+  sloping a little, so as to convey off the rain. The direction of all
+  these is east and west, the door being on the eastern side, and
+  partially stopped with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of
+  men and other animals. On entering we found in some of them four
+  dead bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of grass
+  and bark, lying on a mat in a direction east and west; the other
+  vaults contained only bones, which in some of them were piled to a
+  height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults and on poles attached to
+  them hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in their bottoms,
+  baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of
+  trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection,
+  which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity of war
+  or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of
+  the walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures
+  cut and painted on them, and besides these were several wooden
+  images of men, some of them so old and decayed as to have almost
+  lost their shape, which were all placed against the sides of the
+  vault. These images, as well as those in the houses we have lately
+  seen, do not appear to be at all the objects of adoration in this
+  place; they were most probably intended as resemblances of those
+  whose decease they indicate, and when we observe them in houses they
+  occupy the most conspicuous part, but are treated more like
+  ornaments than objects of worship. Near the vaults which are still
+  standing are the remains of others on the ground, completely rotted
+  and covered with moss; and as they are formed of the most durable
+  pine and cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a very
+  long series of years this retired spot has been the depository for
+  the Indians near this place."
+
+  Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few
+  miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The _Watlala_, a
+  tribe of the Upper Tsinuk, whose burial place is here described, are
+  now nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in
+  different states of preservation. The position of the body, as
+  noticed by Clarke, is, I believe, of universal observance, the head
+  being always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that
+  the road to the _me-mel-us-illa-hee_, the country of the dead, is
+  toward the west, and if they place them otherwise they would be
+  confused. East of the Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are
+  equestrian, and who use canoes only for ferriage or transportation
+  purposes, bury their dead, usually heaping over them piles of
+  stones, either to mark the spot or to prevent the bodies from being
+  exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many of their
+  graves placed in conspicuous points of the basaltic walls which line
+  the lower valleys, and designated by a clump of poles planted over
+  them, from which fluttered various articles of dress. Formerly these
+  prairie tribes killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling
+  into disuse in consequence of the teachings of the whites.
+
+  Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among
+  the Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of
+  box, rudely constructed of boards, and elsewhere on the Sound the
+  same method is adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are
+  placed on elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the
+  Indians upon the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a
+  distance from it buried them. Most of the graves are surrounded with
+  strips of cloth, blankets, and other articles of property. Mr.
+  Cameron, an English gentleman residing at Esquimalt Harbor,
+  Vancouver Island, informed me that on his place there were graves
+  having at each corner a large stone, the interior space filled with
+  rubbish. The origin of these was unknown to the present Indians.
+
+  The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked;
+  persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little
+  care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly
+  attracted to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that
+  at Port Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing
+  the skeletons of young children, and, what is not easily explained,
+  small square boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think
+  that any of these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor
+  have I been able to learn from living Indians that they formerly
+  followed that practice. What he took for such I do not understand.
+  He also mentions seeing in the same place a cleared space recently
+  burned over, in which the skulls and bones of a number lay among the
+  ashes. The practice of burning the dead exists in parts of
+  California and among the Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also
+  pursued by the "Carriers" of New California, but no intermediate
+  tribes, to my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the Sound do
+  not at present.
+
+  It is clear from Vancouver's narrative that some great epidemic had
+  recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity
+  of human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit,
+  and very probably the Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in
+  which the inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is
+  frequently done. They almost invariably remove from any place where
+  sickness has prevailed, generally destroying the house also.
+
+  At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver's officers, noticed
+  several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them
+  were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied
+  up in baskets. The smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed,
+  but not one of the limb bones was found, which gave rise to an
+  opinion that these, by the living inhabitants of the neighborhood,
+  were appropriated to useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows,
+  spears, or other weapons.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Canoe Burial.]
+
+  It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether
+  foreign to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably
+  been removed and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are
+  variously disposed of; sometimes by suspending them, at others by
+  placing in the hollows of trees. A cemetery devoted to infants is,
+  however, an unusual occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note
+  much pomp was used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes
+  were of great size and value--the war or state canoes of the
+  deceased. Frequently one was inverted over that holding the body,
+  and in one instance, near Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited
+  in a small canoe, which again was placed in a larger one and covered
+  with a third. Among the _Tsinuk_ and _Tsihalis_ the _tamahno-us_
+  board of the owner was placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do
+  not make these _tamahno-us_ boards, but they sometimes constructed
+  effigies of their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as
+  possible, dressed in his usual costume, and wearing the articles of
+  which he was fond. One of these, representing the Skagit chief
+  Sneestum, stood very conspicuously upon a high bank on the eastern
+  side of Whidbey Island. The figures observed by Captain Clarke at
+  the Cascades were either of this description or else the carved
+  posts which had ornamented the interior of the houses of the
+  deceased, and were connected with the superstition of the
+  _tamahno-us_. The most valuable articles of property were put into
+  or hung up around the grave, being first carefully rendered
+  unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped to do
+  honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have been practiced in
+  parting with articles so precious, but those interested frequently
+  had the least to say on the subject. The graves of women were
+  distinguished by a cap, a Kamas stick, or other implement of their
+  occupation, and by articles of dress.
+
+  Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
+  deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied
+  to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this
+  practice has been almost entirely given up, but till within a very
+  few years it was not uncommon. A case which occurred in 1850 has
+  been already mentioned. Still later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsinuk chief
+  living at Shoalwater Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging
+  to his daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be
+  done. The woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the woods
+  half starved. Her master attempted to reclaim her, but was soundly
+  thrashed and warned against another attempt.
+
+  It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a
+  considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of the
+  burial-place. With the common class of persons family pride or
+  domestic affection was satisfied with the gathering together of the
+  bones after the flesh had decayed and wrapping them in a new mat.
+  The violation of the grave was always regarded as an offense of the
+  first magnitude and provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher
+  remarks: "Great secrecy is observed in all their burial ceremonies,
+  partly from fear of Europeans, and as among themselves they will
+  instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb or wage war if
+  perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate and tenaceously
+  bent on revenge should they discover that any act of the kind has
+  been perpetrated by a white man. It is on record that part of the
+  crew of a vessel on her return to this port (the Columbia) suffered
+  because a person who belonged to her (but not then in her) was known
+  to have taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had
+  become an object of curiosity." He adds, however, that at the period
+  of his visit to the river "the skulls and skeletons were scattered
+  about in all directions; and as I was on most of their positions
+  unnoticed by the natives, I suspect the feeling does not extend much
+  beyond their relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body,
+  goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as their
+  canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care taken by placing
+  them in sequestered spots."
+
+  The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of
+  death will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas.
+  Wailing for the dead is continued for a long time, and it seems to
+  be rather a ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief.
+  The duty, of course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is
+  usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a
+  little distant from the lodge or camp and in a loud, sobbing voice
+  repeat a sort of stereotyped formula; as, for instance, a mother, on
+  the loss of her child, "_A seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud!
+  ad-de-dah_," "Ah chief!" "My child dead, alas!" When in dreams they
+  see any of their deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.
+
+With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned by
+Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing to
+die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom
+has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the
+individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states
+that--
+
+  In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died,
+  those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved
+  ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed
+  themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that
+  they might wait upon him in the land of spirits.
+
+It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this
+revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATIC BURIAL.
+
+
+As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead has
+never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes.
+Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are
+informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy,
+living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed
+their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred
+to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans,
+with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or
+about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder "the
+beautiful," it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which
+was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The
+Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to
+Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of
+room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of
+thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee "seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the
+river."
+
+The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of
+sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their
+bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J. G. Wood[82] states that the
+Obongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the
+course of which has been previously diverted. A deep grave is dug in the
+bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over carefully.
+Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so that all
+traces of the grave are soon lost.
+
+The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply
+sinking the body in some stream.
+
+Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to that
+employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosenca, a town of Calabria, the
+Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and having made a
+grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most rapid, they
+interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and riches. They
+then caused the river to resume its regular course, and destroyed all
+persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic grave.
+
+A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De
+Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well
+weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the
+Mississippi.
+
+After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have
+been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes,
+and is by Capt. J. H. Simpson:[83]
+
+  Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and
+  which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this
+  route last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls
+  which have been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom
+  of the Goshute Indians burying their dead in springs, which they
+  sank with stones or keep down with sticks. He says he has actually
+  seen the Indians bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo,
+  where he resides.
+
+As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in another
+part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they were
+obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the bottom
+before using the water.
+
+This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned,
+especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is
+quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or
+springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a
+reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to
+attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to
+poison the springs for white persons.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Mourning Cradle.]
+
+The second example is by George Catlin,[84] and relates to the Chinook:
+
+  * * * This little cradle has a strap which passes over the woman's
+  forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if the child dies
+  during its subjection to this rigid mode, its cradle becomes its
+  coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it lies floating on the
+  water in some sacred pool, where they are often in the habit of
+  fastening their canoes containing the dead bodies of the old and
+  young, or, which in often the case, elevated into the branches of
+  trees, where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry
+  whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed in their
+  canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale them out, and
+  provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they are performing their
+  "long journey after death to their contemplated hunting grounds,"
+  which these people think is to be performed in their canoes.
+
+Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle.
+Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her
+dead child to the mercy of the elements.
+
+
+
+
+LIVING SEPULCHERS.
+
+
+This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to express
+the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving friends
+and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has already
+been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is not
+believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, although
+cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true that a
+few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered apochryphal
+in character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how
+credulous were the early writers on American natives.
+
+That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is
+somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies
+been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the
+statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a
+number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.
+
+For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the Massagetics,
+Padaeans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously
+strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and
+Tertullian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the
+dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did the
+same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to be
+preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms.
+
+J. G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of Africa
+devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the common
+people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.
+
+The following extract is from Lafitau:[85]
+
+  Dans l'Amerique Meridionale quelque Peuples decharnent les corps de
+  leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi que je viens de
+  le dire, et apres les avoir consumees, ils conservent pendant
+  quelque temps leurs cadavres avec respect dans leurs Cabanes, et il
+  portent ces squeletes dans les combats en guise d'Etendard, pour
+  ranimer leur courage par cette vue et inspirer de la terreur a leurs
+  ennemis. * * *
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Launching the Burial Cradle.]
+
+  Il est vrai qu'il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de leurs
+  parens; mais il est faux qu'elles les mettent a mort dans leur
+  vieillesse, pour avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de leur chair, et
+  d'en faire un repas. Quelques Nations de l'Amerique Meridionale, qui
+  ont encore cette coutume de manger les corps morts de leurs parens,
+  n'en usent ainsi que par piete, piete mal entendue a la verite, mais
+  piete coloree neanmoins par quelque ombre de raison; car ils croyent
+  leur donner une sepulture bien plus honorable.
+
+To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is
+not believed to have been practiced by them.
+
+
+
+
+MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,
+AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.
+
+
+The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper,
+yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples,
+under separate heads.
+
+
+_MOURNING._
+
+One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of a
+chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,[86] who for
+many years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction
+as a warrior.
+
+  I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head
+  chief's death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we
+  slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the
+  contemplation of the scenes that would be enacted at my arrival.
+  When we drew in sight of the village, we found every lodge laid
+  prostrate. We entered amid shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was
+  streaming from every conceivable part of the bodies of all who were
+  old enough to comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were
+  dismembered; hair torn from the head lay in profusion about the
+  paths; wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where
+  unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This fearful
+  mourning lasted until evening of the next day. * * *
+
+  A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint
+  them with the death of our head chief, and request them to assemble
+  at the Rose Bud, in order to meet our village and devote themselves
+  to a general time of mourning, there met, in conformity to the
+  summons, over ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a
+  scene of disorderly, vociferous mourning, no imagination can
+  conceive nor any pen portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his
+  hair; a thing he was never known to do before. The cutting and
+  hacking of human flesh exceeded all my previous experience; fingers
+  were dismembered as readily as twigs, and blood was poured out like
+  water. Many of the warriors would cut two gashes nearly the entire
+  length of their arm; then, separating the skin from the flesh at one
+  end, would grasp it in their other hand, and rip it asunder to the
+  shoulder. Others would carve various devices upon their breasts and
+  shoulders, and raise the skin in the same manner to make the scars
+  show to advantage after the wound was healed. Some of their
+  mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at them, but
+  they would not appear to receive any pain from them.
+
+It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth's statements are to be
+taken _cum grana salis_.
+
+From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of Lake
+Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received:
+
+  There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for
+  their dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her
+  husband; by day as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a
+  constant visitor to the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance
+  will she follow the raised camp. The friends and relatives of the
+  young mourner will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind
+  from the thought of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment, but
+  as nature is exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake of food; the
+  supply is scant, but on every occasion the best and largest
+  proportion is deposited upon the grave of her husband. In the mean
+  time the female relatives of the deceased have, according to custom,
+  submitted to her charge a parcel made up of different cloths
+  ornamented with bead-work and eagle's feathers, which she is charged
+  to keep by her side--the place made vacant by the demise of her
+  husband--a reminder of her widowhood. She is therefore for a term of
+  twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery, neither is she
+  permitted to slicken up and comb her head; this to avoid attracting
+  attention. Once in a while a female relative of deceased,
+  commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will visit her and
+  voluntarily proceed to comb out the long-neglected and matted hair.
+  With a jealous eye a vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during
+  the term of her widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to
+  marry, any time during her widowhood, an unmarried brother or
+  cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her
+  husband.
+
+  At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully
+  performed and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and,
+  with greetings commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her
+  face, comb her hair, and attire her person with new apparel, and
+  otherwise demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint.
+  Still she has not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to
+  marry a relative of the deceased and will marry another, she then
+  has to purchase her freedom by giving a certain amount of goods and
+  whatever else she might have manufactured during her widowhood in
+  anticipation of the future now at hand. Frequently, though, during
+  widowhood the vows are disregarded and an inclination to flirt and
+  play courtship or form an alliance of marriage outside of the
+  relatives of the deceased is being indulged, and when discovered the
+  widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick braided hair is
+  shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her apparel and trinkets
+  are torn from her person, and a quarrel frequently results fatally
+  to some member of one or the other side.
+
+Thomas L. McKenney[87] gives a description of the Chippewa widow which
+differs slightly from the one above:
+
+  I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls of
+  clothing. On inquiring what these imported, I learn that they _are
+  widows_ who carry them, and that these are badges of mourning. It is
+  indispensable, when a woman of the Chippeway Nation loses her
+  husband, for her to take of her best apparel--and the whole of it is
+  not worth a dollar--and roll it up, and confine it by means of her
+  husband's sashes; and if he had ornaments, these are generally put
+  on the top of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth.
+  This bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is
+  never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it with her;
+  if she sits down in her lodge, she places it by her side. This badge
+  of widowhood and of mourning the widow is compelled to carry with
+  her until some of her late husband's family shall call and take it
+  away, which is done when they think she has mourned long enough, and
+  which is generally at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not
+  before, released from her mourning, and at liberty to marry again.
+  She has the privilege to take this husband to the family of the
+  deceased and leave it, but this is considered indecorous, and is
+  seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the deceased takes the widow for
+  his wife at the grave of her husband, which is done by a ceremony of
+  walking her over it. And this he has a right to do; and when this is
+  done she is not required to go into mourning; or, if she chooses,
+  she has the right _to go to him_, and he is _bound_ to support her.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Chippewa Widow.]
+
+  I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges. The size
+  varies according to the quantity of clothing which the widow may
+  happen to have. It is expected of her to put up her _best_ and wear
+  her _worst_. The "_husband_" I saw just now was 30 inches high and
+  18 inches in circumference.
+
+  I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had been left
+  to mourn after this fashion for years, none of her husband's family
+  calling for the badge or token of her grief. At a certain time it
+  was told her that some of her husband's family were passing, and she
+  was advised to speak to them on the subject. She did so, and told
+  them she had mourned long and was poor; that she had no means to buy
+  clothes, and her's being all in the mourning badge, and sacred,
+  could not be touched. She expressed a hope that her request might
+  not be interpreted into a wish to marry; it was only made that she
+  might be placed in a situation to get some clothes. She got for
+  answer, that "they were going to Mackinac, and would think of it."
+  They left her in this state of uncertainty, but on returning, and
+  finding her faithful still, they took her "husband" and presented
+  her with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded for her
+  constancy and made comfortable.
+
+  The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the term of
+  their grief, which is generally about a year. The Chippeway men
+  mourn by painting their faces black.
+
+  I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the badge
+  of mourning, this "_husband_" comes in for an equal share, as if it
+  were the living husband.
+
+  A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image of it in
+  the best manner she is able, and dresses it as she did her living
+  child, and fixes it in the kind of cradle I have referred to, and
+  goes through the ceremonies of nursing it as if it were alive, by
+  dropping little particles of food in the direction of its mouth, and
+  giving it of whatever the living child partook. This ceremony also
+  is generally observed for a year.
+
+Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the
+substitute for the dead husband.
+
+The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other
+tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged
+to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle containing
+the bones of the deceased consort.
+
+Similar observances, according to Bancroft,[88] were followed by some of
+the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and
+Mosquitos being as follows:
+
+  The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a year,
+  after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for
+  another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and
+  then only was she allowed to marry again.
+
+  On returning from the grave the property of the deceased is
+  destroyed, the cocoa palms being cut down, and all who have taken
+  part in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. Relatives cut
+  off the hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape
+  of the neck to the forehead. Widows, according to some old writers,
+  after supplying the grave with food for a year take up the bones and
+  carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night
+  for another year, after which they are placed at the door or upon
+  the house-top. On the anniversary of deaths, friends of the deceased
+  hold a feast, called _seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor
+  are drained to his memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on
+  an occasion of this kind, says that males and females were dressed
+  in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and white, while their
+  faces were correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they
+  performed a slow walk around, prostrating themselves at intervals
+  and calling loudly upon the dead and tearing the ground with their
+  hands. At no other time is the departed referred to, the very
+  mention of his name being superstitiously avoided. Some tribes
+  extend a thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in
+  a straight line over every obstacle. Froeebel states that among the
+  Woolwas all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that
+  both husband and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of
+  either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.
+
+Benson[89] gives the following account of the Choctaws' funeral
+ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and
+dance:
+
+  Their funeral is styled by them "the last cry."
+
+  When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and
+  place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and
+  arrows, hatchet, and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are
+  planted at the head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the
+  grave is then inclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral
+  ceremonies now begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night
+  and morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous
+  cries and wailings. It is not important that any other member of the
+  family should take any very active part in the "cry," though they do
+  participate to some extent.
+
+  The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the
+  grave during one entire moon from the date when the death occurred.
+  On the evening of the last day of the moon the friends all assemble
+  at the cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions for a
+  sumptuous feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled
+  together in a kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved
+  wife goes to the grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her
+  bitter wailings and lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked
+  the kettle is taken from the fire and placed in the center of the
+  cabin, and the friends gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn
+  spoon from hand to hand and from mouth to mouth till all have been
+  bountifully supplied. While supper is being served, two of the
+  oldest men of the company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and
+  fill it up, taking down the flags. All then join in a dance, which
+  not unfrequently is continued till morning; the widow does not fail
+  to unite in the dance, and to contribute her part to the festivities
+  of the occasion. This is the "_last cry_," the days of mourning are
+  ended, and the widow is now ready to form another matrimonial
+  alliance. The ceremonies are precisely the same when a man has lost
+  his wife, and they are only slightly varied when any other member of
+  the family has died. (Slaves were buried without ceremonies.)
+
+
+_SACRIFICE._
+
+Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in connection
+with another subject, but it is thought others might prove interesting.
+The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.[90]
+
+  When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by his
+  wives and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns took care to
+  follow the same custom. The law likewise condemned every Natchez to
+  death who had married a girl of the blood of the Suns as soon as she
+  was expired. On this occasion I must tell you the history of an
+  Indian who was noways willing to submit to this law. His name was
+  _Elteacteal_; he contracted an alliance with the Suns, but the
+  consequences which this honor brought along with it had like to have
+  proved very unfortunate to him. His wife fell sick; as soon as he
+  saw her at the point of death he fled, embarked in a piragua on the
+  _Mississippi_, and came to New Orleans. He put himself under the
+  protection of M. de Bienville, the then governor, and offered to be
+  his huntsman. The governor accepted his services, and interested
+  himself for him with the Natchez, who declared that he had nothing
+  more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he was accordingly
+  no longer a lawful prize.
+
+  _Elteacteal_, being thus assured, ventured to return to his nation,
+  and, without settling among them, he made several voyages thither.
+  He happened to be there when the Sun called the _Stung Serpent_,
+  brother to the Great Sun, died. He was a relative of the late wife
+  of _Elteacteal_, and they resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de
+  Bienville had been recalled to France, and the sovereign of the
+  Natchez thought that the protector's absence had annulled the
+  reprieve granted to the protected person, and accordingly he caused
+  him to be arrested. As soon as the poor fellow found himself in the
+  hut of the grand chief of war, together with the other victims
+  destined to be sacrificed to the _Stung Serpent_, he gave vent to
+  the excess of his grief. The favorite wife of the late Son, who was
+  likewise to be sacrificed, and who saw the preparations for her
+  death with firmness, and seemed impatient to rejoin her husband,
+  hearing _Elteacteal's_ complaints and groans, said to him: "Art thou
+  no warrior?" He answered, "Yes: I am one." "However," said she,
+  "thou cryest; life is dear to thee, and as that is the case, it is
+  not good that thou shouldst go along with us; go with the women."
+  _Elteacteal_ replied: "True; life is dear to me. It would be well if
+  I walked yet on earth till to the death of the Great Sun, and I
+  would die with him." "Go thy way," said the favorite, "it is not fit
+  thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart should remain behind on
+  earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee no more."
+
+  _Elteacteal_ did not stay to hear this order repeated to him; he
+  disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of which were his
+  relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age and their infirmities
+  had disgusted them of life; none of them had been able to use their
+  legs for a great while. The hair of the two that were related to
+  _Elteacteal_ was no more gray than those of women of fifty-five
+  years in France. The other old woman was a hundred and twenty years
+  old, and had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among
+  the Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin. They were
+  dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the _Stung Serpent_,
+  and the other two upon the place before the temple. * * * A cord is
+  fastened round their necks with a slip-knot, and eight men of their
+  relations strangle them by drawing, four one way and four the other.
+  So many are not necessary, but as they acquire nobility by such
+  executions, there are always more than are wanting, and the
+  operation is performed in an instant. The generosity of these women
+  gave _Elteacteal_ life again, acquired him the degree of
+  _considered_, and cleared his honor, which he had sullied by fearing
+  death. He remained quiet after that time, and taking advantage of
+  what he had learned during his stay among the French, he became a
+  juggler and made use of his knowledge to impose upon his countrymen.
+
+  The morning after this execution they made everything ready for the
+  convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of the ceremonies
+  appeared at the door of the hut, adorned suitably to his quality.
+  The victims who were to accompany the deceased prince into the
+  mansion of the spirits came forth; they consisted of the favorite
+  wife of the deceased, of his second wife, his chancellor, his
+  physician, his hired man, that is, his first servant, and of some
+  old women.
+
+  The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were several
+  Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for the Suns of
+  both sexes that were her children to appear, and spoke to the
+  following effect:
+
+  "Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from you
+  (_sic_) arms and to follow your father's steps, who waits for me in
+  the country of the spirits; if I were to yield to your tears I would
+  injure my love and fail in my duty. I have done enough for you by
+  bearing you next to my heart, and by suckling you with my breasts.
+  You that are descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought you to
+  shed tears? Rejoice rather that you are _Suns_ and warriors; you are
+  bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the whole nation:
+  go, my children, I have provided for all your wants, by procuring
+  you friends; my friends and those of your father are yours too;
+  I leave you amidst them; they are the French; they are
+  tender-hearted and generous; make yourselves worthy of their esteem
+  by not degenerating from your race; always act openly with them and
+  never implore them with meanness.
+
+  "And you, Frenchmen," added she, turning herself towards our
+  officers, "I recommend my orphan children to you; they will know no
+  other fathers than you; you ought to protect them."
+
+  After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned to her
+  husband's hut with a surprising firmness.
+
+  A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims of her
+  own accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore the _Stung
+  Serpent_ to follow him into the other world. The Europeans called
+  her the _haughty_ lady, on account of her majestic deportment and
+  her proud air, and because she only frequented the company of the
+  most distinguished Frenchmen. They regretted her much, because she
+  had the knowledge of several simples with which she had saved the
+  lives of many of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with
+  grief and horror. The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and
+  spoke to them with a smiling countenance: "I die without fear;" said
+  she, "grief does not embitter my last hours. I recommend my children
+  to you; whenever you see them, noble Frenchmen, remember that you
+  have loved their father, and that he was till death a true and
+  sincere friend of your nation, whom he loved more than himself. The
+  disposer of life has been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go
+  and join him; I shall tell him that I have seen your hearts moved at
+  the sight of his corps; do not be grieved; we shall be longer
+  friends in the _country of the spirits_ than here, because we do not
+  die there again."[91*]
+
+  These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French; they were
+  obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great Sun from killing
+  himself, for he was inconsolable at the death of his brother, upon
+  whom he was used to lay the weight of government, he being great
+  chief of war of the Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies;
+  that prince grew furious by the resistance he met with; he held his
+  gun by the barrel, and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by the
+  lock, and caused the powder to fall out of the pan; the hut was full
+  of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables[92*] but the French raised their
+  spirits again, by hiding all the arms belonging to the sovereign,
+  and filling the barrel of his gun with water, that it might be unfit
+  for use for some time.
+
+  As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign's life in safety, they
+  thanked the French, by squeezing their hands, but without speaking;
+  a most profound silence reigned throughout, for grief and awe kept
+  in bounds the multitude that were present.
+
+  The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this
+  transaction. She was asked whether she was ill, and she answered
+  aloud, "Yes, I am"; and added with a lower voice, "If the Frenchmen
+  go out of this hut, my husband dies and all the Natches will die
+  with him; stay, then, brave Frenchmen, because your words are as
+  powerful as arrows; besides, who could have ventured to do what you
+  have done? But you are his true friends and those of his brother."
+  Their laws obliged the Great Sun's wife to follow her husband in the
+  grave; this was doubtless the cause of her fears; and likewise the
+  gratitude towards the French, who interested themselves in behalf of
+  his life, prompted her to speak in the above-mentioned manner.
+
+  The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to them: "My
+  friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief that, though my eyes
+  were open, I have not taken notice that you have been standing all
+  this while, nor have I asked you to sit down; but pardon the excess
+  of my affliction."
+
+  The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that they
+  were going to leave him alone, but that they would cease to be his
+  friends unless he gave orders to light the fires again,[93*]
+  lighting his own before them; and that they should not leave him
+  till his brother was buried.
+
+  He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: "Since all the
+  chiefs and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I will do it;
+  I will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted again immediately,
+  and I'll wait till death joins me to my brother; I am already old,
+  and till I die I shall walk with the French; had it not been for
+  them I should have gone with my brother, and all the roads would
+  have been covered with dead bodies."
+
+Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been credited
+by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, and its
+seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of similar
+ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.
+
+An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice is
+described by Miss A. J. Allen,[94] and refers to the Wascopums, of
+Oregon.
+
+  At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words, it was
+  found that the chief had determined that the deceased boy's friend,
+  who had been his companion in hunting the rabbit, snaring the
+  pheasant, and fishing in the streams, was to be his companion to the
+  spirit land; his son should not be deprived of his associate in the
+  strange world to which he had gone; that associate should perish by
+  the hand of his father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house.
+  This receptacle was built on a long, black rock in the center of the
+  Columbia River, around which, being so near the falls, the current
+  was amazingly rapid. It was thirty feet in length, and perhaps half
+  that in breadth, completely enclosed and sodded except at one end,
+  where was a narrow aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse
+  through. The council overruled, and little George, instead of being
+  slain, was conveyed living to the dead-house about sunset. The dead
+  were piled on each side, leaving a narrow aisle between, and on one
+  of these was placed the deceased boy; and, bound tightly till the
+  purple, quivering flesh puffed above the strong bark cords, that he
+  might die very soon, the living was placed by his side, his face to
+  his till the very lips met, and extending along limb to limb and
+  foot to foot, and nestled down into his couch of rottenness, to
+  impede his breathing as far as possible and smother his cries.
+
+Bancroft[95] states that--
+
+  The slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and Tarascos were
+  selected from various trades and professions, and took with them the
+  most cherished articles of the master and the implements of their
+  trade wherewith to supply his wants--
+
+while among certain of the Central American tribe death was voluntary,
+wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing themselves
+by means of a vegetable poison.
+
+To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that self-murder
+is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, if he so
+wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or friend to the
+"happy other world;" and when this is remembered we need not feel
+astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self immolations
+are related. It is quite likely that among our own people similar
+customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down such
+proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us,
+notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place
+on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.
+
+
+_FEASTS._
+
+In Beltrami[96] an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of
+the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took
+place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:
+
+  I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the
+  manes of _Cloudy Weather's_ son-in-law, whose body had remained with
+  the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their repasts.
+  What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in this
+  funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific
+  lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others
+  were singing and dancing with all their might.
+
+  At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand Medicine_,
+  and at which as _a man of another world_ I was permitted to attend,
+  the same practice occurred. But at the feast which took place on
+  that occasion an allowance was served up for the deceased out of
+  every article of which it consisted, while others were beating,
+  wounding, and torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow
+  both over the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that
+  this was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they
+  could possibly supply. His wife furnished out an entertainment
+  present for him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with
+  his arms, his provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine
+  bag, he was wrapped up in the skin which had been his last covering
+  when alive. He was then tied round with the bark of some particular
+  trees which they use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm
+  texture and hold (the only ones indeed which they have), and instead
+  of being buried in the earth was hung up to a large oak. The reason
+  of this was that, as his favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit
+  would be enabled more easily from such a situation to fly with him
+  to Paradise.
+
+Hind[97] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which
+occurred among the Hurons of New York:
+
+  The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the
+  "feasts of the dead" at the village of Ossosane, before the
+  dispersion of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in
+  the presence of 2,000 Indians, who offered 1,300 presents at the
+  common tomb, in testimony of their grief. The people belonging to
+  five large villages deposited the bones of their dead in a gigantic
+  shroud, composed of forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten
+  beaver skins. After being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they
+  were placed between moss and bark. A wall of stones was built around
+  this vast ossuary to preserve it from profanation. Before covering
+  the bones with earth a few grains of Indian corn were thrown by the
+  women upon the sacred relics. According to the superstitious belief
+  of the Hurons the souls of the dead remain near the bodies until the
+  "feast of the dead"; after which ceremony they become free, and can
+  at once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe to be
+  situated in the regions of the setting sun.
+
+Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom of
+exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting
+them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in
+Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of
+Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a slatted pen containing the remains of
+hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and
+preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris
+afford examples of burial ossuaries.
+
+
+_SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS._
+
+The following account is by Dr. S. G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:--
+
+  Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still adhere
+  to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed
+  friends; the object is to feast with the departed; that is, they
+  believe that while they partake of the visible material the departed
+  spirit partakes at the same time of the spirit that dwells in the
+  food. From ancient time it was customary to bury with the dead
+  various articles, such especially as were most valued in lifetime.
+  The idea was that there was a spirit dwelling in the article
+  represented by the material article; thus the war-club contained a
+  spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, which could be used
+  by the departed in another world. These several spiritual implements
+  were supposed, of course, to accompany the soul, to be used also on
+  the way to its final abode. This habit has now ceased.
+
+
+_FOOD._
+
+This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an
+almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to
+place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.
+
+
+_DANCES._
+
+Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan:[98]
+
+  An occasional and very singular figure was called the "dance for the
+  dead." It was known as the _O-he-wae._ It was danced by the women
+  alone. The music was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being
+  stationed in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which
+  they sang the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and
+  mournful music. This dance was usually separate from all councils
+  and the only dance of the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon
+  after and continued until towards morning, when the shades of the
+  dead who were believed to be present and participate in the dance
+  were supposed to disappear. The dance was had whenever a family
+  which had lost a member called for it, which was usually a year
+  after the event. In the spring and fall it was often given for all
+  the dead indiscriminately, who were believed then to revisit the
+  earth and join in the dance.
+
+The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers[99] and
+relates to the Yo-kai-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial:
+
+  I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding
+  there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine
+  it, but was not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence
+  of the old sexton by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver
+  half dollar. The pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5
+  feet deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the interior
+  was damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was
+  provided with a tunnel-like entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet
+  high, and leading down to a level with the floor of the pit. The
+  mouth of the tunnel was closed with brush, and the venerable sexton
+  would not remove it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several
+  times to and fro before the entrance.
+
+  Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled
+  poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude
+  devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat,
+  which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the
+  tribe, lately deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the
+  Senel come up to condole with the Yo-kai-a on the loss of their
+  chief, and a dance or series of dances was held which lasted three
+  days. During this time of course the Senel were the guests of the
+  Yo-kai-a, and the latter were subjected to a considerable expense.
+  I was prevented by other engagements from being present, and shall
+  be obliged to depend on the description of an eye-witness, Mr. John
+  Tenney, whose account is here given with a few changes:
+
+  There are four officials connected with the building, who are
+  probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They
+  are the assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from
+  one of them, and admission was given by the same. These four wore
+  black vests trimmed with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief
+  made no special display on the occasion. In addition to these four,
+  who were officers of the assembly-chamber, there were an old man and
+  a young woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The young
+  woman was dressed differently from any other, the rest dressing in
+  plain calico dresses. Her dress was white covered with spots of red
+  flannel, cut in neat figure, ornamented with shells. It looked
+  gorgeous and denoted some office, the name of which I could not
+  ascertain. Before the visitors were ready to enter, the older men of
+  the tribe were reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As
+  the ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and young woman
+  were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the entrance, they
+  inaugurated the exercises by a brief service, which seemed to be a
+  dedication of the house to the exercises about to commence. Each of
+  them spoke a few words, joined in a brief chant, and the house was
+  thrown open for their visitors. They staid at their post until the
+  visitors entered and were seated on one side of the room. After the
+  visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all, though
+  there was plenty of room in the center for the dancing.
+
+  Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe made a
+  brief speech in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief
+  of the Yo-kai-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss.
+  As he spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out,
+  and with difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I presume that he
+  proposed a few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole
+  assemblage burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if
+  in agony. The whole thing created such a din that I was compelled to
+  stop my ears. The air was rent and pierced with their cries. This
+  wailing and shedding of tears lasted about three or five minutes,
+  though it seemed to last a half hour. At a given signal they ceased,
+  wiped their eyes, and quieted down.
+
+  Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was
+  set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors wens five men, who
+  were muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint
+  and feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies.
+  They were girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors,
+  sometimes with variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the
+  shoulder, reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the
+  neck, while their heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers.
+  They had whistles in their months as they danced, swaying their
+  heads, bending and whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be
+  exercised, and the feather ornaments quivered with light. They were
+  agile and graceful as they bounded about in the sinuous course of
+  the dance.
+
+  The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only
+  marked time by stepping up and down with short step. They always
+  took their places first and disappeared first, the men making their
+  exit gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable
+  for the occasion. They were white dresses, trimmed heavily with
+  black velvet. The stripes were about three inches wide, some plain
+  and others edged like saw teeth. This was an indication of their
+  mourning for the dead chief, in whose honor they had prepared that
+  style of dancing. Strings of haliotis and pachydesma shell beads
+  encircled their necks, and around their waists were belts heavily
+  loaded with the same material. Their head-dresses were more showy
+  than those of the men. The head was encircled with a bandeau of
+  otters' or beavers' fur, to which were attached short wires standing
+  out in all directions, with glass or shell beads strung on them, and
+  at the tips little feather flags and quail plumes. Surmounting all
+  was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray, and scarlet, the top
+  generally being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and tossing very
+  beautifully. All these combined gave their heads a very brilliant
+  and spangled appearance.
+
+  The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the
+  Yo-kai-a chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful
+  and simple, being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were
+  used, accompanied with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a
+  hollow slab. The second day the dance was more lively on the part of
+  the men, the music was better, employing airs which had a greater
+  range of tune, and the women generally joined in the chorus. The
+  dress of the women was not so beautiful, as they appeared in
+  ordinary calico. The third day, if observed in accordance with
+  Indian custom, the dancing was still more lively and the proceedings
+  more gay, just as the coming home from a Christian funeral is apt to
+  be much more jolly than the going out.
+
+  A Yo-kai-a widow's style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the
+  usual evidences of grief, she mingles the ashes of her dead husband
+  with pitch, making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a
+  band about two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is
+  previously cut off close to the head), so that at a little distance
+  she appears to be wearing a white chaplet.
+
+  It is their custom to "feed the spirits of the dead" for the space
+  of one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to
+  frequent while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground.
+  A Yo-kai-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to
+  some place where her little one played when alive, or to the spot
+  where the body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This
+  is accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling
+  upon her little one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and
+  melancholy chant, and dances with a wild static swaying of the body.
+
+
+_SONGS._
+
+It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals,
+but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these chants may no
+doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful ejaculation.
+A writer[100] mentions it as follows:
+
+  At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing,
+  with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same
+  melody at the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song
+  and at the same time, but each begins and finishes when he or she
+  may wish. Often for weeks, or even months, after the decease of a
+  dear friend, a living one, usually a woman, will sit by her house
+  and sing or cry by the hour, and they also sing for a short time
+  when they visit the grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have
+  not seen since the decease. At the funeral both men and women sing.
+  No. 11 I have heard more frequently some time after the funeral, and
+  No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by the Twanas. (For song see
+  p. 251 of the magazine quoted.) The words are simply an exclamation
+  of grief, as our word "alas," but they also have other words which
+  they use, and sometimes they use merely the syllable _la_. Often the
+  notes are sung in this order, and sometimes not, but in some order
+  the notes _do_ and _la_, and occasionally _mi_, are sung.
+
+Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a peculiar
+death dirge sung by the Senel of California, as related by Mr. Powers.
+It is as follows:
+
+  Hel-lel-li-ly,
+  Hel-lel-lo,
+  Hel-lel-lo.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Ghost Gamble.]
+
+Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the attention
+of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for instance,
+the Basques of Spain ululate thus:
+
+  Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,
+  Lelo il Lelo,
+  Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,
+  Il Lelon killed Lelo.
+
+This was called the "ululating Lelo." Mr. Campbell says:
+
+  This again connects with the Linus or Ailinus of the Greeks and
+  Egyptians * * * which Wilkinson connects with the Coptic "ya
+  lay-lee-ya lail." The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard the South
+  Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek verb
+  #ololuzo# and the Latin ululare, with an English howl and wail,
+  are probably derived from this ancient form of lamentation.
+
+In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks
+describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he
+inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost
+tribes of Israel.
+
+
+_GAMES._
+
+It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a
+practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct.
+Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed among
+the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and interesting
+account of what is called the "ghost gamble." This is played with marked
+wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to the Sioux.
+Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in which this
+game is played.
+
+  After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge
+  of the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the time of the
+  first feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair--they
+  are divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians
+  invited to play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is
+  selected to represent the ghost and he plays against all the others,
+  who are not required to stake anything on the result, but simply
+  invited to take part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the
+  lodge of the dead person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing
+  the lock of hair. In cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy
+  the stakes are furnished by his rich friends, should he have any.
+  The players are called in one at a time, and play singly against the
+  ghost's representative, the gambling being done in recent years by
+  means of cards. If the invited player succeeds in beating the ghost,
+  he takes one of the piles of goods and passes out, when another is
+  invited to play, &c., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases
+  of men only the men play, and in cases of women the women only take
+  part in the ceremony.
+
+  Before white men came among these Indians and taught them many of
+  his improved vices, this game was played by means of figured
+  plum-seeds, the men using eight and the women seven seeds, figured
+  as follows, and shown in Figure 34.
+
+  Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse containing
+  nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a small spot of the
+  color of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a
+  black spot in the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a
+  buffalo's head on one side and the reverse simply two crossed black
+  lines. There is but one seed of this kind in the set used by the
+  women. Two seeds have half of one side blackened and the rest left
+  plain, so as to represent a half moon; the reverse has a black
+  longitudinal line crossed at right angles by six small ones. There
+  are six throws whereby the player can win, and five that entitle him
+  to another throw. The winning throws are as follows, each winner
+  taking a pile of the ghost's goods:
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Auxiliary throw No 5.]
+
+  Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo's head up,
+  and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two
+  black with natural spots up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and
+  the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones
+  up, two black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the
+  transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two
+  black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo's
+  head up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two
+  longitudinally crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up
+  wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, buffalo's
+  head up, and two long crossed up wins a pile. The following
+  auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to win: two plain ones
+  up, two with black spots up, one half moon up, one longitudinally
+  crossed one up, and buffalo's head up gives another throw, and on
+  this throw, if the two plain ones up and two with black spots with
+  either of the half moons or buffalo's head up, the player takes a
+  pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons up,
+  and the transversely crossed one up entitles to another throw, when,
+  if all of the black sides come up, excepting one, the throw wins.
+  One of the plain ones up and all the rest with black sides up gives
+  another throw, and the same then turning up wins. One of the plain
+  black ones up with that side up of all the others having the least
+  black on gives another throw, when the same turning up again wins.
+  One half moon up, with that side up of all the others having the
+  least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is then
+  duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men, has its place
+  in their game whenever its facings are mentioned above. I transmit
+  with this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can be used to
+  illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a
+  hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Figured Plum Stones.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Winning Throw No. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Winning Throw No. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Winning Throw No. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Winning Throw No. 4.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Winning Throw No. 5.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Winning Throw No. 6.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Auxiliary Throw No. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Auxiliary Throw No. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Auxiliary Throw No. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Auxiliary Throw No. 4.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Grave Posts.]
+
+For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Dr. C. C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian
+Agency.
+
+Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the
+different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones
+sent by Dr. McChesney.
+
+
+_POSTS._
+
+These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, and
+have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family,
+certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the
+achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and danced
+at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently plant poles
+near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, horses' tails,
+&c. The custom among the present Indians does not exist to any extent.
+Beltrami[101] speaks of it as follows:
+
+  Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted
+  by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was
+  raised, covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies
+  slain by the tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary
+  Manitous.
+
+The following extract from Schoolcraft[102] relates to the burial posts
+used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 46 is after the picture given by
+this author in connection with the account quoted:
+
+  Among the Sioux and Western Chippewas, after the body had been
+  wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a
+  scaffold or in a tree until the flesh is entirely decayed, after
+  which the bones are buried and grave-posts fixed. At the head of the
+  grave a tubular piece of cedar or other wood, called the
+  _adjedatig_, is set. This grave-board contains the symbolic or
+  representative figure, which records, if it be a warrior, his totem,
+  that is to say the symbol of his family, or surname, and such
+  arithmetical or other devices as seem to denote how many times the
+  deceased has been in war parties, and how many scalps he has taken
+  from the enemy--two facts from which his reputation is essentially
+  to be derived. It is seldom that more is attempted in the way of
+  inscription. Often, however, distinguished chiefs have their war
+  flag, or, in modern days, a small ensign of American fabric,
+  displayed on a standard at the head of their graves, which is left
+  to fly over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps
+  of their enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the
+  swallow-tailed falcon, or some carnivorous bird, are also placed, in
+  such instances, on the _adjedatig_, or suspended, with offerings of
+  various kinds, on a separate staff. But the latter are
+  superadditions of a religious character, and belong to the class of
+  the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig (_ante_, No. 4). The building of a funeral
+  fire on recent graves is also a rite which belongs to the
+  consideration of their religious faith.
+
+
+_FIRES._
+
+It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building fires
+on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the soul
+thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that demons
+were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford light to
+the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer states
+that--
+
+  The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the grave
+  was to light the spirit on its journey. By a coincidence to be
+  explained by the universal sacredness of the number, both Algonkins
+  and Mexicans maintained it for four nights consecutively. The former
+  related the tradition that one of their ancestors returned from the
+  spirit land and informed their nation that the journey thither
+  consumed just four days, and that collecting fuel every night added
+  much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered, all of which
+  could be spared it.
+
+So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also
+intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.
+
+Stephen Powers[103] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires:
+
+  After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity
+  of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the "Big Indians" do,
+  that the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely
+  attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the
+  debatable land, and that they require the fire to light them on
+  their darksome journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker
+  than a wicked one, hence they regulate the number of nights for
+  burning a light according to the character for goodness or the
+  opposite which the deceased possessed in this world.
+
+Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that a
+somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.
+
+Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one of
+the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Grave Fire.]
+
+
+_SUPERSTITIONS._
+
+An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,[104]
+and relates to the Hidatsa:
+
+  When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around the camp
+  or village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his
+  departed kindred in the "village of the dead." When he has arrived
+  there he is rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on
+  earth by receiving the same regard in the one place as in the other,
+  for there as here the brave man is honored and the coward despised.
+  Some say that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a
+  separate part of the village, but that their condition differs in no
+  wise from that of the others. In the next world human shades hunt
+  and live in the shades of buffalo and other animals that have here
+  died. There, too there are four seasons, but they come in an inverse
+  order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four nights that the
+  ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who
+  disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from the
+  shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins which they leave at
+  the door of the lodge. The smell of the burning leather they claim
+  keeps the ghost out; but the true friends of the dead man take no
+  such precautions.
+
+From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the
+spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather
+should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to
+speculate on.
+
+The next account, by Keating,[105] relating to the Chippewas, shows a
+slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already alluded to:
+
+  The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely
+  distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag_, and appear to
+  supply to it the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe
+  that it quits the body it the time of death, and repairs to what
+  they term _Chekechekchekawe_; this region is supposed to be situated
+  to the south, and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to
+  arriving there they meet with a stream which they are obliged to
+  cross upon a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those
+  who die from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream; they are
+  thrown into it and remain there forever. Some souls come to the edge
+  of the stream, but are prevented from passing by the snake, which
+  threatens to devour them; these are the souls of the persons in a
+  lethargy or trance. Being refused a passage these souls return to
+  their bodies and reanimate them. They believe that animals have
+  souls, and even that inorganic substances, such as kettles, &c.,
+  have in them a similar essence.
+
+  In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits.
+  Those who have been good men are free from pain; they have no duties
+  to perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing, and they
+  feed upon mushrooms, which are very abundant. The souls of bad men
+  are haunted by the phantom of the persons or things that they have
+  injured; thus, if a man has destroyed much property the phantoms of
+  the wrecks of this property obstruct his passage wherever he goes;
+  if he has been cruel to his dogs or horses they also torment him
+  after death. The ghosts of those whom during his lifetime he wronged
+  are there permitted to avenge their injuries. They think that when a
+  soul has crossed the stream it cannot return to its body, yet they
+  believe in apparitions, and entertain the opinion that the spirits
+  of the departed will frequently revisit the abodes of their friends
+  in order to invite them to the other world, and to forewarn them of
+  their approaching dissolution.
+
+Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of
+examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California:
+
+  How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is
+  shown by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the
+  _pet-chi-e-ri_ the mere mention of the dead relative's name. It is a
+  deadly insult to the survivors, and can be atoned for only by the
+  same amount of blood-money paid for willful murder. In default of
+  that they will have the villain's blood. * * * At the mention of his
+  name the mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do
+  not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. * * * They
+  believe that the soul of a good Karok goes to the "happy western
+  land" beyond the great ocean. That they have a well-grounded
+  assurance of an immortality beyond the grave is proven, if not
+  otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical custom of whispering a
+  message in the ear of the dead. * * * Believe that dancing will
+  liberate some relative's soul from bonds of death, and restore him
+  to earth.
+
+According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies away
+with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk will
+catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he was
+good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that--
+
+  The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of
+  the dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes. When I
+  asked the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for "father"
+  and "mother" and certain others similar, he shook his head
+  mournfully and said, "All dead," "All dead," "No good." They are
+  forbidden to mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult
+  to the relatives, * * * and that the Mat-toal hold that the good
+  depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but
+  the soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which
+  they consider, of all animals, the cousin-german of sin.
+
+The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows
+regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:
+
+  * * * It has always been one of the most passionate desires among
+  the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the Shastika, to live, die,
+  and be buried where they were born. Some of their usages in regard
+  to the dead and their burial may be gathered from an incident that
+  occurred while the captives of 1873 were on their way from the Lava
+  Beds to Fort Klamath, as it was described by an eye-witness.
+  Curly-headed Jack, a prominent warrior, committed suicide with a
+  pistol. His mother and female friends gathered about him and set up
+  a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood and
+  endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life. The mother
+  took his head in her lap and scooped the blood from his ear, another
+  old woman placed her hand upon his heart, and a third blew in his
+  face. The sight of the group--these poor old women, whose grief was
+  unfeigned, and the dying man--was terrible in its sadness. Outside
+  the tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim, Steamboat
+  Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had been the dying man's
+  companions from childhood, all affected to tears. When he was
+  lowered into the grave, before the soldiers began to cover the body,
+  Huka Jim was seen running eagerly about the camp trying to exchange
+  a two-dollar bill of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior
+  that amount of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency
+  would be of any use to him in the other world--sad commentary on our
+  national currency!--and desired to have the coin instead. Procuring
+  it from one of the soldiers he cast it in and seemed greatly
+  relieved. All the dead man's other effects, consisting of clothing,
+  trinkets, and a half dollar, were interred with him, together with
+  some root-flour as victual for the journey to the spirit land.
+
+The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead
+may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.[106] It regards
+the natives of Washington Territory:
+
+  My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is this: It is
+  the universal custom with these Indians never to live in a lodge
+  where a person has died. If a person of importance dies, the lodge
+  is usually burned down, or taken down and removed to some other part
+  of the bay; and it can be readily seen that in the case of the Palux
+  Indians, who had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before
+  stated, their relatives chose at once to leave for some other place.
+  This objection to living in a lodge where a person has died is the
+  reason why their sick slaves are invariably carried out into the
+  woods, where they remain either to recover or die. There is,
+  however, no disputing the fact that an immense mortality has
+  occurred among these people, and they are now reduced to a mere
+  handful.
+
+  The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead person,
+  and their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes give rise to a
+  difficulty as to who shall perform the funeral ceremonies; for any
+  person who handles a dead body must not eat of salmon or sturgeon
+  for thirty days. Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I have known them
+  leave the corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in two
+  instances that came to my knowledge, the whites had to burn the
+  lodges, with the bodies in them, to prevent infection.
+
+  So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had buried
+  Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could be seen. All
+  kept in their lodges, singing and drumming to keep away the spirits
+  of the dead.
+
+According to Bancroft[107]--
+
+  The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after death
+  transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while the nobler
+  became stars and beautiful birds.
+
+The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously
+avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those
+of our own country.
+
+Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, to
+enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed
+final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and
+while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on
+hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire
+for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper,
+that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of
+the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to
+induce further investigation and contribution from careful and
+conscientious observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and
+correspondence given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in
+short, most of them may serve as copies for preparation of similar
+material.
+
+To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are also
+given.
+
+_1st._ NAME OF THE TRIBE; present appellation; former, if differing any;
+and that used by the Indians themselves.
+
+_2d._ LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range
+of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+_3d._ DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and
+characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse
+prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it
+spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the character
+of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food
+put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an
+ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried together; and is the
+clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever prevail?
+
+_4th._ MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF
+THE GRAVES; CREMATION.--Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are
+scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction
+of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in
+skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are
+suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the
+water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be
+given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial
+posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of
+position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation,
+or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of
+remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if
+any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been
+used, describe them.
+
+_5th._ MOURNING OBSERVANCES.--Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?
+
+_6th._ BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS.--Give in full all that can
+be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.
+
+In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.
+
+One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the "why" and "wherefore" for every rite and custom; for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it.
+
+Any material the result of careful observation will be most gratefully
+received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer must here
+confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have already
+contributed, a number so large that limited space precludes a mention of
+their individual names.
+
+Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested
+in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general.
+Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious
+forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.
+
+The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos.
+Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made by
+Mr. W. H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended their
+preparation.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+    [Footnote 1: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1853, pt. 3, p. 193.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.]
+
+    [Footnote 4: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p. 270.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Voy. dans l'Arizona, in Bull. Soc. de Geographie,
+    1877.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. 1, p. 555.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: L'incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1,
+    p. 439.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States,
+    1853, Pt. 3, p. 140.]
+
+    [Footnote 12: U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.]
+
+    [Footnote 13: Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841,
+    p. 252.]
+
+    [Footnote 14: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.]
+
+    [Footnote 15: Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to
+    Knowledge. No. 259, 1876. Pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55, 82.]
+
+    [Footnote 16: Pop. Sc. Month., Sept., 1877, p. 577.]
+
+    [Footnote 17: Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i,
+    p. 780.]
+
+    [Footnote 18: A detailed account of this exploration, with many
+    illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
+    Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.]
+
+    [Footnote 19: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 _et
+    seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 20: American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.]
+
+    [Footnote 21: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 513.]
+
+    [Footnote 23: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 515.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida,
+    1775.]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp.
+    241-243.]
+
+    [Footnote 26: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i,
+    p. 464.]
+
+    [Footnote 27: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.]
+
+    [Footnote 28: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 62.]
+
+    [Footnote 29: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.]
+
+    [Footnote 30: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.]
+
+    [Footnote 31: Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp.
+    155 _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.]
+
+    [Footnote 33: Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll.
+    Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 318.]
+
+    [Footnote 34: A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age,
+    discovered in Kentucky, is now in the cabinet of the American
+    Antiquarian Society. It is a female. Several human bodies were
+    found enwrapped carefully in skins and cloths. They were inhumed
+    below the floor of the cave; _inhumed_, and not lodged in
+    catacombs.]
+
+    [Footnote 35: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.]
+
+    [Footnote 36: Billings' Exped., 1802, p. 161.]
+
+    [Footnote 37: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.]
+
+    [Footnote 38: Rawlinson's Herodotus, Book i, chap. 198, _note_.]
+
+    [Footnote 39: Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 455 et seq.]
+
+    [Footnote 40: Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians,
+    1844, vol. ii, p. 5.]
+
+    [Footnote 41: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i,
+    p. 483.]
+
+    [Footnote 42: Hist. de l'Amerique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii,
+    p. 43.]
+
+    [Footnote 43: Pioneer Life, 1872.]
+
+    [Footnote 44: I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was
+    undoubtedly an exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island)
+    the bluffs on the peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River
+    (three miles distant) were thickly studded with Indian grave
+    mounds, showing conclusively that subterranean was the usual mode
+    of burial. In making roads, streets, and digging foundations,
+    skulls, bones, trinkets, beads, etc., in great numbers, were
+    exhumed, proving that many things (according to the wealth or
+    station of survivors) were deposited in the graves. In 1836 I
+    witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner stated.
+    --P. GREGG.]
+
+    [Footnote 45: Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist.
+    Soc. (1879?), p. 107.]
+
+    [Footnote 46: Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.]
+
+    [Footnote 47: The Last Act, 1876.]
+
+    [Footnote 48: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.]
+
+    [Footnote 49: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part
+    IV, p. 224.]
+
+    [Footnote 50: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii,
+    p. 387.]
+
+    [Footnote 51: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.]
+
+    [Footnote 52: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part
+    iii, p. 112.]
+
+    [Footnote 53: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.]
+
+    [Footnote 54: Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.]
+
+    [Footnote 55: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-'76, p. 64.]
+
+    [Footnote 56: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 149.]
+
+    [Footnote 57: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874, p. 168.]
+
+    [Footnote 58: Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.]
+
+    [Footnote 59: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of
+    Utah, 1852, p. 43.]
+
+    [Footnote 60: Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol. i,
+    p. 332.]
+
+    [Footnote 61: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. i, p. 780.]
+
+    [Footnote 62: Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p. 286.]
+
+    [Footnote 63: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol. i, p. 69.]
+
+    [Footnote 64: Travels in Alaska, 1869, p. 100.]
+
+    [Footnote 65: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145.]
+
+    [Footnote 66: Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.]
+
+    [Footnote 67: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.]
+
+    [Footnote 68: Long's Exped. to the St. Peter's River, 1824,
+    p. 332.]
+
+    [Footnote 69: L'incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome i,
+    p. 475, _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 70: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that
+    the custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the
+    Moravian settlement of Salem, N.C.]
+
+    [Footnote 71: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319.]
+
+    [Footnote 72: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. ii, p. 774,
+    _et seq._]
+
+    [Footnote 73: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.]
+
+    [Footnote 74: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.]
+
+    [Footnote 75: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 516.]
+
+    [Footnote 76: "Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have
+    given it as their opinion that all those pyramidal artificial
+    hills, usually called Indian mounds, were raised on this occasion,
+    and are generally sepulchers. However, I am of different
+    opinion."]
+
+    [Footnote 77: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.]
+
+    [Footnote 78: Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.]
+
+    [Footnote 79: Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.]
+
+    [Footnote 80: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.]
+
+    [Footnote 81: Cont. N. A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p. 200.]
+
+    [Footnote 82: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i,
+    p. 483.]
+
+    [Footnote 83: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859,
+    p. 48.]
+
+    [Footnote 84: Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii,
+    p. 141.]
+
+    [Footnote 85: Moeurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.]
+
+    [Footnote 86: Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.]
+
+    [Footnote 87: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.]
+
+    [Footnote 88: Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731,
+    744.]
+
+    [Footnote 89: Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.]
+
+    [Footnote 90: Bossu's Travels (Forster's translation), 1771,
+    p. 38.]
+
+    [Footnote 91: At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the
+    victims swallow little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make
+    them giddy, and as it were to take the sensation of pain from
+    them; after that they were all strangled and put upon mats, the
+    favorite on the right, the other wife on the left, and the others
+    according to their rank.]
+
+    [Footnote 92: The established distinctions among these Indians
+    were as follows: The Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the
+    highest rank; next come the Nobles; after them the Honorables; and
+    last of all the common people, who were very much despised. As the
+    nobility was propagated by the women, this contributed much to
+    multiply it.]
+
+    [Footnote 93: The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the
+    fires, which is only done at the death of the sovereign.]
+
+    [Footnote 94: Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.]
+
+    [Footnote 95: Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.]
+
+    [Footnote 96: Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.]
+
+    [Footnote 97: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii,
+    p. 164.]
+
+    [Footnote 98: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.]
+
+    [Footnote 99: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.]
+
+    [Footnote 100: Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.]
+
+    [Footnote 101: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.]
+
+    [Footnote 102: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851,
+    part i, p. 356.]
+
+    [Footnote 103: Cont. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.]
+
+    [Footnote 104: Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S.
+    Geol. Surv. of Terr., 1877, p. 409.]
+
+    [Footnote 105: Long's Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.]
+
+    [Footnote 106: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.]
+
+    [Footnote 107: Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abiquiu, Ancient cemetery of  111
+  Acaxers and Yaquis, cairn burial  143
+  "Adjedatig"  197
+  Aerial burial in canoes, Chinooks  171
+  ---- sepulture,  152
+  Alaric's burial  181
+  Alaska cave burial  129
+  Alaskan mummies  134, 135
+  Alden, E. H., Scaffold burial  161
+  Aleutian Islanders, embalmment  135, 136
+  Algonkins, Burial fires of the  198
+  Alibamans, Aquatic burial of suicides by  180
+  Allen, Miss A. J., Burial sacrifice  189
+  Ancient burial customs of barbaric tribes  152
+  ---- cemetery of Abiquiu  111
+  ---- nations, Tree burial of  165, 166
+  Ancients, Curious mourning observances  165, 166
+  Antiquity of cremation  143
+  Apingi burial  125, 126
+  Aquatic burial, Alibamans, of suicides  180
+  ---- Cherokees  180
+  ---- Chinooks  180
+  ---- Gosh-Utes  181
+  ---- Hyperboreans  180
+  ---- Ichthyophagi  180
+  ---- Itzas  180
+  ---- Kavague  180
+  ---- Lotophagians  180
+  ---- Obongo  180
+  Ascena or Timber Indians  103
+  Atwater, Caleb, Burial mounds  117
+  Australian scaffold burial  167
+  Aztecs and Taracos, Burial sacrifice  190
+  Baldwin, C. C., Pottawatomie surface burial  141
+  Balearic Islanders, Cairn burial  143
+  Bancroft, H. H., Burial sacrifice  190
+  ----, Canoe burial in ground  112
+  ----, Costa Rica hut burial  154
+  ----, Doracho cist burial  115
+  ----, Esquimaux burial boxes  155
+  ----, Mourning, Central Americans  185
+  ----, Pima burial  98
+  ----, Superstitions regarding dead  201
+  Barbaric tribes, Ancient burial customs of  152
+  Barber, E. A., Burial urns  138
+  ----, Partial cremation  151
+  Bari of Africa, burial  125
+  Bartram, John, Cabin burial  122
+  ----, Choctaw ossuary  120
+  ----, Partial scaffold burial  169
+  Bechuana burial  126
+  Beckwourth, James, Crow mourning  183
+  Beechey, Capt. F. W., Lodge burial  154
+  Beltrami, J. C., Burial feast  190
+  ----, Burial posts  197
+  Benson, H. C., Choctaw burial  186
+  Bessels, Dr. Emil, Esquimaux superstition  198
+  Beverly, Robert, Virginia mummies  131
+  Birgan, Meaning of word  93
+  Blackbird's burial  139
+  Blackfeet burial lodges  154
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  ---- tree burial  161
+  Bonaks, Cremation  144
+  Bone cleaning of the dead  168
+  Boner, J. H., Moravian mourning  166
+  Bossu, M., Burial denied to suicides  180
+  Boteler, Dr. W. C., Oto burial ceremonies  96
+  Box burial, Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee  155
+  ----, Esquimaux  155, 156
+  ----, Indians of Talomeco River  155
+  ----, Innuits and Ingaliks  156, 158
+  ----, Kalosh  156
+  Bransford, Dr. J. C., U.S.N., Burial urns discovered by  138
+  Brebeuf, Pere de, Burial feast  191
+  Brice, W. A., Surface burial  141
+  Brinton, Dr. D. G., Burial of collected bones  170
+  Bruhier, J. J., Corsican customs  147
+  ---- Persian burial  103
+  Brule Sioux, tree and scaffold burial  158, 160
+  Burchard, J. L., Pit burial  124
+  Butterfield, H., Shoshone cairn burial  143
+  Burial, Apingi  125, 126
+  ----, Aquatic  180
+  ---- canoes and houses  177-179
+  ----, Bari of Africa  125
+  ----, Bechuanas  126
+  ---- beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses  122
+  ----, Box  155
+  ----, Carolina tribes  93
+  ----, Caddos  103
+  ----, Cairn  142
+  ----, Cairn, Ute  142
+  ---- case, Cheyenne  162, 163
+  ----, Cave  126
+  ----, Chieftain, of the  110, 111
+  ----, Classification of  92-93
+  ----, Damara  126
+  ---- dance, Yo-kai-a  192, 194
+  ---- dances  193
+  ---- feast, Description of, by Beltrami  190, 191
+  ---- ----, Hurons, of the  191
+  ---- feasts  190
+  ---- ----, superstitions regarding  191
+  ---- fires, Algonkins  198
+  ---- ----, Yurok  198
+  ---- ----, Esquimaux  198
+  ---- food  192
+  ---- games  195
+  ----, Grave  101
+  ----, Ground, in canoes  112
+  ---- in logs  138, 139
+  ---- in mounds  115
+  ---- in standing posture  151, 152
+  ----, Indians of Virginia  125
+  ----, Iroquois  140
+  ----, Kaffir  126
+  ----, Klamath and Trinity Indians  106, 107
+  ----, Latookas  126
+  ----, Lodge  152
+  ---- lodges, Blackfeet  154
+  ---- ----, Cheyenne  154
+  ---- ----, Shoshone  153, 154
+  ----, Muscogulges  122, 123
+  ----, Meaning and derivation of word  93
+  ----, Moquis,  114
+  ----, Navajo,  123
+  ----, Obongo,  139, 140
+  ---- of Alaric,  181
+  ---- of Blackbird,  139
+  ---- of De Soto,  181
+  ---- of Long Horse,  153
+  ---- of Ouray,  128
+  ----, Parsee,  105, 106
+  ----, Pit,  93
+  ----, Pitt River Indians,  151
+  ---- posts, Sioux and Chippewa,  197, 198
+  ----, Round Valley Indians,  124
+  ---- sacrifice, Aztecs and Tarascos,  190
+  ---- ----, Indians of Northwest,  180
+  ---- ----, Indians of Panama,  180
+  ---- ----, Natchez,  187, 189
+  ---- ----, Tsinuk,  179
+  ---- ----, Wascopums,  189, 190
+  ----, Sacs and Foxes,  94, 95
+  ---- scaffolds,  162
+  ---- song, Schiller's,  110, 111
+  ---- ---- of Basques and others,  195
+  ---- superstitions, Chippewas,  199, 200
+  ---- ----, Indians of Washington Territory,  201
+  ---- ----, Karok,  200
+  ---- ----, Kelta,  200
+  ---- ----, Modocs,  200, 201
+  ---- ----, Mosquito Indians,  201
+  ---- ----, Tlascaltecs,  201
+  ---- ----, Tolowa,  200
+  ----, Surface,  138, 139
+  ----, Urn,  137
+  ---- ---- and cover, Georgia,  138
+  ---- ----, New Mexico,  138
+
+  Cabins, wigwams, or houses, Burial beneath or in,  122
+  Caddos, Burial,  103
+  Cairn burial, Acaxers and Yaquis,  143
+  ----, Balearic Islanders,  143
+  ----, Blackfeet,  143
+  ----, Esquimaux,  143
+  ----, Kiowas and Comanches,  142, 143
+  ----, Pi-Utes,  143
+  ----, Reasons for,  143
+  ----, Shoshonis,  143
+  Calaveras Cave,  128, 129
+  California steatite burial urn,  138
+  Campbell, John, Burial songs,  195
+  Canes sepulchrales,  104
+  Canoe burial in ground,  112
+  ---- ----, Mosquito Indians,  112, 113
+  ---- ----, Santa Barbara,  112
+  ----, Clallam,  173, 174
+  ----, Twana,  171, 173
+  Canoes and houses, Burial,  177-179
+  Canoes, Superterrene and aerial burial in,  171
+  Caraibs, Verification of death,  146
+  Carolina tribes, Burial among,  93
+  Catlin, George, Burial of Blackbird,  139
+  ----, Golgotha of Mandans,  170
+  ----, Mourning cradle,  181
+  Cave burial,  126
+  ----, Alaska,  129
+  ----, Calaveras,  128, 129
+  ----, Utes,  127, 128
+  Cherokee aquatic burial,  180
+  Cheyenne burial case,  162, 163
+  ---- lodges,  154
+  Chillicothe mound,  117, 118
+  Chinook aerial burial in canoes,  171
+  ---- aquatic burial,  180
+  ---- mourning cradle,  181, 182
+  Chippewa burial superstitions,  199, 200
+  ---- mourning,  184
+  ---- scaffold burial,  161, 162
+  ---- widow,  184, 185
+  Choctaw mound burial,  120
+  ---- scaffold burial,  169
+  Choctaws funeral ceremonies,  186
+  Cist burial, Doracho,  115
+  ---- graves, Kentucky,  114, 115
+  ---- ----, Indians of Illinois,  114
+  Cists or stone graves,  113
+  ----, Solutre,  113
+  ----, Tennessee,  113
+  Clallam canoe burial,  173, 174
+  ---- house burial,  175
+  Classification of burial,  92
+  Cleveland, Wm. J., Tree and scaffold burial,  158
+  Collected bones, Interment of,  170
+  Comanche inhumation,  99, 100
+  Congaree and Santee Indians, embalmment  132, 133
+  Corsican funeral custom  147
+  Cox, Ross, Cremation  144
+  Coyotero Apaches, Inhumation  111, 112
+  Cradle, mourning, Illustration of  181
+  Crock, Choctaw, and Cherokee box burial  155
+  Creeks and Seminoles, Inhumation  95, 96
+  ----, "Hallelujah" of the  195
+  Cremation, Antiquity of  143
+  ----, Bonaks  144
+  ---- furnace  149
+  ----, Indians of Clear Lake  147
+  ----, Indians of Southern Utah  149
+  ---- mound, Florida  148, 149
+  ----, Nishinams  144
+  ----, Partial  150, 151
+  ----, Se-nel  147, 148
+  ----, Tolkotins  144-146
+  Crow lodge burial  153
+  ---- mourning  183, 184
+  Curious mourning observances of ancients  165, 166
+  Curtiss, E., Exploration by  115, 116
+
+  Dakhnias  104
+  Dall, W. H., Burial boxes  156
+  ----, Cave burial  129
+  ----, Mummies  134
+  Damara burial  126
+  Dance for the dead  192
+  Dances, Burial  192
+  Danish burial logs  139
+  Dead, Dance for the  192
+  Delano, A., Tree burial  161
+  Description of burial feast  190, 191
+  De Soto's burial  181
+  Devouring the dead, Fans of Africa  182
+  ----, Indians of South America  182, 183
+  ----, Massageties, Padaens, and others  182
+  Dolmens in Japan  115
+  Doracho cist burial  115
+  Drew, Benjamin, Schiller's burial song  110
+  Dumont, M. Butel de, House burial  124
+
+  Eells, Rev. M., Canoe burial  171
+  Embalmment, Aleutian Islanders  135, 136
+  ----, Congaree and Santee Indians  132, 133
+  ----, or mummification  130
+  Engelhardt, Prof. C.  139
+  Esquimaux box burial  155, 156
+  ---- burial fires  198
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  ---- lodge burial  154
+  European ossuaries  191
+  Excavation of Indian mound, North Carolina  120-122
+
+  Fans of Africa devour the dead  182
+  Feasts, Burial  190
+  Fires, Burial  198
+  Fiske, Moses, Cists  113
+  Florida cremation mound  148, 149
+  ---- mound burial  119, 120
+  Food, Burial  192
+  Ford, Lieut. Geo. E., U.S.A., Cabin burial  123
+  Foreman, Dr. E., Burial urns  138
+  ---- Cremation  149
+  Foster, J. W., Urn burial  137
+  ---- Cremation  150
+  Funeral ceremonies, Choctaws  186
+  ----, Twanas and Clallams  176
+  ---- custom, Corsican  147
+  Furnace, Cremation  149
+
+  Gageby, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Box burial  155
+  Games, Burial  195
+  Gardner, Dr. W., U.S.A., Theory of scaffold burial  167
+  Ghost gamble  195-197
+  Gianque, Florian, Mound burial  120
+  Gibbs, George  106
+  ----, Burial canoes and houses  177
+  Gilbert, G. K., Klamath burial  147
+  ---- Moquis burial  114
+  Gillman, Henry, Exploration of mound  148
+  Given, Dr. O. G., Cairn burial  142
+  "Golgothas," Mandans  170
+  Gosh-Utes, Aquatic burial amongst  181
+  Grave burial  101
+  Gregg, Dr. P., Surface burial  140
+  Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce, Comanche inhumation  99
+  ---- Wichita burial customs  102
+  Grossman, Capt. F. E., Pima burial  98
+  Gros Ventres and Mandans, Scaffold burial  161
+
+  "Hallelujah" of the Creeks  195
+  Hammond, Dr. J. F., Burial lodges  154
+  Hardisty, W. L., Log burial in trees  166
+  Hidatsa superstitions  199
+  Hind, Henry Youle, Burial feast  191
+  Hoffman, Dr. W. J.  99
+  ---- Drawing of Pima burial  111, 153
+  Holbrook, W. C., Burial mounds  118
+  Holmes, W. H., Drawings by  106, 203
+  Hough, Franklin B., Canoe burial in the ground  112
+  House burial, Clallams  175
+  ----, Paskagoulas and Billoxis  124, 125
+  Hurons, Burial feast of  191
+  Hyperboreans, aquatic burial  180
+
+  Ichthyophagi, aquatic burial  180
+  Illinois mounds  118
+  Indian mound in North Carolina, Excavation of  120-122
+  Indians of Bellingham Bay, lodge burial  154
+  ---- of Clear Lake, cremation  147
+  ---- of Costa Rica, lodge burial  154
+  ---- of Illinois, cist burial  114
+  ---- of Northwest, burial sacrifice  180
+  ---- of Panama, burial sacrifice  180
+  ---- of South America devour the dead  182, 183
+  ---- of Southern Utah, cremation  149
+  ---- of Talomeco River, box burial  155
+  ---- of Taos, inhumation  101, 102
+  ---- of Virginia, burial  125
+  ---- of Washington Territory, burial superstition  201
+  Inhumation  93
+  ----, Comanches  99, 100
+  ----, Coyotero Apaches  111, 112
+  ----, Creeks and Seminoles  95, 96
+  ----, Indians of Taos  101, 102
+  ----, Mohawks  93
+  ----, Otoe and Missouri Indians.  96, 97, 98
+  ----, Pimas  98, 99
+  ----, Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux  107-110
+  ----, Wichitas  102, 103
+  ----, Yuki  99
+  Innuit and Ingalik box burial  156-158
+  Interment of collected bones  170
+  Iroquois scaffold burial  169, 170
+  ---- surface burial  140
+  Itzas, Aquatic burial  180
+
+  Japan dolmens  115
+  Jenkes, Col. C. W., Partial cremation  150
+  Johnston, Adam, Cremation myth  144
+  Jones, Dr. Charles C., Stone graves of Tennessee  114
+  ---- Natchez burial  169
+  Joseph, Judge Anthony, Inhumation of Taos Indians  101
+
+  Kaffir burial  126
+  Kalosh box burial  156
+  Kavague aquatic burial  180
+  Kaw-a-wah  142
+  Keating, William H., Burial scaffolds  162
+  ----, Burial superstitions  199
+  "Keeping the Ghost"  160
+  Kent, M. B., Sac and Fox burial  94
+  Kentucky cist graves  114, 115
+  ---- mummies  133
+  Kiowa and Comanche cairn burial  142, 143
+  Kitty-ka-tats  102
+  Klamath and Trinity Indians, burial  106, 107
+  Klingbeil, William, Partial cremation  151
+
+  Lafitau, J. F.  182
+  "Last cry"  186
+  Latookas burial  126
+  Lawson, John, Partial embalmment  132
+  ----, Pit burial  93
+  List of illustrations, Burial customs  87
+  Living sepulchers  182
+  Lodge burial  152
+  ----, Crow  153
+  ----, Esquimaux  154
+  ----, Indians of Bellingham Bay  154
+  ----, Indians of Costa Rica  154
+  ----, Sioux  152, 153
+  Log burial  138, 139
+  ----, Danish  139
+  ---- in trees, Loucheux  166
+  Long Horse, burial of  153
+  Lotophagians, Aquatic burial  180
+  Loucheux, log burial in trees  166
+
+  McChesney, Dr. Charles E.  107-111
+  ----, "Ghost gamble"  195
+  McDonald, Dr. A. J., Rock fissure burial  127
+  McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial  161
+  ----, Chippewa widow  184
+  Macrobrian Ethiopians, Preservation of the dead  136, 137
+  Mahan, I. L., Chippewa mourning  184
+  Mandan "Golgothas"  170
+  Matthews, Dr. Washington, U.S.A., Hidatsa superstition  199
+  ----, Tree burial  161
+  Menard, Dr. John, Navajo burial  123
+  Miami Valley mound burial  120
+  Midawan, a ceremony of initiation  122
+  Miller, Dr. C. C., Assistance from  197
+  Mitchell, Dr. Samuel L., Kentucky mummies  133, 134
+  Mohawks, Inhumation  93
+  Monotheism defined  30, 32, 142
+  Moquis burial  114
+  Moravian mourning  166
+  Morgan, Lewis H., Burial dance  192
+  ----, Partial scaffold burial  169
+  Morse, E. S., Dolmens in Japan  115
+  Mortuary customs of Parthians, Medes, etc.  104
+  ---- Persians  103, 104
+  Mosquito Indians, Burial superstition of  201
+  ----, canoe burial in ground  112, 113
+  Mound burial  115
+  ----, Choctaws  120
+  ----, Florida  119, 120
+  ----, Miami Valley  120
+  ----, Ohio  117, 118
+  Mounds, Illinois  118, 119
+  ---- of stone  118
+  Mourning ceremonies, Sioux  109, 110
+  ----, Chippewa  184
+  ---- cradle, Chinook  181, 182
+  ---- ----, engraving of  181
+  ---- Crows  183, 184
+  ---- customs of widows  185, 186
+  ----, Indians of Northwest  179
+  ---- Moravian  166
+  ---- observances, Twana and Clallams  176
+  ---- sacrifice, feasts, food, etc  183
+  Mummies, Alaskan  134, 135
+  ----, Kentucky  133
+  ----, Northwest coast  135
+  ----, Virginia  131, 132
+  Mummification or embalmment  130
+  Mummification, Theories regarding  130
+  Muret, Pierre, Living sepulchres  182
+  ----, Persian mortuary customs  103
+  Muscogulge burial  122, 123
+  Natchez burial sacrifice  187-189
+  ---- scaffold burial  169
+  Navajo burial  123
+  Norm  142
+  New Mexico burial urn  138
+  Nishinams, Cremation among the  144
+  Norris, P. W., lodge burial  153
+  North Carolina Indians, Partial cremation  150, 151
+  Northwest coast mummies  135
+  ----, Indians of, mourning  179
+
+  Obongo aquatic burial  180
+  ---- surface burial  139, 140
+  Observers, Queries for, regarding burial  202, 203
+  Ohio mound burial  117
+  Oh-sah-ke-uck  94
+  Ojibwa and Cree surface burial  141
+  Ossuaries, European  191
+  Otis, Dr. George A., U.S.A., Burial case  162
+  Oto and Missouri Indians, Inhumation  96-98
+  Ouray, Burial of  128
+  Owsley, Dr. W. J., Cist graves  114
+
+  Partial cremation  150
+  ---- ----, North Carolina Indians  150, 151
+  ---- scaffold burial and ossuaries  168
+  Parsee burial  105, 106
+  Paskagoulas and Billoxis, House burial  124, 125
+  Persians, Mortuary customs of the  103, 104
+  Pimas, Inhumation among  98, 99
+  Pinart, M. Alphonse, Pima burial  98
+  Pinkerton, John, Virginia mummies  131
+  Piros  101
+  Pit burial  93
+  Pitt River Indians, Burial and cremation  151
+  Pi-Ute cairn burial  143
+  Posts, Burial  197
+  Potherie, De la M., Surface burial  140
+  Powell, J. W., Stone graves or cists  113
+  Powers, Stephen, Burial dance  192
+  ----, Burial song  194
+  ----, Origin of cremation  144
+  ----, Se-nel cremation  147
+  ----, Yuki burial  99
+  Preparation of dead,
+  ---- Similarity of, between Comanches and African tribes  100
+  Preservation of dead, Macrobrian Ethiopians  136, 137
+  ----, Werowance of Virginia  131, 132
+  Priest, Josiah, Box burial  155
+  Putnam, F. W., Stone graves or cists  115, 116
+
+  Queries for observers regarding burial  202, 203
+  Quiogozon or ossuary  94
+
+  Reason for cairn burial  143
+  Remarks, Final  203
+  Review of Turner's narrative  165
+  Robertson, R. S., Surface burial  139
+  Roman, Bernard, Choctaw hone houses  168
+  ----, Funeral customs of Chickasaws  123
+  Round Valley Indians, burial among  124
+
+  Sacrifice  187
+  Sacs and Foxes, burial among  94, 95
+  ----, surface burial  140, 141
+  Sauer, Martin, Aleutian mummies  135
+  Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies, surface burial among  151
+  Scaffold burial, Australia  167
+  ---- ----, Chippewas  161, 162
+  ---- ----, Choctaw  169
+  ---- ----, Gros-Ventres and Mandans  161
+  ---- ----, Iroquois  169, 170
+  ---- ----, Natchez  169
+  ---- ----, Sioux  163, 164
+  ----, Tent burial on  174
+  Scaffolds, Theory regarding  167, 168
+  Schiller's burial song  110
+  Schoolcraft, Henry R., Burial posts  197
+  ----, Cremation myth  144
+  ----, Mohawk burial  93, 95
+  ----, Partial embalmment  132
+  Seechaugas  158
+  Sellers, George Escoll, Cist burial  114
+  Se-nel, Cremation among the  147, 148
+  Sepulture, Aerial  152
+  Sheldon, William, Caraib burial customs  146
+  Shoshone burial lodges  153, 154
+  ---- cairn burial  143
+  Sicaugu  158
+  Simpson, Capt. J. H., U.S.A., Aquatic burial  181
+  Sioux and Chippewa burial posts  197, 198
+  ---- lodge burial  152, 153
+  ---- mourning ceremonies  109, 110
+  Sioux, scaffold burial of the  163, 164
+  ----, tree burial of the  161
+  Solutre cists  113
+  Songs, Burial  194
+  ---- ----, of Basques and others  195
+  Southern Indians, Urn burial among  137
+  Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason, Curious burial  120
+  Spencer, J. W., Partial surface burial  140
+  Standing posture, Burial in  151, 152
+  Stansbury, Capt. H., U.S.A., Lodge burial  152
+  Steatite burial urn, California  138
+  Sternberg, Dr. George M., U.S.A., Grave mounds  119
+  ----, Burial case discovered  162
+  Stone graves or cists  113
+  ---- mounds  118
+  Superstition, Hidatsa  199
+  ---- regarding burial feasts  191
+  Superstitions, Burial  199
+  Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes  171
+  Surface burial  138, 139
+  ----, Ojibways and Crees  141
+  ----, Sacs and Foxes  140, 141
+  ----, Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies  141
+  Swan, James G., Canoe burial  171
+  ----, Klamath burial  106
+  ----, Superstitions  201
+
+  Tah-zee  142
+  Tegg, William, Antiquity of cremation  143
+  ----, Towers of silence  104
+  Tennessee cists  113
+  Tent burial on scaffold  174
+  Theories regarding mummification or embalmment  130
+  ---- regarding use of scaffolds  176, 168
+  Tiffany, A. S., Cremation furnace  149
+  Timberlake, H., Aquatic burial  180
+  Tolkotin cremation  144, 146
+  Tompkins, Gen. Chas. H., U.S.A., Partial cremation  151
+  Towers of silence, Description of  104-106
+  Tree and scaffold burial  158
+  ---- ----, Brule Sioux  158, 160
+  ---- burial, ancient nations  165, 166
+  ---- ----, Blackfeet  101
+  ---- ----, Sioux  101
+  Tsinuk burial sacrifice  179
+  Turner, Dr. L. S., Scaffold burial  163
+  Turner's narrative, Review of  165
+  Twana and Clallam mourning observances  176
+  ---- canoe burial  171-173
+  Twanas and Clallams, funeral ceremonies  176
+
+  Urn burial by Southern Indians  137
+  Ute cairn burial  142
+  ---- cave burial  127, 128
+
+  Van Camper, Moses. Mode of burial of Indians inhabiting
+      Pennsylvania  112
+  Van Vliet, Gen. Stewart, U.S.A., Tree and scaffold burial  153
+  Verification of death, Caraibs  146
+  Virginia mummies  131, 132
+
+  Wah-peton and Sisseton Sioux, Inhumation among  107-110
+  Wascopums, Burial sacrifice of  189, 190
+  Wee-ka-nahs  101
+  Welch, H., Surface burial  141
+  Werowance of Virginia, preservation of the dead  131, 132
+  Whitney, J. D., burial cave, Description of a  128
+  Whymper, Frederic, Burial boxes  156
+  Wichitas, Inhumation among the  102, 103
+  Widow, Chippewa  184, 185
+  Widows, Mourning customs of  185, 186
+  Wilcox, E., Partial cremation  150
+  Wilkins, Charles, Kentucky mummies  133
+  Williams, Monier, Parsee burial  104
+  Wood, Rev. J. G., African surface burial  139
+  ----, Bari burial  125
+  ----, Fans of Africa devour the dead  182
+  ----, Obongo aquatic burial  180
+  Wright, Dr. S. G., Superstitions regarding burial feasts  191
+
+  Yo-kai-a burial dance  192-194
+  Young, John, Tree burial  161
+  Yuki inhumation  99
+  Yurok burial fires  198
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Errata_
+
+Unless otherwise noted, spelling and punctuation are unchanged.
+Differences in punctuation or hyphenization between the List of
+Illustrations and the captions themselves are not noted.
+
+  [List of Illustrations]
+  1.--Quiogozon or dead house  [Quiogozeon]
+
+  two small arroyas
+    [_spelling "arroya" consistent throughout the quoted passage_]
+  chanting the following chorous:
+    [_spelling in quoted passage unchanged_]
+  the Colchians enveloped their dead  [Colchiens]
+  these are considered apochryphal  [_spelling unchanged_]
+  Horace and Tertullian both affirm  [Tertulian]
+  cum grana salis  [_error unchanged: correct form is "grano"_]
+  the same _Dodem_ [_sic_] (family mark) of her husband.
+    [_bracketed "sic" in original_]
+  Froeebel states that among the Woolwas
+    [_spelling unchanged: probably error for "Froebel" (two letters)
+    or "Froebel" (o-umlaut alone)_]
+  tear myself from you (_sic_) arms
+    [_error unchanged; parenthetical "sic" in original_]
+
+  [Footnote 54]
+  Amer. Naturalist, November, 1878, p. 753.  [1878.]
+
+  [Index]
+  [Missing commas within entries or before sub-entries have been
+  silently supplied.]
+  McKenney, Thomas L., Scaffold burial  [Scafford]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A further contribution to the study of
+the mortuary customs of the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF N. AM. INDIANS ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Further Contribution to the Study of the
+Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians, by H.C. Yarrow
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net
+
+
+Title: A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians
+
+Author: H.C. Yarrow
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2004 [EBook #11398]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF INDIANS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Anne Folland and PG Distributed
+Proofreaders. This file was produced from images generously made
+available by the Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions.
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+J.W. POWELL, DIRECTOR
+
+
+
+
+A Further Contribution To The
+
+STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
+
+
+
+By
+
+Dr. H.C. Yarrow, ACT. ASST. SURG., USA
+
+
+
+  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  1.-Quiogozeon or dead house
+  2.-Pima burial
+  3.-Towers of silence
+  4.-Towers of silence
+  5.-Alaskan mummies
+  6.-Burial urns
+  7.-Indian cemetery
+  8.-Grave pen
+  9.-Grave pen
+  l0.-Tolkotin cremation
+  ll.-Eskimo lodge burial
+  l2.-Burial houses
+  l3.-Innuit grave
+  l4.-Ingalik grave
+  l5.-Dakota scaffold burial
+  l6.-Offering food to the dead
+  l7.-Depositing the corpse
+  l8.-Tree-burial
+  l9.-Chippewa scaffold burial
+  30.-Scarification at burial
+  3l.-Australian scaffold burial
+  33.-Preparing the dead
+  33.-Canoe-burial
+  24.-Twana canoe-burial
+  25.-Posts for burial canoes
+  36.-Tent on scaffold
+  37.-House burial
+  38.-House burial
+  39.-Canoe-burial
+  30.-Mourning-cradle
+  3l.-Launching the burial cradle
+  32.-Chippewa widow
+  33.-Ghost gamble
+  34.-Figured plum stones
+  35.-Winning throw, No 1
+  36.-Winning throw, No 2
+  37.-Winning throw, No 3
+  38.-Winning throw, No 4
+  39.-Winning throw, No 5
+  40.-Winning throw, No 6
+  4l.-Auxiliary throw, No 1
+  42.-Auxiliary throw No 2
+  43.-Auxiliary throw, No 3
+  44.-Auxiliary throw No 4
+  45.-Auxiliary throw, No 5
+  46.-Burial posts
+  47.-Grave fire
+
+
+
+A Further Contribution To The
+
+STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
+
+BY H.C. YARROW.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many
+readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen
+the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to
+reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an
+introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate
+study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and
+more important.
+
+The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously,
+while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable.
+This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an
+almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and
+the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing. A
+wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably seconded the
+efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, from the
+public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of
+scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press,
+too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever on the alert to scatter
+broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of
+well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry,
+and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is
+the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North
+American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it
+be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already
+contributed.
+
+It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed
+more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of
+supererogation to continue a further examination of the subject, for
+nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention
+of burial observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on
+the sea of this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless
+supported by corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely
+unreliable. To bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and
+arrange collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer's
+task, and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method
+of securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and
+need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present
+to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to
+the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies,
+the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples,
+and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding
+the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be
+done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough
+analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and
+from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be
+considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer
+having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the
+accounts furnished.
+
+It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions
+to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. J.W.
+Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,
+from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant encouragement
+and advice has been received, and to whom all American ethnologists owe
+a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.
+
+Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the
+subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies
+among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost
+analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.
+
+For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of burials
+may be adopted, although further study may lead to some modifications.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.
+1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, or holes in the ground, stone graves
+or cists, in mounds, beneath or in cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or
+in caves.
+
+2d. By EMBALMMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being
+afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in
+charnel-houses.
+
+3d. By DEPOSITION of remains in urns.
+
+4th. By SURFACE BURIAL, the remains being placed in hollow trees or
+logs, pens, or simply covered with earth, or bark, or rocks forming
+cairns.
+
+5th. By CREMATION, or partial burning, generally on the surface of the
+earth, occasionally beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed
+in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns,
+sometimes scattered.
+
+6th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being left in lodges, houses,
+cabins, tents, deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the
+two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the
+ground. Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of
+children, these being hung to trees.
+
+7th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were
+turned adrift.
+
+These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.
+
+The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be understood
+in its literal significance, the word being derived from the Teutonic
+Anglo-Saxon "_birgan_," to conceal or hide away.
+
+In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, it
+has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, in
+order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the
+relator's language been changed except to correct manifest
+unintentional, errors of spelling.
+
+
+
+
+INHUMATION.
+
+
+_PIT BURIAL_
+
+The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been that
+of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of
+different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of
+the process:
+
+One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:[1]
+
+     The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the
+     body was placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it
+     was covered with timber, to support the earth which they lay
+     over, and thereby kept the body from being pressed. They
+     then raised the earth in a round hill over it. They always
+     dressed the corpse in all its finery, and put wampum and
+     other things into the grave with it; and the relations
+     suffered not grass nor any wood to grow upon the grave, and
+     frequently visited it and made lamentation.
+
+In Jones[2] is the following interesting account from Lawson[3] of the
+burial customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:
+
+     Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was
+     accompanied with special ceremonies, the expense and
+     formality attendant upon the funeral according with the rank
+     of the deceased. The corpse was first placed in a cane
+     hurdle and deposited in an outhouse made for the purpose,
+     where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night,
+     guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with
+     disheveled hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral
+     go into the town, and from the backs of the first young men
+     they meet strip such blankets and matchcoats as they deem
+     suitable for their purpose. In these the dead body is
+     wrapped and then covered with two or three mats made of
+     rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or hollow
+     canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared
+     for the interment, the corpse is carried from the house in
+     which it has been lying into the orchard of peach-trees and
+     is there deposited in another hurdle. Seated upon mats are
+     there congregated the family and tribe of the deceased and
+     invited guests. The medicine man, or conjurer, having
+     enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral oration, during
+     which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his valor,
+     skill, love of country, property, and influence; alludes to
+     the void caused by his death, and counsels those who remain
+     to supply his place by following in his footsteps; pictures
+     the happiness he will enjoy in the land of spirits to which
+     he has gone, and concludes his address by an allusion to the
+     prominent traditions of his tribe.
+
+Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the
+opinion of many, "more honored in the breach than in the observance."
+
+     At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from
+     that Hurdle to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the
+     Relations, the King, old Men, and all the Nation. When they
+     come to the Sepulcre, which is about six foot deep and eight
+     foot long, having at each end (that is, at the Head and
+     Foot) a Light-Wood or Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down the
+     sides of the Grave firmly into the Ground (these two Forks
+     are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you shall understand
+     presently), before they lay the Corps into the Grave, they
+     cover the bottom two or three time over with the Bark of
+     Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two Belts that the
+     _Indians_ carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely upon
+     the said Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood
+     in the two Forks, and having a great many Pieces of
+     Pitch-Pine Logs about two Foot and a half long, they stick
+     them in the sides of the Grave down each End and near the
+     Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the Ridge-Pole, so
+     that they are declining like the Roof of a House. These
+     being very thick plac'd, they cover them [many times double]
+     with Bark; then they throw the Earth thereon that came out
+     of the Grave and beat it down very firm. By this Means the
+     dead Body lies in a Vault, nothing touching him.
+
+After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in
+an ossuary called the Quiogozon.
+
+Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers
+called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to
+it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair
+greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited,
+another dried bodies.
+
+It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M.B. Kent,
+relating to the Sacs and Foxes (_Oh-sak-ke-uck_) of the Nehema Agency,
+Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead to
+prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom has
+been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by
+examples given further on.
+
+     _Ancient burial_.--The body was buried in a grave made about
+     2-1/2 feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards
+     the east, the burial taking place as soon after death as
+     possible. The grave was prepared by putting bark in the
+     bottom of it before the corpse was deposited, a plank
+     covering made and secured some distance above the body. The
+     plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse with
+     the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse
+     was always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a
+     long journey in life, no coffin being used.
+
+     _Modern burial_.--This tribe now usually bury in coffins,
+     rude ones constructed by themselves, still depositing the
+     body in the grave with the head towards the east.
+
+     _Ancient funeral ceremonies_.--Every relative of the
+     deceased had to throw some article in the grave, either
+     food, clothing, or other material. There was no rule stating
+     the nature of what was to be added to the collection, simply
+     a requirement that something must be deposited, if it were
+     only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After the corpse
+     was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead,
+     instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would
+     soon discover moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he
+     came to a great river, which is the river of death; when
+     there he would find a pole across the river, which, if he
+     has been honest, upright, and good, will be straight, upon
+     which he could readily cross to the other side; but if his
+     life had been one of wickedness and sin, the pole would be
+     very crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he would
+     be precipitated into the turbulent stream and lost forever.
+     The brave also told him if he crossed the river in safety
+     the Great Father would receive him, take out his old brains,
+     give him new ones, and then he would have reached the happy
+     hunting grounds, always be happy and have eternal life.
+     After burial a feast was always called, and a portion of the
+     food of which each and every relative was partaking was
+     burned to furnish subsistence to the spirit upon its
+     journey.
+
+     _Modern funeral ceremonies_.--Provisions are rarely put into
+     the grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast
+     subsequent to burial is burned, although the feast is
+     continued. All the address delivered by the brave over the
+     corpse after being deposited in the grave is omitted. A
+     prominent feature of all ceremonies, either funeral or
+     religious, consists of feasting accompanied with music and
+     dancing.
+
+     _Ancient mourning observations_.--The female relations
+     allowed their hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed
+     themselves in the most unpresentable attire, the latter of
+     which the males also do. Men blacked the whole face for a
+     period of ten days after a death in the family, while the
+     women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the children
+     were blacked for three months; they were also required to
+     fast for the same length of time, the fasting to consist of
+     eating but one meal per day, to be made entirely of hominy,
+     and partaken of about sunset. It was believed that this
+     fasting would enable the child to dream of coming events and
+     prophesy what was to happen in the future. The extent and
+     correctness of prophetic vision depended upon how faithfully
+     the ordeal of fasting had been observed.
+
+     _Modern mourning observances_.--Many of those of the past are
+     continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing
+     uncouth apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children,
+     and they are adhered to with as much tenacity as many of the
+     professing Christians belonging to the evangelical churches
+     adhere to their practices, which constitute mere forms, the
+     intrinsic value of which can very reasonably be called in
+     question.
+
+The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,[4] made
+the graves of their dead as follows:
+
+     When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse
+     about four feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the
+     cabin or rock wherever he died. The corpse is placed in the
+     hole in a sitting posture, with a blanket wrapped about it,
+     and the legs bent under and tied together. If a warrior, he
+     is painted, and his pipe, ornaments, and warlike appendages
+     are deposited with him. The grave is then covered with canes
+     tied to a hoop round the top of the hole, then a firm layer
+     of clay, sufficient to support the weight of a man. The
+     relations howl loudly and mourn publicly for four days. If
+     the deceased has been a man of eminent character, the family
+     immediately remove from the house in which he is buried and
+     erect a new one, with a belief that where the bones of their
+     dead are deposited the place is always attended by goblins
+     and chimeras dire.
+
+Dr. W.C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County,
+Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most
+interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it
+may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those
+already mentioned:
+
+     The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in
+     southern Gage County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000
+     acres, unsurpassed in beauty of location, natural resources,
+     and adaptability for prosperous agriculture. This pastoral
+     people, though in the midst of civilization, have departed
+     but little from the rude practice and customs of a nomadic
+     life, and here may be seen and studied those interesting
+     dramas as vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote
+     frontier.
+
+     During my residence among this people on different
+     occasions, I have had the opportunity of witnessing the
+     Indian burials and many quaint ceremonies pertaining
+     thereto.
+
+     When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe
+     subject, the preparation of the burial costume is
+     immediately began. The near relatives of the dying Indian
+     surround the humble bedside, and by loud lamentations and
+     much weeping manifest a grief which is truly commensurate
+     with the intensity of Indian devotion and attachment.
+
+     While thus expressing before the near departed their grief
+     at the sad separation impending, the Indian women, or
+     friendly braves, lose no time in equipping him or her with
+     the most ornate clothes and ornaments that are available or
+     in immediate possession. It is thus that the departed Otoe
+     is enrobed in death, in articles of his own selection and by
+     arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his own
+     tongue. It is customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere
+     his departure, the propriety or impropriety of the
+     accustomed sacrifices. In some cases there is a double and
+     in others no sacrifice at all. The Indian women then prepare
+     to cut away their hair; it is accomplished with scissors,
+     cutting close to the scalp at the side and behind.
+
+     The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with
+     great solemnity and care. Bead-work, the most ornate,
+     expensive blankets and ribbons comprise the funeral shroud.
+     The dead, being thus enrobed, is placed in a recumbent
+     posture at the most conspicuous part of the lodge and viewed
+     in rotation by the mourning relatives previously summoned by
+     a courier, all preserving uniformity in the piercing screams
+     which would seem to have been learned by rote.
+
+     An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the
+     tribe, arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge
+     around one of their number, keeping time upon a drum or some
+     rude cooking-utensil.
+
+     At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance
+     excitedly around the central person, vociferating, and with
+     wild gesture, tomahawk in hand, imprecate the evil spirit,
+     which he drives to the land where the sun goes down. The
+     evil spirit being thus effectually banished, the mourning
+     gradually subsides, blending into succeeding scenes of
+     feasting and refreshment. The burial feast is in every
+     respect equal in richness to its accompanying ceremonies.
+     All who assemble are supplied with cooked venison, hog,
+     buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing alike hot
+     cakes soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case may
+     be.
+
+     Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged
+     Indian present will sit in the central circle, and in a
+     continuous and doleful tone narrate the acts of valor in the
+     life of the departed, enjoining fortitude and bravery upon
+     all sitting around as an essential qualification for
+     admittance to the land where the Great Spirit reigns. When
+     the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is customary for
+     the surviving friends to present the bereaved family with
+     useful articles of domestic needs, such as calico in bolt,
+     flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or horses.
+     After the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the
+     body is carefully placed in a wagon and, with an escort of
+     all friends, relatives, and acquaintances, conveyed to the
+     grave previously prepared by some near relation or friend.
+     When a wagon is used, the immediate relatives occupy it with
+     the corpse, which is propped in a semi-sitting posture;
+     before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it was necessary
+     to bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then
+     convey him to his last resting place among his friends. In
+     past days when buffalo were more available, and a tribal
+     hunt was more frequently indulged in, it is said that those
+     dying on the way were bound upon horses and thus frequently
+     carried several hundred miles for interment at the burial
+     places of their friends.
+
+     At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a
+     double nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel,
+     and upon the other blended with the deepest grief and most
+     heartfelt sorrow. Before the interment of the dead the
+     chattels of the deceased are unloaded from the wagons or
+     unpacked from the backs of ponies and carefully arranged in
+     the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is wider than the top
+     (graves here being dug like an inverted funnel), is spread
+     with straw or grass matting, woven generally by the Indian
+     women of the tribe or some near neighbor. The sides are then
+     carefully hung with handsome shawls or blankets, and trunks,
+     with domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less importance,
+     are piled around in abundance. The sacrifices are next
+     inaugurated. A pony, first designated by the dying Indian,
+     is led aside and strangled by men hanging to either end of a
+     rope. Sometimes, but not always, a dog is likewise
+     strangled, the heads of both animals being subsequently laid
+     upon the Indian's grave. The body, which is now often placed
+     in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if a
+     coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the
+     deceased before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a
+     saddle and bridle, blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon
+     it, the mourning ceases, and the Indians prepare to close
+     the grave. It should be remembered, among the Otoe and
+     Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in upon the body, but
+     simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs that are
+     accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the
+     burying is completed, a distribution of the property of the
+     deceased takes place, the near relatives receiving
+     everything, from the merest trifle to the tent and homes,
+     leaving the immediate family, wife and children or father
+     out-door pensioners.
+
+     Although the same generosity is not observed towards the
+     whites assisting in funeral rites, it is universally
+     practiced as regards Indians, and poverty's lot is borne by
+     the survivors with a fortitude and resignation which in them
+     amounts to duty, and marks a higher grade of intrinsic worth
+     than pervades whites of like advantages and conditions. We
+     are told in the Old Testament Scriptures, "four days and
+     four nights should the fires burn," &c. In fulfillment of
+     this sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil carefully
+     kept by these Indians four days and four nights at the
+     graves of their departed. A small fire is kindled for the
+     purpose near the grave at sunset, where the nearest
+     relatives convene and maintain a continuous lamentation till
+     the morning dawn. There was an ancient tradition that at the
+     expiration of this time the Indian arose, and mounting his
+     spirit pony, galloped off to the happy hunting-ground
+     beyond.
+
+     Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these
+     superstitions have faded, and the living sacrifices are
+     partially continued only from a belief that by parting with
+     their most cherished and valuable goods they propitiate the
+     Great Spirit for the sins committed during the life of the
+     deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find was the
+     practice of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt
+     offerings the lamb or the ox; hence we cannot censure this
+     people, but, from a comparison of conditions, credit them
+     with a more strict observance of our Holy Book than pride
+     and seductive fashions permit of us.
+
+     From a careful review of the whole of their attendant
+     ceremonies a remarkable similarity can be marked. The
+     arrangement of the corpse preparatory to interment, the
+     funeral feast, the local service by the aged fathers, are
+     all observances that have been noted among whites, extending
+     into times that are in the memory of those still living.
+
+The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that led
+the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with the
+corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F.E.
+Grossman,[5] and the account is corroborated by M. Alphonse Pinart[6]
+and Bancroft.[7]
+
+Captain Grossman's account follows:
+
+     The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing
+     the latter around their neck and under the knees, and then
+     drawing them tight until the body is doubled up and forced
+     into a sitting position. They dig the graves from four to
+     five feet deep and perfectly round (about two feet in
+     diameter), and then hollow out to one side of the bottom of
+     this grave a sort of vault large enough to contain the body.
+     Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up level
+     with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber
+     placed upon the grave to protect the remains from coyotes.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG 2--Pima burial]
+
+     Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony.
+     The mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are
+     rare. The bodies of their dead are buried if possible,
+     immediately after death has taken place and the graves are
+     generally prepared before the patients die. Sometimes sick
+     persons (for whom the graves had already been dug) recover.
+     In such cases the graves are left open until the persons for
+     whom they are intended die. Open graves of this kind can be
+     seen in several of their burial grounds. Places of burial
+     are selected some distance from the village, and, if
+     possible, in a grove of mesquite trees.
+
+     Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house
+     and personal effects of the deceased are burned and his
+     horses and cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast
+     for the mourners. The nearest relatives of the deceased as a
+     sign of their sorrow remain within their village for weeks,
+     and sometimes months; the men cut off about six inches of
+     their long hair, while the women cut their hair quite short.
+     * * *
+
+     The custom of destroying all the property of the husband
+     when he dies impoverishes the widow and children and
+     prevents increase of stock. The women of the tribe, well
+     aware that they will be poor should their husbands die, and
+     that then they will have to provide for their children by
+     their own exertions, do not care to have many children, and
+     infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to a
+     great extent. This is not considered a crime, and old women
+     of the tribe practice it. A widow may marry again after a
+     year's mourning for her first husband; but having children
+     no man will take her for a wife and thus burden himself with
+     her children. Widows generally cultivate a small piece of
+     ground, and friends and relatives (men) plow the ground for
+     them.
+
+Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman's description by my friend Dr. W.J.
+Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.
+
+Stephen Powers[8] describes a similar mode of grave preparation among
+the Yuki of California:
+
+     The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a
+     hole six feet deep sometimes and at the bottom of it
+     "_coyote_" under, making a little recess in which the corpse
+     is deposited.
+
+The Comanches of Indian Territory (_Nem, we, or us, people_), according
+to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, Indian Territory, go to
+the opposite extreme, so far as the protection of the dead from the
+surrounding earth is concerned. The account as received is given entire,
+as much to illustrate this point as others of interest.
+
+     When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be
+     faintly heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not
+     departed from the body, the knees are strongly bent upon the
+     chest, and the legs flexed upon the thighs. The arms are
+     also flexed upon each side of the chest, and the head bent
+     forward upon the knees. A lariat, or rope, is now used to
+     firmly bind the limbs and body in this position. A blanket
+     is then wrapped around the body, and this again tightly
+     corded, so that the appearance when ready for burial is that
+     of an almost round and compact body, very unlike the
+     composed pall of his Wichita or Caddo brother. The body is
+     then taken and placed in a saddle upon a pony, in a sitting
+     posture; a squaw usually riding behind, though sometimes one
+     on either side of the horse, holds the body in position
+     until the place of burial is reached, when the corpse is
+     literally tumbled into the excavation selected for the
+     purpose. The deceased is only accompanied by two or three
+     squaws, or enough to perform the little labor bestowed upon
+     the burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge or
+     village of the bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes
+     or heads of ca�ons in which the Comanche country abounds is
+     selected, and the body thrown in, without special reference
+     to position. With this are deposited the bows and arrows;
+     these, however, are first broken. The saddle is also placed
+     in the grave, together with many of the personal valuables
+     of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks
+     and earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.
+
+     _Funeral ceremonies._--the best pony owned by the deceased
+     is brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may
+     appear well mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the
+     other world. Formerly, if the deceased were a chief or man
+     of consequence and had large herds of ponies, many were
+     killed, sometimes amounting to 200 or 300 head in number.
+
+     The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good
+     pony for the convoy of the deceased to the happy-grounds by
+     the following story, which is current among both Comanches
+     and Wichitas:
+
+     "A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no
+     relatives and who was quite poor. Some of the tribe
+     concluded that almost any kind of a pony would serve to
+     transport him to the next world. They therefore killed at
+     his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared horse. But a
+     few weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo and
+     behold he returned, riding this same old worn-out horse,
+     weary and hungry. He first appeared at the Wichita camps,
+     where he was well known, and asked for something to eat, but
+     his strange appearance, with sunken eyes and hollow cheeks,
+     filled with consternation all who saw him, and they fled
+     from his presence. Finally one bolder than the rest placed a
+     piece of meat on the end of a lodge-pole and extended it to
+     him. He soon appeared at his own camp, creating, if
+     possible, even more dismay than among the Wichitas, and this
+     resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving their
+     villages and moving _en masse_ to a place on Rush Creek, not
+     far distant from the present site of Fort Sill.
+
+     "When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was
+     questioned why he thus appeared among the inhabitants of
+     earth, he made reply that when he came to the gates of
+     paradise the keepers would on no account permit him to enter
+     upon such an ill-conditioned beast as that which bore him,
+     and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the homes of those
+     whose stinginess and greed permitted him no better
+     equipment. Since this no Comanche has been permitted to
+     depart with the sun to his chambers in the west without a
+     steed which in appearance should do honor alike to the rider
+     and his friends."
+
+     The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that
+     the spirit may accompany the setting sun to the world
+     beyond. The spirit starts on its journey the following night
+     after death has taken place; if this occur at night, the
+     journey is not begun until the next night.
+
+     _Mourning observances_.--All the effects of the deceased,
+     the tents, blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of
+     value, aside from the articles which have been buried with
+     the body, are burned, so that the family is left in poverty.
+     This practice has extended even to the burning of wagons and
+     harness since some of the civilized habits have been
+     adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the
+     smoke, and will thus be of service to the owner in the other
+     world. Immediately upon the death of a member of the
+     household, the relatives begin a peculiar wailing, and the
+     immediate members of the family take off their customary
+     apparel and clothe themselves in rags and cut themselves
+     across the arms, breast, and other portions of the body,
+     until sometimes a fond wife or mother faints from loss of
+     blood. This scarification is usually accomplished with a
+     knife, or, as in earlier days, with a flint. Hired mourners
+     are employed at times who are in no way related to the
+     family, but who are accomplished in the art of crying for
+     the dead. These are invariably women. Those nearly related
+     to the departed, cut off the long locks from the entire
+     head, while those more distantly related, or special
+     friends, cut the hair only from one side of the head. In
+     case of the death of a chief, the young warriors also cut
+     the hair, usually from the left side of the head.
+
+     After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is
+     conducted more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the
+     Comanches venerate the sun; and the mourning at these
+     seasons is kept up, if the death occurred in summer, until
+     the leaves fall, or, if in the winter, until they reappear.
+
+It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the
+corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the
+burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body
+with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The
+hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from
+remotest periods of time.
+
+
+_GRAVE BURIAL._
+
+The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians of
+San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph,
+will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon
+those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo
+people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian
+Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.
+
+According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves _Wee-ka-nahs_.
+
+     These are commonly known to the whites as _Piros_. The
+     manner of burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern,
+     as far as I can ascertain from information obtained from the
+     most intelligent of the tribe, is that the body of the dead
+     is and has been always buried in the ground in a horizontal
+     position with the flat bottom of the grave. The grave is
+     generally dug out of the ground in the usual and ordinary
+     manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7 feet long, and about 2
+     feet wide. It is generally finished after receiving its
+     occupant by being leveled with the hard ground around it,
+     never leaving, as is customary with the whites, a mound to
+     mark the spot. This tribe of Pueblo Indians never cremated
+     their dead, as they do not know, even by tradition, that it
+     was ever done or attempted. There are no utensils or
+     implements placed in the grave, but there are a great many
+     Indian ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells,
+     hawk-bells, round looking-glasses, and a profusion of
+     ribbons of all imaginable colors; then they paint the body
+     with red vermilion and white chalk, giving it a most
+     fantastic as well as ludicrous appearance. They also place a
+     variety of food in the grave as a wise provision for its
+     long journey to the happy hunting-ground beyond the clouds.
+
+     The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar.
+     First, after death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo
+     robe spread out on the ground, then they dress the body in
+     the best possible manner in their style of dress; if a male,
+     they put on his beaded leggins and embroidered _saco_, and
+     his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large brass or shell
+     ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or dress,
+     tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her
+     fancy dancing-moccasins; her _rosario_ around her neck, her
+     brass or shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed
+     black hair tied up with red tape or ribbon, this completes
+     her wardrobe for her long and happy chase. When they get
+     through dressing the body, they place about a dozen lighted
+     candles around it, and keep them burning continually until
+     the body is buried. As soon as the candles are lighted, the
+     _reloris_, or wake, commences; the body lies in state for
+     about twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends,
+     relatives, and neighbors of the deceased or "_difunti_"
+     visit the wake, chant, sing, and pray for the soul of the
+     same, and tell one another of the good deeds and traits of
+     valor and courage manifested by the deceased during his
+     earthly career, and at intervals in their praying, singing,
+     &c., some near relative of the deceased will step up to the
+     corpse and every person in the room commences to cry
+     bitterly and express aloud words of endearment to the
+     deceased and of condolence to the family of the same in
+     their untimely bereavement.
+
+     At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in
+     attendance marches out into another room and partakes of a
+     frugal Indian meal, generally composed of wild game; Chil�
+     Colorado or red-pepper tortillas, and guayaves, with a good
+     supply of mush and milk, which completes the festive board
+     of the _reloris_ or wake. When the deceased is in good
+     circumstances, the crowd in attendance is treated every
+     little while during the wake to alcoholic refreshments. This
+     feast and feasting is kept up until the Catholic priest
+     arrives to perform the funeral rites.
+
+     When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather
+     baled up in a large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied
+     around tight with a rope or lasso made for the purpose; then
+     six or eight men act as pall-bearers, conducting the body to
+     the place of burial, which is in front of their church or
+     chapel. The priest conducts the funeral ceremonies in the
+     ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings observed by
+     the Catholic church all over the world. While the
+     grave-diggers are filling up the grave, the friends,
+     relatives, neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that attend
+     the funeral, give vent to their sad feelings by making the
+     whole pueblo howl; after the tremendous uproar subsides,
+     they disband and leave the body to rest until Gabriel blows
+     his trumpet. When the ceremonies are performed with all the
+     pomp of the Catholic church, the priest receives a fair
+     compensation for his services; otherwise he officiates for
+     the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo pay him,
+     which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.
+
+     These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning
+     observance, which last for one year after the demise of the
+     deceased. While in mourning for the dead, the mourners do
+     not participate in the national festivities of the tribe,
+     which are occasions of state with them, but they retire into
+     a state of sublime quietude which makes more civilized
+     people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning ceases,
+     at the end of the year, they have high mass said for the
+     benefit of the soul of the departed; after this they again
+     appear upon the arena of their wild sports and continue to
+     be gay and happy until the next mortal is called from this
+     terrestrial sphere to the happy hunting-ground, which is
+     their pictured celestial paradise. The above cited facts,
+     which are the most interesting points connected with the
+     burial customs of the Indians of the pueblo San Geronimo de
+     Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but are the absolute
+     facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances for a
+     period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a
+     short distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer
+     of their peculiar burial customs, am able to give you this
+     true and undisguised information relative to your circular
+     on "burial customs."
+
+Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth coming
+in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the burial of
+the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. Fordyce
+Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection with the
+Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves _Kitty-ka-tats,_ or those
+of the tattooed eyelids.
+
+     When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through
+     the village and announces the fact. Preparations are
+     immediately made for the burial, and the body is taken
+     without delay to the grave prepared for its reception. If
+     the grave is some distance from the village, the body is
+     carried thither on the back of a pony, being first wrapped
+     in blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle, one
+     person walking on either side to support it. The grave is
+     dug from three to four feet deep and of sufficient length
+     for the extended body. First blankets and buffalo-robes are
+     laid in the bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken
+     from the horse and unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel
+     and with ornaments is placed upon a couch of blankets and
+     robes, with the head towards the west and the feet to the
+     east; the valuables belonging to the deceased are placed
+     with the body in the grave. With the man are deposited his
+     bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+     utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body
+     sticks are placed six or eight inches deep and grass over
+     these, so that when the earth is filled in, it need not come
+     in contact with the body or its trappings. After the grave
+     is filled with earth, a pen of poles is built around it, or
+     as is frequently the case, stakes are driven so that they
+     cross each other from either side about midway over the
+     grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion
+     of wild animals. After all this is done, the grass or other
+     _debris_ is carefully scraped from about the grave for
+     several feet, so that the ground is left smooth and clean.
+     It is seldom the case that the relatives accompany the
+     remains to the grave, but they more often employ others to
+     bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is similar
+     in this tribe, as in others, and it consists in cutting off
+     the hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave.
+
+The Caddoes, _Ascena,_ or Timber Indians, as they call themselves,
+follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but one custom
+prevailing is worthy of mention:
+
+     If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried,
+     but is left to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and
+     the condition of such individuals in the other world is
+     considered to be far better than that of persons dying a
+     natural death.
+
+
+In a work by Bruhier[9] the following remarks, freely translated by the
+writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the
+exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:
+
+     The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on
+     the roads, and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts
+     it was esteemed a great honor, a misfortune if not.
+     Sometimes they interred, always wrapping the dead in a wax
+     cloth to prevent odor.
+
+M. Pierre Muret,[10] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his
+information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar
+method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:
+
+     It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_
+     have ever had the renown of being one of the most civilized
+     Nations in the world, that notwithstanding they should have
+     used such barbarous customs about the Dead as are set down
+     in the Writings of some Historians; and the rather because
+     at this day there are still to be seen among them those
+     remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie us, that their
+     Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet nevertheless, if
+     we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_, the
+     _Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far
+     were they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them: But,
+     as these Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in
+     the open fields, which is the greatest shame our Laws do
+     allot to the most infamous Criminals, by laying them open to
+     the view of all upon the highways: Yea, in their opinion it
+     was a great unhappiness, if either Birds or Beasts did not
+     devour their Carcases; and they commonly made an estimate of
+     the Felicity of these poor Bodies, according as they were
+     sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning these, they
+     resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed,
+     since even the beasts themselves would not touch them; which
+     caused an extream sorrow to their Relations, they taking it
+     for an ill boding to their Family, and an infallible presage
+     of some great misfortune hanging over their heads; for they
+     persuaded themselves, that the Souls which inhabited those
+     Bodies being dragg'd into Hell, would not fail to come and
+     trouble them; and that being always accompanied with the
+     Devils, their Tormentors, they would certainly give them a
+     great deal of disturbance.
+
+     And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently
+     devoured, their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves
+     in praises of the Deceased; every one esteeming them
+     undoubtedly happy, and came to congratulate their relations
+     on that account: For as they believed assuredly, that they
+     were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so they were
+     persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all
+     those of their family.
+
+     They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones
+     scatered up and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely
+     endure to see those of Horses and Dogs used so. And these
+     remains of Humane Bodies, (the sight whereof gives us so
+     much horror, that we presently bury them out of our sight,
+     whenever we find them elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or
+     Church-yards) were the occasion of their greatest joy;
+     beecause they concluded from thence the happiness of those
+     that had been devoured, wishing after their Death to meet
+     with the like good luck.
+
+The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that the
+Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and
+of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the
+open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief being
+that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy at
+least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite
+probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians
+trained dogs for this special purpose, called _Canes sepulchrales,_
+which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper
+that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to
+dwell in.
+
+The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead on
+top of high rocks.
+
+According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London Times
+of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta regarding
+the "Towers of Silence," so called, of the Parsees, who, it is well
+known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from Persia
+by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 years
+since. This gentleman's narrative is freely made use of to show how the
+custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has continued up to
+the present time.
+
+     The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a
+     garden on the highest point of Malabar Hill, a beautiful,
+     rising ground on one side of Black Bay, noted for the
+     bungalows and compounds of the European and wealthier
+     inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every direction over its
+     surface.
+
+     The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private
+     road, all access to which, except to Parsees, is barred by
+     strong iron gates.
+
+The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:
+
+     No English nobleman's garden could be better kept, and no
+     pen could do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs,
+     cypresses, and palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of
+     a place of sacred silence, but of peaceful rest.
+
+The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about 40
+feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as almost
+to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest of the
+towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees first
+settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next
+oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next
+century. A sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only used
+for criminals.
+
+The writer proceeds as follows:
+
+     Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest
+     moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an
+     extraordinary coping, which instantly attracts and
+     fascinates the gaze. It is a coping formed not of dead
+     stone, but of living vultures. These birds, on the occasion
+     of my visit, had settled themselves side by side in perfect
+     order and in a complete circle around the parapets of the
+     towers, with their heads pointing inwards, and so lazily did
+     they sit there, and so motionless was their whole mien, that
+     except for their color, they might have been carved out of
+     the stonework.
+
+No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor is
+any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. A model
+was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this description:
+
+     Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet
+     high and at least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of
+     solid stone except in the center, where a well, 5 or 6 feet
+     across, leads down to an excavation under the masonry,
+     containing four drains at right angles to each other,
+     terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the upper
+     surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely
+     hiding the interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12
+     feet in height. This it is which, when viewed from the
+     outside, appears to form one piece with the solid
+     stone-work, and being, like it, covered with chunam, gives
+     the whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper surface
+     of the solid stone column is divided into 72 compartments,
+     or open receptacles, radiating like the spokes of a wheel
+     from the central well, and arranged in three concentric
+     rings, separated from each other by narrow ridges of stone,
+     which are grooved to act as channels for conveying all
+     moisture from the receptacles into the well and into the
+     lower drains. It should be noted that the number "3" is
+     emblematical of Zoroaster's three precepts, and the number
+     "72" of the chapters of his Yasna, a portion of the
+     Zend-Avest�.
+
+     Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next
+     by a pathway, so that there are three circular pathways, the
+     last encircling the central well, and these three pathways
+     are crossed by another pathway conducting from the solitary
+     door which admits the corpse-bearers from the exterior. In
+     the outermost circle of the stone coffins are placed the
+     bodies of males, in the middle those of the females, and in
+     the inner and smallest circle nearest the well those of
+     children.
+
+     While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the
+     model, a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our
+     heads. At least a hundred birds collected round one of the
+     towers began to show symptoms of excitement, while others
+     swooped down from neighboring trees. The cause of this
+     sudden abandonment of their previous apathy soon revealed
+     itself. A funeral was seen to be approaching. However
+     distant the house of a deceased person, and whether he be
+     rich or poor, high or low in rank, his body is always
+     carried to the towers by the official corpse-bearers, called
+     _Nasasal�r,_ who form a distinct class, the mourners walking
+     behind.
+
+     Before they remove the body from the house where the
+     relatives are assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and
+     the corpse is exposed to the gaze of a dog, regarded by the
+     Parsees as a sacred animal. This latter ceremony is called
+     _sagdid_.
+
+     Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a
+     curved metal trough, open at both ends, and the
+     corpse-bearers, dressed in pure white garments, proceed with
+     it towards the towers. They are followed by the mourners at
+     a distance of at least 30 feet, in pairs, also dressed in
+     white, and each couple joined by holding a white
+     handkerchief between them. The particular funeral I
+     witnessed was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers
+     reached the path leading by a steep incline to the door of
+     the tower, the mourners, about eight in number, turned back
+     and entered one of the prayer-houses. "There," said the
+     secretary, "they repeat certain g�th�s, and pray that the
+     spirit of the deceased may be safely transported, on the
+     fourth day after death, to its final resting-place."
+
+     The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which
+     other members of the same family had before been laid. The
+     two bearers speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed
+     the body of the child into the interior, and, unseen by any
+     one, laid it uncovered in one of the open stone receptacles
+     nearest the central well. In two minutes they reappeared
+     with the empty bier and white cloth, and scarcely had they
+     closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down upon the
+     body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes
+     more we saw the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle
+     down again upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind
+     but a skeleton. Meanwhile, the bearers were seen to enter a
+     building shaped like a high barrel. There, as the secretary
+     informed me, they changed their clothes and washed
+     themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come out and
+     deposit their cast-off funeral garments in a stone
+     receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden,
+     lest it should carry defilement into the city. Perfectly new
+     garments are supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or,
+     at most, four weeks, the same bearers return, and, with
+     gloved hands and implements resembling tongs, place the dry
+     skeleton in the central well. There the bones find their
+     last resting-place, and there the dust of whole generations
+     of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for centuries.
+
+     The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my
+     back on the towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I asked
+     the secretary how it was possible to become reconciled to
+     such usage. His reply was nearly in the following words:
+     "Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived 6,000 years ago, taught us
+     to regard the elements as symbols of the Deity. Earth, fire,
+     water, he said, ought never, under any circumstances, to be
+     defiled by contact with putrefying flesh. Naked, he said,
+     came we into the world and naked we ought to leave it. But
+     the decaying particles of our bodies should be dissipated as
+     rapidly as possible and in such a way that neither Mother
+     Earth nor the beings she supports should be contaminated in
+     the slightest degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest
+     of health officers, and, following his sanitary laws, we
+     build our towers on the tops of the hills, above all human
+     habitations. We spare no expense in constructing them of the
+     hardest materials, and we expose our putrescent bodies in
+     open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen feet of solid
+     granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures, but to
+     be dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without
+     the possibility of polluting the earth or contaminating a
+     single being dwelling thereon. God, indeed, sends the
+     vultures, and, as a matter of fact, these birds do their
+     appointed work much more expeditiously than millions of
+     insects would do if we committed our bodies to the ground.
+     In a sanitary point of view, nothing can be more perfect
+     than our plan. Even the rain-water which washes our
+     skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying charcoal.
+     Here in these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees
+     that have lived in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We
+     form a united body in life and we are united in death."
+
+It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of
+disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with
+the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which
+allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat
+similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the
+North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees,
+but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care
+is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the
+corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes
+or thongs.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence,
+drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.
+
+George Gibbs[11] gives the following account of burial among the Klamath
+and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been
+originally furnished him by James G. Swan.
+
+     The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their
+     houses, exhibit very considerable taste and a laudable care.
+     the dead are inclosed in rude coffins formed by placing four
+     boards around the body, and covered with earth to some
+     depth; a heavy plank, often supported by upright head and
+     foot stones, is laid upon the top, or stones are built up
+     into a wall about a foot above the ground, and the top
+     flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are
+     surrounded by neat wooden palings, each pale ornamented with
+     a feather from the tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are
+     usually staked down by the side, according to the wealth or
+     popularity of the individual, and sometimes other articles
+     for ornament or use are suspended over them. The funeral
+     ceremonies occupy three days, during which the soul of the
+     deceased is in danger from _O-mak-�_, or the devil. To
+     preserve it from this peril, a fire is kept up at the grave,
+     and the friends of the deceased howl around it to scare away
+     the demon. Should they not be successful in this the soul is
+     carried down the river, subject, however, to redemption by
+     _P�h-ko-wan_ on payment of a big knife. After the expiration
+     of three days it is all well with them.
+
+The question may well be asked, is the big knife a "sop to Cerberus"?
+
+To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States
+Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer
+is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary
+customs of the
+
+     WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.
+
+     A large proportion of these Indians being members of the
+     Presbyterian church (the missionaries of which church have
+     labored among them for more than forty years past), the dead
+     of their families are buried after the customs of that
+     church, and this influence is felt to a great extent among
+     those Indians who are not strict church members, so that
+     they are dropping one by one the traditional customs of
+     their tribe, and but few can now be found who bury their
+     dead in accordance with their customs of twenty or more
+     years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to
+     their modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated
+     below.
+
+     _Warrior_.--After death they paint a warrior red across the
+     mouth, or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb
+     on one side of the mouth and the fingers separated on the
+     other cheek, the rest of the face being painted red. (This
+     latter is only done as a mark of respect to a specially
+     brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the medicine-bag of the
+     deceased when alive are buried with the body, the
+     medicine-bag being placed on the bare skin over the region
+     of the heart. There is not now, nor has there been, among
+     these Indians any special preparation of the grave. The body
+     of a warrior is generally wrapped in a blanket or piece of
+     cloth (and frequently in addition is placed in a box) and
+     buried in the grave prepared for the purpose, always, as the
+     majority of these Indians inform me, with the head towards
+     the _south_. (I have, however, seen many graves in which the
+     head of the occupant had been placed to the _east_. It may
+     be that these graves were those of Indians who belonged to
+     the church; and a few Indians inform me that the head is
+     sometimes placed towards the _west_, according to the
+     occupant's belief when alive as to the direction from which
+     his guiding medicine came, and I am personally inclined to
+     give credence to this latter as sometimes occurring.) In all
+     burials, when the person has died a natural death, or had
+     not been murdered, and whether man, woman, or child, the
+     body is placed in the grave with the face _up_. In cases,
+     however, when a man or woman has been murdered by one of
+     their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the
+     grave with the face _down_, head to the _south_, and a piece
+     of fat (bacon or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of
+     fat is placed in the mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent
+     the spirit of the murdered person driving or scaring the
+     game from that section of country. Those Indians who state
+     that their dead are always buried with the head towards the
+     south say they do so in order that the spirit of the
+     deceased may go to the south, the land from which these
+     Indians believe they originally came.
+
+     _Women and children_.--Before death the face of the person
+     expected to die is often painted in a red color. When this
+     is not done before death it is done afterwards; the body
+     being then buried in a grave prepared for its reception, and
+     in the manner described for a warrior, cooking-utensils
+     taking the place of the warrior's weapons. In cases of boys
+     and girls a kettle of cooked food is sometimes placed at the
+     head of the grave after the body is covered. Now, if the
+     dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go
+     up and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls
+     do likewise. This, however, has never obtained as a custom,
+     but is sometimes done in cases of warriors and women also.
+
+     Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is
+     now, and always has been, a custom among them to remove a
+     lock of hair from the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or
+     from the left side of the head of a woman, which is
+     carefully preserved by some near relative of the deceased,
+     wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in the
+     lodge of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the
+     dead person. To the bundle is attached a tin cup or other
+     vessel, and in this is placed some food for the spirit of
+     the dead person. Whenever a stranger happens in at meal
+     time, this food, however, is not allowed to go to waste; if
+     not consumed by the stranger to whom it is offered, some of
+     the occupants of the lodge eat it. They seem to take some
+     pains to please the ghost of the deceased, thinking thereby
+     they will have good luck in their family so long as they
+     continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they
+     smoke to offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time
+     asking it to confer some favor on them, or aid them in their
+     work or in hunting, &c.
+
+     There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost
+     of the deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This
+     feast may be at any time, and is not at any particular time,
+     occurring, however, generally as often as once a year,
+     unless, at the time of the first feast, the friends
+     designate a particular time, such, for instance, as when the
+     leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle is
+     never permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the
+     dead person, except to be buried in the grave of one of
+     them. Much of the property of the deceased person is buried
+     with the body, a portion being placed under the body and a
+     portion over it. Horses are sometimes killed on the grave of
+     a warrior, but this custom is gradually ceasing, in
+     consequence of the value of their ponies. These animals are
+     therefore now generally given away by the person before
+     death, or after death disposed of by the near relatives.
+     Many years ago it was customary to kill one or more ponies
+     at the grave. In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an
+     Indian, much of his personal property is now, and has ever
+     been, reserved from burial with the body, and forms the
+     basis for a gambling party, which will be described
+     hereafter. No food is ever buried in the grave, but some is
+     occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case it is
+     consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the
+     method that was in vogue with these Indians twenty years
+     ago, and which is still adhered to, with more or less
+     exactness, by the majority of them, the exceptions being
+     those who are strict church members and those very few
+     families who adhere to their ancient customs.
+
+     Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as
+     the oldest members of these tribes can remember, and with
+     the usual tribal traditions handed down from generation to
+     generation, in regard to this as well as to other things,
+     for these Indians to bury in a tree or on a platform, and in
+     those days an Indian was only buried in the ground as a mark
+     of disrespect in consequence of the person having been
+     murdered, in which case the body would be buried in the
+     ground, _face down_, head toward the south and with a piece
+     of fat in the mouth. * * * The platform upon which the body
+     was deposited was constructed of four crotched posts firmly
+     set in the ground, and connected near the top by
+     cross-pieces, upon which was placed boards, when obtainable,
+     and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so as to give a
+     firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an
+     elevation of from six to eight or more feet, and never
+     contained but one body, although frequently having
+     sufficient surface to accommodate two or three. In burying
+     in the crotch of a tree and on platforms, the head of the
+     dead person was always placed towards the south; the body
+     was wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely tied,
+     and many of the personal effects of the deceased were
+     buried with it; as in the case of a warrior, his bows and
+     arrows, war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the
+     body, the Indians saying he would need such things in the
+     next world.
+
+     I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before
+     their outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near
+     relative whom they held in great respect with them on their
+     moves, for a greater or lesser time, often as long as two or
+     three years before burial. This, however, never obtained
+     generally among them, and some of them seem to know nothing
+     about it. It has of late years been entirely dropped, except
+     when a person dies away from home, it being then customary
+     for the friends to bring the body home for burial.
+
+     _Mourning ceremonies._--The mourning ceremonies before the
+     year 1860 were as follows: After the death of a warrior the
+     whole camp or tribe would be assembled in a circle, and
+     after the widow had cut herself on the arms, legs, and body
+     with a piece of flint, and removed the hair from her head,
+     she would go around the ring any number of times she chose,
+     but each time was considered as an oath that she would not
+     marry for a year, so that she could not marry for as many
+     years as times she went around the circle. The widow would
+     all this time keep up a crying and wailing. Upon the
+     completion of this the friends of the deceased would take
+     the body to the platform or tree where it was to remain,
+     keeping up all this time their wailing and crying. After
+     depositing the body, they would stand under it and continue
+     exhibiting their grief, the squaws by hacking their arms and
+     legs with flint and cutting off the hair from their head.
+     The men would sharpen sticks and run them through the skin
+     of their arms and legs, both men and women keeping up their
+     crying generally for the remainder of the day, and the near
+     relatives of the deceased for several days thereafter. As
+     soon as able, the warrior friends of the deceased would go
+     to a near tribe of their enemies and kill one or more of
+     them if possible, return with their scalps, and exhibit them
+     to the deceased person's relatives, after which their
+     mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as
+     properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when
+     their enemies were within reasonable striking distance,
+     such, for instance, as the Chippewas and the Arickarees,
+     Gros Ventres and Mandan Indians. In cases of women and
+     children, the squaws would cut off their hair, hack their
+     persons with flint, and sharpen sticks and run them through
+     the skin of the arms and legs, crying as for a warrior.
+
+     It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for
+     a squaw when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by
+     hanging herself with a lariat over the limb of a tree. This
+     could not have prevailed to any great extent, however,
+     although the old men recite several instances of its
+     occurrence, and a very few examples within recent years.
+     Such was their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since
+     which time it has gradually died out, and at the present
+     time these ancient customs are adhered to by but a single
+     family, known as the seven brothers, who appear to retain
+     all the ancient customs of their tribe. At the present time,
+     as a mourning observance, the squaws hack themselves on
+     their legs with knives, cut off their hair, and cry and wail
+     around the grave of the dead person, and the men in addition
+     paint their faces, but no longer torture themselves by means
+     of sticks passed through the skin of the arms and legs. This
+     cutting and painting is sometimes done before and sometimes
+     after the burial of the body. I also observe that many of
+     the women of these tribes are adopting so much of the
+     customs of the whites as prescribes the wearing of black for
+     certain periods. During the period of mourning these Indians
+     never wash their face, or comb their hair, or laugh. These
+     customs are observed with varying degree of strictness, but
+     not in many instances with that exactness which
+     characterized these Indians before the advent of the white
+     man among them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of
+     the person practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That
+     mutilation of a finger by removing one or more joints, so
+     generally observed among the Minnetarree Indians at the Fort
+     Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not here seen, although the old
+     men of these tribes inform me that it was an ancient custom
+     among their women, on the occasion of the burial of a
+     husband, to cut off a portion of a finger and have it
+     suspended in the tree above his body. I have, however, yet
+     to see an example of this having been done by any of the
+     Indians now living, and the custom must have fallen into
+     disuse more than seventy years ago.
+
+     In regard to the period of mourning, I would say that there
+     does not now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never
+     was, any fixed period of mourning, but it would seem that,
+     like some of the whites, they mourn when the subject is
+     brought to their minds by some remark or other occurrence.
+     It is not unusual at the present time to hear a man or woman
+     cry and exclaim, "O, my poor husband!" "O, my poor wife!" or
+     "O, my poor child!" as the case may be, and, upon inquiring,
+     learn that the event happened several years before. I have
+     elsewhere mentioned that in some cases much of the personal
+     property of the deceased was and is reserved from burial
+     with the body, and forms the basis of a gambling party. I
+     shall conclude my remarks upon the burial customs, &c., of
+     these Indians by an account of this, which they designate as
+     the "ghost's gamble."
+
+The account of the game will be found in another part of this paper.
+
+As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the
+tomb, a translation of Schiller's beautiful burial song is here given.
+It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:
+
+  BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.
+
+  See on his mat, as if of yore,
+    How lifelike sits he here;
+  With the same aspect that he wore
+    When life to him was dear.
+  But where the right arm's strength, and where
+    The breath he used to breathe
+  To the Great Spirit aloft in air,
+    The peace-pipe's lusty wreath?
+  And where the hawk-like eye, alas!
+    That wont the deer pursue
+  Along the waves of rippling grass,
+    Or fields that shone with dew?
+  Are these the limber, bounding feet
+    That swept the winter snows?
+  What startled deer was half so fleet,
+    Their speed outstripped the roe's.
+  These hands that once the sturdy bow
+    Could supple from its pride,
+  How stark and helpless hang they now
+    Adown the stiffened side!
+  Yet weal to him! at peace he strays
+    Where never fall the snows,
+  Where o'er the meadow springs the maize
+    That mortal never sows;
+  Where birds are blithe in every brake,
+    Where forests teem with deer,
+  Where glide the fish through every lake,
+    One chase from year to year!
+  With spirits now he feasts above;
+    All left us, to revere
+  The deeds we cherish with our love,
+    The rest we bury here.
+  Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill
+    Wail death-dirge of the brave
+  What pleased him most in life may still
+    Give pleasure in the grave.
+  We lay the axe beneath his head
+    He swung when strength was strong,
+  The bear on which his hunger fed--
+    The way from earth is long!
+  And here, new-sharpened, place the knife
+    Which severed from the clay,
+  From which the axe had spoiled the life,
+    The conquered scalp away.
+  The paints that deck the dead bestow,
+    Aye, place them in his hand,
+  That red the kingly shade may glow
+    Amid the spirit land.
+
+The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. McChesney,
+face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of Indians,
+is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a cemetery
+belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near Abiqum,
+N. Mex., a number of bodies, all of which had been buried face downward.
+The account originally appeared in Field and Forest, 1877, vol. iii, No.
+1, p. 9.
+
+     On each side of the town were noticed two small arroyas or
+     water washed ditches, within 30 feet of the walls, and a
+     careful examination of these revealed the objects of our
+     search. At the bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly
+     formed subsequent to the occupation of the village, we found
+     portions of human remains, and following up the walls of the
+     ditch soon had the pleasure of discovering several skeletons
+     _in situ_. The first found was in the eastern arroya, and
+     the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the surface of
+     the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face
+     downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the
+     skeleton were two shining black earthen vases, containing
+     small bits of charcoal, the bones of mammals, birds, and
+     partially consumed corn, and above these "_ollas_" the earth
+     to the surface was filled with pieces of charcoal. Doubtless
+     the remains found in the vases served at a funeral feast
+     prior to the inhumation. We examined very carefully this
+     grave, hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or weapons,
+     but none rewarded our search. In all of the graves examined
+     the bodies were found in similar positions and under similar
+     circumstances in both arroyas, several of the skeletons
+     being those of children. No information could be obtained as
+     to the probable age of these interments, the present Indians
+     considering them as dating from the time when their
+     ancestors with Montezuma came from the north.
+
+The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W.J. Hoffman,[12] in disposing
+of their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any
+needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner:
+
+     The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe,
+     partially wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity
+     left by the removal of a small rock or the stump of a tree.
+     After the body has been crammed into the smallest possible
+     space the rock or stump is again rolled into its former
+     position, when a number of stones are placed around the base
+     to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin usually mourn
+     for the period of one month, during that time giving
+     utterance at intervals to the most dismal lamentations,
+     which are apparently sincere. During the day this obligation
+     is frequently neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner
+     is reminded of his duty he renews his howling with evident
+     interest. This custom of mourning for the period of thirty
+     days corresponds to that formerly observed by the Natchez.
+
+Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in the
+life of Moses Van Campen,[13] which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:
+
+     Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had
+     fallen in battle, which they did by rolling an old log from
+     its place and laying the body in the hollow thus made, and
+     then heaping upon it a little earth.
+
+As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:
+
+     CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.
+
+     Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The
+     Indians plant a stake on the right side of the head of the
+     deceased and bury them in a bark canoe. Their children come
+     every year to bring provisions to the place where their
+     fathers are buried. One of the graves had fallen in, and we
+     observed in the soil some sticks for stretching skins, the
+     remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps for carrying it,
+     and near the place where the head lay were the traces of a
+     fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased to
+     come and warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited
+     near it.
+
+     These were probably the Massasanga Indians, then inhabiting
+     the north shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather
+     intruders here, the country being claimed by the Oneidas.
+
+It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was
+discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may
+have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his
+vocation--nets, fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was
+only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians,
+that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were
+employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of
+skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the
+only example of the kind.
+
+Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus
+described:
+
+     The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a
+     pitpan which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the
+     funeral and drown their grief in _mushla_, the women giving
+     vent to their sorrow by dashing themselves on the ground
+     until covered with blood, and inflicting other tortures,
+     occasionally even committing suicide. As it is supposed that
+     the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body,
+     musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while
+     preparations are made for its removal. All at once four
+     naked men, who have disguised themselves with paint so as
+     not to be recognized and punished by _Wulasha_, rush out
+     from a neighboring hut, and, seizing a rope attached to the
+     canoe, drag it into the woods, followed by the music and the
+     crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow,
+     arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the
+     departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the boat
+     is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the
+     grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink,
+     and other articles placed there from time to time by
+     relatives.
+
+
+STONE GRAVES OR CISTS
+
+These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in
+the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the
+class of graves previously described.
+
+A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus described
+by Moses Fiske[14]
+
+     There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with
+     regular graves. They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed
+     slabs at the bottom ends and sides, forming a kind of stone
+     coffin, and, after laying in the body, covered it over with
+     earth.
+
+It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a
+number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutr�, in France,
+and they were almost identical in construction with those described by
+Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, this,
+however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a deposition
+of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which have
+elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer in
+1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom and
+sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were none
+directly over the skeletons.
+
+The next account is by Maj. J.W. Powell, the result of his own
+observation in Tennessee.
+
+     The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant
+     throughout the State. Often hundreds of graves may be found
+     on a single hillside. The same people sometimes bury in
+     scattered graves and in mounds--the mounds being composed of
+     a large number of cist graves. The graves are increased by
+     additions from time to time. The additions are sometimes
+     placed above and sometimes at the sides of the others. In
+     the first burials there is a tendency to a concentric system
+     with the feet towards the center, but subsequent burials are
+     more irregular, so that the system is finally abandoned
+     before the place is desired for cemetery purposes.
+
+     Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of
+     interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed
+     there before the decay of the flesh, and in many instances
+     collections of bones are buried. Sometimes these bones are
+     placed in some order about the crania, and sometimes in
+     irregular piles, as if the collection of bones had been
+     emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers, knives,
+     arrowheads, &c., were usually found, with women, pottery,
+     rude beads, shells, &c., with children, toys of pottery,
+     beads, curious pebbles, &c.
+
+     Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a
+     previous burial was used as a portion of the second cist.
+     All of the cists were covered with slabs.
+
+Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work[15] the reader is referred for a
+more detailed account of this mode of burial.
+
+G.K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the
+writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to
+their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a
+receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the
+hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the
+dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave
+by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground
+after the grave is filled in.
+
+The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George Escoll
+Sellers,[16] inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which is
+as follows:
+
+     Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about
+     30�, it has been terraced and the terrace as well as the
+     crown of the spur have been used as a cemetery; portions of
+     the terraces are still perfect; all the burials appear to
+     have been made in rude stone cists, that vary in size from
+     13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4 feet, and from 18 inches
+     to 2 feet deep. They are made of thin-bedded sandstone
+     slabs, generally roughly shaped, but some of them have been
+     edged and squared with considerable care, particularly the
+     covering slabs. The slope below the terraces was thickly
+     strewed with these slabs, washed out as the terraces have
+     worn away, and which have since been carried off for
+     door-steps and hearth-stones. I have opened many of these
+     cists; they nearly all contain fragments of human bones far
+     gone in decay, but I have never succeeded in securing a
+     perfect skull; even the clay vessels that were interred with
+     the dead have disintegrated, the portions remaining being
+     almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some of the cists
+     that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water
+     shells, but most generally with the fragments of the great
+     salt-pans, which in every case are so far gone in decay as
+     to have lost the outside markings. This seems conclusively
+     to couple the tenants of these ancient graves with the
+     makers and users of these salt-pans. The great number of
+     graves and the quantity of slabs that have been washed out
+     prove either a dense population or a long occupancy, or
+     both.
+
+W.J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a
+description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from
+other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.
+
+     I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some
+     twenty-five years ago, of seeing what was called "Indian
+     graves," and those that I examined were close to small
+     streams of water, and were buried in a sitting or squatting
+     posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones, and were then
+     buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves which
+     I examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to
+     be isolated, no two being found in the same locality. When
+     the burials took place I could hardly conjecture, but it
+     must have been, from appearances, from fifty to one hundred
+     years. The bones that I took out on first appearance seemed
+     tolerably perfect, but on short exposure to the atmosphere
+     crumbled, and I was unable to save a specimen. No implements
+     or relics were observed in those examined by me, but I have
+     heard of others who have found such. In that State,
+     Kentucky, there are a number of places where the Indians
+     buried their dead and left mounds of earth over the graves,
+     but I have not examined them myself. * * *
+
+According to Bancroft,[17] the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central
+America, also followed the cist form of burial.
+
+     In Veragia the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the
+     principal men, constructed with flat stones laid together
+     with much care, and in which were placed costly jars and
+     urns filled with food and wine for the dead. Those for the
+     plebians were merely trenches, in which were deposited some
+     gourds of maize and wine, and the place filled with stones.
+     In some parts of Panama and Darien only the chiefs and lords
+     received funeral rites. Among the common people a person
+     feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led
+     to the woods by his wife, family, or friends, who, supplying
+     him with some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water,
+     then left him to die alone or to be assisted by wild beasts.
+     Others, with more respect for their dead, buried them in
+     sepulchers made with niches, where they placed maize and
+     wine and renewed the same annually. With some, a mother
+     dying while suckling her infant, the living child was placed
+     at her breast and buried with her, in order that in her
+     future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk.
+
+
+BURIAL IN MOUNDS.
+
+In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote
+any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting
+examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.
+
+The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F.W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology,
+Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is
+published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:
+
+     * * * He then stated that it would be of interest to the
+     members, in connection with the discovery of dolmens in
+     Japan, as described by Professor Morse, to know that within
+     twenty-four hours there had been received at the Peabody
+     Museum a small collection of articles taken from rude
+     dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they would be called in
+     England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now
+     engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody
+     Museum.
+
+     These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of
+     Clay County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides
+     of the Missouri River. The chambers are, in the three opened
+     by Mr. Curtiss, about 8 feet square, and from 4 1/2 to 5
+     feet high, each chamber having a passage-way several feet in
+     length and 2 in width, leading from the southern side and
+     opening on the edge of the mound formed by covering the
+     chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls of the
+     chambered passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and
+     well made of stones, which were evenly laid without clay or
+     mortar of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a
+     covering of large, flat rocks, but the others seem to have
+     been closed over with wood. The chambers were filled with
+     clay which had been burnt, and appeared as if it had fallen
+     in from above. The inside walls of the chambers also showed
+     signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each chamber, were
+     found the remains of several human skeletons, all of which
+     had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small
+     fragments of the bones, which were mixed with the ashes and
+     charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in one chamber he found
+     the remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these
+     skeletons there were a few flint implements and minute
+     fragments of vessels of clay.
+
+     A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but
+     in this no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been
+     burnt. This mound proved remarkably rich in large flint
+     implements, and also contained well-made pottery and a
+     peculiar "gorget" of red stone. The connection of the people
+     who placed the ashes of their dead in the stone chambers
+     with those who buried their dead in the earth mounds is, of
+     course, yet to be determined.
+
+It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used for
+secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.
+
+In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same investigator
+gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the
+preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:
+
+     Mr. F.W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an
+     account of his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial
+     places in the Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.
+
+     The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by
+     Mr. Edwin Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of
+     the Peabody Museum at Cambridge. During this time many
+     mounds of various kinds had been thoroughly explored, and
+     several thousand of the singular stone graves of the mound
+     builders of Tennessee had been carefully opened. * * * Mr.
+     Putnam's remarks were illustrated by drawings of several
+     hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds,
+     particularly to show the great variety of articles of
+     pottery and several large and many unique forms of
+     implements of chipped flint. He also exhibited and explained
+     in detail a map of a walled town of this old nation. This
+     town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a bend of
+     Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying
+     ditch, encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this
+     inclosure there was one large mound with a flat top, 15 feet
+     high, 130 feet long, and 90 feet wide, which was found not
+     to be a burial mound. Another mound near the large one,
+     about 50 feet in diameter, and only a few feet high,
+     contained 60 human skeletons, each in a carefully-made stone
+     grave, the graves being arranged in two rows, forming the
+     four sides of a square, and in three layers. * * * The most
+     important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of
+     finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived in
+     this old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located
+     on the map by Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the
+     survey for Mr. Putnam. Under the floors of hard clay, which
+     was in places much burnt, Mr. Putnam found the graves of
+     children. As only the bodies of adults had been placed in
+     the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly every site of
+     a house he explored had from one to four graves of children
+     under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a regular
+     custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that
+     the children had undoubtedly been treated with affection, as
+     in their small graves were found many of the best pieces of
+     pottery he obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads,
+     several large pearls, and many other objects which were
+     probably the playthings of the little ones while living.[18]
+
+This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it is
+frequently mentioned by writers on North American archaeology.
+
+The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part
+used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless common.
+
+Caleb Atwater[19] gives this description of the
+
+     BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.
+
+     Near the center of the round fort * * * was a tumulus of
+     earth about 10 feet in height and several rods in diameter
+     at its base. On its eastern side, and extending 6 rods from
+     it, was a semicircular pavement composed of pebbles such as
+     are now found in the bed of the Scioto River, from whence
+     they appear to have been brought. The summit of this tumulus
+     was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was a raised way
+     to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike. The
+     summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement
+     and the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this
+     mound was entirely removed several years since. The writer
+     was present at its removal and carefully examined the
+     contents. It contained--
+
+     1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the
+     original surface of the earth.
+
+     2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so
+     large as to induce a belief that they were used as
+     spear-heads.
+
+     3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made
+     of an elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been
+     inserted was a ferule of silver, which, though black, was
+     not much injured by time. Though the handle showed the hole
+     where the blade had been inserted, yet no iron was found,
+     but an oxyde remained of similar shape and size.
+
+     4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay,
+     which were surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The
+     skeleton appeared to have been burned in a large and very
+     hot fire, which had almost consumed the bones of the
+     deceased. This skeleton was deposited a little to the south
+     of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet to the north
+     of it was another, with which were--
+
+     5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1-1/2
+     inches in thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica
+     membranacea_), and on it--
+
+     6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before
+     it was disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast
+     iron. The mirrour answered the purpose very well for which
+     it was intended. This skeleton had also been burned like the
+     former, and lay on charcoal and a considerable quantity of
+     wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is in my possession, as
+     well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at the time.
+     The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum, at
+     Philadelphia.
+
+     To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is
+     another, more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the
+     plate representing these works. It stands on a large hill,
+     which appears to be artificial. This must have been the
+     common cemetery, as it contains an immense number of human
+     skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid
+     horizontally, with their heads generally towards the center
+     and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus. A
+     considerable part of this work still stands uninjured,
+     except by time. In it have been found, besides these
+     skeletons, stone axes and knives, and several ornaments,
+     with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord
+     passing through these perforations, they could be worn by
+     their owners. On the south side of this tumulus, and not far
+     from it, was a semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw
+     it, was 6 feet deep. On opening it was discovered at the
+     bottom a great quantity of human bones, which I am inclined
+     to believe were the remains of those who had been slain in
+     some great and destructive battle: first, because they
+     belonged to persons who had attained their full size,
+     whereas in the mound adjoining were found the skeletons of
+     persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were here in the
+     utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not
+     conjecture that they belonged to the people who resided in
+     the town, and who were victorious in the engagement?
+     Otherwise they would not have been thus honorably buried in
+     the common cemetery.
+
+     _Chillicothe mound._--Its perpendicular height was about 15
+     feet, and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was
+     composed of sand and contained human bones belonging to
+     skeletons which were buried in different parts of it. It was
+     not until this pile of earth was removed and the original
+     surface exposed to view that a probable conjecture of its
+     original design could be formed. About 20 feet square of the
+     surface had been leveled and covered with bark. On the
+     center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been
+     spread a mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the
+     breast lay what had been a piece of copper, in the form of a
+     cross, which had now become verdigris. On the breast also
+     lay a stone ornament with two perforations, one near each
+     end, through which passed a string, by means of which it was
+     suspended around the wearer's neck. On this string, which
+     was made of sinews, and very much injured by time, were
+     placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I
+     cannot certainly say which. * * *
+
+     _Mounds of stone._--Two such mounds have been described
+     already in the county of Perry. Others have been found in
+     various parts of the country. There is one at least in the
+     vicinity of Licking River, not many miles from Newark. There
+     is another on a branch of Hargus's Creek, a few miles to the
+     northeast of Circleville. There were several not very far
+     from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds were sometimes
+     used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they were also
+     used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the
+     recollection of some great transaction or event. In the
+     former not more generally than one or two skeletons are
+     found; in the latter none. These mounds are like those of
+     earth, in form of a cone, composed of small stones on which
+     no marks of tools were visible. In them some of the most
+     interesting articles are found, such as urns, ornaments of
+     copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal, as well as
+     medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; * * * works of
+     this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they
+     are none of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in
+     the town of Circleville, which belong to the first class. I
+     saw one of these stone tumuli which had been piled on the
+     surface of the earth on the spot where three skeletons had
+     been buried in stone coffins, beneath the surface. It was
+     situated on the western edge of the hill on which the
+     "walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to
+     have been dug to about the depth of ours in the present
+     times. After the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat
+     stones, the corpses were placed in these graves in an
+     eastern and western direction, and large flat stones were
+     laid over the graves; then the earth which had been dug out
+     of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of stones
+     was placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however,
+     that this was a work of our present race of Indians. Such
+     graves are more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article,
+     except the skeletons, was found in these graves; and the
+     skeletons resembled very much the present race of Indians.
+
+The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W.C.
+Holbrook[20] as follows:
+
+     I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian
+     mounds found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling,
+     Ill. The first one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet
+     long, 12 feet wide, and 7 feet high. In the interior of this
+     I found a _dolmen_ or quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long,
+     4 feet high, and 4 1/2 feet wide. It had been built of
+     lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was covered with large
+     flat stones. No mortar or cement had been used. The whole
+     structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
+     interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the
+     chamber. Inside of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed
+     remains of eight human skeletons, two very large teeth of an
+     unknown animal, two fossils, one of which is not found in
+     this place, and a plummet. One of the long bones had been
+     splintered; the fragments had united, but there remained
+     large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several places.
+     One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the
+     size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during
+     life, for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. I later
+     examined three circular mounds, but in them I found no
+     dolmens. The first mound contained three adult human
+     skeletons, a few fragments of the skeleton of a child, the
+     lower maxillary of which indicated it to be about six years
+     old. I also found claws of some carnivorous animal. The
+     surface of the soil had been scooped out and the bodies laid
+     in the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth;
+     fires had then been made upon the grave and the mound
+     afterwards completed. The bones had not been charred. No
+     charcoal was found among the bones, but occurred in
+     abundance in a stratum about one foot above them. Two other
+     mounds, examined at the same time, contain no remains.
+
+     Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular,
+     about 4 feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and
+     was situated on an elevated point of land close to the bank
+     of the river. From the top of this mound one might view the
+     country for many miles in almost any direction. On its
+     summit was an oval altar 6 feet long and 4 1/2 wide. It was
+     composed of flat pieces of limestone, which had been burned
+     red, some portions having been almost converted into lime.
+     On and about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At
+     the sides of the altar were fragments of human bones, some
+     of which had been charred. It was covered by a natural
+     growth of vegetable mold and sod, the thickness of which was
+     about 10 inches. Large trees had once grown in this
+     vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed I could not
+     tell with certainty; to what species they belonged. Another
+     large mound was opened which contained nothing.
+
+The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
+was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army:[21]
+
+     Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians
+     were buried in it in an upright position, each one with a
+     clay pot on his head. This idea was based upon some
+     superficial explorations which had been made from time to
+     time by curiosity hunters. Their excavations had, indeed,
+     brought to light pots containing fragments of skulls, but
+     not buried in the position they imagined. Very extensive
+     explorations, made at different times by myself, have shown
+     that only fragments of skulls and of the long bones of the
+     body are to be found in the mound, and that these are
+     commonly associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but
+     more frequently broken fragments only. In some instances
+     portions of the skull were placed in a pot, and the long
+     bones were deposited in its immediate vicinity. Again, the
+     pots would contain only sand, and fragments of bones would
+     be found near them. The most successful "find" I made was a
+     whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all in a
+     good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of
+     skull, which I take, from its small size, to have been that
+     of a female. Whether this female was thus distinguished
+     above all others buried in the mound by the number of pots
+     deposited with her remains because of her skill in the
+     manufacture of such ware, or by reason of the unusual wealth
+     of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter of
+     conjecture. I found, altogether, fragments of skulls and
+     thigh-bones belonging to at least fifty individuals, but in
+     no instance did I find anything like a complete skeleton.
+     There wore no vertebrae, no ribs, no pelvic bones, and none
+     of the small bones of the hands and feet. Two or three
+     skulls, nearly perfect, were found, but they were so fragile
+     that it was impossible to preserve them. In the majority of
+     instances, only fragments of the frontal and parietal bones
+     were found, buried in pots or in fragments of pots too small
+     to have ever contained a complete skull. The conclusion was
+     irresistible that this was not a burial-place for _the
+     bodies_ of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been
+     gathered from some other locality for burial in this mound,
+     or that cremation was practiced before burial, and the
+     fragments of bone not consumed by fire were gathered and
+     deposited in the mound. That the latter supposition is the
+     correct one I deem probable from the fact that in digging in
+     the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places,
+     but without any regularity as to depth and position. These
+     evidences consist in strata of from one to four inches in
+     thickness, in which the sand is of a dark color and has
+     mixed with it numerous small fragments of charcoal.
+
+     My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion
+     in the following manner: That when a death occurred a
+     funeral pyre was erected on the mound, upon which the body
+     was placed. That after the body was consumed, any fragments
+     of bones remaining were gathered, placed in a pot, and
+     buried, and that the ashes and cinders were covered by a
+     layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for that
+     purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that
+     only the shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded
+     extremities, which would be most easily consumed, having
+     disappeared; also, by the fact that no bones of children
+     were found. Their bones being smaller, and containing a less
+     proportion of earthy matter, would be entirely consumed. * *
+     *
+
+     At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different.
+     Here I found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine
+     well-preserved skulls. * * * The bodies were not,
+     apparently, deposited upon any regular system, and I found
+     no objects of interest associated with the remains. It may
+     be that this was due to the fact that the skeletons found
+     were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in which
+     they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the
+     fact that they were all males, and that two of the skulls
+     bore marks of ante-mortem injuries which must have been of a
+     fatal character.
+
+Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,[22] in alluding to the ossuary, or
+bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation
+takes place, in this manner:
+
+     Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest
+     relatives of the deceased to the place of interment, where
+     they are all piled one upon another in the form of a
+     pyramid, and the conical hill of earth heaped above.
+
+     The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization
+     of a festival called the feast of the dead.
+
+Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a somewhat
+curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley of Ohio:
+
+     A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago,
+     containing a central corpse in a sitting posture, and over
+     thirty skeletons buried around it in a circle, also in a
+     sitting posture, but leaning against one another, tipped
+     over towards the right, facing inwards. I did not see this
+     opened, but have seen the mounds and many ornaments, awls,
+     &c., said to have been found near the central body. The
+     parties informing me are trustworthy.
+
+As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting as
+being _sui generis_, the following description by Dr. J. Mason
+Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11, 1871,
+on the farm of R.V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke County,
+N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer of
+undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:
+
+     EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.
+
+     In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he
+     informed me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which
+     was formerly of considerable height, but had gradually been
+     plowed down; that several mounds in the neighborhood had
+     been excavated, and nothing of interest found in them. I
+     asked permission to examine this mound, which was granted,
+     and upon investigation the following facts were revealed:
+
+     Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in
+     length and ran it down in the earth at several places, and
+     finally struck a rock about 18 inches below the surface,
+     which, on digging down, was found to be smooth on top, lying
+     horizontally upon solid earth, about 18 inches above the
+     bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, and 16 inches in
+     width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with the corners
+     rounded.
+
+     Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an
+     excavation in the south of the grave, and soon struck
+     another rock, which, upon examination, proved to be in front
+     of the remains of a human skeleton in a sitting posture. The
+     bones of the fingers of the right hand were resting on this
+     rock, and on the rock near the hand was a small stone about
+     5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon
+     a further examination many of the bones were found, though
+     in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air
+     soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a
+     considerable portion of the skull, maxillary bones, teeth,
+     neck bones, and the vertebra, were in their proper places,
+     though the weight of the earth above them had driven them
+     down, yet the entire frame was so perfect that it was an
+     easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones of the cranium
+     were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the neck were
+     found coarse beads that seemed to be of some hard substance
+     and resembled chalk. A small lump of red paint about the
+     size of an egg was found near the right side of this
+     skeleton. The sutures of the cranium indicated the subject
+     to have been 25 or 28 years of age, and its top rested about
+     12 inches below the mark of the plow.
+
+     I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave
+     and found another skeleton, similar to the first, in a
+     sitting posture, facing the east. A rock was on the right,
+     on which the bones of the right hand were resting, and on
+     this rock was a tomahawk which had been about 7 inches in
+     length, but was broken into two pieces, and was much better
+     finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck of
+     this one, but were much smaller and of finer quality than
+     those on the neck of the first. The material, however, seems
+     to be the same. A much larger amount of paint was found by
+     the side of this than the first. The bones indicated a
+     person of large frame, who, I think, was about 50 years of
+     age. Everything about this one had the appearance of
+     superiority over the first. The top of the skull was about 6
+     inches below the mark of the plane.
+
+     I continued the examination, and, after diligent search,
+     found nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on
+     reaching the east, found another skeleton, in the same
+     posture as the others, facing the west. On the right side of
+     this was a rock on which the bones of the right hand were
+     resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, which had been
+     about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
+     pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better
+     finished than the others. Beads were also found on the neck
+     of this, but much smaller and finer than those of the
+     others. A larger amount of paint than both of the others was
+     found near this one. The top of the cranium had been moved
+     by the plow. The bones indicated a person of 40 years of
+     age.
+
+     There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the
+     smaller bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would
+     crumble when taken from their bed in the earth. These two
+     circumstances, coupled with the fact that the farm on which
+     this grave was found was the first settled in that part of
+     the country, the date of the first deed made from Lord
+     Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years (the
+     land still belonging to the descendants of the same family
+     that first occupied it), would prove beyond doubt that it is
+     a very old grave.
+
+     The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by
+     6 feet, the line being distinctly marked by the difference
+     in the color of the soil. It was dug in rich, black loam,
+     and filled around the bodies with white or yellow sand,
+     which I suppose was carried from the river-bank, 200 yards
+     distant. The skeletons approximated the walls of the grave,
+     and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth, and so
+     decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both
+     in quality and odor, that the line of the bodies could be
+     readily traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had
+     been flesh, was similar to clotted blood, and would adhere
+     in lumps when compressed in the hand.
+
+     This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we
+     find pots made of earth or stone, and all the implements of
+     war, for the warrior had an idea that after he arose from
+     the dead he would need, in the "hunting-grounds beyond," his
+     bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and scalping-knife.
+
+     The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who
+     will carefully read the account of this remarkable burial
+     that the American Indians were in possession of at least
+     some of the mysteries of our order, and that it was
+     evidently the grave of Masons, and the three highest
+     officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave was situated due east
+     and west; an altar was erected in the center; the south,
+     west, and east were occupied--_the north was not;_
+     implements of authority were near each body. The difference
+     in the quality of the beads, the tomahawks in one, two, and
+     three pieces, and the difference in distance that the bodies
+     were placed from the surface, indicate beyond doubt that
+     these three persons had been buried by Masons, and those,
+     too, that understood what they were doing.
+
+     Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the
+     Masonic world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic
+     information?
+
+     The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads,
+     and other bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian
+     Institution at Washington, D.C., to be placed among the
+     archives of that institution for exhibition, at which place
+     they may be seen.
+
+Should Dr. Spainhour's inferences be incorrect, there is still a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.
+
+In support of this gentleman's views, attention is called to the
+description of the _Midawan_--a ceremony of initiation for would-be
+medicine men--in Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of the
+United States, 1855, p. 428, relating to the Sioux and Chippewas. In
+this account are found certain forms and resemblances which have led
+some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of Masonry.
+
+
+BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--they
+differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial burial,
+and must consequently fall under another caption. The narratives which
+are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former kinds of burial.
+
+Bartram[23] relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the
+Carolinas:
+
+     The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a
+     four-foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which
+     the deceased laid on in his house, lining the grave with
+     cypress bark, when they place the corpse in a sitting
+     posture, as if it were alive, depositing with him his gun,
+     tomahawk, pipe, and such other matters as he had the
+     greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest wife, or the
+     queen dowager, has the second choice of his possessions, and
+     the remaining effects are divided among his other wives and
+     children.
+
+According to Bernard Roman,[24] the "funeral customs of the Chickasaws
+did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred
+the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired."
+
+The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:
+
+     The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies,
+     closing up the house or hogan or covering the body with
+     stones or brush. In case the body is removed, it is taken to
+     a cleft in the rocks and thrown in, and stones piled over.
+     The person touching or carrying the body first takes off all
+     his clothes and afterwards washes his body with water before
+     putting them on or mingling with the living. When a body is
+     removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and
+     the place in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the
+     devil comes to the place of death and remains where a dead
+     body is. Wild animals frequently (indeed, generally) get the
+     bodies, and it is a very easy matter to pick up skulls and
+     bones around old camping grounds, or where the dead are
+     laid. In case it is not desirable to abandon a place, the
+     sick person is left out in some lone spot protected by
+     brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or food
+     brought to them until they die. This is done only when all
+     hope is gone. I have found bodies thus left so well inclosed
+     with brush that wild animals were unable to get at them; and
+     one so left to die was revived by a cup of coffee from our
+     house and is still living and well.
+
+Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal
+communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr.
+Menard, as follows:
+
+     This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a
+     reservation in the extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico
+     and Northeastern Arizona. The funeral ceremonies of the
+     Navajos are of the most simple character. They ascribe the
+     death of an individual to the direct action of _Chinde_, or
+     the devil, and believe that he remains in the vicinity of
+     the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the tribe
+     dies a shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by
+     one of the near male relatives, and into this the corpse is
+     unceremoniously tumbled by the relatives, who have
+     previously protected themselves from the evil influence by
+     smearing their naked bodies with tar from the pinon tree.
+     After the body has thus been disposed of, the hogan
+     (composed of logs and branches of trees covered with earth)
+     is pulled down over it and the place deserted. Should the
+     deceased have no near relatives or was of no importance in
+     the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed
+     with, the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This
+     carelessness does not appear to arise from want of natural
+     affection for the dead, but fear of the evil influence of
+     _Chinde_ upon the surviving relatives causes them to avoid
+     doing anything that might gain for them his ill-will. A
+     Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the logs of a
+     fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have
+     been years in that condition. There are no mourning
+     observances other than smearing the forehead and under the
+     eyes with tar, which is allowed to remain until worn off,
+     and then not renewed. The deceased is apparently forgotten,
+     as his name is never spoken by the survivors for fear of
+     giving offense to _Chinde_.
+
+J.L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the Navajos:
+
+     When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in
+     the ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and
+     wrap the body into as small a bulk as possible in blankets,
+     tie them firmly with cords, place them in the grave, throw
+     in beads, baskets, clothing, everything owned by the
+     deceased, and often donating much extra; all gathered around
+     the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their faces with
+     their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks, pull
+     out their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These
+     burials were generally made under their thatch houses or
+     very near thereto. The house where one died was always torn
+     down, removed, rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks,
+     &c., were in their own jargon; none else could understand,
+     and they seemingly knew but little of its meaning (if there
+     was any meaning in it); it simply seemed to be the
+     promptings of grief, without sufficient intelligence to
+     direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out his own impulse.
+
+The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,[25] relating to the
+Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example
+of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to
+consider the receptacles as temples.
+
+     Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n'ent�rent point leur Chef,
+     lorsqu'il est d�c�d�; mais-ils font s�cher son cadavre au
+     feu et � la fum�e de fa�on qu'ils en font un vrai squelette.
+     Apr�s l'avoir r�duit en cet �tat, ils le portent au Temple
+     (car ils en ont un ainsi que les Natchez), et le mettent �
+     la place de son pr�d�cesseur, qu'ils tirent de l'endroit
+     qu'il occupoit, pour le porter avec les corps de leurs
+     autres Chefs dans le fond du Temple o� ils sont tous rang�s
+     de suite dress�s sur leurs pieds comme des statues. A
+     l'�gard du dernier mort, il est expos� � l'entr�e de ce
+     Temple sur une esp�ce d'autel ou de table faite de cannes,
+     et couverte d'une natte tr�s-fine travaill�e fort proprement
+     en quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces m�mes
+     cannes. Le cadavre du Chef est expos� au milieu de cette
+     table droit sur ses pieds, soutenu par derri�re par une
+     longue perche peinte en rouge dont le bout passe au dessus
+     de sa t�te, et � laquelle il est attach� par le milieu du
+     corps avec une liane. D'une main il tient un casse-t�te ou
+     une petite hache, de l'autre un pipe; et au-dessus de sa
+     t�te, est attach� au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le
+     Calumet le plus fameux de tous ceux qui lui ont �t�
+     pr�sent�s pendant sa vie. Du reste cette table n'est gu�res
+     �lev�e de terre que d'un demi-pied; mais elle a au moins six
+     pieds de large et dix de longueur.
+
+     C'est sur cette table qu'on vient tous les jours servir �
+     manger � ce Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de
+     sagamit�, du bled grol� ou boucan�, &c. C'est-l� aussi qu'au
+     commencement de toutes les r�coltes ses Sujets vont lui
+     offrir les premiers de tous les fruits qu'ils peuvent
+     recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est pr�sent� de la sorte reste
+     sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est toujours
+     ouverte, qu'il n'y a personne pr�pos� pour y veiller, que
+     par cons�quent y entre qui veut, et que d'ailleurs il est
+     �loign� du Village d'un grand quart de lieue, il arrive que
+     ce sont ordinairement des Etrangers, Chasseurs ou Sauvages,
+     qui profitent de ces mets et de ces fruits, ou qu'ils sont
+     consomm�s par les animaux. Mais cela est �gal � ces
+     sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu'ils retournent le
+     lendemain, plus ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur Chef
+     a bien mang�, et que par cons�quent il est content d'eux
+     quoiqu'il les ait abandonn�s. Pour leur ouvrir les yeux sur
+     l'extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur repr�senter
+     ce qu'ils ne peuvent s'emp�cher de voir eux-m�mes, que ce
+     n'est point ce mort qui mange; ils r�pondent que si ce n'est
+     pas lui, c'est toujours lui au moins qui offre � qui il lui
+     plait ce qui a �t� mis sur la table; qu'apr�s tout c'�toit
+     l� la pratique de leur p�re, de leur m�re, de leurs parens;
+     qu'ils n'ont pas plus d'esprit qu'eux, et qu'ils ne
+     sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.
+
+     C'est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la
+     veuve du Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent
+     de tems en tems lui rendre visite et lui faire leur
+     harangue, comme s'il �toit en �tat de les entendre. Les uns
+     lui demandent pourquoi il s'est laiss� mourir avant eux?
+     d'autres lui disent que s'il est mort ce n'est point leur
+     faute; que c'est lui m�me qui s'est tu� par telle d�bauche
+     on par tel effort; enfin s'il y a eu quelque d�faut dans son
+     gouvernement, on prend ce tems-l� pour le lui reprocher.
+     Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui
+     disant de n'�tre pas f�ch� contre eux, de bien manger, et
+     qu'ils auront toujours bien soin de lui.
+
+Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the
+publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p. 89, taken from Strachey's
+Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early writer on
+American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess as a
+truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of
+Virginia:
+
+     Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the
+     cenotaphies or the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes,
+     so soon as they be dead, they embowell, and, scraping the
+     flesh from off the bones, they dry the same upon hurdells
+     into ashes, which they put into little potts (like the
+     anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the bones they bind
+     together or case up in leather, hanging braceletts, or
+     chaines of copper, beads, pearle, or such like, as they used
+     to wear about most of their joints and neck, and so repose
+     the body upon a little scaffold (as upon a tomb), laying by
+     the dead bodies' feet all his riches in severall basketts,
+     his apook, and pipe, and any one toy, which in his life he
+     held most deare in his fancy; their inwards they stuff with
+     pearle, copper, beads, and such trash, sowed in a skynne,
+     which they overlapp againe very carefully in whit skynnes
+     one or two, and the bodyes thus dressed lastly they rowle in
+     matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay them orderly one by
+     one, as they dye in their turnes, upon an arche standing (as
+     aforesaid) for the tomb, and thes are all the ceremonies we
+     yet can learne that they give unto their dead. We heare of
+     no sweet oyles or oyntments that they use to dresse or chest
+     their dead bodies with; albeit they want not of the pretious
+     rozzin running out of the great cedar, wherewith in the old
+     time they used to embalme dead bodies, washing them in the
+     oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the priests the care of
+     these temples and holy interments are committed, and these
+     temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or
+     ministers to exercise themselves in contemplation, for they
+     are seldome out of them, and therefore often lye in them and
+     maynteyne contynuall fier in the same, upon a hearth
+     somewhat neere the east end.
+
+     For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the
+     earth with sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in
+     skynns and matts with their jewells, they laye uppon sticks
+     in the ground, and soe cover them with earth; the buryall
+     ended, the women (being painted all their faces with black
+     coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in their howses,
+     mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling and
+     howling as may expresse their great passions.
+
+While this description brings the subject under the head before given
+--house burial--at the same time it might also afford an example of
+embalmment or mummifying.
+
+Figure 1 may be referred to as a probable representation of the temple
+or charnel-house described.
+
+The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be
+considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices
+prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the
+Rev. J.G. Wood,[26] bury their dead within the inclosure of the
+home-stead, fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems.
+The Apingi, according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in
+its dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and
+deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas
+bury within the inclosure of a man's house, although the bones are
+subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside
+the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle
+inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the
+Bechuanas follow the same general plan.
+
+The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted above
+(p. 314), is added as containing an account of certain details which
+resemble somewhat those followed by North American Indians. In the
+narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed only if
+specially desired by the expiring person:
+
+     When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar
+     fashion. As soon as life is extinct--some say even before
+     the last breath is drawn--the bystanders break the spine by
+     a blow from a large stone. They then unwind the long rope
+     that encircles the loins, and lash the body together in a
+     sitting posture, the head being bent over the knees.
+     Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its
+     face to the north, as already described when treating of the
+     Bechuanas. Cattle are then slaughtered in honor of the dead
+     chief, and over the grave a post is erected, to which the
+     skulls and hair are attached as a trophy. The bow, arrows,
+     assagai, and clubs of the deceased are hung on the same
+     post. Large stones are pressed into the soil above and
+     around the grave, and a large pile of thorns is also heaped
+     over it, in order to keep off the hyenas, who would be sure
+     to dig up and devour the body before the following day. The
+     grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. Now and
+     then a chief orders that his body shall be left in his own
+     house, in which case it is laid on an elevated platform, and
+     a strong fence of thorns and stakes built round the hut.
+
+     The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief
+     forsakes the place and takes the whole of the people under
+     his command. He remains at a distance for several years,
+     during which time he wears the sign of mourning, i.e., a
+     dark-colored conical cap, and round the neck a thong, to the
+     ends of which are hung two small pieces of ostrich-shell.
+     When the season of mourning is over, the tribe return,
+     headed by the chief, who goes to the grave of his father,
+     kneels over it, and whispers that he has returned, together
+     with the cattle and wives which his father gave him. He then
+     asks for his parent's aid in all his undertakings, and from
+     that moment takes the place which his father filled before
+     him. Cattle are then slaughtered, and a feast held to the
+     memory of the dead chief and in honor of the living one, and
+     each person present partakes of the meat, which is
+     distributed by the chief himself. The deceased chief
+     symbolically partakes of the banquet. A couple of twigs cut
+     from the tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased
+     belonged are considered as his representative, and with this
+     emblem each piece of meat is touched before the guests
+     consume it. In like manner, the first pail of milk that is
+     drawn is taken to the grave and poured over it.
+
+
+CAVE BURIAL.
+
+Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only
+the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation
+and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of
+artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have
+actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of place at
+this time, except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so
+far as can be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient
+resting places for their deceased relatives and friends.
+
+In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.
+
+While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a natural
+cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to which
+resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had
+deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was
+quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination
+made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the
+same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the
+Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it,
+which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian, a
+Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of his
+tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the
+party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted
+in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew
+a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if
+an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some
+years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent
+game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it
+was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full
+extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many
+refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and
+the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of
+a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
+pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This entrance
+was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As the
+Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones and
+roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of uninterrupted,
+faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. The guide was
+asked if many bodies were therein, and replied "Heaps, heaps," moving
+the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There is no reason to
+doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it was voluntarily
+imparted.
+
+In a communication received from Dr. A.J. McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of crevice or
+rock-fissure burial, which follows:
+
+     As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced
+     by the medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are
+     busily engaged in preparing the corpse for the grave. This
+     does not take long; whatever articles of clothing may have
+     been on the body at the time of death are not removed. The
+     dead man's limbs are straightened out, his weapons of war
+     laid by his side, and his robes and blankets wrapped
+     securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready
+     for burial. It is the custom to secure if possible, for the
+     purpose of wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in
+     which the Indian died. At the same time that the body is
+     being fitted for internment, the squaws having immediate
+     care of it, together with all the other squaws in the
+     neighborhood, keep up a continued chant or dirge, the dismal
+     cadence of which may, when the congregation of women is
+     large, be heard for quite a long distance. The death song is
+     not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces
+     expressions eulogistic in character, but whether or not any
+     particular formula of words is adopted on such occasion is a
+     question which I am unable, with the materials at my
+     disposal, to determine with any degree of certainty.
+
+     The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of
+     placing the dead man on a horse and conducting the remains
+     to the spot chosen for burial. This is in the cleft of a
+     rock, and, so far as can be ascertained, it has always been
+     customary among the Utes to select sepulchers of this
+     character. From descriptions given by Mr. Harris, who has
+     several times been fortunate enough to discover remains, it
+     would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by this
+     tribe with respect to the position in which the body is
+     placed, the space accommodation of the sepulcher probably
+     regulating this matter; and from the same source I learn
+     that it is not usual to find the remains of more than one
+     Indian deposited in one grave. After the body has been
+     received into the cleft, it is well covered with pieces of
+     rock, to protect it against the ravages of wild animals. The
+     chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the burial ceremonies
+     are at an end. The men during all this time have not been
+     idle, though they have in no way participated in the
+     preparation of the body, have not joined the squaws in
+     chanting praises to the memory of the dead, and have not
+     even as mere spectators attended the funeral, yet they have
+     had their duties to perform. In conformity with a
+     long-established custom, all the personal property of the
+     deceased is immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle
+     are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The
+     performance of this part of the ceremonies is assigned to
+     the men; a duty quite in accord with their taste and
+     inclinations. Occasionally the destruction of horses and
+     other properly is of considerable magnitude, but usually
+     this is not the case, owing to a practice existing with them
+     of distributing their property among their children while
+     they are of a very tender age, retaining to themselves only
+     what is necessary to meet every-day requirements.
+
+     The widow "goes into mourning" by smearing her face with a
+     substance composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is
+     made but once, and is allowed to remain on until it wears
+     off. This is the only mourning observance of which I have
+     any knowledge.
+
+     The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the
+     same as those in the case of a male, except that no
+     destruction of property takes place, and of course no
+     weapons are deposited with the corpse. Should a youth die
+     while under the superintendence of white men, the Indians
+     will not as a role have anything to do with the interment of
+     the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this
+     agency some time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the
+     usual manner; the men of the tribe selected a spot for the
+     burial, and the employee at the agency, after digging a
+     grave and depositing the corpse therein, filled it up
+     according to the fashion of civilized people, and then at
+     the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks
+     on top. Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have
+     the employes perform the service as expeditiously as
+     possible.
+
+
+Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos
+agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock
+fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.
+
+An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been used
+for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J.D. Whitney:[27]
+
+     The following is an account of the cave from which the
+     skulls, now in the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is
+     near the Stanislaus River, in Calaveras County, on a
+     nameless creek, about two miles from Abbey's Ferry, on the
+     road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr. Robinson. There were
+     two or three persons with me, who had been to the place
+     before and knew that the skulls in question were taken from
+     it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and since that the
+     condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing
+     to some alteration in the road, mining operations, or some
+     other cause which I could not ascertain, there has
+     accumulated on the formerly clean stalagmitic floor of the
+     cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface earth that
+     completely conceals the bottom, and which could not be
+     removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27
+     feet deep at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and
+     perhaps 30 feet in diameter. It is the general opinion of
+     those who have noticed this cave and saw it years ago that
+     it was a burying-place of the present Indians. Dr. Jones
+     said he found remains of bows and arrows and charcoal with
+     the skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed at the time
+     the village of Murphy's was burned. All the people spoke of
+     the skulls as lying on the surface and not as buried in the
+     stalagmite.
+
+The next description of cave burial, by W.H. Dall,[28] is so remarkable
+that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to
+the Innuits of Alaska.
+
+     The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time
+     of writing I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall].
+     There are some crania found by us in the lowermost part of
+     the Amaknak cave and a cranium obtained at Adakh, near the
+     anchorage in the Bay of Islands. These were deposited in a
+     remarkable manner, precisely similar to that adopted by most
+     of the continental Innuit, but equally different from the
+     modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave we found what at
+     first appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which proved to
+     be made of the very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of
+     some large cetacean. These were arranged so as to form a
+     rude rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces
+     of bone. This was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2 feet
+     wide, and 18 inches deep. The bottom was formed of flat
+     pieces of stone. Three such were found close together,
+     covered with and filled by an accumulation of fine vegetable
+     and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton in
+     the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in
+     the Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all
+     the bones, with the exception of the skull, were minced to a
+     soft paste, or even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted
+     me to dig into a small knoll near the ancient shell-heap, and
+     here we found, in a precisely similar sarcophagus, the
+     remains of a skeleton, of which also only the cranium
+     retained sufficient consistency to admit of preservation.
+     This inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty mass
+     not reduced to mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous
+     growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly 2 feet above
+     the remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness of
+     this kind of growth in these northern regions, attested by
+     numerous Arctic travelers, the antiquity of the remains
+     becomes evident.
+
+It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments
+were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many
+mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles
+were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary
+skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.
+
+
+
+
+
+EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.
+
+Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying
+or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind
+have generally been found in such repositories.
+
+It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss
+the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain
+processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh
+must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of
+this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories
+advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians.
+Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their
+dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on
+this point no definite information has been procured. In the final
+volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification
+among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.
+
+The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time of
+the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more
+than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by
+others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. "They did not
+inter them," says he, "for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched." According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief,
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived,
+provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the
+ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising
+that this theory has obtained many believers. M. Gannal believes
+embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our
+nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains of
+loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariset think it was intended to obviate,
+in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being primarily a
+cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; and the
+Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from the
+finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had
+hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is
+thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction
+to embalmment in North America.
+
+From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it
+appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly,[29] being as follows:
+
+     The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of
+     their Kings and Rulers after Death, which they order in the
+     following manner: First, they neatly flay off the Skin as
+     entire as they can, slitting it only in the Back; then they
+     pick all the Flesh off from the Bones as clean as possible,
+     leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that they may
+     preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in the
+     Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean
+     time has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones
+     are placed right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the
+     Vacuities, with a very fine white Sand. After this they sew
+     up the Skin again, and the Body looks as if the Flesh had
+     not been removed. They take care to keep the Skin from
+     shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease, which
+     saves it also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar'd,
+     they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, upon a large
+     Shelf rais'd above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with
+     Mats, for the Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the
+     same, to keep it from the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon
+     Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and when it is thoroughly dried,
+     it is sewed up in a Basket, and set at the Feet of the
+     Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also they set up
+     a _Quioccos_, or Idol, which they believe will be a Guard to
+     the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the
+     Priests must give his Attendance, to take care of the dead
+     Bodies. So great an Honour and Veneration have these
+     ignorant and unpolisht People for their Princes even after
+     they are dead.
+
+It should be added that, in the writer's opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.
+
+According to Pinkerton,[30] who took the account from Smith's Virginia,
+the Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:
+
+     In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the
+     Devil's] image euill favouredly carved, and then painted
+     and adorned with chaines of copper, and beads, and covered
+     with a skin, in such manner as the deformitie may well suit
+     with such a God. By him is commonly the sepulchre of their
+     Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then dried upon
+     hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of
+     their ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of
+     copper, pearle, and such like, as they use to wear. Their
+     inwards they stuffe with copper beads, hatchets, and such
+     trash. Then lappe they them very carefully in white skins,
+     and so rowle them in mats for their winding-sheets. And in
+     the Tombe, which is an arch made of mats, they lay them
+     orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth their Kings
+     have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples and
+     bodies are kept by their Priests.
+
+     For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the
+     earth with sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in
+     skins and mats with their Jewels they lay them upon stickes
+     in the ground, and so cover them with earth. The buriale
+     ended, the women being painted all their faces with blacke
+     cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in the houses
+     mourning and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and
+     howling as may expresse their great passions. * * *
+
+     Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there
+     are three great houses filled with images of their Kings and
+     devils and the tombes of their predecessors. Those houses
+     are near sixty feet in length, built harbourwise after their
+     building. This place they count so holey as that but the
+     priests and Kings dare come into them; nor the savages dare
+     not go up the river in boates by it, but that they solemnly
+     cast some piece of copper, white beads or pocones into the
+     river for feare their Okee should be offended and revenged
+     of them.
+
+     They think that their Werowances and priests which they also
+     esteeme quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond
+     the mountains towards the setting of the sun, and ever
+     remain there in form of their Okee, with their bedes paynted
+     rede with oyle and pocones, finely trimmed with feathers,
+     and shall have beads, hatchets, copper, and tobacco, doing
+     nothing but dance and sing with all their predecessors. But
+     the common people they suppose shall not live after deth,
+     but rot in their graves like dede dogges.
+
+This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former
+page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding
+truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.
+
+Figure 1 may again be referred to as an example of the dead-house
+described.
+
+The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson,
+used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the subjoined
+extract from Schoolcraft;[31] but instead of laying away the remains in
+caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched
+sticks.
+
+     The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of
+     earth is raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth
+     and even, sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity
+     of the person whose monument it is. On the top thereof is an
+     umbrella, made ridgeways, like the roof of a house. This in
+     supported by nine stakes or small posts, the grave being
+     about 6 to 8 feet in length and 4 feet in breadth, about
+     which is hung gourds, feathers, and other such like
+     trophies, placed there by the dead man's relations in
+     respect to him in the grave. The other parts of the funeral
+     rites are thus: As soon as the party is dead they lay the
+     corpse upon a piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or
+     embalming it with a small root beaten to powder, which looks
+     as red as vermillion; the same is mixed with bear's oil to
+     beautify the hair. After the carcass has laid a day or two
+     in the sun they remove it and lay it upon crotches cut on
+     purpose for the support thereof from the earth; then they
+     anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients of
+     the powder of this root and bear's oil. When it is so done
+     they cover it over very exactly with the bark or pine of the
+     cypress tree to prevent any rain to fall upon it, sweeping
+     the ground very clean all about it. Some of his nearest of
+     kin brings all the temporal estate he was possessed of at
+     his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads, feathers,
+     match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being
+     clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful
+     ditty for three or four days, his face being black with the
+     smoke of pitch pine mixed with bear's oil. All the while he
+     tells the dead man's relations and the rest of the
+     spectators who that dead person was, and of the great feats
+     performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks tending to the
+     praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows mellow and
+     will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it,
+     making the bones very clean, then anoint them with the
+     ingredients aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very
+     carefully) in a cloth artificially woven of opossum's hair.
+     The bones they carefully preserve in a wooden box, every
+     year oiling and cleansing them. By these means they preserve
+     them for many ages, that you may see an Indian in possession
+     of the bones of his grandfather or some of his relations of
+     a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs, as when
+     an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of
+     stones (or sticks where stones are not to be found); to this
+     memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment
+     the heap in respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a
+     roof of light wood or pitch-pine over the graves of the
+     more distinguished, covering it with bark and then with
+     earth, leaving the body thus in a subterranean vault until
+     the flesh quits the bones. The bones are then taken up,
+     cleaned, jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins, and laid
+     away in the _Quiogozon_, which is the royal tomb or
+     burial-place of their kings and war-captains, being a more
+     magnificent cabin reared at the public expense. This
+     Quiogozon is an object of veneration, in which the writer
+     says he has known the king, old men, and conjurers to spend
+     several days with their idols and dead kings, and into which
+     he could never gain admittance.
+
+Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt
+with archaeologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve
+these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with
+certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens
+were found. Charles Wilkins[32] thus describes one:
+
+     * * * An exsiccated body of a female[33] * * * was found at
+     the depth of about 10 feet from the surface of the cave
+     bedded in clay strongly impregnated with nitre, placed in a
+     sitting posture, incased in broad stones standing on their
+     edges, with a flat atone covering the whole. It was
+     enveloped in coarse clothes, * * * the whole wrapped in
+     deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the manner
+     in which the Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in
+     the stone coffin were the working utensils, beads, feathers,
+     and other ornaments of dress which belonged to her.
+
+The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.[34]
+
+     AUG. 24TH, 1815.
+
+     Dear Sir: I offer you some observations on a curious piece
+     of American antiquity now in New York. It is a human body:
+     found in one of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a
+     perfect desiccation; all the fluids are dried up. The skin,
+     bones, and other firm parts are in a state of entire
+     preservation. I think it enough to have puzzled Bryant and
+     all the archaeologists.
+
+     This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the
+     neighborhood of Glasgow for saltpetre.
+
+     These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to
+     attract and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime
+     and potash; and probably the earthy matter of these
+     excavations contains a good proportion of calcareous
+     carbonate. Amidst them drying and antiseptick ingredients,
+     it may be conceived that putrefaction would be stayed, and
+     the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope of the
+     body is a deer-skin, probably dried in the usual way, and
+     perhaps softened before its application by rubbing. The next
+     covering is a deer's skin, whose hair had been cut away by a
+     sharp instrument resembling a batter's knife. The remnant of
+     the hair and the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a
+     sheared pelt of beaver. The next wrapper is of cloth made of
+     twine doubled and twisted. But the thread does not appear to
+     have been formed by the wheel, nor the web by the loom. The
+     warp and filling seem to have been crossed and knotted by an
+     operation like that of the fabricks of the northwest coast,
+     and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the lamented
+     Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the
+     fibrous material.
+
+     The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the
+     preceding, but furnished with large brown feathers, arranged
+     and fashioned with great art, so as to be capable of
+     guarding the living wearer from wet and cold. The plumage is
+     distinct and entire, and the whole bears a near similitude
+     to the feathery cloaks now worn by the nations of the
+     northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell from what
+     bird they were derived.
+
+     The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm
+     reclining forward, and its hand encircling the right leg.
+     The left arm hangs down, with its hand inclined partly under
+     the seat. The individual, who was a male, did not probably
+     exceed the age of fourteen at his death. There is near the
+     oociput a deep and extensive fracture of the skull, which
+     probably killed him. The skin has sustained little injury;
+     it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be
+     decided with exactness, from its present appearance. The
+     scalp, with small exceptions, is covered with sorrel or
+     foxey hair. The teeth are white and sound. The hands and
+     feet, in their shrivelled state, are slender and delicate.
+     All this is worthy the investigation of our acute and
+     perspicacious colleague, Dr. Holmes.
+
+     There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the
+     body, like the Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages
+     around any part. Except the several wrappers, the body is
+     totally naked. There is no sign of a suture or incision
+     about the belly; whence it seems that the viscera were not
+     removed.
+
+     It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as
+     to the antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.
+
+     First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that
+     class of white men of which we are members.
+
+     2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the
+     bands of Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500
+     and 1600, rambled up the Mississippi, and along its
+     tributary streams. But on this head I should like to know
+     the opinion of my learned and sagacious friend, Noah
+     Webster.
+
+     3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it
+     belonged to any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately
+     inhabiting Kentucky.
+
+     4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of
+     twisted threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the
+     indigines of Wakash and the Pacifick Islands, that I refer
+     this individual to that era of time, and that generation of
+     men, which preceded the Indians of the Green River, and of
+     the place where these relicks were found. This conclusion is
+     strengthened by the consideration that such manufactures are
+     not prepared by the actual and resident red men of the
+     present day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before
+     him, he would have thought of the people who constructed
+     those ancient forts and mounds, whose exact history no man
+     living can give. But I forbear to enlarge; my intention
+     being merely to manifest my respect to the society for
+     having enrolled me among its members, and to invite the
+     attention of its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a
+     subject of such curiousity.
+
+     With respect, I remain yours,
+
+     SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.
+
+It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that the
+natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W.H. Dall,[35] the description
+of the mummies being as follows:
+
+     We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by
+     interment in their compartments of the communal dwelling, as
+     already described; second, by being laid on a rude platform
+     of drift-wood or stones in some convenient rock shelter.
+     These lay on straw and moss, covered by matting, and rarely
+     have either implements, weapons, or carvings associated with
+     them. We found only three or four specimens in all in these
+     places, of which we examined a great number. This was
+     apparently the more ancient form of disposing of the dead,
+     and one which more recently was still pursued in the case of
+     poor or unpopular individuals.
+
+     Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few
+     centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another
+     mode was adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more
+     distinguished class. The bodies were eviscerated, cleansed
+     from fatty matters in running water, dried, and usually
+     placed in suitable cases in wrappings of fur and fine grass
+     matting. The body was usually doubled up into the smallest
+     compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of
+     children, was usually suspended (so as not to touch the
+     ground) in some convenient rock shelter. Sometimes, however,
+     the prepared body was placed in a lifelike position, dressed
+     and armed. They were placed as if engaged in some congenial
+     occupation, such as hunting, fishing, sewing, &c. With them
+     were also placed effigies of the animals they were pursuing,
+     while the hunter was dressed in his wooden armor and
+     provided with an enormous mask all ornamented with feathers,
+     and a countless variety of wooden pendants, colored in gay
+     patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the weapons even
+     were only fac-similes in wood of the original articles.
+     Among the articles represented were drums, rattles, dishes,
+     weapons, effigies of men, birds, fish, and animals, wooden
+     armor of rods or scales of wood, and remarkable masks, so
+     arranged that the wearer when erect could only see the
+     ground at his feet. These were worn at their religious
+     dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to
+     animate a temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look
+     upon it while so occupied. An extension of the same idea led
+     to the masking of those who had gone into the land of
+     spirits.
+
+     The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to
+     the whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak
+     Innuit--has erroneously been confounded with the one now
+     described. The latter included women as well as men, and all
+     those whom the living desired particularly to honor. The
+     whalers, however, only preserved the bodies of males, and
+     they were not associated with the paraphernalia of those I
+     have described. Indeed, the observations I have been able to
+     make show the bodies of the whalers to have been preserved
+     with stone weapons and actual utensils instead of effigies,
+     and with the meanest apparel, and no carvings of
+     consequence. These details, and those of many other customs
+     and usages of which the shell heaps bear no testimony * * *
+     do not come within my line.
+
+Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.
+
+Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings' Expedition,[36] speaks of the
+Aleutian Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:
+
+     They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for
+     they embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass;
+     bury them in their best attire, in a sitting posture, in a
+     strong box, with their darts and instruments; and decorate
+     the tomb with various coloured mats, embroidery, and
+     paintings. With women, indeed, they use less ceremony. A
+     mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut for
+     some months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when
+     it begins to smell, or when they get reconciled to parting
+     with it.
+
+Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account:
+
+     The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska
+     Commercial Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the
+     company with the mummified remains of Indians who lived on
+     an island north of Ounalaska one hundred and fifty years
+     ago. This contribution to science was secured by Captain
+     Henning, an agent of the company who has long resided at
+     Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians he learned
+     that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the
+     island in question, as the last resting-place of a great
+     chief, known as Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was
+     in the neighborhood of Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and
+     other furs, and he bore up for the island, with the
+     intention of testing the truth of the tradition he had
+     heard. He had more difficulty in entering the cave than in
+     finding it, his schooner having to beat on and off shore for
+     three days. Finally he succeeded in affecting a landing, and
+     clambering up the rocks he found himself in the presence of
+     the dead chief, his family and relatives.
+
+     The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great
+     care the mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets
+     and ornaments scattered around were also taken away.
+
+     In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or
+     three have as yet been opened. The body of the chief is
+     inclosed in a large basket-like structure, about four feet
+     in height. Outside the wrappings are finely wrought
+     sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in texture, and skins.
+     At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of thinly cut wood,
+     and adjoining the center portions are pieces of body armor
+     composed of reeds bound together. The body is covered with
+     the fine skin of the sea-otter, always a mark of distinction
+     in the interments of the Aleuts, and round the whole package
+     are stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the sinews
+     of the sea lion; also those of a bird-net. There are
+     evidently some bulky articles inclosed with the chief's
+     body, and the whole package differs very much from the
+     others, which more resemble, in their brown-grass matting,
+     consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich Islands than
+     the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose and of
+     a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon
+     after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet
+     of the latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The
+     remaining mummies are of adults.
+
+     One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man's
+     body in tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of
+     the face decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled
+     up at death by severing some of the muscles at the hip and
+     knee joints and bending the limbs downward horizontally upon
+     the trunk. Perhaps the most peculiar package, next to that
+     of the chief, is one which incloses in a single matting,
+     with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and woman. The
+     collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and
+     female, which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The
+     hair has changed its color to a brownish red. The relics
+     obtained with the bodies include a few wooden vessels
+     scooped out smoothly: a piece of dark, greenish, flat stone,
+     harder than the emerald, which the Indians use to tan skins;
+     a scalp-lock of jet-black hair; a small rude figure, which
+     may have been a very ugly doll or an idol; two or three tiny
+     carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very neatly executed; a
+     comb, a necklet made of bird's claws inserted into one
+     another, and several specimens of little bags, and a cap
+     plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.
+
+In Cary's translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following passage
+occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the Macrobrian
+Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a matter of
+curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved have ever
+been discovered.
+
+     After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which
+     are said to be prepared from crystal in the following
+     manner. When they have dried the body, either as the
+     Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster it all over
+     with gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible
+     resemble real life; they then put round it a hollow column
+     made of crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and is
+     easily wrought. The body being in the middle of the column
+     is plainly seen, nor does it emit an unpleasant smell, nor
+     is it in any way offensive, and it is all visible as the
+     body itself. The nearest relations keep the column in their
+     houses for a year, offering to it the first-fruits of all,
+     and performing sacrifices; after that time they carry it out
+     and place it somewhere near the city.
+
+     NOTE.--The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the
+     back being covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies
+     could be seen all round, as the column of glass was
+     transparent.
+
+With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil
+of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.
+
+
+
+
+URN-BURIAL.
+
+To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster[37] may be added:
+
+     Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by
+     the mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern
+     States. In the mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden,
+     S.C., according to Dr. Blanding, ranges of vases, one above
+     the other, filled with human remains, were found. Sometimes
+     when the mouth of the vase is small the skull is placed with
+     the face downward in the opening, constituting a sort of
+     cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in which urn-burial
+     alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was
+     accidentally discovered not many years since in Saint
+     Catherine's Island, off the coast of Georgia. Professor
+     Swallow informs me that from a mound at New Madrid, Mo., he
+     obtained a human skull inclosed in an earthen jar, the lips
+     of which were too small to admit of its extraction. It must
+     therefore have been molded on the head after death.
+
+     A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans,
+     where the funeral jars often contain a human cranium much
+     too expanded to admit of the possibility of its passing out
+     of it, so that either the clay must have been modeled over
+     the corpse, and then baked, or the neck of the jar must have
+     been added subsequently to the other rites of interment.[38]
+
+It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but
+_to a very limited extent_, in North America, except as a secondary
+interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or
+ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of
+ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as
+the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply
+tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been
+that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the
+fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in
+urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution,
+furnishes the following account of urns used for burial:
+
+     I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and
+     cover, Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very
+     recently received from Mr. William McKinley, of
+     Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on his plantation, ten
+     miles below that city, on the bottom lands of the Oconee
+     River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes, tall
+     grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same
+     source one of the covers, of which the ornamentation was
+     different but more entire. A portion of a similar cover has
+     been received also from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. McKinley
+     ascribes the use of these urns and covers to the Muscogees,
+     a branch of the Creek Nation.
+
+These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was
+a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around
+the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented
+scroll ornamentations.
+
+The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E.A. Barber:[39]
+
+     Burial-urns * * * comprise vessels or ollas without handles,
+     for cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height,
+     with broad, open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a
+     laminated exterior (partially or entirely ornamented).
+     Frequently the indentations extend simply around the neck or
+     rim, the lower portion being plain.
+
+So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J.C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of possibility
+that future researches in regions not far distant from that which he
+explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents different
+forms of burial-urns, _a_, _b_, and _e_, after Foster, are from Laporte,
+Ind. _f_, after Foster, is from Greenup County, Kentucky; _d_ is from
+Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian collection, No. 27976; and _c_ is one
+of the peculiar shoe-shaped urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake
+Nicaragua, by Surgeon J.C. Bransford, U.S.N.
+
+
+
+
+SURFACE BURIAL
+
+This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far as
+can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was
+employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for
+time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees,
+the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead
+being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the
+Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently
+large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and
+permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen
+was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by R.S.
+Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a communication received
+in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial in two different ways:
+
+     * * * 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have
+     been found in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split
+     and the two halves hollowed out to receive the body, when it
+     was either closed with withes or confined to the ground with
+     crossed stakes; and sometimes a hollow tree is used by
+     closing the ends.
+
+     2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen
+     of logs laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every
+     course until they meet in a single log at the top.
+
+The writer has recently received from Prof, C. Engelhardt, of Copenhagen,
+Denmark, a brochure describing the oak coffins of Borum-Aesshoei. From an
+engraving in this volume it would appear that the manner employed by the
+ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins has its analogy among
+the North American Indians.
+
+Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent
+in accordance with the ante mortem wishes of the dead, were the
+obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is
+given by George Catlin:[40]
+
+     He requested them to take his body down the river to this
+     his favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering
+     bluff to bury him on the back of his favorite war-horse,
+     which was to be buried alive under him, from whence he could
+     see, as he said, "the Frenchmen passing up and down the
+     river in their boats." He owned, amongst many horses, a
+     noble white steed, that was led to the top of the
+     grass-covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the
+     presence of the whole nation and several of the fur-traders
+     and the Indian agent, he was placed astride of his horse's
+     back, with his bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver
+     slung, with his pipe and his medicine bag, with his supply
+     of dried meat, and his tobacco-pouch replenished to last him
+     through the journey to the beautiful hunting grounds of the
+     shades of his fathers, with his flint, his steel, and his
+     tinder to light his pipe by the way; the scalps he had taken
+     from his enemies' heads could be trophies for nobody else,
+     and were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in full
+     dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved to the last
+     moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles' plumes.
+     In this plight, and the last funeral honors having been
+     performed by the medicine-men, every warrior of his band
+     painted the palm and fingers of his right hand with
+     vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly impressed on the
+     milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This all done, turfs
+     were brought and placed around the feet and legs of the
+     horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over
+     the back and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of
+     all over the head and even the eagle plumes of its valiant
+     rider, where all together have smouldered and remained
+     undisturbed to the present day.
+
+Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a
+high bluff of the Missouri River.
+
+According to the Rev. J.G. Wood,[41] the Obongo, an African tribe,
+buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of
+the Seminoles:
+
+     When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow
+     tree in the forest and drop it into the hollow, which is
+     afterwards filled to the top with earth, leaves, and
+     branches.
+
+M. de la Potherie[42]--gives an account of surface burial as practiced
+by the Iroquois of New York:
+
+     Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son s�ant, on oint
+     ses cheveux et tout son corps d'huile d'animaux, on lui
+     applique du vermillon sur le visage; on lui met toutes
+     sortes de beaux plumages de la rassade de la porcelaine et
+     on le pare des plus beaux habits que l'on peut trouver,
+     pendant que les parens et des vieilles continuent toujours �
+     pleurer. Cette c�r�monie finie, les alliez apportent
+     plusieurs pr�sens. Les uns sont pour essuyer les larmes et
+     les autres pour servir de matelas au d�funt, on en destine
+     certains pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, disent-ils, que la
+     plague ne l'incommode, on y �tend fort proprement des peaux
+     d'ours et de chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui
+     met ses ajustemens avec un sac de farine de bled d'Inde, de
+     la viande, sa cuilli�re g�n�ralement tout ce qu'il faut � un
+     homme qui veut faire un long voyage, avec toux les pr�sens
+     qui lui ont �t� faits � sa mort, et s'il a �t� guerrier on
+     lui donne ses armes pour s'en servir au pais des morts. L'on
+     couvre ensuite ce cadavre d'�corce d'arbres sur lesqelles on
+     jette de la terre et quantit� de pierres, et on l'entoure de
+     pierres pour emp�cher que les animaux ne le d�terrent. Ces
+     sortes de fun�railles ne se font que dans leur village.
+     Lorsqu'ils meurent en campagne on les met dans un cercueil
+     d'�corce, entre les branches des arbres o� on les �l�ve sur
+     quatre pilliers.
+
+     On observe ces m�mes fun�railles aux femmes et aux filles.
+     Tous ceux qui ont assist� aux obs�ques profitent de toute la
+     d�pouille du d�funt et s'il n'avoit rien, les parens y
+     supl�ent. Ainsi ils ne pleurent pas en vain. Le deuil
+     consiste � ne se point couper ni graisser les cheveux et de
+     se tenir n�glig� sans aucune parure, couverts de m�chantes
+     hardes. Le p�re et la m�re portent le deuil de leur fils. Si
+     le p�re meurt les gar�ons le portent, et les filles de leur
+     m�re.
+
+Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to forward
+to the writer an interesting work by J.V. Spencer,[43] containing
+annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and
+partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly
+inhabiting Illinois:
+
+     Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture,
+     his hands grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow
+     hole in the ground, setting the body in up to the waist, so
+     the most of the body was above ground. The part above ground
+     was then covered by a buffalo robe, and a trench about eight
+     feet square was then dug about the grave. In this trench
+     they set picketing about eight feet high, which secured the
+     grave against wild animals. When I first came here there
+     were quite a number of these high picketings still standing
+     where their chiefs had been buried, and the body of a chief
+     was disposed of in this way while I lived near their
+     village. The common mode of burial was to dig a shallow
+     grave, wrap the body in a blanket, place it in the grave,
+     and fill it nearly full of dirt; then take split sticks
+     about three feet long and stand them in the grave so that
+     their tops would come together in the form of a roof; then
+     they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks in place.
+     I saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their
+     child about a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a
+     blanket and putting a long stick through the blanket, each
+     taking an end of the stick.
+
+     I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is
+     done by digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in
+     it, and covering it. I have seen several bodies in one tree.
+     I think when they are disposed of in this way it is by
+     special request, as I knew of an Indian woman who lived with
+     a white family who desired her body placed in a tree, which
+     was accordingly done.[44] Doubtless there was some peculiar
+     superstition attached to this mode, though I do not remember
+     to have heard what it was.
+
+Judge H. Welch[45] states that "the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies
+buried by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of
+sticks or logs. I think the bodies lay heads to the east." And C.C.
+Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as follows:
+
+     I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge
+     Welch. * * * In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, Judge
+     Gibson, to Fort Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of
+     an Ottawa or Pottawatomie chief. The body lay on the ground
+     covered with notched poles. It had been there but a few days
+     and the worms were crawling around the body. My special
+     interest in the case was the accusation of witchcraft
+     against a young squaw who was executed for killing him by
+     her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only parts
+     of skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been
+     burned.
+
+W.A. Brice[46] mentions a curious variety of surface burial not
+heretofore met with:
+
+     And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough
+     of a tree, or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the
+     infant of the Indian mother; or a few little log inclosures,
+     where the bodies of adults sat upright, with all their
+     former apparel wrapped about them, and their trinkets,
+     tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be seen at any time for
+     many years by the few pale-faces visiting or sojourning
+     here.
+
+A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may be
+considered under that head is the one employed by some of the Ojibways
+and Swampy Crees of Canada. A small cavity is scooped out, the body
+deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus formed
+being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.
+
+Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River
+exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the
+Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave,
+which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and
+they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and 9.
+
+
+_CAIRN-BURIAL._
+
+The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent
+among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas.
+
+In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries in
+Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen or
+twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the
+side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully
+chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find
+it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have
+been constructed in the following manner: A number of bowlders had been
+removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had been
+obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, with
+weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the mountain
+aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, forming a
+huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the last resting
+place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the graves were
+scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which had been
+sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of the
+graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number of
+articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a
+boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this
+place.
+
+From Dr. O.G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, Indian
+Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was received.
+According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves _Kaw-a-w[=a]h_, the
+Comanches _Nerm_, and the Apaches _T[=a]h-zee_.
+
+     They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not
+     seem to have any particular rule with regard to the
+     position. Sometimes prone, sometimes supine, but always
+     decumbent. They select a place where the grave is easily
+     prepared, which they do with such implements as they chance
+     to have, viz, a squaw-axe, or hoe. If they are traveling,
+     the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much time
+     is spent in finishing. I was present at the burial of Black
+     Hawk, an Apache chief, some two years ago, and took the body
+     in my light wagon up the side of a mountain to the place of
+     burial. They found a crevice in the rocks about four feet
+     wide and three feet deep. By filling in loose rocks at
+     either end they made a very nice tomb. The body was then put
+     in face downwards, short sticks were put across, resting on
+     projections of rock at the sides, brush was thrown on this,
+     and flat rocks laid over the whole of it.
+
+     The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing,
+     together with all the ornaments most admired by the person
+     when living. The face is painted with any colored paint they
+     may have, mostly red and yellow, as I have observed. The
+     body is then wrapped in skins, blankets, or domestic, with
+     the hands laid across the breast, and the legs placed upon
+     the thighs. They put into the grave their guns, bows and
+     arrows, tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins,
+     and trinkets of various kinds. One or more horses are killed
+     over or near the grave. Two horses and a mule were killed
+     near Black Hawk's grave. They were led up near and shot in
+     the head. At the death of a Comanche chief, some years ago,
+     I am told about seventy horses were killed, and a greater
+     number than that were said to have been killed at the death
+     of a prominent Kiowa chief a few years since.
+
+     The mourning is principally done by the relatives and
+     immediate friends, although any one of their own tribe, or
+     one of another tribe, who chances to be passing, will stop
+     and moan with the relatives. Their mourning consists in a
+     weird wail, which to be described must be heard, and once
+     heard is never forgotten, together with the scarifying of
+     their faces, arms, and legs with some sharp instrument, the
+     cutting off of the hair, and oftentimes the cutting off of a
+     joint of a finger, usually the little finger (Comanches do
+     not cut off fingers). The length of time and intensity of
+     their mourning depends upon the relation and position of the
+     deceased in the tribe. I have known instances where, if they
+     should be passing along where any of their friends had died,
+     even a year after their death, they would mourn.
+
+The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath heaps
+of rocks, according to H. Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, Nevada,
+although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as reasons
+for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, because
+they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural indolence of
+the Indians--indisposition to work any more than can be helped.
+
+The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as
+did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact,
+a number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom
+prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION.
+
+Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common custom
+to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially those
+living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we have
+undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more eastern
+ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from its
+great antiquity, for Tegg[47] informs us that it reached as far back as
+the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the burning
+of Menoeacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, eighth
+judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among the
+ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos up
+to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom among
+civilized people.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance
+of this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North
+America, yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be entered
+upon regarding the details of it among the ancients and the origin of
+the ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the country,
+with discursive notes and an account of its origin among the Nishinams
+of California, by Stephen Powers,[48] seem to be all that is required at
+this time:
+
+     The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all
+     things that exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was
+     bad. In making men and women, the moon wished to so fashion
+     their souls that when they died they should return to the
+     earth after two or three days as he himself does when he
+     dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said this should
+     not be; but that when men died their friends should burn
+     their bodies and once a year make a great mourning for them
+     and the coyote prevailed. So, presently when deer died, they
+     burned his body, as the coyote had decreed and after a year
+     they made a great mourning for him. But the moon created the
+     rattlesnake and caused it to bite the coyote's son, so that
+     he died. Now, though the coyote had been willing to burn the
+     deer's relations, he refused to burn his own son. Then the
+     moon said unto him, "This is your own rule. You would have
+     it so, and now your son shall be burned like the others." So
+     he was burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for him.
+     Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, as
+     he had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.
+
+     This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its
+     value in that it shows there was a time when the California
+     Indians did not practice cremation, which is also
+     established by other traditions. It hints at the additional
+     fact that the Nishinams to this day set great store by the
+     moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred ways and
+     observe its changes for a hundred purposes.
+
+Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in
+Schoolcraft[49] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:
+
+     The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their
+     number died the body became full of little animals or
+     spirits, as they thought then. After crawling over the body
+     for a time they took all manner of shapes, some that of the
+     deer, others the elk, antelope, etc. It was discovered
+     however, that great numbers were taking wings and for a
+     while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they
+     would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians,
+     fearing the earth might become depopulated in this way,
+     concluded to stop it at once and ordered that when one of
+     their people died the body must be burnt. Ever after they
+     continued to burn the bodies of deceased persons.
+
+Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins
+of Oregon:[50]
+
+     The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and
+     quite peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is
+     kept nine days laid out in his lodge and on the tenth it is
+     buried. For this purpose a rising ground is selected, on
+     which are laid a number of sticks, about 7 feet long, of
+     cypress, neatly split and in the interstices, placed a
+     quantity of gummy wood. During these operations invitations
+     are dispatched to the natives of the neighboring villages
+     requesting their attendance at the ceremony. When the
+     preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on the
+     pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of
+     burning, the bystanders appear to be in a high state of
+     merriment. If a stranger happen to be present they
+     invariably plunder him, but if that pleasure be denied them,
+     they never separate without quarreling among themselves.
+     Whatever property the deceased possessed is placed about the
+     corpse, and if he happened to be a person of consequence,
+     his friends generally purchase a capote, a shirt, a pair of
+     trousers, &c, which articles are also laid around the pile.
+     If the doctor who attended him has escaped uninjured, he is
+     obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last time
+     tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation.
+     Failing in this, he throws on the body a piece of leather,
+     or some other article, as a present, which in some measure
+     appeases the resentment of his relatives, and preserves the
+     unfortunate quack from being maltreated. During the nine
+     days the corpse is laid out, the widow of the deceased is
+     obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to sunrise, and
+     from this custom there is no relaxation even during the
+     hottest days of summer! While the doctor is performing his
+     last operations she must lie on the pile, and after the fire
+     is applied to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her
+     to be removed, which, however, is never done until her body
+     is completely covered with blisters. After being placed on
+     her legs, she is obliged to pass her hands gently through
+     the flame and collect some of the liquid fat which issues
+     from the corpse, with which she is permitted to wet her face
+     and body. When the friends of the deceased observe the
+     sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they
+     compel the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by
+     dint of hard pressing to straighten those members.
+
+     If during her husband's life time she has been known to have
+     committed any act of infidelity or omitted administering to
+     him savory food or neglected his clothing, &c. she is now
+     made to suffer severely for such lapses of duty by his
+     relations, who frequently fling her in the funeral pile,
+     from which she is dragged by her friends, and thus between
+     alternate scorching and cooling she is dragged backwards and
+     forwards until she falls into a state of insensibility.
+
+     After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the
+     widow collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an
+     envelope of birch bark and which she is obliged for some
+     years afterwards to carry on her back. She is now considered
+     and treated as a slave, all the laborious duties of cooking,
+     collecting food, &c. devolve on her. She must obey the
+     orders of all the women, and even of the children belonging
+     to the village, and the slightest mistake or disobedience
+     subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment. The
+     ashes of her husband are carefully collected and deposited
+     in a grave which it is her duty to keep free from weeds, and
+     should any such appear, she is obliged to root them out with
+     her fingers. During this operation her husband's relatives
+     stand by and beat her in a cruel manner until the task is
+     completed or she falls a victim to their brutality. The
+     wretched widows, to avoid this complicated cruelty,
+     frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on
+     for three or four years, the friends of her husband agree to
+     relieve her from the her painful mourning. This is a
+     ceremony of much consequence and the preparations for it
+     occupy a considerable time generally from six to eight
+     months. The hunters proceed to the various districts in
+     which deer and beaver abound and after collecting large
+     quantities of meat and fur return to the village. The skins
+     are immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing,
+     trinkets, &c. Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants
+     of the various friendly villages, and when they have all
+     assembled the feast commences, and presents are distributed
+     to each visitor. The object of their meeting is then
+     explained, and the woman is brought forward, still carrying
+     on her back the bones of her late husband, which are now
+     removed and placed in a covered box, which is nailed or
+     otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her conduct
+     as a faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the
+     ceremony of her manumission is completed by one man
+     powdering on her head the down of birds and another pouring
+     on it the contents of a bladder of oil. She is then at
+     liberty to marry again or lead a life of single blessedness,
+     but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter the risk
+     attending a second widowhood. The men are condemned to a
+     similar ordeal, but they do not bear it with equal
+     fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid the
+     brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of
+     religious rite.
+
+Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the
+description given.
+
+Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted.
+
+It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after death--certainly a
+long period of time, when it is remembered that Indians as a rule
+endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. This may be
+accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the friends and
+relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, and of
+making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the
+verification of the dead person, William Sheldon[51] gives an account of
+a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and
+which seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased
+persons by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this
+is mere hypothesis:
+
+     They had some very extraordinary customs respecting
+     deceased persons. When one of them died, it was necessary
+     that all his relations should see him and examine the body
+     in order to ascertain that he died a natural death. They
+     acted so rigidly on this principle, that if one relative
+     remained who had not seen the body all the others could not
+     convince that one that the death was natural. In such a case
+     the absent relative considered himself as bound in honor to
+     consider all the other relatives as having been accessories
+     to the death of the kinsman, and did not rest until he had
+     killed one of them to revenge the death of the deceased. If
+     a Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his
+     relations lived in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon
+     them to see the body, and several months sometimes elapsed
+     before it could be finally interred. When a Caraib died he
+     was immediately painted all over with _roucou_, and had his
+     mustachios and the black streaks in his face made with a
+     black paint, which was different from that used in their
+     lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the _carbet_ where
+     he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body
+     was let down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached
+     to the knees, and the body was placed in it in a sitting
+     posture, resembling that in which they crouched round the
+     fire or the table when alive, with the elbows on the knees
+     and the palms of the hands against the cheeks. No part of
+     the body touched the outside of the grave, which was covered
+     with wood and mats until all the relations had examined it.
+     When the customary examinations and inspections were ended
+     the hole was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained
+     undisturbed. The hair of the deceased was kept tied behind.
+     In this way bodies have remained several months without any
+     symptoms of decay or producing any disagreeable smell. The
+     _roucou_ not only preserved them from the sun, air, and
+     insects during their lifetime, but probably had the same
+     effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs were placed by
+     them when they were covered over for inspection, and they
+     were finally buried with them.
+
+Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over
+for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be
+remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As
+already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the
+widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but,
+if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable
+to such torments.
+
+It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a husband
+died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her severely.
+Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to take good
+care of their husbands.
+
+George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,[52] states that among the Indians of Clear
+Lake, California, "the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a
+hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered."
+
+According to Stephen Powers,[53] cremation was common among the Se-n�l
+of California. He thus relates it.
+
+     The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a
+     scene of incremation that he once witnessed, which was
+     frightful for its exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and
+     infatuation. The corpse was that of a wealthy chieftain, and
+     as he lay upon the funeral pyre they placed in his month two
+     gold twenties, and other smaller coins in his ears and
+     hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his
+     feather mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy
+     bows, painted arrows, &c. When the torch was applied they
+     set up a mournful ululation, chanting and dancing about him,
+     gradually working themselves into a wild and ecstatic
+     raving, which seemed almost a demoniacal possession,
+     leaping, howling, lacerating their flesh. Many seemed to
+     lose all self-control. The younger English-speaking Indians
+     generally lend themselves charily to such superstitious
+     work, especially if American spectators are present, but
+     even they were carried away by the old contagious frenzy of
+     their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, quite new
+     and fine, and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the
+     blazing pile. Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a
+     pile of California blankets, when a white man, to test his
+     sincerity, offend him $16 for them, jingling the bright
+     coins before his eyes, but the savage (for such he had
+     become again for the moment) otherwise so avaricious, hurled
+     him away with a yell of execration and ran and threw his
+     offering into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied, wildly
+     flung upon the pyre all they had in the world--their dearest
+     ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings of
+     glittering shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair,
+     beating their breasts in their mad and insensate
+     infatuation, some of them would have cast themselves bodily
+     into the flaming ruins and perished with the chief had they
+     not been restrained by their companions. Then the bright,
+     swift flames, with their hot tongues, licked this "cold
+     obstruction" into chemic change, and the once "delighted
+     spirit" of the savage was borne up. * * *
+
+     It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare's shudder at
+     the thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the
+     one passion of his superstition to think of the soul, of his
+     departed friend set free and purified by the swift purging
+     heat of the flames not dragged down to be clogged and bound
+     in the mouldering body, but borne up in the soft, warm
+     chariots of the smoke toward the beautiful sun, to bask in
+     his warmth and light, and then to fly away to the Happy
+     Western Land. What wonder if the Indian shrinks with
+     unspeakable horror from the thought of burying his friend's
+     soul!--of pressing and ramming down with pitiless clods that
+     inner something which once took such delight in the sweet
+     light of the sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade
+     him to do otherwise and follow our custom! What wonder if
+     even then he does it with sad fears and misgivings! Why not
+     let him keep his custom! In the gorgeous landscapes and
+     balmy climate of California an Indian incremation is as
+     natural to the savage as it is for him to love the beauty of
+     the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian bury
+     their dead if they will; it matters little, the earth is the
+     same above as below; or to them the bosom of the earth may
+     seem even the better; but in California do not blame the
+     savage if he recoils at the thought of going underground!
+     This soft pale halo of the lilac hills--ah, let him console
+     himself if he will with the belief that his lost friend
+     enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by saying that they
+     destroyed full $500 worth of property. "The blankets," said
+     he with a fine Californian scorn of much absurd
+     insensibility to such a good bargain, "the blankets that the
+     American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money."
+
+     After death the Se-n�l hold that bad Indians return into
+     coyotes. Others fall off a bridge which all souls must
+     traverse, or are hooked off by a raging bull at the further
+     end, while the good escape across. Like the Yokain and the
+     Konkan, they believe it necessary to nourish the spirits of
+     the departed for the space of a year. This is generally done
+     by a squaw, who takes pinole in her blanket, repairs to the
+     scene of the incremation, or to places hallowed by the
+     memory of the dead, when she scatters it over the ground,
+     meantime rocking her body violently to and fro in a dance
+     and chanting the following chorous:
+
+       Hel-lel-li-ly,
+       Hel-lel-lo,
+       Hel-lel-lu.
+
+     This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the
+     words have no meaning whatever.
+
+Henry Gillman[54] has published an interesting account of the
+exploration of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant
+evidence that cremation had existed among the former Indian population.
+It is as follows:
+
+     In opening a burial-mound at Cade's Pond, a small body of
+     water situated about two miles northeastward of Santa F�
+     Lake, Fla., the writer found two instances of cremation, in
+     each of which the skull of the subject, which was
+     unconsumed, was used as the depository of his ashes. The
+     mound contained besides a large number of human burials, the
+     bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a great
+     number of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in
+     brilliant colors, chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some
+     of them ornamented with indented patterns, displaying not a
+     little skill in the ceramic art, though they are reduced to
+     fragments. The first of the skulls referred to was exhumed
+     at a depth of 2-1/2 feet. It rested on its apex (base
+     uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half
+     incinerated human bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and
+     the sand which invariably sifts into crania under such
+     circumstances. Immediately beneath the skull lay the greater
+     part of a human tibia, presenting the peculiar compression
+     known as a platyonemism [*transcriber's guess] to the degree
+     of affording a latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and
+     surrounding it lay the fragments of a large number of human
+     bones, probably constituting an entire individual. In the
+     second instance of this peculiar mode in cremation, the
+     cranium was discovered on nearly the opposite side of the
+     mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and, like the former, resting
+     on its apex. It was filled with a black mass--the
+     residuum of burnt human bones mingled with sand. At
+     three feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a flattened
+     tibia, which presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both
+     the skulls were free from all action of fire, and though
+     subsequently crumbling to pieces on their removal, the
+     writer had opportunity to observe their strong resemblance
+     to the small, orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed from
+     mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was perceptible in
+     the other cranium belonging to this mound. The small narrow,
+     retreating frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather
+     protuberant occipital, which was not in the least
+     compressed, the well defined supracilliary ridges, and the
+     superior border of the orbits, presenting a quadrilateral
+     outline, were also particularly noticed. The lower facial
+     bones, including the maxillaries, were wanting. On
+     consulting such works as are accessible to him, the writer
+     finds no mention of any similar relics having been
+     discovered in mounds in Florida, or elsewhere. For further
+     particulars reference may be had to a paper on the subject
+     read before the Saint Louis meeting of the American
+     Association, August, 1878.
+
+The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use
+of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.
+
+The fact is well-known to archaeologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as
+occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E.
+Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account
+of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at
+the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but
+all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had
+served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained
+unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.
+
+A.S. Tiffany[55] describes what he calls a cremation-furnace,
+discovered within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.
+
+     * * * Mound seven miles, below the city, a projecting point
+     known as Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black
+     soil to the depth of from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a
+     burnt indurated clay, resembling in color and texture a
+     medium-burned brick, and about 30 inches in depth.
+     Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred human
+     remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged
+     and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor
+     of the pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a
+     few very much decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No
+     implements of any kind were discovered. The furnace appears
+     to have been constructed by excavating the pit and placing
+     at the bottom of it the bodies or skeletons which had
+     possibly been collected from scaffolds, and placing the fuel
+     among and above the bodies, with a covering of poles or
+     split timbers extending over and resting upon the earth,
+     with the clay covering above, which latter we now find
+     resting upon the charred remains. The ends of the timber
+     covering, where they were protected by the earth above and
+     below, were reduced to charcoal, parallel pieces of which
+     were found at right angles to the length of the mound. No
+     charcoal was found among or near the remains, the combustion
+     there having been complete. The porous and softer portions
+     of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black. Mr.
+     Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably
+     not been opened after the burning.
+
+This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect.
+
+Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given to
+show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.
+
+
+PARTIAL CREMATION.
+
+Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of
+North Carolina, and which is thus described by J.W. Foster:[56]
+
+     Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region,
+     when, in pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of
+     the lands lying in the valley of the Little Tennesee River.
+     In 1821 Mr. McDowell commenced farming. During the first
+     season's operations the plowshare, in passing over a certain
+     portion of a field, produced a hollow rumbling sound, and in
+     exploring for the cause the first object met with was a
+     shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a slab of burnt
+     clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which, in the
+     attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing
+     beneath this slab was found, but on examining its under
+     side, to his great surprise there was the mould of a naked
+     human figure. Three of these burned-clay sepulchers were
+     thus raised and examined during the first year of his
+     occupancy, since which time none have been found until
+     recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow brought up
+     another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the
+     impress of a plump human arm.
+
+     Col. C.W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines,
+     which have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me
+     thus:
+
+     "We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending
+     back for 500 years. In this time they have buried their dead
+     under huge piles of stones. We have at one point the remains
+     of 600 warriors under one pile, but a grave has just been
+     opened of the following construction: A pit was dug, into
+     which the corpse was placed, face upward; then over it was
+     moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the form and features.
+     On this was built a hot fire, which formed an entire shield
+     of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such tomb
+     gives a perfect cast of the form of the occupant."
+
+     Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these
+     archeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the
+     exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the
+     mould, which he reached through a layer of charcoal, and
+     then with a trowel excavated beneath it. The clay was not
+     thoroughly baked, and no impression of the corpse was left,
+     except of the forehead and that portion of the limbs between
+     the ankles and the knees, and even these portions of the
+     mould crumbled. The body had been placed east and west, the
+     head toward the east. "I had hoped," continues Mr. McDowell,
+     "that the cast in the clay would be as perfect as one I
+     found 51 years ago, a fragment of which I presented to
+     Colonel Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on
+     one side and on the other of the fingers, that had pressed
+     down the soft clay upon the body interred beneath it." The
+     mound-builders of the Ohio valley, as has been shown, often
+     placed a layer of clay over the dead, but not in immediate
+     contact, upon which they builded fires; and the evidence
+     that cremation was often resorted to in their disposition
+     are too abundant to be gainsaid.
+
+This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:[57]
+
+     Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina
+     his attention was called to an unusual method of burial by
+     an ancient race of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous
+     instances burial places were discovered where the bodies had
+     been placed with the face up and covered with a coating of
+     plastic clay about an inch thick. A pile of wood was then
+     placed on top and fired, which consumed the body and baked
+     the clay, which retained the impression of the body. This
+     was then lightly covered with earth.
+
+It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the cases
+are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in the
+extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of
+burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the
+ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster
+(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.
+
+Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been practiced
+by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who
+
+     Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the
+     shoulders nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared
+     by digging a hole of sufficient depth and circumference to
+     admit the body, the head being cut off. In the grave are
+     placed the bows and arrows, bead-work, trappings, &c.,
+     belonging to the deceased; quantities of food, consisting of
+     dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with the body
+     also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless
+     body; then a bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the
+     grave by the different members of the tribe, and on these
+     fagots the head was placed, the pile fired, and the head
+     consumed to ashes; after this was done the female relatives
+     of the deceased, who had appeared as mourners with their
+     faces blackened with a preparation resembling tar or paint,
+     dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head and
+     made three marks on their right cheek. This constituted the
+     mourning garb, the period of which lasted until this black
+     substance wore off from the face. In addition to this
+     mourning, the blood female relatives of the deceased (who,
+     by the way, appeared to be a man of distinction) had their
+     hair cropped short. I noticed while the head was burning
+     that the old women of the tribe sat on the ground, forming a
+     large circle, inside of which another circle of young girls
+     were formed standing and swaying their bodies to and fro and
+     singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male
+     that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very
+     different, their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins
+     and laid away in caves, with their valuables and in some
+     cases food being placed with them in their mouths.
+     Occasionally money is left to pay for food in the spirit
+     land.
+
+This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E.A. Barber[58] has
+described what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one
+above noted:
+
+     A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my
+     notice recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia.
+     On the New Jersey bank of the Delaware River, a short
+     distance below Gloucester City, the skeleton of a man was
+     found buried in a standing position, in a high, red,
+     sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few inches below
+     the surface the neck bones were found, and below these the
+     remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones
+     of the hands and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not
+     be determined whether the remains were those of an Indian or
+     of a white man, but in either case the sepulture was
+     peculiarly aboriginal. A careful exhumation and critical
+     examination by Mr. Klingbeil disclosed the fact that around
+     the lower extremities of the body had been placed a number
+     of large stones, which revealed traces of fire, in
+     conjunction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had
+     undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes it appear
+     reasonably certain that the subject had been executed,
+     probably as a prisoner of war. A pit had been dug, in which
+     he was placed erect, and a fire kindled around him. Then he
+     had been buried alive, or, at least, if he did not survive
+     the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the earth, with
+     the exception of his head, which was left protruding above
+     the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it
+     seems probable that the head had either been burned or
+     severed from the body and removed, or else left a prey to
+     ravenous birds. The skeleton, which would have measured
+     fully six feet in height, was undoubtedly that of a man.
+
+Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning.
+The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an
+outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient
+Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with
+the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in
+the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment,
+placed a piece of money in the corpse's mouth, which was thought to be
+Charon's fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River.
+Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a certain cake,
+composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury of
+Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet
+entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.
+
+
+
+
+AERIAL SEPULTURE.
+
+
+_LODGE-BURIAL._
+
+Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Slansbury,[59]
+and relates to the Sioux:
+
+     I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a
+     flag to the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had
+     attracted our curiosity. There were five of them pitched
+     upon the open prairie, and in them we found the bodies of
+     nine Sioux laid out upon the ground, wrapped in their robes
+     of buffalo-skin, with their saddles, spears, camp-kettles,
+     and all their accoutrements piled up around them. Some
+     lodges contained three, others only one body, all of which
+     were more or less in a state of decomposition. A short
+     distance apart from these was one lodge which, though small,
+     seemed of rather superior pretensions, and was evidently
+     pitched with great care. It contained the body of a young
+     Indian girl of sixteen or eighteen years, with a countenance
+     presenting quite an agreeable expression: she was richly
+     dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth elaborately
+     ornamented; a new pair of moccasins, beautifully embroidered
+     with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her body was
+     wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner;
+     she had evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our
+     surprise a portion of the upper part of her person was bare,
+     exposing the face and a part of the breast, as if the robes
+     in which she was wrapped had by some means been disarranged,
+     whereas all the other bodies were closely covered up. It
+     was, at the time, the opinion of our mountaineers, that
+     these Indians must have fallen in an encounter with a party
+     of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they had all died
+     of the cholera, and that this young girl, being considered
+     past recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the
+     habiliments of the dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and
+     abandoned to her fate, so fearfully alarmed were the Indians
+     by this to them novel and terrible disease.
+
+It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, and
+due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the homes
+of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was not the
+case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among the same
+tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of their chiefs
+(Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:
+
+     The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet
+     at the base, converging to a point, at least 30 feet high,
+     covered with buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a
+     part of the tail switch, which floats outside like, and
+     mingled with human scalps. The different skins are neatly
+     fitted and sewed together with sinew, and all painted in
+     seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and yellow,
+     decorated with various lifelike war scenes. Over the small
+     entrance is a large bright cross, the upright being a large
+     stuffed white wolf-skin upon his war lance, and the
+     cross-bar of bright scarlet flannel, containing the quiver
+     of bow and arrows, which nearly all warriors still carry,
+     even when armed with repeating rifles. As the cross is not a
+     pagan but a Christian (which Long Horse was not either by
+     profession or practice) emblem, it was probably placed there
+     by the influence of some of his white friends. I entered,
+     finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war dress,
+     paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about
+     breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments.
+     A large opening and wind-flap at the top favored
+     ventilation, and though he had lain there in an open coffin
+     a full month, some of which was hot weather, there was but
+     little effluvia; in fact, I have seldom found much in a
+     burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus
+     performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.
+
+This account is furnished by Col. P.W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is
+admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal
+of his article, that the facts are correct.
+
+General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the
+Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small
+scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins
+deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his
+side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then closed up.
+
+Dr. W.J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of the
+Shoshones of Nevada:
+
+     The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known
+     to have at any time practiced cremation. In Independence
+     Valley, under a deserted and demolished _wickeup_ or "brush
+     tent," I found the dried-up corpse of a boy, about twelve
+     years of age. The body had been here for at least six weeks,
+     according to information received, and presented a shriveled
+     and hideous appearance. The dryness of the atmosphere
+     prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region usually
+     leave the body when life terminates, merely throwing over it
+     such rubbish as may be at hand, or the remains of their
+     primitive shelter tents, which are mostly composed of small
+     branches, leaves, grass, &c.
+
+     The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the
+     eastern banks of the Owybee River, upper portion of Nevada,
+     did not bury their dead at the time of my visit in 1871.
+     Whenever the person died, his lodge (usually constructed of
+     poles and branches of _Saler_) was demolished and placed in
+     one confused mass over his remains, when the band removed a
+     short distance. When the illness is not too great, or death
+     sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable place,
+     some distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to
+     avoid the necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens,
+     and other carnivores soon remove all the flesh so that there
+     remains nothing but the bones, and even these are scattered
+     by the wolves. The Indians at Tuscarora, Nevada, stated
+     that when it was possible and that they should by chance
+     meet the bony remains of any Shoshone, they would bury it,
+     but in what manner I failed to discover as the were very
+     reticent, and avoided giving any information regarding the
+     dead. One corpse was found totally dried and shrivelled,
+     owing to the dryness of the atmosphere in this region.
+
+Capt. F.W. Beechey[60] describes a curious mode of burial among the
+Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat
+similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a
+good idea of these burial receptacles.
+
+     Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to
+     what we had already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished
+     several examples of the manner in which this tribe of
+     natives dispose of their dead. In some instances a platform
+     was constructed of drift-wood raised about two feet and a
+     quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed,
+     with its head to the westward and a double tent of
+     drift-wood erected over it, the inner one with spars about
+     seven feet long, and the outer one with some that were three
+     times that length. They were placed close together, and at
+     first no doubt sufficiently so to prevent the depredations
+     of foxes and wolves, but they had yielded at last, and all
+     the bodies, and even the hides that covered them, had
+     suffered by these rapacious animals.
+
+     In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks,
+     as at Cape Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock
+     made of eider duck skins, with one of deer skin over it, and
+     were covered with a sea horse hide, such as the natives use
+     for their _baidars_. Suspended to the poles, and on the
+     ground near them, were several Esquimaux implements,
+     consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a tamborine, which,
+     we were informed as well as signs could convey the meaning
+     of the natives, were placed there for the use of the
+     deceased, who, in the next world (pointing to the western
+     sky) ate, drank, and sang songs. Having no interpreter, this
+     was all the information I could obtain, but the custom of
+     placing such instruments around the receptacles of the dead
+     is not unusual, and in all probability the Esquimaux may
+     believe that the soul has enjoyments in the next world
+     similar to those which constitute their happiness in this.
+
+The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the
+Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J.F. Hammond, U.S.A.,
+place their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the
+northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in Figure 12.
+
+Bancroft[61] states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a
+death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited
+palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
+attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently
+informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic
+accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the
+Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the
+floors of their houses, a custom which has been followed by the Mosquito
+Indians of Central America and one or two of our own tribes.
+
+
+BOX-BURIAL
+
+Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain tribes
+on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead wonderfully
+carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a low platform
+or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small house with an
+angular roof, and each one has an opening through which food may be
+passed to the corpse.
+
+Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did
+the same.
+
+Capt. J.H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following relating to
+the Creeks in Indian Territory.
+
+     * * * are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute
+     made of branches of trees, covered with small branches,
+     leaves, and earth. I have seen several of their graves,
+     which after a few weeks had become uncovered and the remains
+     exposed to view. I saw in one Creek grave (a child's) a
+     small sum of silver, in another (adult male) some implements
+     of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred with the
+     feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies
+     of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and
+     faces with a composition made of grease and wood ashes, and
+     would remain in that condition for several days, and
+     probably a month.
+
+Josiah Priest[62] gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe
+of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The
+writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an
+example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.
+
+     The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there
+     was no bad smell, they were deposited in large wooden
+     coffins, well constructed, and placed upon benches two feet
+     from the ground. In smaller coffins, and in baskets, the
+     Spaniards found the clothes of the deceased men and women,
+     and so many pearls that they distributed them among the
+     officers and soldiers by handsfulls.
+
+In Bancroft[63] may be found the following account of the burial boxes
+of the Esquimaux.
+
+     The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the
+     body up and place it on the side in a plank box which is
+     elevated three or four feet from the ground and supported by
+     four posts. The grave-box is often covered with painted
+     figures of birds, fishes and animals. Sometimes it is
+     wrapped in skins placed upon an elevated frame and covered
+     with planks or trunks of trees so as to protect it from wild
+     beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are deposited
+     the arms, clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of
+     the deceased. Frequent mention is made by travelers of
+     burial places where the bodies lie exposed with their heads
+     placed towards the north.
+
+Frederic Whymper[64] describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that
+Territory.
+
+     Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain
+     only the ashes of the dead. These people invariably burn the
+     deceased. On one of the boxes I saw a number of faces
+     painted, long tresses of human hair depending therefrom.
+     Each head represented a victim of the (happily) deceased
+     one's ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more esteemed
+     than if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are much
+     ornamented with carved and painted faces and other devices.
+
+W.H. Dall,[65] well known as one of the most experienced and careful of
+American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the Innuits
+of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as follows: Figs.
+13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume noted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 13--Innuit Grave]
+
+     INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK
+
+     The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its
+     side in a box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about
+     four feet long. This is elevated several feet above the
+     ground on four posts which project above the coffin or box.
+     The sides are often painted with red chalk in figures of fur
+     animals, birds, and fishes. According to the wealth of the
+     dead man, a number of articles which belonged to him are
+     attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them
+     have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes,
+     or even kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and
+     almost invariably the wooden dish, or "kant�g," from which
+     the deceased was accustomed to eat, is hung on one of the
+     posts.
+
+     INNUIT OF YUKON.
+
+     The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner
+     previously described. The annexed sketch shows the form of
+     the sarcophagus, which, in this case, is ornamented with
+     snow-shoes, a reel for seal-lines, a fishing-rod, and a
+     wooden dish or kant�g. The latter is found with every grave,
+     and usually one is placed in the box with the body.
+     Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is
+     placed in the coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is
+     thus disposed of. Generally the furs, possessions, and
+     clothing (except such as has been worn) are divided among
+     the nearer relatives of the dead, or remain in possession of
+     his family if he has one; such clothing, household utensils,
+     and weapons as the deceased had in daily use are almost
+     invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are many deaths
+     about the same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything
+     belonging to the dead is destroyed. The house in which a
+     death occurs is always deserted and usually destroyed. In
+     order to avoid this, it is not uncommon to take the sick
+     person out of the house and put him in a tent to die.
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Ingalik grave.]
+
+     A woman's coffin may be known by the kettles and other
+     feminine utensils about it. There is no distinction between
+     the sexes in method of burial. On the outside of the coffin,
+     figures are usually drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur
+     animals usually indicate that the dead person was a good
+     trapper; if seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter;
+     representation of parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of
+     his death is also occasionally indicated. For four days
+     after a death the women in the village do no sewing; for
+     five days the men do not cut wood with an axe. The relatives
+     of the dead must not seek birds' eggs on the overhanging
+     cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under them
+     and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or
+     indicated, except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch
+     the body, chanting a mournful refrain until he is interred.
+     They seldom suspect that others have brought the death about
+     by sham�nism, as the Indians almost invariably do.
+
+     At the end of a year from the death, a festival is given,
+     presents are made to those who assisted in making the
+     coffin, and the period of mourning is over. Their grief
+     seldom seems deep but they indulge for a long time in
+     wailing for the dead at intervals. I have seen several women
+     who refused to take a second husband, and had remained
+     single in spite of repeated offers for many years.
+
+     INGALIKS OF ULUKUK
+
+     As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mik�la,
+     one of my men, informed me that it was women lamenting for
+     the dead. On landing, I saw several Indians hewing out the
+     box in which the dead are placed. * * * The body lay on its
+     side on a deer skin, the heels were lashed to the small of
+     the back, and the head bent forward on the chest so that his
+     coffin needed to be only about four feet long.
+
+
+TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL
+
+We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the most
+common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite extensively
+practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned the choice
+of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where timber
+abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being employed.
+
+From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has been
+received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the Brul�
+or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are called
+_Sicaugu_, in the Indian tongue _Seechaugas_, or the "burned thigh"
+people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only on account of
+its careful attention to details, but from its known truthfulness of
+description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.
+
+     FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES
+
+     Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude
+     boxes, either burying them when implements for digging can
+     be had, or, when they have no means of making a grave,
+     placing them on top of the ground on some hill or other
+     slight elevation, yet this is done in imitation of the
+     whites, and their general custom, as a people, probably does
+     not differ in any essential way from that of their
+     forefathers for many generations in the past. In disposing
+     of the dead, they wrap the body tightly in blankets or robes
+     (sometimes both) wind it all over with thongs made of the
+     hide of some animal and place it reclining on the back at
+     full length, either in the branches of some tree or on a
+     scaffold made for the purpose. These scaffolds are about
+     eight feet high and made by planting four forked sticks
+     firmly in the ground, one at each corner and then placing
+     others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the
+     body is securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is
+     placed on the same scaffold, though generally a separate one
+     is made for each occasion. These Indians being in all things
+     most superstitious, attach a kind of sacredness to these
+     scaffolds and all the materials used or about the dead. This
+     superstition is in itself sufficient to prevent any of their
+     own people from disturbing the dead, and for one of another
+     nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered an
+     offense not too severely punished by death. The same
+     feeling also prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or
+     any of the wood which has been used about them, even for
+     firewood, though the necessity may be very great, for fear
+     some evil consequences will follow. It is also the custom,
+     though not universally followed, when bodies have been for
+     two years on the scaffolds to take them down and bury them
+     under ground.
+
+     All the work about winding up the dead, building the
+     scaffold, and placing the dead upon it is done by women
+     only, who, after having finished their labor, return and
+     bring the men, to show them where the body is placed, that
+     they may be able to find it in future. Valuables of all
+     kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.--in short,
+     whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and
+     locks of hair cut from the heads of the mourners at his
+     death, are always bound up with the body. In case the dead
+     was a man of importance, or if the family could afford it,
+     even though he were not, one or several horses (generally,
+     in the former case, those which the departed thought most
+     of) are shot and placed under the scaffold. The idea in this
+     is that the spirit of the horse will accompany and be of use
+     to his spirit in the "happy hunting grounds," or, as these
+     people express it, "the spirit land."
+
+     When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death
+     occurs, the friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and
+     begin crying over the departed or departing one. This
+     consists in uttering the most heartrending, almost hideous
+     wails and lamentations, in which all join until exhausted.
+     Then the mourning ceases for a time until some one starts it
+     again, when all join in as before and keep it up until
+     unable to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is
+     removed. This crying is done almost wholly by women, who
+     gather in large numbers on such occasions, and among them a
+     few who are professional mourners. These are generally old
+     women and go whenever a person is expected to die, to take
+     the leading part in the lamentations, knowing that they will
+     be well paid at the distribution of goods which follows. As
+     soon as death takes place, the body is dressed by the women
+     in the best garments and blankets obtainable, new ones if
+     they can be afforded. The crowd gathered near continue
+     wailing piteously, and from time to time cut locks of hair
+     from their own heads with knives, and throw them on the dead
+     body. Those who wish to show their grief most strongly, cut
+     themselves in various places, generally in the legs and
+     arms, with their knives or pieces of flint, more commonly
+     the latter, causing the blood to flow freely over their
+     persons. This custom is followed to a less degree by the
+     men.
+
+     A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the
+     desire to get the dead out of sight, the fear that the
+     disease which caused the death will communicate itself to
+     others of the family causes them to hasten the disposition
+     of it as soon as they are certain that death has actually
+     taken place.
+
+     Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After
+     that is done, connected with which there seems to be no
+     particular ceremony, the few women who attend to it return
+     to the lodge and a distribution is made among them and
+     others, not only of the remaining property of the deceased,
+     but of all the possessions, even to the lodge itself of the
+     family to which he belonged. This custom in some cases has
+     been carried so far as to leave the rest of the family not
+     only absolutely destitute but actually naked. After
+     continuing in this condition for a time, they gradually
+     reach the common level again by receiving gifts from various
+     sources.
+
+     The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the
+     dead, a strict observance of the ten days following the
+     death, as follows: They are to rise at a very early hour and
+     work unusually hard all day, joining in no feast, dance,
+     game, or other diversion, eat but little, and retire late,
+     that they may be deprived of the usual amount of sleep as of
+     food. During this they never paint themselves, but at
+     various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead
+     in loud cries and lamentations for hours together. After the
+     ten days have expired they paint themselves again and engage
+     in the usual amusements of the people as before. The men are
+     expected to mourn and fast for one day and then go on the
+     war-path against some other tribe, or on some long journey
+     alone. If he prefers, he can mourn and fast for two or more
+     days and remain at home. The custom of placing food at the
+     scaffold also prevails to some extent. If but little is
+     placed there it is understood to be for the spirit of the
+     dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If much is
+     provided, it is done with the intention that those of the
+     same sex and age as the deceased shall meet there and
+     consume it. If the dead be a little girl, the young girls
+     meet and eat what is provided; if it be a man, then men
+     assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never mention
+     the name of the dead.
+
+     "KEEPING THE GHOST."
+
+     Still another custom, though at the present day by no means
+     generally followed, is still observed to some extent among
+     them. This is called _wanagce yuhapee_, or "keeping the
+     ghost." A little of the hair from the head of the deceased
+     being preserved is bound up in calico and articles of value
+     until the roll is about two feet long and ten inches or more
+     in diameter, when it is placed in a case made of hide
+     handsomely ornamented with various designs in different
+     colored paints. When the family is poor, however, they may
+     substitute for this case blue or scarlet blanket or cloth.
+     The roll is then swung lengthwise between two supports made
+     of sticks, placed thus X in front of a lodge which has been
+     set apart for the purpose. In this lodge are gathered
+     presents of all kinds, which are given out when a sufficient
+     quantity is obtained. It is often a year and sometimes
+     several years before this distribution is made. During all
+     this time the roll containing the hair of the deceased is
+     left undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they
+     are brought in are piled in the back part of the lodge, and
+     are not to be touched until given out. No one but men and
+     boys are admitted to the lodge unless it be a wife of the
+     deceased, who may go in if necessary very early in the
+     morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke, eat,
+     and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their
+     pipes in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left
+     undisturbed until after the distribution. When they eat, a
+     portion is always placed first under the roll outside for
+     the spirit of the deceased. No one is allowed to take this
+     unless a large quantity is so placed, in which case it may
+     be eaten by any persons actually in need of food, even
+     though strangers to the dead. When the proper time comes the
+     friends of the deceased and all to whom presents are to be
+     given are called together to the lodge and the things are
+     given out by the man in charge. Generally this is some near
+     relative of the departed. The roll is now undone and small
+     locks of the hair distributed with the other presents, which
+     ends the ceremony.
+
+     Sometimes this "keeping the ghost" is done several times,
+     and it is then looked upon as a repetition of the burial or
+     putting away of the dead. During all the time before the
+     distribution of the hair, the lodge, as well as the roll, is
+     looked upon as in a manner sacred, but after that ceremony
+     it becomes common again and may be used for any ordinary
+     purpose. No relative or near friend of the dead wishes to
+     retain anything in his possession that belonged to him while
+     living, or to see, hear, or own anything which will remind
+     him of the departed. Indeed, the leading idea in all their
+     burial customs in the laying away with the dead their most
+     valuable possessions, the giving to others what is left of
+     his and the family property, the refusal to mention his
+     name, &c., is to put out of mind as soon and as effectual as
+     possible the memory of the departed.
+
+     From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they
+     believe each person to have a spirit which continues to live
+     after the death of the body. They have no idea of a future
+     life in the body, but believe that after death their spirits
+     will meet and recognize the spirits of their departed
+     friends in the spirit land. They deem it essential to their
+     happiness here, however, to destroy as far as practicable
+     their recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of
+     death as a sleep, and of the dead as asleep or having gone
+     to sleep at such a time. These customs are gradually losing
+     their hold upon them, and are much less generally and
+     strictly observed than formerly.
+
+Figure 15 furnishes a good example of scaffold burial. Figure 16,
+offering of food and drink to the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead
+upon the scaffold.
+
+A. Delano,[66] mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he
+noticed in Nebraska.
+
+     * * * During the afternoon we passed a Sioux burying-ground,
+     if I may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a hackberry tree,
+     elevated about twenty feet from the ground, a kind of rack
+     was made of broken tent poles, and the body (for there was
+     but one) was placed upon it, wrapped in his blanket, and a
+     tanned buffalo skin, with his tin cup, moccasins, and
+     various things which he had used in life, were placed upon
+     his body, for his use in the land of spirits.
+
+Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend Dr.
+Washington Matthews, United States Army.
+
+John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:
+
+     Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to
+     inclose the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned
+     by the departed, closely sewed up, and then, if a male or
+     chief, fasten in the branches of a tree so high as to be
+     beyond the reach of wolves, and then left to slowly waste in
+     the dry winds. If the body was that of a squaw or child, it
+     was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where it soon
+     became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes,
+     &c., of men were inclosed, and the small toys of children
+     with them. The ceremonies were equally barbarous, the
+     relatives cutting off, according to the depth of their
+     grief, one or more joints of the fingers, divesting
+     themselves of clothing even in the coldest weather, and
+     filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing up
+     and burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men
+     would not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead body.
+
+The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and
+Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E.H. Alden, United States Indian
+agent at Fort Berthold:
+
+     The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but
+     always on a scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet
+     high, on which the box is placed, or, if no box is used, the
+     body wrapped in red or blue cloth if able, or, if not, a
+     blanket of cheapest white cloth, the tools and weapons being
+     placed directly under the body, and there they remain
+     forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of them. It
+     would be bad medicine to touch the dead or anything so
+     placed belonging to him. Should the body by any means fall
+     to the ground, it is never touched or replaced on the
+     scaffold. As soon as one dies he is immediately buried,
+     sometimes within an hour, and the friends begin howling and
+     wailing as the process of interment goes on, and continue
+     mourning day and night around the grave, without food
+     sometimes three or four days. Those who mourn are always
+     paid for it in some way by the other friends of the
+     deceased, and those who mourn the longest are paid the most.
+     They also show their grief and affection for the dead by a
+     fearful cutting of their own bodies, sometimes only in part,
+     and sometimes all over their whole flesh, and this sometimes
+     continues for weeks. Their hair, which is worn in long
+     braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They seem
+     proud of their mutilations. A young man who had just buried
+     his mother came in boasting of, and showing his mangled
+     legs.
+
+According to Thomas L. McKenney,[67] the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis.,
+buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as
+follows:
+
+     One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place
+     the coffin or box containing their remains on two
+     cross-pieces, nailed or tied with wattap to four poles. The
+     poles are about ten feet high. They plant near these posts
+     the wild hop or some other kind of running vine, which
+     spreads over and covers the coffin. I saw one of these on
+     the island, and as I have described it. It was the coffin of
+     a child about four years old. It was near the lodge of the
+     sick girl. I have a sketch of it. I asked the chief why his
+     people disposed of their dead in that way. He answered they
+     did not like to put them out of their sight so soon by
+     putting them under ground. Upon a platform they could see
+     the box that contained their remains, and that was a comfort
+     to them.
+
+Figure 19 is copied from McKenney's picture of this form of burial.
+Keating[68] thus describes burial scaffolds:
+
+     On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high,
+     corpses were deposited in a box made from part of a broken
+     canoe. Some hair was suspended, which we at first mistook
+     for a scalp, but our guide informed us that these were locks
+     of hair torn from their heads by the relatives to testify
+     their grief. In the center, between the four posts which
+     supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the ground,
+     it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human
+     figures, five of which had a design of a petticoat
+     indicating them to be females; the rest amounting to
+     seven, were naked and were intended for male figures; of
+     the latter four were headless, showing that they had been
+     slain, the three other male figures were unmutilated, but
+     held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide informed us
+     designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an
+     usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a
+     warrior's remains, does not represent the achievements of
+     the deceased, but those of the warriors that assembled near
+     his remains danced the dance of the post, and related their
+     martial exploits. A number of small bones of animals were
+     observed in the vicinity, which were probably left there
+     after a feast celebrated in honor of the dead.
+
+     The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that
+     a man could not lie in them extended at full length, but in
+     a country where boxes and boards are scarce this is
+     overlooked. After the corpses have remained a certain time
+     exposed, they are taken down and burned. Our guide,
+     Renville, related to us that he had been a witness to an
+     interesting, though painful, circumstance that occurred
+     here. An Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing that
+     his son had died at this spot, came up in a canoe to take
+     charge of the remains and convey them down the river to his
+     place of abode but on his arrival he found that the corpse
+     had already made such progress toward decomposition as
+     rendered it impossible for it to be removed. He then
+     undertook with a few friends, to clean off the bones. All
+     the flesh was scraped off and thrown into the stream, the
+     bones were carefully collected into his canoe, and
+     subsequently carried down to his residence.
+
+Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is
+the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis, United
+States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to the
+Cheyennes of Kansas.
+
+     The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the
+     banks of Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet
+     from the ground by four notched poles, which were firmly
+     planted in the ground. The unusual care manifested in the
+     preparation of the case induced Dr. Sternberg to infer that
+     some important chief was inclosed in it. Believing that
+     articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and that
+     their value would be enhanced if the were received at the
+     Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to
+     send the case unopened.
+
+     I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of
+     the contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced
+     branches of white willow, about six feet long, three feet
+     broad, and three feet high, with a flooring of buffalo
+     thongs arranged as a net-work. This cradle was securely
+     fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles of ironwood
+     and cottonwood, about twelve feet in length. These poles
+     doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of the vertical
+     poles described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in
+     two buffalo robes of large size and well preserved. On
+     removing these an aperture eighteen inches square was found
+     at the middle of the right-side of the cradle or basket.
+     Within appeared other buffalo robes folded about the
+     remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes. Five robes
+     were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we came
+     to a series of new blankets folded about the remains. There
+     were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one white.
+     These being removed, the next wrappings consisted of a
+     striped white and gray sack, and of a United States Infantry
+     overcoat, like the other coverings nearly new. We had now
+     come apparently upon the immediate envelope of the remains,
+     which it was now evident must be those of a child. These
+     consisted of three robes, with hoods very richly ornamented
+     with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of buffalo-calf
+     skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated with
+     bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of
+     blue and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow,
+     and the third blue and red. All were further adorned by
+     spherical brass bells attached all about the borders by
+     strings of beads.
+
+     The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar
+     to that used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern
+     plains, and upon a pillow of dirty rags, in which were
+     folded a bag of red paint, bits of antelope skin, bunches of
+     straps, buckles, &c. The three bead-work hooded cloaks were
+     now removed, and then we successively unwrapped a gray
+     woolen double shawl, five yards of blue cassimere, six yards
+     of red calico, and six yards of brown calico, and finally
+     disclosed the remains of a child, probably about a year old,
+     in an advanced stage of decomposition. The cadaver had a
+     beaver-cap ornamented with disks of copper containing the
+     bones of the cranium, which had fallen apart. About the neck
+     were long wampum necklaces, with _Dentalium, Unionidae_, and
+     _Auriculae_, interspersed with beads. There were also strings
+     of the pieces of _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so
+     valued by the Indians on this side of the Rocky Mountains.
+     The body had been elaborately dressed for burial, the
+     costume consisting of a red-flannel cloak, a red tunic, and
+     frock-leggins adorned with bead-work, yarn stockings of red
+     and black worsted, and deer-skin beadwork moccasins. With
+     the remains were numerous trinkets, a porcelain image, a
+     China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a pair of
+     mittens, a fur collar, a pouch of the skin of _Putorius
+     vison_, &c.
+
+Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished by
+Dr. L.S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to
+the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious
+mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the
+entire globe:
+
+     The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs
+     can be found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding
+     on which to lay the body, but as such growth is not common
+     in Dakota, the more general practice is to lay them upon
+     scaffolds from seven to ten feet high and out of the reach
+     of carnivorous animals, as the wolf. These scaffolds are
+     constructed upon four posts set into the ground something
+     after the manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like
+     all labors of a domestic kind, the preparation for burial is
+     left to the women, usually the old women. The work begins as
+     soon as life is extinct. The face, neck, and hands are
+     thickly painted with vermilion, or a species of red earth
+     found in various portions of the Territory when the
+     vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The clothes and
+     personal trinkets of the deceased ornament the body. When
+     blankets are available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts
+     of the body being completely enveloped. Around this a
+     dressed skin of buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the
+     flesh side out, and the whole securely bound with thongs of
+     skins, either raw or dressed; and for ornament, when
+     available, a bright-red blanket envelopes all other
+     coverings, and renders the general scene more picturesque
+     until dimmed by time and the elements. As soon as the
+     scaffold is ready, the body is borne by the women, followed
+     by the female relatives, to the place of final deposit, and
+     left prone in its secure wrappings upon this airy bed of
+     death. This ceremony is accompanied with lamentations wild
+     and weird that one must see and hear in order to appreciate.
+     If the deceased be a brave, it is customary to place upon or
+     beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads which time has
+     rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been brave in
+     war some of his implements of battle are placed on the
+     scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If the deceased
+     has been a chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it is
+     not uncommon to slay his favorite pony and place the body
+     beneath the scaffold, under the superstition, I suppose,
+     that the horse goes with the man. As illustrating the
+     propensity to provide the dead with the things used while
+     living, I may mention that some years ago I loaned to an old
+     man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a young man who
+     was slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made him promise
+     faithfully that he would return it as soon as his son was
+     done using it. Not long afterwards the urinal graced the
+     scaffold which held the remains of the dead warrior, and as
+     it has not to this day been returned I presume the young man
+     is not done using it.
+
+     The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them
+     appear to be of universal observance, cover considerable
+     ground. The hair, never cut under other circumstances, is
+     cropped off even with the neck, and the top of the head and
+     forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole body, are smeared
+     with a species of white earth resembling chalk, moistened
+     with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family
+     possessions except the few shabby articles of apparel worn
+     by the mourners, are given away and the family left
+     destitute. Thus far the custom is universal or nearly so.
+     The wives, mother, and sisters of a deceased man, on the
+     first, second, or third day after the funeral, frequently
+     throw off their moccasins and leggings and gash their legs
+     with their butcher-knives, and march through the camp and to
+     the place of burial with bare and bleeding extremities,
+     while they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. The
+     men likewise often gash themselves in many places, and
+     usually seek the solitude of the higher point on the distant
+     prairie, where they remain fasting, smoking, and wailing out
+     their lamentations for two or three days. A chief who had
+     lost a brother once came to me after three or four days of
+     mourning in solitude almost exhausted from hunger and bodily
+     anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both lower
+     extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from
+     the ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed
+     from exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me
+     that he had not slept for several days or nights. I dressed
+     his wounds with a soothing ointment, and gave him a full
+     dose of an effective anodyne, after which he slept long and
+     refreshingly, and awoke to express his gratitude and shake
+     my hand in a very cordial and sincere manner. When these
+     harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the mourners
+     usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial,
+     toward the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until it is
+     apparently assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely
+     kept up for more than four or five days, but is occasionally
+     resorted to, at intervals, for weeks, or even months,
+     according to the mood of the bereft. I have seen few things
+     in life so touching as the spectacle of an old father going
+     daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows are
+     lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would
+     move a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight,
+     when, silent and solemn, he returns to his desolate family.
+     The weird effect of this observance is sometimes heightened,
+     when the deceased was a grown-up son, by the old man
+     kindling a little fire near the head of the scaffold, and
+     varying his lamentations with smoking in silence. The
+     foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances
+     during a period of more than six years' constant intercourse
+     with several subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may
+     be much which memory has failed to recall upon a brief
+     consideration.
+
+Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for the
+dead.
+
+Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner's narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.
+
+Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to
+have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation,
+and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., were
+thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles supposed or
+known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also consumed. The
+Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, Caribs, and many of
+the tribes of North American Indians followed these customs. The cutting
+of hair as a mourning observance is of very great antiquity, and Tegg
+relates that among the ancients whole cities and countries were shaved
+(_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians not only shaved themselves
+on such occasions, but extended the same process to their domestic
+animals, and Alexander, at the death of Hephaestin, not only cut off the
+manes of his horses and mules, but took down the battlements from the
+city walls, that even towns might seem in mourning and look bald.
+Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed from a remote period of
+time, having possibly replaced, in the process of evolution, to a
+certain extent, the more barbarous practice of absolute personal
+sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human sacrifices have taken
+place to only a limited extent, but formerly many victims were
+immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida and Carolina
+Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for the reason,
+according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun
+descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as all other
+members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only persons of
+an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among some tribes
+of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by
+no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans,
+and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutr�,
+in France, the writer saw horses' bones exhumed from the graves examined
+in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this
+subject, and they have invariably informed him that when horses were
+slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the band.
+
+Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+Colchiens enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to trees;
+the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to the use
+of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it seems
+somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the eastern
+portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in this way,
+which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much easier
+method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living in
+sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that the
+Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, the
+fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to the
+supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the
+desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This
+desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.
+
+The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in loud
+cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a greater
+significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and on this
+point Bruhier[69] seems quite positive, his interpretation being that
+such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some
+interesting examples, which may be admitted here:
+
+     The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed
+     with comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he
+     preferred to leave this world, having everything to make
+     life comfortable. They place the corpse on a little seat in
+     a ditch or grave four or five feet deep, and for ten days
+     they bring food, requesting the corpse to eat. Finally,
+     being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor return to
+     life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and fill
+     up the grave.
+
+When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the body,
+closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received the
+last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased
+by name was known as the _conclamation_, and was a custom anterior even
+to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately
+removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater
+propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves
+on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the
+Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number,
+performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village
+church steeple and again at the grave[70]. This custom, however, was
+probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to
+prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad
+spirits.
+
+W.L. Hardisty[71] gives a curious example of log-burial in trees,
+relating to the Loncheux of British America:
+
+     They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood,
+     and secure it to two or more trees, about six feet from the
+     ground. A log about eight feet long is first spilt in two,
+     and each of the parts carefully hollowed out to the required
+     size The body is then inclosed and the two pieces well
+     lashed together, preparatory to being finally secured, as
+     before stated, to the trees.
+
+The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing
+scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood[72] gives a number
+of examples of this mode of burial.
+
+     In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming
+     the body by fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make
+     it a peculiarly conspicuous object. Should a tree grow
+     favorably for their purpose, they will employ it as the
+     final resting place for the dead body. Lying in its canoe
+     coffin, and so covered over with leaves and grass that its
+     shape is quite disguised, the body is lifted into a
+     convenient fork of the tree and lashed to the boughs, by
+     native ropes. No farther care is taken of it, and if in
+     process of time it should be blown out of the tree, no one
+     will take the trouble of replacing it.
+
+     Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an
+     artificial platform is made for the body, by fixing the ends
+     of stout branches in the ground and connecting them at their
+     tops by smaller horizontal branches. Such are the curious
+     tombs which are represented in the illustration. * * * These
+     strange tombs are mostly placed among the reeds, so that
+     nothing can be more mournful than the sound of the wind as
+     it shakes the reeds below the branch in which the corpse is
+     lying. The object of this aerial tomb is evident enough,
+     namely, to protect the corpse from the dingo, or native dog.
+     That the ravens and other carrion-eating birds should make a
+     banquet upon the body of the dead man does not seem to
+     trouble the survivors in the least, and it often happens
+     that the traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed
+     ravens that the body of a dead Australian is lying in the
+     branches over his head.
+
+     The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old
+     men who have died a natural death; but when a young warrior
+     has fallen in battle the body is treated in a very different
+     manner. A moderately high platform is erected, and upon this
+     is seated the body of the dead warrior with the face toward
+     the rising sun. The legs are crossed and the arms kept
+     extended by means of sticks. The fat is then removed, and
+     after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over the body,
+     which has previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is
+     done in the ceremony of initiation. The legs and arms are
+     covered with zebra-like stripes of red, white, and yellow,
+     and the weapons of the dead man are laid across his lap.
+
+     The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the
+     platform, and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole
+     of which time the friends and mourners remain by the body,
+     and are not permitted to speak. Sentinels relieve each other
+     at appointed intervals, their duty being to see that the
+     fires are not suffered to go out, and to keep the flies away
+     by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu feathers. When a
+     body has been treated in this manner it becomes hard and
+     mummy-like, and the strongest point is that the wild dogs
+     will not touch it after it has been so long smoked. It
+     remains sitting on the platform for two months or so, and is
+     then taken down and buried, with the exception of the skull,
+     which is made into a drinking-cup for the nearest relative.
+     * * *
+
+This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as the
+process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from decomposition.
+
+Figs. 21 and 22 represent the Australian burials described, and are
+after the original engravings in Wood's work. The one representing
+scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of our own Indians.
+
+With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead,
+the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are given:
+
+     If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the
+     dead bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon
+     scaffolds resembling trees, instead of burying them in the
+     ground, or burning them and preserving their ashes in urns,
+     I think we can answer the inquiry by recollecting that most
+     if not all the tribes of American Indians, as well as other
+     nations of a higher civilization, believed that the human
+     soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and nature of
+     a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their
+     habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the soul-bird
+     would have readier access to its former home or
+     dwelling-place if it was placed upon a tree or scaffold than
+     if it was buried in the earth; moreover, from this lofty
+     eyrie the souls of the dead could rest secure from the
+     attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard like
+     sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.
+
+This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the writer's
+possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct without
+farther investigation.
+
+
+PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES.
+
+Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by
+writers "bone-houses." Roman[73] relates the following concerning the
+Choctaws:
+
+     The following treatment of the dead is very strange. * * * As
+     soon as the deceased is departed, a stage is erected (as in
+     the annexed plate is represented) and the corpse is laid on
+     it and covered with a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it
+     is decorated, and the poles painted red with vermillion and
+     bear's oil; if a child, it is put upon stakes set across; at
+     this stage the relations come and weep, asking many
+     questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did not
+     his wife serve him well? was he not contented with his
+     children? had he not corn enough? did not his land produce
+     sufficient of everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c.,
+     and this accompanied by loud howlings; the women will be
+     there constantly, and sometimes, with the corrupted air and
+     heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige the bystanders to
+     carry them home; the men will also come and mourn in the
+     same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable times
+     when they are least likely to be discovered.
+
+     The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a
+     certain time, but not a fixed space; this is sometimes
+     extended to three or four months, but seldom more than half
+     that time. A certain set of venerable old Gentlemen, who
+     wear very long nails as a distinguishing badge on the thumb,
+     fore, and middle finger of each hand, constantly travel
+     through the nation (when I was there I was told there were
+     but five of this respectable order) that one of them may
+     acquaint those concerned, of the expiration of this period,
+     which is according to their own fancy; the day being come,
+     the friends and relations assemble near the stage, a fire is
+     made, and the respectable operator, after the body is taken
+     down, with his nails tears the remaining flesh off the
+     bones, and throws it with the entrails into the fire, where
+     it is consumed; then he scrapes the bones and burns the
+     scrapings likewise; the head being painted red with
+     vermillion is with the rest of the bones put into a neatly
+     made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and
+     deposited in the loft of a hut built for that purpose, and
+     called bone house; each town has one of these; after
+     remaining here one year or thereabouts, if he be a man of
+     any note, they take the chest down, and in an assembly of
+     relations and friends they weep once more over him, refresh
+     the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him
+     to lasting oblivion.
+
+     An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the
+     earth as one to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above
+     ceremonial obsequies and mourning.
+
+Jones[74] quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the
+Natchez tribe:
+
+     Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in
+     tombs. These tombs were located within or very near their
+     temples. They rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in
+     the ground, and were raised some three feet above the earth.
+     About eight feet long and a foot and a half wide, they were
+     prepared for the reception of a single corpse. After the
+     body was placed upon it, a basket-work of twigs was woven
+     around and covered with mud, an opening being left at the
+     head, through which food was presented to the deceased. When
+     the flesh had all rotted away, the bones were taken out,
+     placed in a box made of canes, and then deposited in the
+     temple. The common dead were mourned and lamented for a
+     period of three days. Those who fell in battle were honored
+     with a more protracted and grievous lamentation.
+
+Bartram[75] gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial
+among the Choctaws of Carolina:
+
+     The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the
+     deceased in a very different manner. As soon as a person is
+     dead, they erect a scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove
+     adjacent to the town, where they lay the corps, lightly
+     covered with a mantle; here it is suffered to remain,
+     visited and protected by the friends and relations, until
+     the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from the
+     bones; then undertakers, who make it their business,
+     carefully strip the flesh from the bones, wash and cleanse
+     them, and when dry and purified by the air, having provided
+     a curiously-wrought chest or coffin, fabricated of bones and
+     splints, they place all the bones therein, which is
+     deposited in the bone-house, a building erected for that
+     purpose in every town; and when this house is full a general
+     solemn funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or
+     friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the
+     bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following
+     one another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and
+     connections attending their respective corps, and the
+     multitude following after them, all as one family, with
+     united voice of alternate allelujah and lamentation, slowly
+     proceeding on to the place of general interment, when they
+     place the coffins in order, forming a pyramid;[76] and,
+     lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a conical
+     hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn
+     procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is
+     called the feast of the dead.
+
+Morgan[77] also alludes to this mode of burial:
+
+     The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding
+     erected upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where
+     it was left to waste to a skeleton. After this had been
+     effected by the process of decomposition in the open air,
+     the bones were removed either to the former house of the
+     deceased, or to a small bark house by its side, prepared for
+     their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the whole
+     family were preserved from generation to generation by the
+     filial or parental affection of the living. After the lapse
+     of a number of years, or in a season of public insecurity,
+     or on the eve of abandoning a settlement, it was customary
+     to collect these skeletons from the whole community around
+     and consign them to a common resting-place.
+
+     To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is
+     doubtless to be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which
+     have been found in such numbers in various parts of the
+     country. On opening these mounds the skeletons are usually
+     found arranged in horizontal layers, a conical pyramid,
+     those in each layer radiating from a common center. In other
+     cases they are found placed promiscuously.
+
+Dr. D.G. Brinton[78] likewise gives an account of the interment of
+collected bones:
+
+     East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed
+     at stated periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to
+     collect and clean the osseous remains of those of its number
+     who had died in the intervening time, and inter them in one
+     common sepulcher, lined with choice furs, and marked with a
+     mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such is the origin of those
+     immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains of nations and
+     generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent curiosity,
+     so frequently chances upon in all portions of our territory.
+     Throughout Central America the same usage obtained in
+     various localities, as early writers and existing monuments
+     abundantly testify. Instead of interring the bones, were
+     they those of some distinguished chieftain, they were
+     deposited in the temples or the council-houses, usually in
+     small chests of canes or splints. Such were the
+     charnel-houses which the historians of De Soto's expedition
+     so often mention, and these are the "arks" Adair and other
+     authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians
+     from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient
+     Israelites bore with them in their migration.
+
+     A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of
+     her deceased husband wherever she went for four years,
+     preserving them in such a casket, handsomely decorated with
+     feathers (Rich. Arc. Exp., p. 200). The Caribs of the
+     mainland adopted the custom for all, without exception.
+     About a year after death the bones were cleaned, bleached,
+     painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a wicker
+     basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling
+     (Gumilla Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the
+     quantity of these heirlooms became burdensome they were
+     removed to some inaccessible cavern and stowed away with
+     reverential care.
+
+George Catlin[79] describes what he calls the "Golgothas" of the
+Mandans:
+
+     There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty
+     or thirty feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring
+     or circle is a little mound of three feet high, on which
+     uniformly rest two buffalo skulls (a male and female), and
+     in the center of the little mound is erected "a medicine
+     pole," of about twenty feet high, supporting many curious
+     articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose
+     have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred
+     arrangement.
+
+     Here, then, to this strange place do these people again
+     resort to evince their further affections for the dead, not
+     in groans and lamentations, however, for several years have
+     cured the anguish, but fond affection and endearments are
+     here renewed, and conversations are here held and cherished
+     with the dead. Each one of these skulls is placed upon a
+     bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and placed under
+     it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the skull
+     of her husband or her child which lies in this group, and
+     there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it with a
+     dish of the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, which
+     she sets before the skull at night, and returns for the dish
+     in the morning. As soon as it is discovered that the sage on
+     which the skull rests is beginning to decay, the woman cuts
+     a fresh bunch and places the skull carefully upon it,
+     removing that which was under it.
+
+     Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women
+     to this spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger
+     upon it to hold converse and company with the dead. There is
+     scarcely an hour in a pleasant day but more or less of these
+     women may be seen sitting or lying by the skull of their
+     child or husband, talking to it in the most pleasant and
+     endearing language that they can use (as they were wont to
+     do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.
+
+From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which have
+been described by the authors cited were not confined to any special
+tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have prevailed
+among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.
+
+
+SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES.
+
+The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.
+
+The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington Territory,
+and may be found in Swan.[80]
+
+     In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a celebrated
+     doctor, were the chief mourners, probably from being the
+     smartest scamps among the relatives. Their duty was to
+     prepare the canoe for the reception of the body. One of the
+     largest and best the deceased had owned was then hauled into
+     the woods, at some distance back of the lodge, after having
+     been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two large square
+     holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and stern, for
+     the twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for further
+     use, and therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the
+     whites (who are but too apt to help themselves to these
+     depositories for the dead), and also to allow any rain to
+     pass off readily.
+
+     When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets,
+     was brought out, and laid in it on mats previously spread.
+     All the wearing apparel was next put in beside the body,
+     together with her trinkets, beads, little baskets, and
+     various trifles she had prized. More blankets were then
+     covered over the body, and mats smoothed over all. Next, a
+     small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was placed,
+     bottom up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with
+     mats. The canoe was then raised up and placed on two
+     parallel bars, elevated four or five feet from the ground,
+     and supported by being inserted through holes mortised at
+     the top of four stout posts previously firmly planted in the
+     earth. Around these holes were then hung blankets, and all
+     the cooking utensils of the deceased, pots, kettles, and
+     pans, each with a hole punched through it, and all her
+     crockery-ware, every piece of which was first cracked or
+     broken, to render it useless; and then, when all was done,
+     they left her to remain for one year, when the bones would
+     be buried in a box in the earth directly under the canoe;
+     but that, with all its appendages, would never be molested,
+     but left to go to gradual decay.
+
+     They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and
+     would no more think of using one than we would of using our
+     own graveyard relics; and it is, in their view, as much of a
+     desecration for a white man to meddle or interfere with
+     these, to them, sacred mementoes, as it would be to us to
+     have an Indian open the graves of our relatives. Many
+     thoughtless white men have done this, and animosities have
+     been thus occasioned.
+
+Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.
+
+From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the Twanas,
+and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency,
+Washington Territory, is selected:
+
+     The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years
+     of age, dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in
+     the afternoon I went to the house to attend the funeral.
+     She had then been placed in a Hudson's Bay Company's box for
+     a coffin, which was about 3-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 wide, and
+     1-1/2 high. She was very poor when she died, owing to her
+     disease, or she could not have been put in this box. A fire
+     was burning near by, where a large number of her things had
+     been consumed, and the rest was in three boxes near the
+     coffin. Her mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with
+     others, and often saying, "My daughter, my daughter, why did
+     you die?" and similar words. The burial did not take place
+     until the next day, and I was invited to go. It was an
+     aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was about 25 feet long.
+     The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were about a foot
+     wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were placed,
+     on which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this
+     was done which was new to me, but the significance of which
+     I did not learn. As fast as the holes were cut in the posts,
+     green leaves were gathered and placed over the holes until
+     the posts were put in the ground. The coffin-box and the
+     three others containing her things were placed in the canoe
+     and a roof of boards made over the central part, which was
+     entirely covered with white cloth. The head part and the
+     foot part of her bedstead were then nailed on to the posts,
+     which front the water, and a dress nailed on each of these.
+     After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull and
+     went to the beach except her father, mother, and brother,
+     who remained ten or fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe
+     and mourning. They then came down and made a present to
+     those persons who were there--a gun to one, a blanket to
+     each of two or three others, and a dollar and a half to each
+     of the rest, including myself, there being about fifteen
+     persons present. Three or four of them then made short
+     speeches, and we came home. The reason why she was buried
+     thus is said to be because she is a prominent woman in the
+     tribe. In about nine months it is expected that there will
+     be a "_pot-latch_" or distribution of money near this place,
+     and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation of
+     two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at
+     the grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried
+     in the ground. Shortly after her death both her father and
+     mother cut off their hair as a sign of their grief.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--Twana Canoe Burial.]
+
+Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and represents
+the burial mentioned in his narrative.
+
+The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed
+canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by
+Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of
+the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized
+by painstaking attention to detail:
+
+     I divide this subject into five periods, varying according
+     to time, though they are somewhat intermingled.
+
+     _(a)_ There are places where skulls and skeletons have been
+     plowed up or still remain in the ground and near together,
+     in such a way as to give good ground for the belief which is
+     held by white residents in the region, that formerly persons
+     were buried in the ground and in irregular cemeteries. I
+     know of such places in Duce Waillops among the Twanas, and
+     at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the Clallam. These
+     graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the present
+     day profess to have no knowledge as to who is buried in
+     them, except that they believe, undoubtedly, that they are
+     the graves of their ancestors. I do not know that any care
+     has ever been exercised by any one in exhuming these
+     skeletons so as to learn any particulars about them. It is
+     possible, however, that these persons were buried according
+     to the _(b)_ or canoe method, and that time has buried them
+     where they now are.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 25--Posts for Burial Canoes.]
+
+     _(b)_ Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the
+     forks of two trees and left there. There was no particular
+     cemetery, but the person was generally left near the place
+     where the death occurred. The Skokomish Valley is said to
+     have been full of canoes containing persons thus buried.
+     What their customs were while burying, or what they placed
+     around the dead, I am not informed but am told that they did
+     not take as much care then of their dead as they do now. I
+     am satisfied, however, that they then left some articles
+     around the dead. An old resident informs me that the Clallam
+     Indians always bury their dead in a sitting posture.
+
+     _(c)_ About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in
+     British Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region,
+     unprincipled white men took many of the canoes in which the
+     Indian dead had been left, emptying them of their contents.
+     This incensed the Indians and they changed their mode of
+     burial somewhat by burying the dead in one place, placing
+     them in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by building
+     scaffolds for them instead of placing them in forks of
+     trees, and in cutting their canoes so as to render them
+     useless, when they were used as coffins or left by the side
+     of the dead. The ruins of one such graveyard now remain
+     about two miles from this agency. Nearly all the remains
+     were removed a few years ago.
+
+     With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I
+     have drawn. Fig 25 shows that at present only one pair of
+     posts remains. I have supplied the other pair as they
+     evidently were.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 26--Tent on Scaffold.]
+
+     Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part
+     which is covered with board and cloth incloses the coffin
+     which is on a scaffold.
+
+     As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites
+     they have learned to bury in the ground, and this is the
+     most common method at the present time. There are cemetaries
+     everywhere where Indians have resided any length of time.
+     After a person has died a coffin is made after the cheaper
+     kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it, and also
+     with it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes,
+     though occasionally money. I lately heard of a child being
+     buried with a twenty-dollar gold piece in each hand and
+     another in its month, but I am not able to vouch for the
+     truth of it. As a general thing, money is too valuable with
+     them for this purpose and there is too much temptation for
+     some one to rob the grave when this is left in it.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 27--House-Burial]
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 28--House-Burial]
+
+     _(d)_ The grave is dug after the style of the whites and
+     the coffin then placed in it. After it has been covered it
+     is customary though not universal, to build some kind of an
+     inclosure over it or around it in the shape of a small
+     house, shed, lodge or fence. These are from 2 to 12 feet
+     high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet long.
+     Some of these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to
+     see within and some are quite open. Occasionally a window is
+     placed in the front side. Sometimes these enclosures are
+     covered with cloth, which is generally white, sometimes
+     partly covered, and some have none. Around the grave, both
+     outside and inside of the inclosure, various articles are
+     placed, as guns, canoes, dishes, pails, cloth, sheets,
+     blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and occasionally a
+     roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said that
+     around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few
+     years ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of
+     these articles are cut or broken so as to render them
+     valueless to man and to prevent their being stolen. Poles
+     are also often erected, from 10 to 30 feet long, on which
+     American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes, and cloths of
+     various colors are hung. A few graves have nothing of this
+     kind. On some graves these things are renewed every year or
+     two. This depends mainly on the number of relatives living
+     and the esteem in which they hold the deceased.
+
+     The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it
+     away particle by particle to the spirit of the deceased in
+     the spirit land, and also as these articles decay they are
+     also carried away in a similar manner. I have never known of
+     the placing food near a grave. Figures 27 and 28 will give
+     you some idea of this class of graves. Figure 27 has a
+     paling fence 12 feet square around it. Figure 28 is simply a
+     frame over a grave where there is no enclosure.
+
+     _(e)_ civilized mode.--A few persons, of late, have fallen
+     almost entirely into the American custom of burying,
+     building a simple paling fence around it, but placing no
+     articles around it; this is more especially true of the
+     Clallams.
+
+     FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
+
+     In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances
+     of sections _(a)_ and _b_ of the preceding subject I know
+     nothing. In regard to _(c)_ and _d_, they begin to mourn,
+     more especially the women, as soon as a person dies. Their
+     mourning song consists principally of the sounds represented
+     by the three English notes mi mi, do do, la la; those who
+     attend the funeral are expected to bring some articles to
+     place in the coffin or about the grave as a token of respect
+     for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this
+     purpose have been cloth of some kind; a small piece of cloth
+     is returned by the mourners to the attendants as a token of
+     remembrance. They bury much sooner after death than white
+     persons do, generally as soon as they can obtain a coffin. I
+     know of no other native funeral ceremonies. Occasionally
+     before being taken to the grave, I have held Christian
+     funeral ceremonies over them, and these services increase
+     from year to year. One reason which has rendered them
+     somewhat backward about having these funeral services is,
+     that they are quite superstitions about going near the dead,
+     fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased will
+     enter the living and kill them also. Especially are they
+     afraid of having children go near, being much more fearful
+     of the effect of the evil spirit on them than on older
+     persons.
+
+     MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+     They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning,
+     but often continue it after the burial, though I do not know
+     that they often visit the grave. If they feel the loss very
+     much, sometimes they will mourn nearly every day for several
+     weeks; especially is this true when they meet an old friend
+     who has not been seen since the funeral, or when they
+     see an article owned by the deceased which they have not
+     seen for a long time. The only other thing of which I think,
+     which bears on this subject, is an idea they have, that
+     before a person dies--it may be but a short time or it may
+     be several months--a spirit from the spirit land comes and
+     carries off the spirit of the individual to that place.
+     There are those who profess to discover when this is done,
+     and if by any of their incantations they can compel that
+     spirit to return, the person will not die, but if they are
+     not able, then the person will become dead at heart and in
+     time die, though it may not be for six months or even
+     twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a
+     pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has
+     recently been published by the Department of the Interior,
+     under Prof. F.V. Hayden, United States Geologist.
+
+George Gibbs[81] gives a most interesting account of the
+burial ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory,
+which is here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples
+of other modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the
+narrative would destroy the thread of the story:
+
+     The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing
+     tribes was in canoes. These were generally drawn into the
+     woods at some prominent point a short distance from the
+     village, and sometimes placed between the forks of trees or
+     raised from the ground on posts. Upon the Columbia River the
+     Tsin�k had in particular two very noted cemeteries, a high
+     isolated bluff about three miles below the mouth of the
+     Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance above,
+     called Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been
+     very ancient. Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver's lieutenants,
+     who explored the river, makes mention only of _several_
+     canoes at this place; and Lewis and Clarke, who noticed the
+     mount, do not speak of them at all, but at the time of
+     Captain Wilkes's expedition it is conjectured that there
+     were at least 3,000. A fire caused by the carelessness of
+     one of his party destroyed the whole, to the great
+     indignation of the Indians.
+
+     Captain Bolcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited
+     the river in 1839, remarks: "In the year 1836 [1826] the
+     small-pox made great ravages, and it was followed a few
+     years since by the ague. Consequently Corpse Island and
+     Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent shores, were studded
+     not only with canoes, but at the period of our visit the
+     skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all directions."
+     This method generally prevailed on the neighboring coasts,
+     as at Shoal Water Bay, &c. Farther up the Columbia, as at
+     the Cascades, a different form was adopted, which is thus
+     described by Captain Clarke:
+
+     "About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of
+     the woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of
+     eight vaults, made of pine cedar boards, closely connected,
+     about 8 feet square and 6 in height, the top securely
+     covered with wide boards, sloping a little, so as to convey
+     off the rain. The direction of all these is east and west,
+     the door being on the eastern side, and partially stopped
+     with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of men and
+     other animals. On entering we found in some of them four
+     dead bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of
+     grass and bark, lying on a mat in a direction east and west;
+     the other vaults contained only bones, which in some of them
+     were piled to a height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults
+     and on poles attached to them hung brass kettles and
+     frying-pans with holes in their bottoms, baskets, bowls,
+     sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of trinkets,
+     and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection,
+     which have been saved by a pious veneration from the
+     ferocity of war or the more dangerous temptation of
+     individual gain. The whole of the walls as well as the door
+     were decorated with strange figures cut and painted on them,
+     and besides these were several wooden images of men, some of
+     them so old and decayed as to have almost lost their shape,
+     which were all placed against the sides of the vault. These
+     images, as well as those in the houses we have lately seen,
+     do not appear to be at all the objects of adoration in this
+     place; they were most probably intended as resemblances of
+     those whose decease they indicate, and when we observe them
+     in houses they occupy the most conspicuous part, but are
+     treated more like ornaments than objects of worship. Near
+     the vaults which are still standing are the remains of
+     others on the ground, completely rotted and covered with
+     moss; and as they are formed of the most durable pine and
+     cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a very long
+     series of years this retired spot has been the depository
+     for the Indians near this place."
+
+     Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river
+     a few miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The
+     _Watlala,_ a tribe of the Upper Tain�k, whose burial place
+     is here described, are now nearly extinct; but a number of
+     the sepulchers still remain in different states of
+     preservation. The position of the body, as noticed by
+     Clarke, is, I believe, of universal observance, the head
+     being always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me
+     is that the road to the _m�-mel �s-illa-hee,_ the country
+     of the dead, is toward the west, and if they place them
+     otherwise they would be confused. East of the Cascade
+     Mountains the tribes whose habits are equestrian, and who
+     use canoes only for ferriage or transportation purposes,
+     bury their dead, usually heaping over them piles of stones,
+     either to mark the spot or to prevent the bodies from being
+     exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many
+     of their graves placed in conspicuous points of the basaltic
+     walls which line the lower valleys, and designated by a
+     clump of poles planted over them, from which fluttered
+     various articles of dress. Formerly these prairie tribes
+     killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling into
+     disuse in consequence of the teachings of the whites.
+
+     Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different
+     localities. Among the Makuh of Cape Flattery the graves are
+     covered with a sort of box, rudely constructed of boards,
+     and elsewhere on the Sound the same method is adopted in
+     some cases, while in others the bodies are placed on
+     elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the Indians
+     upon the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a
+     distance from it buried them. Most of the graves are
+     surrounded with strips of cloth, blankets, and other
+     articles of property. Mr. Cameron, an English gentleman
+     residing at Esquimalt Harbor, Vancouver Island, informed me
+     that on his place there were graves having at each corner a
+     large stone, the interior space filled with rubbish. The
+     origin of these was unknown to the present Indians.
+
+     The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very
+     marked; persons of no consideration and slaves being buried
+     with very little care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention
+     was particularly attracted to their methods of disposing of
+     the dead, mentions that at Port Discovery he saw baskets
+     suspended to the trees containing the skeletons of young
+     children, and, what is not easily explained, small square
+     boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think that any
+     of these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor
+     have I been able to learn from living Indians that they
+     formerly followed that practice. What he took for such I do
+     not understand. He also mentions seeing in the same place a
+     cleared space recently burned over, in which the skulls and
+     bones of a number lay among the ashes. The practice of
+     burning the dead exists in parts of California and among the
+     Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also pursued by the
+     "Carriers" of New California, but no intermediate tribes, to
+     my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the Sound do not
+     at present.
+
+     It is clear from Vancouver's narrative that some great
+     epidemic had recently passed through the country, as
+     manifested by the quantity of human remains uncared for and
+     exposed at the time of his visit, and very probably the
+     Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in which the
+     inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is
+     frequently done. They almost invariably remove from any
+     place where sickness has prevailed, generally destroying the
+     house also.
+
+     At Penn Cove Mr. Whalbey, one of Vancouver's officers,
+     noticed several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box.
+     Some of them were open, and contained the skeletons of many
+     young children tied up in baskets. The smaller bones of
+     adults were likewise noticed, but not one of the limb bones
+     was found, which gave rise to an opinion that these, by the
+     living inhabitants of the neighborhood, were appropriated to
+     useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows, spears, or
+     other weapons.
+
+     It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is
+     altogether foreign to Indian character. The bones of the
+     adults had probably been removed and buried elsewhere. The
+     corpses of children are variously disposed of; sometimes by
+     suspending them, at others by placing in the hollows of
+     trees. A cemetery devoted to infants is, however, an unusual
+     occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note much pomp was
+     used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes were of
+     great size and value--the war or state canoes of the
+     deceased. Frequently one was inverted over that holding the
+     body, and in one instance, near Shoalwater Bay, the corpse
+     was deposited in a small canoe, which again was placed in a
+     larger one and covered with a third. Among the _Tsin�k_ and
+     _Tsihalis_ the _tamahno-[=u]s_ board of the owner was placed
+     near him. The Puget Sound Indians do not make these
+     _tamahno-[=u]s_ boards, but they sometimes constructed effigies
+     of their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as
+     possible, dressed in his usual costume, and wearing the
+     articles of which he was fond. One of these, representing
+     the Skagit chief Sneestum, stood very conspicuously upon a
+     high bank on the eastern side of Whidbey Island. The figures
+     observed by Captain Clarke at the Cascades were either of
+     this description or else the carved posts which had
+     ornamented the interior of the houses of the deceased, and
+     were connected with the superstition of the _tamahno-[=u]s_. The
+     most valuable articles of property were put into or hung up
+     around the grave, being first carefully rendered
+     unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped
+     to do honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have
+     been practiced in parting with articles so precious, but
+     those interested frequently had the least to say on the
+     subject. The graves of women were distinguished by a cap, a
+     Kamas stick, or other implement of their occupation, and by
+     articles of dress.
+
+     Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
+     deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or
+     even tied to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly.
+     At present this practice has been almost entirely given up,
+     but till within a very few years it was not uncommon. A case
+     which occurred in 1850 has been already mentioned. Still
+     later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsin�k chief living at Shoalwater
+     Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging to his
+     daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be
+     done. The woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the
+     woods half starved. Her master attempted to reclaim her, but
+     was soundly thrashed and warned against another attempt.
+
+     It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a
+     considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of
+     the burial-place. With the common class of persons family
+     pride or domestic affection was satisfied with the gathering
+     together of the bones after the flesh had decayed and
+     wrapping them in a new mat. The violation of the grave was
+     always regarded as an offense of the first magnitude and
+     provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher remarks: "Great
+     secrecy is observed in all their burial ceremonies, partly
+     from fear of Europeans, and as among themselves they will
+     instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb or wage
+     war if perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate
+     and tenaceously bent on revenge should they discover that
+     any act of the kind has been perpetrated by a white man. It
+     is on record that part of the crew of a vessel on her return
+     to this port (the Columbia) suffered because a person who
+     belonged to her (but not then in her) was known to have
+     taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had
+     become an object of curiosity." He adds, however, that at
+     the period of his visit to the river "the skulls and
+     skeletons were scattered about in all directions; and as I
+     was on most of their positions unnoticed by the natives, I
+     suspect the feeling does not extend much beyond their
+     relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body,
+     goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as
+     their canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care
+     taken by placing them in sequestered spots."
+
+     The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on
+     occasion of death will be referred to in treating of their
+     religious ideas. Wailing for the dead is continued for a
+     long time, and it seems to be rather a ceremonial
+     performance than an act of spontaneous grief. The duty, of
+     course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is
+     usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some
+     place a little distant from the lodge or camp and in a loud,
+     sobbing voice repeat a sort of stereotyped formula; as, for
+     instance, a mother, on the loss of her child, _"A seahb
+     shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud! ad-de-dah,"_ "Ah chief!" "My
+     child dead, alas!" When in dreams they see any of their
+     deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.
+
+With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned by
+Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing to
+die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom
+has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the
+individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states
+that--
+
+     In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique
+     died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, those
+     that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain
+     servants, killed themselves and were interred with him. This
+     they did in order that they might wait upon him in the land
+     of spirits.
+
+It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this
+revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATIC BURIAL.
+
+As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead has
+never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes.
+Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are
+informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy,
+living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed
+their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred
+to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans,
+with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or
+about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder "the
+beautiful," it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which
+was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The
+Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to
+Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of
+room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of
+thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee "seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the
+river."
+
+The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of
+sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their
+bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J.G. Wood[82] states that the
+Ohongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the
+course of which has been previously diverted. A deep grave is dug in the
+bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over carefully.
+Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so that all
+traces of the grave are soon lost.
+
+The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply
+sinking the body in some stream.
+
+Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to that
+employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosen�a, a town of Calabria, the
+Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and having made a
+grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most rapid, they
+interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and riches. They
+then caused the river to resume its regular course, and destroyed all
+persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic grave.
+
+A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De
+Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well
+weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the
+Mississippi.
+
+After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have
+been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes,
+and is by Capt. J.H. Simpson:[83]
+
+     Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert,
+     and which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my
+     guide over this route last fall, says derives its name from
+     the number of skulls which have been found in it, and which
+     have arisen from the custom of the Goshute Indians burying
+     their dead in springs, which they sank with stones or keep
+     down with sticks. He says he has actually seen the Indians
+     bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo, where he
+     resides.
+
+As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in another
+part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they were
+obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the bottom
+before using the water.
+
+This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned,
+especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is
+quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or
+springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a
+reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to
+attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to
+poison the springs for white persons.
+
+The second example is by George Catlin,[84] and relates to the Chinook:
+
+     * * * This little cradle has a strap which passes over the
+     woman forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if
+     the child dies during its subjection to this rigid mode,
+     its cradle becomes its coffin, forming a little canoe, in
+     which it lies floating on the water in some sacred pool,
+     where they are often in the habit of fastening their canoes
+     containing the dead bodies of the old and young, or, which
+     in often the case, elevated into the branches of trees,
+     where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry
+     whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed
+     in their canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale
+     them out, and provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they
+     are performing their "long journey after death to their
+     contemplated hunting grounds," which these people think is
+     to be performed in their canoes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30--Mourning Cradle]
+
+Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle.
+Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her
+dead child to the mercy of the elements.
+
+
+
+
+LIVING SEPULCHERS
+
+This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to express
+the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving friends
+and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has already
+been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is not
+believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, although
+cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true that a
+few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered apochryphal
+in character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how
+credulous were the early writers on American natives.
+
+That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is
+somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies
+been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the
+statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a
+number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.
+
+For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the Massagetics,
+Padaeans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously
+strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and
+Tertulian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the
+dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did the
+same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to be
+preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms.
+
+J.G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of Africa
+devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the common
+people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.
+
+The following extract is from Lafitau:[85]
+
+     Dans l'Am�rique M�ridionale quelque Peuples d�charnent les
+     corps de leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi
+     que je viens de le dire, et apr�s les avoir consum�es, ils
+     conservent pendant quelque temps leurs cadavres avec respect
+     dans leurs Cabanes, et il portent ces squeletes dans les
+     combats en guise d'Etendard, pour ranimer leur courage par
+     cette vue et inspirer de la terreur � leurs ennemis. * * *
+
+     Il est vrai qu'il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de
+     leurs parens; mais il est faux qu'elles les mettent � mort
+     dans leur vieillesse, pour avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de
+     leur chair, et d'en faire un repas. Quelques Nations de
+     l'Am�rique M�ridionale, qui ont encore cette coutume de
+     manger les corps morts de leurs parens, n'en usent ainsi que
+     par pi�t�, pi�t� mal entendue � la verit�, mais pi�t�
+     color�e n�anmoins par quelque ombre de raison; car ils
+     croyent leur donner une s�pulture bien plus honorable.
+
+To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is
+not believed to have been practiced by them.
+
+
+
+
+MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,
+AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.
+
+The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper,
+yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples,
+under separate heads.
+
+
+_MOURNING_
+
+One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of a
+chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,[86] who for
+many years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction
+as a warrior.
+
+     I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the
+     head chief's death, and then, burying him according to his
+     directions, we slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul
+     sickened at the contemplation of the scenes that would be
+     enacted at my arrival. When we drew in sight of the village,
+     we found every lodge laid prostrate. We entered amid
+     shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was streaming from every
+     conceivable part of the bodies of all who were old enough to
+     comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were dismembered;
+     hair torn from the head lay in profusion about the paths;
+     wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where
+     unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This
+     fearful mourning lasted until evening of the next day. * * *
+
+     A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to
+     acquaint them with the death of our head chief, and request
+     them to assemble at the Rose Bud, in order to meet our
+     village and devote themselves to a general time of mourning,
+     there met, in conformity to the summons, over ten thousand
+     Crows at the place indicated. Such a scene of disorderly,
+     vociferous mourning, no imagination can conceive nor any pen
+     portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his hair; a thing
+     he was never known to do before. The cutting and hacking of
+     human flesh exceeded all my previous experience; fingers
+     were dismembered as readily as twigs, and blood was poured
+     out like water. Many of the warriors would cut two gashes
+     nearly the entire length of their arm; then, separating the
+     skin from the flesh at one end, would grasp it in their
+     other hand, and rip it asunder to the shoulder. Others would
+     carve various devices upon their breasts and shoulders, and
+     raise the skin in the same manner to make the scars show to
+     advantage after the wound was healed. Some of their
+     mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at
+     them, but they would not appear to receive any pain from
+     them.
+
+It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth's statements are to be
+taken _cum grana salis_.
+
+From L.L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of Lake
+Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received:
+
+     There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and
+     grief for their dead than they. The young widow mourns the
+     loss of her husband; by day as by night she is heard
+     silently sobbing; she is a constant visitor to the place of
+     rest; with the greatest reluctance will she follow the
+     raised camp. The friends and relatives of the young mourner
+     will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind from
+     the thought of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment,
+     but as nature is exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake
+     of food; the supply is scant, but on every occasion the best
+     and largest proportion is deposited upon the grave of her
+     husband. In the mean time the female relatives of the
+     deceased have, according to custom, submitted to her charge
+     a parcel made up of different cloths ornamented with
+     bead-work and eagle's feathers, which she is charged to keep
+     by her side--the place made vacant by the demise of her
+     husband--a reminder of her widowhood. She is therefore for a
+     term of twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery,
+     neither is she permitted to slicken up and comb her head;
+     this to avoid attracting attention. Once in a while a female
+     relative of deceased, commiserating with her grief and
+     sorrow, will visit her and voluntarily proceed to comb out
+     the long-neglected and matted hair. With a jealous eye a
+     vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during the term of
+     her widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to marry,
+     any time during her widowhood, an unmarried brother or
+     cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [sic] (family mark)
+     of her husband.
+
+     At the expiration of her term, the vows having been
+     faithfully performed and kept, the female relatives of
+     deceased assemble and, with greetings commensurate to the
+     occasion, proceed to wash her face, comb her hair, and
+     attire her person with new apparel, and otherwise
+     demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint. Still
+     she has not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to
+     marry a relative of the deceased and will marry another, she
+     then has to purchase her freedom by giving a certain amount
+     of goods and whatever else she might have manufactured
+     during her widowhood in anticipation of the future now at
+     hand. Frequently, though, during widowhood the vows are
+     disregarded and an inclination to flirt and play courtship
+     or form an alliance of marriage outside of the relatives of
+     the deceased is being indulged, and when discovered the
+     widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick braided
+     hair is shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her
+     apparel and trinkets are torn from her person, and a quarrel
+     frequently results fatally to some member of one or the
+     other side.
+
+Thomas L. McKenney[87] gives a description of the Chippewa widow which
+differs slightly from the one above:
+
+     I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls
+     of clothing. On inquiring what these imported, I learn that
+     they _are widows_ who carry them, and that these are badges
+     of mourning. It is indispensable, when a woman of the
+     Chippeway Nation loses her husband, for her to take of her
+     best apparel--and the whole of it is not worth a dollar--and
+     roll it up, and confine it by means of her husband's sashes;
+     and if he had ornaments, these are generally put on the top
+     of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth. This
+     bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is
+     never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it
+     with her; if she sits down in her lodge, she places it by
+     her side. This badge of widowhood and of mourning the widow
+     is compelled to carry with her until some of her late
+     husband's family shall call and take it away, which is done
+     when they think she has mourned long enough, and which is
+     generally at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not
+     before, released from her mourning, and at liberty to marry
+     again. She has the privilege to take this husband to the
+     family of the deceased and leave it, but this is considered
+     indecorous, and is seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the
+     deceased takes the widow for his wife at the grave of her
+     husband, which is done by a ceremony of walking her over it.
+     And this he has a right to do; and when this is done she is
+     not required to go into mourning; or, if she chooses, she
+     has the right _to go to him_, and he is _bound_ to support her.
+
+     I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges.
+     The size varies according to the quantity of clothing which
+     the widow may happen to have. It is expected of her to put
+     up her _best_ and wear her _worst_. The "_husband_" I saw just now
+     was 30 inches high and 18 inches in circumference.
+
+     I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had
+     been left to mourn after this fashion for years, none of her
+     husband's family calling for the badge or token of her
+     grief. At a certain time it was told her that some of her
+     husband's family were passing, and she was advised to speak
+     to them on the subject. She did so, and told them she had
+     mourned long and was poor; that she had no means to buy
+     clothes, and her's being all in the mourning badge, and
+     sacred, could not be touched. She expressed a hope that her
+     request might not be interpreted into a wish to marry; it
+     was only made that she might be placed in a situation to get
+     some clothes. She got for answer, that "they were going to
+     Mackinac, and would think of it." They left her in this
+     state of uncertainty, but on returning, and finding her
+     faithful still, they took her "husband" and presented her
+     with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded for
+     her constancy and made comfortable.
+
+     The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the
+     term of their grief, which is generally about a year. The
+     Chippeway men mourn by painting their faces black.
+
+     I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the
+     badge of mourning, this "_husband_" comes in for an equal
+     share, as if it were the living husband.
+
+     A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image
+     of it in the best manner she is able, and dresses it as she
+     did her living child, and fixes it in the kind of cradle I
+     have referred to, and goes through the ceremonies of nursing
+     it as if it were alive, by dropping little particles of food
+     in the direction of its mouth, and giving it of whatever the
+     living child partook. This ceremony also is generally
+     observed for a year.
+
+Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the
+substitute for the dead husband.
+
+The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other
+tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged
+to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle containing
+the bones of the deceased consort.
+
+Similar observances, according to Bancroft,[88] were followed by some
+of the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and
+Mosquitos being as follows:
+
+     The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a
+     year, after which she took up the bones and carried them
+     with her for another year, at last placing them upon the
+     roof of her house, and then only was she allowed to marry
+     again. On returning from the grave the property of the
+     deceased is destroyed, the cocoa palms being cut down, and
+     all who have taken part in the funeral undergo a lustration
+     in the river. Relatives cut off the hair, the men leaving a
+     ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck to the
+     forehead. Widows, according to some old writers, after
+     supplying the grave with food for a year take up the bones
+     and carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with
+     them at night for another year, after which they are placed
+     at the door or upon the house-top. On the anniversary of
+     deaths, friends of the deceased hold a feast, called
+     _serkroe,_ at which large quantities of liquor are drained
+     to his memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an
+     occasion of this kind, says that males and females were
+     dressed in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and
+     white, while their faces were correspondingly streaked with
+     red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk around,
+     prostrating themselves at intervals and calling loudly upon
+     the dead and tearing the ground with their hands. At no
+     other time is the departed referred to, the very mention of
+     his name being superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a
+     thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in
+     a straight line over every obstacle. Fr�ebel states that
+     among the Woolwas all property of the deceased is buried
+     with him, and that both husband and wife cut the hair and
+     burn the hut on the death of either, placing a gruel of
+     maize upon the grave for a certain time.
+
+Benson[89] gives the following account of the Choctaws' funeral
+ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and
+dance:
+
+     Their funeral is styled by them "the last cry."
+
+     When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the
+     grave, and place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up.
+     The gun, bow and arrows, hatchet, and knife are deposited in
+     the grave. Poles are planted at the head and the foot, upon
+     which flags are placed; the grave is then inclosed by
+     pickets driven in the ground. The funeral ceremonies now
+     begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night and
+     morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most
+     piteous cries and wailings. It is not important that any
+     other member of the family should take any very active part
+     in the "cry," though they do participate to some extent.
+
+     The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes
+     to the grave during one entire moon from the date when the
+     death occurred. On the evening of the last day of the moon
+     the friends all assemble at the cabin of the disconsolate
+     widow, bringing provisions for a sumptuous feast, which
+     consists of corn and jerked beef boiled together in a
+     kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved wife goes
+     to the grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her
+     bitter wailings and lamentations. When the food is
+     thoroughly cooked the kettle is taken from the fire and
+     placed in the center of the cabin, and the friends gather
+     around it, passing the buffalo-horn spoon from hand to hand
+     and from mouth to mouth till all have been bountifully
+     supplied. While supper is being served, two of the oldest
+     men of the company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and
+     fill it up, taking down the flags. All then join in a dance,
+     which not unfrequently is continued till morning; the widow
+     does not fail to unite in the dance, and to contribute her
+     part to the festivities of the occasion. This is the "_last
+     cry_," the days of mourning are ended, and the widow is now
+     ready to form another matrimonial alliance. The ceremonies
+     are precisely the same when a man has lost his wife, and
+     they are only slightly varied when any other member of the
+     family has died. (Slaves were buried without ceremonies.)
+
+
+SACRIFICE.
+
+Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in connection
+with another subject, but it is thought others might prove interesting.
+The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.[90]
+
+     When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by
+     his wives and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns
+     took care to follow the same custom. The law likewise
+     condemned every Natchez to death who had married a girl of
+     the blood of the Suns as soon as she was expired. On this
+     occasion I must tell you the history of an Indian who was
+     noways willing to submit to this law. His name was
+     _Elteacteal_; he contracted an alliance with the Suns, but
+     the consequences which this honor brought along with it had
+     like to have proved very unfortunate to him. His wife fell
+     sick; as soon as he saw her at the point of death he fled,
+     embarked in a piragua on the _Mississippi,_ and came to New
+     Orleans. He put himself under the protection of M. de
+     Bienville, the then governor, and offered to be his
+     huntsman. The governor accepted his services, and interested
+     himself for him with the Natchez, who declared that he had
+     nothing more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he
+     was accordingly no longer a lawful prize.
+
+     _Elteacteal_, being thus assured, ventured to return to his
+     nation, and, without settling among them, he made several
+     voyages thither. He happened to be there when the Sun called
+     the _Stung Serpent_, brother to the Great Sun, died. He was
+     a relative of the late wife of _Elteacteal_, and they
+     resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de Bienville had been
+     recalled to France, and the sovereign of the Natchez thought
+     that the protector's absence had annulled the reprieve
+     granted to the protected person, and accordingly he caused
+     him to be arrested. As soon as the poor fellow found himself
+     in the hut of the grand chief of war, together with the
+     other victims destined to be sacrificed to the _Stung
+     Serpent_, he gave vent to the excess of his grief. The
+     favorite wife of the late Son, who was likewise to be
+     sacrificed, and who saw the preparations for her death with
+     firmness, and seemed impatient to rejoin her husband,
+     hearing _Elteacteal's_ complaints and groans, said to him:
+     "Art thou no warrior?" He answered, "Yes: I am one."
+     "However," said she, "thou cryest; life is dear to thee, and
+     as that is the case, it is not good that thou shouldst go
+     along with us; go with the women." _Elteacteal_ replied:
+     "True; life is dear to me. It would be well if I walked yet
+     on earth till to the death of the Great Sun, and I would die
+     with him." "Go thy way," said the favorite, "it is not fit
+     thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart should remain
+     behind on earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee no
+     more."
+
+     _Elteacteal_ did not stay to hear this order repeated to
+     him; he disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of
+     which were his relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age
+     and their infirmities had disgusted them of life; none of
+     them had been able to use their legs for a great while. The
+     hair of the two that were related to _Elteacteal_ was no
+     more gray than those of women of fifty-five years in France.
+     the other old woman was a hundred and twenty years old, and
+     had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among
+     the Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin.
+     They were dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the
+     _Stung Serpent_, and the other two upon the place before the
+     temple. * * * A cord is fastened round their necks with a
+     slip-knot, and eight men of their relations strangle them by
+     drawing, four one way and four the other. So many are not
+     necessary, but as they acquire nobility by such executions,
+     there are always more than are wanting, and the operation is
+     performed in an instant. The generosity of these women gave
+     _Elteacteal_ life again, acquired him the degree of
+     _considered_, and cleared his honor, which he had sullied by
+     fearing death. He remained quiet after that time, and taking
+     advantage of what he had learned during his stay among the
+     French, he became a juggler and made use of his knowledge to
+     impose upon his countrymen.
+
+     The morning after this execution they made everything ready
+     for the convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of
+     the ceremonies appeared at the door of the hut, adorned
+     suitably to his quality. The victims who were to accompany
+     the deceased prince into the mansion of the spirits came
+     forth; they consisted of the favorite wife of the deceased,
+     of his second wife, his chancellor, his physician, his hired
+     man, that is, his first servant, and of some old women.
+
+     The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were
+     several Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for
+     the Suns of both sexes that were her children to appear, and
+     spoke to the following effect:
+
+     "Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from
+     you (_sic_) arms and to follow your father's steps, who
+     waits for me in the country of the spirits; if I were to
+     yield to your tears I would injure my love and fail in my
+     duty. I have done enough for you by bearing you next to my
+     heart, and by suckling you with my breasts. You that are
+     descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought you to shed
+     tears? Rejoice rather that you are _Suns_ and warriors; you
+     are bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the
+     whole nation: go, my children, I have provided for all your
+     wants, by procuring you friends; my friends and those of
+     your father are yours too; I leave you amidst them; they are
+     the French; they are tender-hearted and generous; make
+     yourselves worthy of their esteem by not degenerating from
+     your race; always act openly with them and never implore
+     them with meanness.
+
+     "And you, Frenchmen," added she, turning herself towards our
+     officers, "I recommend my orphan children to you; they will
+     know no other fathers than you; you ought to protect them."
+
+     After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned
+     to her husband's hut with a surprising firmness.
+
+     A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims
+     of her own accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore
+     the _Stung Serpent_ to follow him into the other world. The
+     Europeans called her the _haughty_ lady, on account of her
+     majestic deportment and her proud air, and because she only
+     frequented the company of the most distinguished Frenchmen.
+     They regretted her much, because she had the knowledge of
+     several simples with which she had saved the lives of many
+     of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with grief
+     and horror. The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and
+     spoke to them with a smiling countenance: "I die without
+     fear;" said she, "grief does not embitter my last hours. I
+     recommend my children to you; whenever you see them, noble
+     Frenchmen, remember that you have loved their father, and
+     that he was till death a true and sincere friend of your
+     nation, whom he loved more than himself. The disposer of
+     life has been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go and
+     join him; I shall tell him that I have seen your hearts
+     moved at the sight of his corps; do not be grieved; we shall
+     be longer friends in the _country of the spirits_ than here,
+     because we do not die there again."[91]
+
+     These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French;
+     they were obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great
+     Sun from killing himself, for he was inconsolable at the
+     death of his brother, upon whom he was used to lay the
+     weight of government, he being great chief of war of the
+     Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies; that prince
+     grew furious by the resistance he met with; he held his gun
+     by the barrel, and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by
+     the lock, and caused the powder to fall out of the pan; the
+     hut was full of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables[92] but the
+     French raised their spirits again, by hiding all the arms
+     belonging to the sovereign, and filling the barrel of his
+     gun with water, that it might be unfit for use for some
+     time.
+
+     As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign's life in safety,
+     they thanked the French, by squeezing their hands, but
+     without speaking; a most profound silence reigned
+     throughout, for grief and awe kept in bounds the multitude
+     that were present.
+
+     The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this
+     transaction. She was asked whether she was ill, and she
+     answered aloud, "Yes, I am"; and added with a lower voice,
+     "If the Frenchmen go out of this hut, my husband dies and
+     all the Natches will die with him; stay, then, brave
+     Frenchmen, because your words are as powerful as arrows;
+     besides, who could have ventured to do what you have done?
+     But you are his true friends and those of his brother."
+     Their laws obliged the Great Sun's wife to follow her
+     husband in the grave; this was doubtless the cause of her
+     fears; and likewise the gratitude towards the French, who
+     interested themselves in behalf of his life, prompted her to
+     speak in the above-mentioned manner.
+
+     The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to
+     them: "My friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief
+     that, though my eyes were open, I have not taken notice that
+     you have been standing all this while, nor have I asked you
+     to sit down; but pardon the excess of my affliction."
+
+     The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that
+     they were going to leave him alone, but that they would
+     cease to be his friends unless he gave orders to light the
+     fires again,[93] lighting his own before them; and that they
+     should not leave him till his brother was buried.
+
+     He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: "Since all
+     the chiefs and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I
+     will do it; I will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted
+     again immediately, and I'll wait till death joins me to my
+     brother; I am already old, and till I die I shall walk with
+     the French; had it not been for them I should have gone with
+     my brother, and all the roads would have been covered with
+     dead bodies."
+
+Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been credited
+by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, and its
+seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of similar
+ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.
+
+An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice is
+described by Miss A.J. Allen,[94] and refers to the Wascopums, of
+Oregon.
+
+     At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words,
+     it was found that the chief had determined that the deceased
+     boy's friend, who had been his companion in hunting the
+     rabbit, snaring the pheasant, and fishing in the streams,
+     was to be his companion to the spirit land; his son should
+     not be deprived of his associate in the strange world to
+     which he had gone; that associate should perish by the hand
+     of his father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house.
+     This receptacle was built on a long, black rock in the
+     center of the Columbia River, around which, being so near
+     the falls, the current was amazingly rapid. It was thirty
+     feet in length, and perhaps half that in breadth, completely
+     enclosed and sodded except at one end, where was a narrow
+     aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse through. The
+     council overruled, and little George, instead of being
+     slain, was conveyed living to the dead-house about sunset.
+     The dead were piled on each side, leaving a narrow aisle
+     between, and on one of these was placed the deceased boy;
+     and, bound tightly till the purple, quivering flesh puffed
+     above the strong bark cords, that he might die very soon,
+     the living was placed by his side, his face to his till the
+     very lips met, and extending along limb to limb and foot to
+     foot, and nestled down into his couch of rottenness, to
+     impede his breathing as far as possible and smother his
+     cries.
+
+Bancroft[95] states that--
+
+     the slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and
+     Tarascos were selected from various trades and professions,
+     and took with them the most cherished articles of the master
+     and the implements of their trade wherewith to supply his
+     wants--
+
+while among certain of the Central American tribe death was voluntary,
+wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing themselves
+by means of a vegetable poison.
+
+To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that self-murder
+is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, if he so
+wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or friend to the
+"happy other world;" and when this is remembered we need not feel
+astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self immolations
+are related. It is quite likely that among our own people similar
+customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down such
+proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us,
+notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place
+on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.
+
+
+FEASTS.
+
+In Beltrami[96] an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of
+the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took
+place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:
+
+     I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor
+     of the manes of _Cloudy Weather's_ son-in-law, whose body
+     had remained with the Sioux, and was suspected to have
+     furnished one of their repasts. What appeared not a little
+     singular and indeed ludicrous in this funeral comedy was the
+     contrast exhibited by the terrific lamentations and yells of
+     one part of the company while the others were singing and
+     dancing with all their might.
+
+     At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand
+     Medicine_, and at which as _a man of another world_ I was
+     permitted to attend, the same practice occurred. But at the
+     feast which took place on that occasion an allowance was
+     served up for the deceased out of every article of which it
+     consisted, while others were beating, wounding, and
+     torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow both over
+     the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that this
+     was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they
+     could possibly supply. His wife furnished out an
+     entertainment present for him of all her hair and rags,
+     with which, together with his arms, his provisions, his
+     ornaments, and his mystic medicine bag, he was wrapped up in
+     the skin which had been his last covering when alive. He was
+     then tied round with the bark of some particular trees which
+     they use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm texture
+     and hold (the only ones indeed which they have), and instead
+     of being buried in the earth was hung up to a large oak. The
+     reason of this was that, as his favorite Manitou was the
+     eagle, his spirit would be enabled more easily from such a
+     situation to fly with him to Paradise.
+
+Hind[97] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which
+occurred among the Hurons of New York:
+
+     The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of
+     the "feasts of the dead" at the village of Ossosane, before
+     the dispersion of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took
+     place in the presence of 2,000 Indians, who offered 1,300
+     presents at the common tomb, in testimony of their grief.
+     The people belonging to five large villages deposited the
+     bones of their dead in a gigantic shroud, composed of
+     forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten beaver skins.
+     After being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they were
+     placed between moss and bark. A wall of stones was built
+     around this vast ossuary to preserve it from profanation.
+     Before covering the bones with earth a few grains of Indian
+     corn were thrown by the women upon the sacred relics.
+     According to the superstitious belief of the Hurons the
+     souls of the dead remain near the bodies until the "feast of
+     the dead"; after which ceremony they become free, and can at
+     once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe to
+     be situated in the regions of the setting sun.
+
+Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom of
+exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting
+them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in
+Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of
+Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a slatted pen containing the remains of
+hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and
+preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris
+afford examples of burial ossuaries.
+
+
+SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS.
+
+The following account is by Dr. S.G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:--
+
+     Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still
+     adhere to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of
+     departed friends; the object is to feast with the departed;
+     that is, they believe that while they partake of the visible
+     material the departed spirit partakes at the same time of
+     the spirit that dwells in the food. From ancient time it was
+     customary to bury with the dead various articles, such
+     especially as were most valued in lifetime. The idea was
+     that there was a spirit dwelling in the article represented
+     by the material article; thus the war-club contained a
+     spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, which could
+     be used by the departed in another world. These several
+     spiritual implements were supposed, of course, to accompany
+     the soul, to be used also on the way to its final abode.
+     This habit has now ceased.
+
+
+FOOD.
+
+This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an
+almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to
+place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.
+
+
+DANCES.
+
+Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan:[98]
+
+     An occasional and very singular figure was called the "dance
+     for the dead." It was known as the _O-k�-wa._ It was danced
+     by the women alone. The music was entirely vocal, a select
+     band of singers being stationed in the center of the room.
+     To the songs for the dead which they sang the dancers joined
+     in chorus. It was plaintive and mournful music. This dance
+     was usually separate from all councils and the only dance of
+     the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon after and
+     continued until towards morning, when the shades of the dead
+     who were believed to be present and participate in the dance
+     were supposed to disappear. The dance was had whenever a
+     family which had lost a member called for it, which was
+     usually a year after the event. In the spring and fall it
+     was often given for all the dead indiscriminately, who were
+     believed then to revisit the earth and join in the dance.
+
+The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers[99] and
+relates to the Yo-kai-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial:
+
+     I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and
+     finding there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to
+     enter and examine it, but was not allowed to do so until I
+     had gained the confidence of the old sexton by a few
+     friendly words and the tender of a silver half dollar. The
+     pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 feet
+     deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the
+     interior was damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low
+     tumulus, and was provided with a tunnel-like entrance about
+     10 feet long and 4 feet high, and leading down to a level
+     with the floor of the pit. The mouth of the tunnel was
+     closed with brush, and the venerable sexton would not remove
+     it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several times to
+     and fro before the entrance.
+
+     Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of
+     peeled poles painted white and ringed with black and
+     ornamented with rude devices. The floor was covered thick
+     and green with sprouting wheat, which had been scattered to
+     feed the spirit of the captain of the tribe, lately
+     deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the Sen�l come
+     up to condole with the Yo-kai-a on the loss of their chief,
+     and a dance or series of dances was held which lasted three
+     days. During this time of course the Sen�l were the guests
+     of the Yo-kai-a, and the latter were subjected to a
+     considerable expense. I was prevented by other engagements
+     from being present, and shall be obliged to depend on the
+     description of an eye-witness, Mr. John Tenney, whose
+     account is here given with a few changes:
+
+     There are four officials connected with the building, who
+     are probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no
+     intruders. They are the assistants of the chief. The
+     invitation to attend was from one of them, and admission was
+     given by the same. These four wore black vests trimmed with
+     red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief made no special
+     display on the occasion. In addition to these four, who were
+     officers of the assembly-chamber, there were an old man and
+     a young woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The
+     young woman was dressed differently from any other, the
+     rest dressing in plain calico dresses. Her dress was white
+     covered with spots of red flannel, cut in neat figure,
+     ornamented with shells. It looked gorgeous and denoted some
+     office, the name of which I could not ascertain. Before the
+     visitors were ready to enter, the older men of the tribe
+     were reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As the
+     ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and young
+     woman were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the
+     entrance, they inaugurated the exercises by a brief service,
+     which seemed to be a dedication of the house to the
+     exercises about to commence. Each of them spoke a few words,
+     joined in a brief chant, and the house was thrown open for
+     their visitors. They staid at their post until the visitors
+     entered and were seated on one side of the room. After the
+     visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all,
+     though there was plenty of room in the center for the
+     dancing.
+
+     Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe
+     made a brief speech in which he no doubt referred to the
+     death of the chief of the Yo-kai-n, and offered the sympathy
+     of his tribe in this loss. As he spoke, some of the women
+     scarcely refrained from crying out, and with difficulty they
+     suppressed their sobs. I presume that he proposed a few
+     moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole
+     assemblage burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming
+     as if in agony. The whole thing created such a din that I
+     was compelled to stop my ears. The air was rent and pierced
+     with their cries. This wailing and shedding of tears lasted
+     about three or five minutes, though it seemed to last a half
+     hour. At a given signal they ceased, wiped their eyes, and
+     quieted down.
+
+     Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the
+     room was set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors
+     wens five men, who were muscular and agile. They were
+     profusely decorated with paint and feathers, while white and
+     dark stripes covered their bodies. They were girt about the
+     middle with cloth of bright colors, sometimes with
+     variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the shoulder,
+     reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the
+     neck, while their heads were covered with a crown of eagle
+     feathers. They had whistles in their months as they danced,
+     swaying their heads, bending and whirling their bodies;
+     every muscle seemed to be exercised, and the feather
+     ornaments quivered with light. They were agile and graceful
+     as they bounded about in the sinuous course of the dance.
+
+     The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women,
+     who only marked time by stepping up and down with short
+     step. They always took their places first and disappeared
+     first, the men making their exit gracefully one by one. The
+     dresses of the women were suitable for the occasion. They
+     were white dresses, trimmed heavily with black velvet. The
+     stripes were about three inches wide, some plain and others
+     edged like saw teeth. This was an indication of their
+     mourning for the dead chief, in whose honor they had
+     prepared that style of dancing. Strings of haliotis and
+     pachydesma shell beads encircled their necks, and around
+     their waists were belts heavily loaded with the same
+     material. Their head-dresses were more showy than those of
+     the men. The head was encircled with a bandeau of otters' or
+     beavers' fur, to which were attached short wires standing
+     out in all directions, with glass or shell beads strung on
+     them, and at the tips little feather flags and quail plumes.
+     Surmounting all was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black,
+     gray, and scarlet, the top generally being a bright scarlet
+     bunch, waving and tossing very beautifully. All these
+     combined gave their heads a very brilliant and spangled
+     appearance.
+
+     The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of
+     the Yo-kai-a chief who died a short time before. The music
+     was mournful and simple, being a monotonous chant in which
+     only two tones were used, accompanied with a rattling of
+     split sticks and stamping on a hollow slab. The second day
+     the dance was more lively on the part of the men, the music
+     was better, employing airs which had a greater range of
+     tune, and the women generally joined in the chorus. The
+     dress of the women was not so beautiful, as they appeared in
+     ordinary calico. The third day, if observed in accordance
+     with Indian custom, the dancing was still more lively and
+     the proceedings more gay, just as the coming home from a
+     Christian funeral is apt to be much more jolly than the
+     going out.
+
+     A Yo-kai-a widow's style of mourning is peculiar. In
+     addition to the usual evidences of grief, she mingles the
+     ashes of her dead husband with pitch, making a white tar or
+     unguent, with which she smears a band about two inches wide
+     all around the edge of the hair (which is previously cut off
+     close to the head), so that at a little distance she appears
+     to be wearing a white chaplet.
+
+     It is their custom to "feed the spirits of the dead" for the
+     space of one year by going daily to places which they were
+     accustomed to frequent while living, where they sprinkle
+     pinole upon the ground. A Yo-kai-a mother who has lost her
+     babe goes every day for a year to some place where her
+     little one played when alive, or to the spot where the body
+     was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This is
+     accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous
+     calling upon her little one to return, and sometimes she
+     sings a hoarse and melancholy chant, and dances with a wild
+     static swaying of the body.
+
+
+SONGS.
+
+It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals,
+but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these chants may no
+doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful ejaculation. A
+writer[100] mentions it as follows:
+
+     At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of
+     singing, with no accompaniments, but generally all do not
+     sing the same melody at the same time in unison. Several may
+     sing the same song and at the same time, but each begins and
+     finishes when he or she may wish. Often for weeks, or even
+     months, after the decease of a dear friend, a living one,
+     usually a woman, will sit by her house and sing or cry by
+     the hour, and they also sing for a short time when they
+     visit the grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have
+     not seen since the decease. At the funeral both men and
+     women sing. No. 11 I have heard more frequently some time
+     after the funeral, and No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by
+     the Twanos, (For song see p. 251 of the magazine quoted.)
+     The words are simply an exclamation of grief, as our word
+     "alas," but they also have other words which they use, and
+     sometimes they use merely the syllable _la_. Often the notes
+     are sung in this order, and sometimes not, but in some order
+     the notes _do_ and _la,_ and occasionally _mi,_ are sung.
+
+Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a peculiar
+death dirge sung by the Sen�l of California, as related by Mr. Powers.
+It is as follows:
+
+  Hel-lel-li-ly,
+  Hel-lel-lo,
+  Hel-lel-lo.
+
+Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the attention
+of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for instance,
+the Basques of Spain ululate thus:
+
+  Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,
+  Lelo il Lelo,
+  Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,
+  Il Lelon killed Lelo.
+
+This was called the "ululating Lelo." Mr. Campbell says:
+
+     This again connects with the Linns or Ailinus of the Greeks
+     and Egyptians * * * which Wilkinson connects with the Coptic
+     "ya lay-lee-ya lail." The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard the
+     South Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek
+     verb [Greek: ololuzo] and the Latin ululare, with an English
+     howl and wail, are probably derived from this ancient form
+     of lamentation.
+
+In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks
+describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he
+inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost
+tribes of Israel.
+
+
+GAMES
+
+It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a
+practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct.
+Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed
+among the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and
+interesting account of what is called the "ghost gamble." This is played
+with marked wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to
+the Sioux. Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in
+which this game is played.
+
+     After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take
+     charge of the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the
+     time of the first feast held over the bundle containing the
+     lock of hair--they are divided into many small piles, so as
+     to give all the Indians invited to play an opportunity to
+     win something. One Indian is selected to represent the ghost
+     and he plays against all the others, who are not required to
+     stake anything on the result, but simply invited to take
+     part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the lodge of
+     the dead person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing
+     the lock of hair. In cases where the ghost himself is not
+     wealthy the stakes are furnished by his rich friends, should
+     he have any. The players are called in one at a time, and
+     play singly against the ghost's representative, the gambling
+     being done in recent years by means of cards. If the invited
+     player succeeds in beating the ghost, he takes one of the
+     piles of goods and passes out, when another is invited to
+     play, &c., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases of
+     men only the men play, and in cases of women the women only
+     take part in the ceremony.
+
+     Before white men came among these Indians and taught them
+     many of his improved vices, this game was played by means of
+     figured plum-seeds, the men using eight and the women seven
+     seeds, figured as follows, and shown in Figure 34.
+
+     Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse
+     containing nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a
+     small spot of the color of the seed left in the center, the
+     reverse side having a black spot in the center, the body
+     being plain. Two seeds have a buffalo's head on one side and
+     the reverse simply two crossed black lines. There is but one
+     seed of this kind in the set used by the women. Two seeds
+     have half of one side blackened and the rest left plain, so
+     as to represent a half moon; the reverse has a black
+     longitudinal line crossed at right angles by six small ones.
+     There are six throws whereby the player can win, and five
+     that entitle him to another throw. The winning throws are as
+     follows, each winner taking a pile of the ghost's goods:
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 47--Auxiliary throw No 5.]
+
+     Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo's
+     head up, and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black
+     ones up, two black with natural spots up, two longitudinally
+     crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up wins a
+     pile. Two plain black ones up, two black with natural spots
+     up, two half moons up, and the transversely crossed one up
+     wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two black with natural
+     spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo's head up wins
+     a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two
+     longitudinally crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed
+     one up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots
+     up, buffalo's head up, and two long crossed up wins a pile.
+     The following auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to
+     win: two plain ones up, two with black spots up, one half
+     moon up, one longitudinally crossed one up, and buffalo's
+     head up gives another throw, and on this throw, if the two
+     plain ones up and two with black spots with either of the
+     half moons or buffalo's head up, the player takes a pile.
+     Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons
+     up, and the transversely crossed one up entitles to another
+     throw, when, if all of the black sides come up, excepting
+     one, the throw wins. One of the plain ones up and all the
+     rest with black sides up gives another throw, and the same
+     then turning up wins. One of the plain black ones up with
+     that side up of all the others having the least black on
+     gives another throw, when the same turning up again wins.
+     One half moon up, with that side up of all the others having
+     the least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is
+     then duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men,
+     has its place in their game whenever its facings are
+     mentioned above. I transmit with this paper a set of these
+     figured seeds, which can be used to illustrate the game if
+     desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a hundred years
+     old, and sets of them are now very rare.
+
+For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Dr. C.C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian
+Agency.
+
+Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the
+different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones
+sent by Dr. McChesney.
+
+
+POSTS.
+
+These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, and
+have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family,
+certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the
+achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and danced
+at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently plant poles
+near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, horses' tails,
+&c. The custom among the present Indians does not exist to any extent.
+Beltrami[101] speaks of it as follows:
+
+     Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was
+     surmounted by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a
+     trunk of a tree was raised, covered with hieroglyphics
+     recording the number of enemies slain by the tenant of the
+     tomb and several of his tutelary Manitous.
+
+The following extract from Schoolcraft[102] relates to the burial posts
+used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 40 is after the picture given by
+this author in connection with the account quoted:
+
+     Among the Sioux and Western Chippawas, after the body had
+     been wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then
+     placed on a scaffold or in a tree until the flesh is entirely
+     decayed, after which the bones are buried and grave-posts
+     fixed. At the head of the grave a tubular piece of cedar or
+     other wood, called the _adjedatig,_ is set. This grave-board
+     contains the symbolic or representative figure, which
+     records, if it be a warrior, his totem, that is to say the
+     symbol of his family, or surname, and such arithmetical or
+     other devices as seem to denote how many times the deceased
+     has been in war parties, and how many scalps he has taken
+     from the enemy--two facts from which his reputation is
+     essentially to be derived. It is seldom that more is
+     attempted in the way of inscription. Often, however,
+     distinguished chiefs have their war flag, or, in modern
+     days, a small ensign of American fabric, displayed on a
+     standard at the head of their graves, which is left to fly
+     over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps
+     of their enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the
+     swallow-tailed falcon, or some carnivorous bird, are also
+     placed, in such instances, on the _adjedatig,_ or suspended,
+     with offerings of various kinds, on a separate staff. But
+     the latter are superadditions of a religious character, and
+     belong to the class of the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig (_ante_,
+     No. 4). The building of a funeral fire on recent graves is
+     also a rite which belongs to the consideration of their
+     religious faith.
+
+
+FIRES.
+
+It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building fires
+on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the soul
+thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that demons
+were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford light to
+the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer states
+that--
+
+     The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the
+     grave was to light the spirit on its journey. By a
+     coincidence to be explained by the universal sacredness of
+     the number, both Algonkins and Mexicans maintained it for
+     four nights consecutively. The former related the tradition
+     that one of their ancestors returned from the spirit land
+     and informed their nation that the journey thither consumed
+     just four days, and that collecting fuel every night added
+     much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered, all of
+     which could be spared it.
+
+So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also
+intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.
+
+Stephen Powers[103] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires:
+
+     After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the
+     vicinity of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the
+     "Big Indians" do, that the spirits of the departed are
+     compelled to cross an extremely attenuated greasy pole,
+     which bridges over the chasm of the debatable land, and that
+     they require the fire to light them on their darksome
+     journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker than a
+     wicked one, hence they regulate the number of nights for
+     burning a light according to the character for goodness or
+     the opposite which the deceased possessed in this world.
+
+Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that a
+somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.
+
+Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one of
+the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.
+
+
+SUPERSTITIONS.
+
+An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,[104]
+and relates to the Hidatsa:
+
+     When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around
+     the camp or village in which he died, and then goes to the
+     lodge of his departed kindred in the "village of the dead."
+     When he has arrived there he is rewarded for his valor,
+     self-denial, and ambition on earth by receiving the same
+     regard in the one place as in the other, for there as here
+     the brave man is honored and the coward despised. Some say
+     that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a
+     separate part of the village, but that their condition
+     differs in no wise from that of the others. In the next
+     world human shades hunt and live in the shades of buffalo
+     and other animals that have here died. There, too there are
+     four seasons, but they come in an inverse order to the
+     terrestrial seasons. During the four nights that the ghost
+     is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who
+     disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit
+     from the shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins
+     which they leave at the door of the lodge. The smell of the
+     burning leather they claim keeps the ghost out; but the true
+     friends of the dead man take no such precautions.
+
+From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the
+spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather
+should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to
+speculate on.
+
+The next account, by Keating,[105] relating to the Chippewas, shows a
+slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already alluded to:
+
+     The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence
+     entirely distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag_,
+     and appear to supply to it the qualities which we refer to
+     the soul. They believe that it quits the body it the time of
+     death, and repairs to what they term _Chekechekchekawe;_
+     this region is supposed to be situated to the south, and on
+     the shores of the great ocean. Previous to arriving there
+     they meet with a stream which they are obliged to cross upon
+     a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those
+     who die from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream;
+     they are thrown into it and remain there forever. Some souls
+     come to the edge of the stream, but are prevented from
+     passing by the snake, which threatens to devour them; these
+     are the souls of the persons in a lethargy or trance. Being
+     refused a passage these souls return to their bodies and
+     reanimate them. They believe that animals have souls, and
+     even that inorganic substances, such as kettles, &c., have
+     in them a similar essence.
+
+     In this land of souls all are treated according to their
+     merits. Those who have been good men are free from pain;
+     they have no duties to perform, their time is spent in
+     dancing and singing, and they feed upon mushrooms, which are
+     very abundant. The souls of bad men are haunted by the
+     phantom of the persons or things that they have injured;
+     thus, if a man has destroyed much property the phantoms of
+     the wrecks of this property obstruct his passage wherever he
+     goes; if he has been cruel to his dogs or horses they also
+     torment him after death. The ghosts of those whom during his
+     lifetime he wronged are there permitted to avenge their
+     injuries. They think that when a soul has crossed the stream
+     it cannot return to its body, yet they believe in
+     apparitions, and entertain the opinion that the spirits of
+     the departed will frequently revisit the abodes of their
+     friends in order to invite them to the other world, and to
+     forewarn them of their approaching dissolution.
+
+Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of
+examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California:
+
+     How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the
+     dead is shown by the fact that the highest crime one can
+     commit is the _pet-chi-�-ri_ the mere mention of the dead
+     relative's name. It is a deadly insult to the survivors, and
+     can be atoned for only by the same amount of blood-money
+     paid for willful murder. In default of that they will have
+     the villain's blood. * * * At the mention of his name the
+     mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do
+     not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. * * *
+     They believe that the soul of a good Karok goes to the
+     "happy western land" beyond the great ocean. That they have
+     a well-grounded assurance of an immortality beyond the grave
+     is proven, if not otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical
+     custom of whispering a message in the ear of the dead. * * *
+     Believe that dancing will liberate some relative's soul from
+     bonds of death, and restore him to earth.
+
+According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies away
+with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk will
+catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he was
+good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that--
+
+     The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the
+     memory of the dead which is common to the Northern
+     Californian tribes. When I asked the chief Tahhokolli to
+     tell me the Indian words for "father" and "mother" and
+     certain others similar, he shook his head mournfully and
+     said, "All dead," "All dead," "No good."' They are forbidden
+     to mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult to
+     the relatives, * * * and that the Mat-t�al hold that the
+     good depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the
+     great ocean, but the soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into
+     a grizzly bear, which they consider, of all animals, the
+     cousin-german of sin.
+
+The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows
+regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:
+
+     * * * It has always been one of the most passionate desires
+     among the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the Shastika,
+     to live, die, and be buried where they were born. Some of
+     their usages in regard to the dead and their burial may be
+     gathered from an incident that occurred while the captives
+     of 1873 were on their way from the Lava Beds to Fort
+     Klamath, as it was described by an eye-witness. Curly-headed
+     Jack, a prominent warrior, committed suicide with a pistol.
+     His mother and female friends gathered about him and set up
+     a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood
+     and endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life.
+     The mother took his head in her lap and scooped the blood
+     from his ear, another old woman placed her hand upon his
+     heart, and a third blew in his face. The sight of the
+     group--these poor old women, whose grief was unfeigned, and
+     the dying man--was terrible in its sadness. Outside the
+     tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim,
+     Steamboat Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had
+     been the dying man's companions from childhood, all affected
+     to tears. When he was lowered into the grave, before the
+     soldiers began to cover the body, Huka Jim was seen running
+     eagerly about the camp trying to exchange a two-dollar bill
+     of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior that amount
+     of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency would
+     be of any use to him in the other world--sad commentary on
+     our national currency!--and desired to have the coin
+     instead. Procuring it from one of the soldiers he cast it in
+     and seemed greatly relieved. All the dead man's other
+     effects, consisting of clothing, trinkets, and a half
+     dollar, were interred with him, together with some
+     root-flour as victual for the journey to the spirit land.
+
+The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead
+may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.[106] It regards
+the natives of Washington Territory:
+
+     My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is
+     this: It is the universal custom with these Indians never to
+     live in a lodge where a person has died. If a person of
+     importance dies, the lodge is usually burned down, or taken
+     down and removed to some other part of the bay; and it can
+     be readily seen that in the case of the Palox Indians, who
+     had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before stated,
+     their relatives chose at once to leave for some other place.
+     This objection to living in a lodge where a person has died
+     is the reason why their sick slaves are invariably carried
+     out into the woods, where they remain either to recover or
+     die. There is, however, no disputing the fact that an
+     immense mortality has occurred among these people, and they
+     are now reduced to a mere handful.
+
+     The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead
+     person, and their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes
+     give rise to a difficulty as to who shall perform the
+     funeral ceremonies; for any person who handles a dead body
+     must not eat of salmon or sturgeon for thirty days.
+     Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I have known them leave
+     the corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in
+     two instances that came to my knowledge, the whites had to
+     burn the lodges, with the bodies in them, to prevent
+     infection.
+
+     So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had
+     buried Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could
+     be seen. All kept in their lodges, singing and drumming to
+     keep away the spirits of the dead.
+
+According to Bancroft[107]--
+
+     The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after
+     death transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while
+     the nobler became stars and beautiful birds.
+
+The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously
+avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those
+of our own country.
+
+Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, to
+enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed
+final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and
+while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on
+hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire
+for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper,
+that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of
+the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to
+induce further investigation and contribution from careful and
+conscientious observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and
+correspondence given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in
+short, most of them may serve as copies for preparation of similar
+material.
+
+To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are also
+given.
+
+_1st._ NAME OF THE TRIBE; present appellation; former, if differing any;
+and that used by the Indians themselves.
+
+_2d._ LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range
+of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+_3d._ DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and
+characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse
+prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it
+spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the character
+of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food
+put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an
+ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried together; and is the
+clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever prevail?
+
+_4th._ MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF
+THE GRAVES; CREMATION.--Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are
+scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction
+of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in
+skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are
+suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the
+water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be
+given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial
+posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of
+position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation,
+or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of
+remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if
+any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been
+used, describe them.
+
+_5th._ MOURNING OBSERVANCES.--Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?
+
+_6th._ BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS.--Give in full all that can
+be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.
+
+In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.
+
+One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the "why" and "wherefore" for every rite and custom; for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it.
+
+Any material the result of careful observation will be most gratefully
+received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer must here
+confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have already
+contributed, a number so large that limited space precludes a mention of
+their individual names.
+
+Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested
+in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general.
+Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious
+forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.
+
+The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos.
+Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made by
+Mr. W.H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended their
+preparation.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S. 1853 pt. 3, p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p.270.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Nov. dans l'Arizona in Ball. Soc. de G�ographic 1877.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. i, p 555.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.]
+
+[Footnote 9: L'incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1, p. 439.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States, 1853,
+Pt. 3, p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 12: U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841, p. 252.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to Knowledge.
+No. 259, 1876. pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55, 82.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Pop. Sc. Month, Sept., 1877, p. 577.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, p. 780.]
+
+[Footnote 18: A detailed account of this exploration, with many
+illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
+Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 _et seq_.]
+
+[Footnote 20: American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 513.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 515.]
+
+[Footnote 24: A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida, 1775.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp. 241-243.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i, p. 464.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Contrib. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p.62.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp. 155
+_et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 32: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 33: A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age,
+discovered in Kentucky, is now in the cabinet of the American
+Antiquarian Society. It is a female. Several human bodies were found
+enwrapped carefully in skins and cloths. They were inhumed below the
+floor of the cave; _inhumed_, and not lodged in catacombs.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll. Amer.
+Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 318.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Billings' Exped., 1802, p. 161.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Rawlinson's Herodotus, Book I, chap. 198, _note_.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 465 et seq.]
+
+[Footnote[40]: Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians, 1844,
+vol. ii, p. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p. 483.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Hist, de l'Am�rique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii, p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Pioneer Life, 1872.]
+
+[Footnote 44: I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was
+undoubtedly an exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island) the
+bluffs on the peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River (three miles
+distant) were thickly studded with Indian grave mounds, showing
+conclusively that subterranean was the usual mode of burial. In making
+roads, streets, and digging foundations, skulls, bones, trinkets,
+beads, etc., in great numbers, were exhumed, proving that many things
+(according to the wealth or station of survivors) were deposited in the
+graves. In 1836 I witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner
+stated.--P. GREGG.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist. Soc.
+(1879f), p. 107.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.]
+
+[Footnote 47: The Last Act, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part IV,
+p. 224.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831. vol. ii, p. 387.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Hist Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part iii,
+p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Contrib. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Amer. Naturalist, November 1878, p. 753]
+
+[Footnote 55: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-76, p. 64.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Pre-historic Races. 1873, p. 149.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874; p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah,
+1852, p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol. 1, p.
+332.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. 1, p. 780.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p 286.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol 1, p 69.]
+
+[Footnote 64: Prav. Is. in Alaska, 1869 p. 100]
+
+[Footnote 65: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145]
+
+[Footnote 66: Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Long's Exped. to the St. Peter's River, 1824, p. 332]
+
+[Footnote 69: L'incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome 1, p. 475,
+_et seq_.]
+
+[Footnote 70: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that the
+custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the Moravian
+settlement of Salem, N.C.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Rep Smithsonian Inst., 1806, p.319]
+
+[Footnote 72: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. II, p. 774, _et
+seq._]
+
+[Footnote 73: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 516.]
+
+[Footnote 76: "Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have given
+it as their opinion that all those pyramidal artificial hills, usually
+called Indian mounds, were raised on this occasion, and are generally
+sepulchers. However, I am of different opinion."]
+
+[Footnote 77: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Hist. N.A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Cont. N.A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p.200.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p. 483.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859, p. 48]
+
+[Footnote 84: Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii, p. 141.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Moeurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.]
+
+[Footnote 87: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731, 744.]
+
+[Footnote 89: Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Bossu's Travels (Forster's translation), 1771, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 91: At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the
+victims swallow little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make them
+giddy, and as it were to take the sensation of pain from them; after
+that they were all strangled and put upon mats, the favorite on the
+right, the other wife on the left, and the others according to their
+rank.]
+
+[Footnote 92: The established distinctions among these Indians were as
+follows: The Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the highest rank;
+next come the Nobles; after them the Honorables; and last of all the
+common people, who were very much despised. As the nobility was
+propagated by the women, this contributed much to multiply it.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the fires,
+which is only done at the death of the sovereign.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.]
+
+[Footnote 96: Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii, p.
+164.]
+
+[Footnote 98: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.]
+
+[Footnote 99: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851, part i,
+p. 356.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. Geol.
+Surv. of Terr., 1877, p. 409.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Long's Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Further Contribution to the Study of
+the Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians, by H.C. Yarrow
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Further Contribution to the Study of the
+Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians, by H.C. Yarrow
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net
+
+
+Title: A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians
+
+Author: H.C. Yarrow
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2004 [EBook #11398]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF INDIANS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Anne Folland and PG Distributed
+Proofreaders. This file was produced from images generously made
+available by the Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions.
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+J.W. POWELL, DIRECTOR
+
+
+
+
+A Further Contribution To The
+
+STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
+
+
+
+By
+
+Dr. H.C. Yarrow, ACT. ASST. SURG., USA
+
+
+
+  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  1.-Quiogozeon or dead house
+  2.-Pima burial
+  3.-Towers of silence
+  4.-Towers of silence
+  5.-Alaskan mummies
+  6.-Burial urns
+  7.-Indian cemetery
+  8.-Grave pen
+  9.-Grave pen
+  l0.-Tolkotin cremation
+  ll.-Eskimo lodge burial
+  l2.-Burial houses
+  l3.-Innuit grave
+  l4.-Ingalik grave
+  l5.-Dakota scaffold burial
+  l6.-Offering food to the dead
+  l7.-Depositing the corpse
+  l8.-Tree-burial
+  l9.-Chippewa scaffold burial
+  30.-Scarification at burial
+  3l.-Australian scaffold burial
+  33.-Preparing the dead
+  33.-Canoe-burial
+  24.-Twana canoe-burial
+  25.-Posts for burial canoes
+  36.-Tent on scaffold
+  37.-House burial
+  38.-House burial
+  39.-Canoe-burial
+  30.-Mourning-cradle
+  3l.-Launching the burial cradle
+  32.-Chippewa widow
+  33.-Ghost gamble
+  34.-Figured plum stones
+  35.-Winning throw, No 1
+  36.-Winning throw, No 2
+  37.-Winning throw, No 3
+  38.-Winning throw, No 4
+  39.-Winning throw, No 5
+  40.-Winning throw, No 6
+  4l.-Auxiliary throw, No 1
+  42.-Auxiliary throw No 2
+  43.-Auxiliary throw, No 3
+  44.-Auxiliary throw No 4
+  45.-Auxiliary throw, No 5
+  46.-Burial posts
+  47.-Grave fire
+
+
+
+A Further Contribution To The
+
+STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
+
+BY H.C. YARROW.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+In view of the fact that the present paper will doubtless reach many
+readers who may not, in consequence of the limited edition, have seen
+the preliminary volume on mortuary customs, it seems expedient to
+reproduce in great part the prefatory remarks which served as an
+introduction to that work; for the reasons then urged, for the immediate
+study of this subject, still exist, and as time flies on become more and
+more important.
+
+The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor assiduously,
+while there is still time, to collect such data as may be obtainable.
+This seems the more important now, as within the last ten years an
+almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic research, and
+the desire for more knowledge in this regard is constantly increasing. A
+wise and liberal government, recognizing the need, has ably seconded the
+efforts of those engaged in such studies by liberal grants, from the
+public funds; nor is encouragement wanted from the hundreds of
+scientific societies throughout the civilized globe. The public press,
+too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever on the alert to scatter
+broadcast such items of ethnologic information as its corps of
+well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further laudable inquiry,
+and assist all those who may be willing to engage in the good work, is
+the object of this further paper on the mortuary customs of North
+American Indians, and it is hoped that many more laborers may through it
+be added to the extensive and honorable list of those who have already
+contributed.
+
+It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact, no particular portion of ethnologic research has claimed
+more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a work of
+supererogation to continue a further examination of the subject, for
+nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes some mention
+of burial observances; but these notices are scattered far and wide on
+the sea of this special literature, and many of the accounts, unless
+supported by corroborative evidence, may be considered as entirely
+unreliable. To bring together and harmonize conflicting statements, and
+arrange collectively what is known of the subject, has been the writer's
+task, and an enormous mass of information has been acquired, the method
+of securing which has been already described in the preceding volume and
+need not be repeated at this time. It has seemed undesirable at present
+to enter into any discussion regarding the causes which may have led to
+the adoption of any particular form of burial or coincident ceremonies,
+the object of this paper being simply to furnish illustrative examples,
+and request further contributions from observers; for, notwithstanding
+the large amount of material already at hand, much still remains to be
+done, and careful study is needed before any attempt at a thorough
+analysis of mortuary customs can be made. It is owing to these facts and
+from the nature of the material gathered that the paper must be
+considered more as a compilation than an original effort, the writer
+having done little else than supply the thread to bind together the
+accounts furnished.
+
+It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of Contributions
+to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction of Maj. J.W.
+Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,
+from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant encouragement
+and advice has been received, and to whom all American ethnologists owe
+a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.
+
+Having thus called attention to the work, the classification of the
+subject may be given, and examples furnished of the burial ceremonies
+among different tribes, calling especial attention to similar or almost
+analogous customs among the peoples of the Old World.
+
+For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of burials
+may be adopted, although further study may lead to some modifications.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF BURIAL.
+1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, or holes in the ground, stone graves
+or cists, in mounds, beneath or in cabins, wigwams, houses or lodges, or
+in caves.
+
+2d. By EMBALMMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being
+afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, boxes on scaffolds, or in
+charnel-houses.
+
+3d. By DEPOSITION of remains in urns.
+
+4th. By SURFACE BURIAL, the remains being placed in hollow trees or
+logs, pens, or simply covered with earth, or bark, or rocks forming
+cairns.
+
+5th. By CREMATION, or partial burning, generally on the surface of the
+earth, occasionally beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed
+in pits in the ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns,
+sometimes scattered.
+
+6th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being left in lodges, houses,
+cabins, tents, deposited on scaffolds or trees, in boxes or canoes, the
+two latter receptacles supported on scaffolds or posts, or placed on the
+ground. Occasionally baskets have been used to contain the remains of
+children, these being hung to trees.
+
+7th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were
+turned adrift.
+
+These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.
+
+The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be understood
+in its literal significance, the word being derived from the Teutonic
+Anglo-Saxon "_birgan_," to conceal or hide away.
+
+In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies, it
+has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as furnished, in
+order to preserve continuity of narrative, and in no case has the
+relator's language been changed except to correct manifest
+unintentional, errors of spelling.
+
+
+
+
+INHUMATION.
+
+
+_PIT BURIAL_
+
+The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been that
+of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number of
+different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples of
+the process:
+
+One of the simplest forms is thus noted by Schoolcraft:[1]
+
+     The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the
+     body was placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it
+     was covered with timber, to support the earth which they lay
+     over, and thereby kept the body from being pressed. They
+     then raised the earth in a round hill over it. They always
+     dressed the corpse in all its finery, and put wampum and
+     other things into the grave with it; and the relations
+     suffered not grass nor any wood to grow upon the grave, and
+     frequently visited it and made lamentation.
+
+In Jones[2] is the following interesting account from Lawson[3] of the
+burial customs of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:
+
+     Among the Carolina tribes the burial of the dead was
+     accompanied with special ceremonies, the expense and
+     formality attendant upon the funeral according with the rank
+     of the deceased. The corpse was first placed in a cane
+     hurdle and deposited in an outhouse made for the purpose,
+     where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night,
+     guarded and mourned over by the nearest relatives with
+     disheveled hair. Those who are to officiate at the funeral
+     go into the town, and from the backs of the first young men
+     they meet strip such blankets and matchcoats as they deem
+     suitable for their purpose. In these the dead body is
+     wrapped and then covered with two or three mats made of
+     rushes or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or hollow
+     canes tied fast at both ends. When everything is prepared
+     for the interment, the corpse is carried from the house in
+     which it has been lying into the orchard of peach-trees and
+     is there deposited in another hurdle. Seated upon mats are
+     there congregated the family and tribe of the deceased and
+     invited guests. The medicine man, or conjurer, having
+     enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral oration, during
+     which he recounts the exploits of the deceased, his valor,
+     skill, love of country, property, and influence; alludes to
+     the void caused by his death, and counsels those who remain
+     to supply his place by following in his footsteps; pictures
+     the happiness he will enjoy in the land of spirits to which
+     he has gone, and concludes his address by an allusion to the
+     prominent traditions of his tribe.
+
+Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the
+opinion of many, "more honored in the breach than in the observance."
+
+     At last [says Mr. Lawson], the Corpse is brought away from
+     that Hurdle to the Grave by four young Men, attended by the
+     Relations, the King, old Men, and all the Nation. When they
+     come to the Sepulcre, which is about six foot deep and eight
+     foot long, having at each end (that is, at the Head and
+     Foot) a Light-Wood or Pitch-Pine Fork driven close down the
+     sides of the Grave firmly into the Ground (these two Forks
+     are to contain a Ridge-Pole, as you shall understand
+     presently), before they lay the Corps into the Grave, they
+     cover the bottom two or three time over with the Bark of
+     Trees; then they let down the Corps (with two Belts that the
+     _Indians_ carry their Burdens withal) very leisurely upon
+     the said Barks; then they lay over a Pole of the same Wood
+     in the two Forks, and having a great many Pieces of
+     Pitch-Pine Logs about two Foot and a half long, they stick
+     them in the sides of the Grave down each End and near the
+     Top thereof, where the other Ends lie in the Ridge-Pole, so
+     that they are declining like the Roof of a House. These
+     being very thick plac'd, they cover them [many times double]
+     with Bark; then they throw the Earth thereon that came out
+     of the Grave and beat it down very firm. By this Means the
+     dead Body lies in a Vault, nothing touching him.
+
+After a time the body is taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in
+an ossuary called the Quiogozon.
+
+Figure 1, after De Bry and Lafitau, represents what the early writers
+called the Quiogozon, or charnel-house, and allusions will be found to
+it in other parts of this volume. Discrepancies in these accounts impair
+greatly their value, for one author says that bones were deposited,
+another dried bodies.
+
+It will be seen from the following account, furnished by M.B. Kent,
+relating to the Sacs and Foxes (_Oh-sak-ke-uck_) of the Nehema Agency,
+Nebraska, that these Indians were careful in burying their dead to
+prevent the earth coming in contact with the body, and this custom has
+been followed by a number of different tribes, as will be seen by
+examples given further on.
+
+     _Ancient burial_.--The body was buried in a grave made about
+     2-1/2 feet deep, and was laid always with the head towards
+     the east, the burial taking place as soon after death as
+     possible. The grave was prepared by putting bark in the
+     bottom of it before the corpse was deposited, a plank
+     covering made and secured some distance above the body. The
+     plank was made by splitting trees, until intercourse with
+     the whites enabled them to obtain sawed lumber. The corpse
+     was always enveloped in a blanket, and prepared as for a
+     long journey in life, no coffin being used.
+
+     _Modern burial_.--This tribe now usually bury in coffins,
+     rude ones constructed by themselves, still depositing the
+     body in the grave with the head towards the east.
+
+     _Ancient funeral ceremonies_.--Every relative of the
+     deceased had to throw some article in the grave, either
+     food, clothing, or other material. There was no rule stating
+     the nature of what was to be added to the collection, simply
+     a requirement that something must be deposited, if it were
+     only a piece of soiled and faded calico. After the corpse
+     was lowered into the grave some brave addressed the dead,
+     instructing him to walk directly westward, that he would
+     soon discover moccasin tracks, which he must follow until he
+     came to a great river, which is the river of death; when
+     there he would find a pole across the river, which, if he
+     has been honest, upright, and good, will be straight, upon
+     which he could readily cross to the other side; but if his
+     life had been one of wickedness and sin, the pole would be
+     very crooked, and in the attempt to cross upon it he would
+     be precipitated into the turbulent stream and lost forever.
+     The brave also told him if he crossed the river in safety
+     the Great Father would receive him, take out his old brains,
+     give him new ones, and then he would have reached the happy
+     hunting grounds, always be happy and have eternal life.
+     After burial a feast was always called, and a portion of the
+     food of which each and every relative was partaking was
+     burned to furnish subsistence to the spirit upon its
+     journey.
+
+     _Modern funeral ceremonies_.--Provisions are rarely put into
+     the grave, and no portion of what is prepared for the feast
+     subsequent to burial is burned, although the feast is
+     continued. All the address delivered by the brave over the
+     corpse after being deposited in the grave is omitted. A
+     prominent feature of all ceremonies, either funeral or
+     religious, consists of feasting accompanied with music and
+     dancing.
+
+     _Ancient mourning observations_.--The female relations
+     allowed their hair to hang entirely unrestrained, clothed
+     themselves in the most unpresentable attire, the latter of
+     which the males also do. Men blacked the whole face for a
+     period of ten days after a death in the family, while the
+     women blacked only the cheeks; the faces of the children
+     were blacked for three months; they were also required to
+     fast for the same length of time, the fasting to consist of
+     eating but one meal per day, to be made entirely of hominy,
+     and partaken of about sunset. It was believed that this
+     fasting would enable the child to dream of coming events and
+     prophesy what was to happen in the future. The extent and
+     correctness of prophetic vision depended upon how faithfully
+     the ordeal of fasting had been observed.
+
+     _Modern mourning observances_.--Many of those of the past are
+     continued, such as wearing the hair unrestrained, wearing
+     uncouth apparel, blacking faces, and fasting of children,
+     and they are adhered to with as much tenacity as many of the
+     professing Christians belonging to the evangelical churches
+     adhere to their practices, which constitute mere forms, the
+     intrinsic value of which can very reasonably be called in
+     question.
+
+The Creeks and Seminoles of Florida, according to Schoolcraft,[4] made
+the graves of their dead as follows:
+
+     When one of the family dies, the relatives bury the corpse
+     about four feet deep in a round hole dug directly under the
+     cabin or rock wherever he died. The corpse is placed in the
+     hole in a sitting posture, with a blanket wrapped about it,
+     and the legs bent under and tied together. If a warrior, he
+     is painted, and his pipe, ornaments, and warlike appendages
+     are deposited with him. The grave is then covered with canes
+     tied to a hoop round the top of the hole, then a firm layer
+     of clay, sufficient to support the weight of a man. The
+     relations howl loudly and mourn publicly for four days. If
+     the deceased has been a man of eminent character, the family
+     immediately remove from the house in which he is buried and
+     erect a new one, with a belief that where the bones of their
+     dead are deposited the place is always attended by goblins
+     and chimeras dire.
+
+Dr. W.C. Boteler, physician to the Otoe Indian Agency, Gage County,
+Nebraska, in a personal communication to the writer, furnishes a most
+interesting account of the burial ceremonies of this tribe, in which it
+may be seen that graves are prepared in a manner similar to those
+already mentioned:
+
+     The Otoe and Missouri tribes of Indians are now located in
+     southern Gage County, Nebraska, on a reservation of 43,000
+     acres, unsurpassed in beauty of location, natural resources,
+     and adaptability for prosperous agriculture. This pastoral
+     people, though in the midst of civilization, have departed
+     but little from the rude practice and customs of a nomadic
+     life, and here may be seen and studied those interesting
+     dramas as vividly and satisfactorily as upon the remote
+     frontier.
+
+     During my residence among this people on different
+     occasions, I have had the opportunity of witnessing the
+     Indian burials and many quaint ceremonies pertaining
+     thereto.
+
+     When it is found that the vital spark is wavering in an Otoe
+     subject, the preparation of the burial costume is
+     immediately began. The near relatives of the dying Indian
+     surround the humble bedside, and by loud lamentations and
+     much weeping manifest a grief which is truly commensurate
+     with the intensity of Indian devotion and attachment.
+
+     While thus expressing before the near departed their grief
+     at the sad separation impending, the Indian women, or
+     friendly braves, lose no time in equipping him or her with
+     the most ornate clothes and ornaments that are available or
+     in immediate possession. It is thus that the departed Otoe
+     is enrobed in death, in articles of his own selection and by
+     arrangements of his own taste and dictated by his own
+     tongue. It is customary for the dying Indian to dictate, ere
+     his departure, the propriety or impropriety of the
+     accustomed sacrifices. In some cases there is a double and
+     in others no sacrifice at all. The Indian women then prepare
+     to cut away their hair; it is accomplished with scissors,
+     cutting close to the scalp at the side and behind.
+
+     The preparation of the dead for burial is conducted with
+     great solemnity and care. Bead-work, the most ornate,
+     expensive blankets and ribbons comprise the funeral shroud.
+     The dead, being thus enrobed, is placed in a recumbent
+     posture at the most conspicuous part of the lodge and viewed
+     in rotation by the mourning relatives previously summoned by
+     a courier, all preserving uniformity in the piercing screams
+     which would seem to have been learned by rote.
+
+     An apparent service is then conducted. The aged men of the
+     tribe, arranged in a circle, chant a peculiar funeral dirge
+     around one of their number, keeping time upon a drum or some
+     rude cooking-utensil.
+
+     At irregular intervals an aged relative will arise and dance
+     excitedly around the central person, vociferating, and with
+     wild gesture, tomahawk in hand, imprecate the evil spirit,
+     which he drives to the land where the sun goes down. The
+     evil spirit being thus effectually banished, the mourning
+     gradually subsides, blending into succeeding scenes of
+     feasting and refreshment. The burial feast is in every
+     respect equal in richness to its accompanying ceremonies.
+     All who assemble are supplied with cooked venison, hog,
+     buffalo, or beef, regular waiters distributing alike hot
+     cakes soaked in grease and coffee or water, as the case may
+     be.
+
+     Frequently during this stage of the ceremony the most aged
+     Indian present will sit in the central circle, and in a
+     continuous and doleful tone narrate the acts of valor in the
+     life of the departed, enjoining fortitude and bravery upon
+     all sitting around as an essential qualification for
+     admittance to the land where the Great Spirit reigns. When
+     the burial feast is well-nigh completed, it is customary for
+     the surviving friends to present the bereaved family with
+     useful articles of domestic needs, such as calico in bolt,
+     flannel cloth, robes, and not unfrequently ponies or horses.
+     After the conclusion of the ceremonies at the lodge, the
+     body is carefully placed in a wagon and, with an escort of
+     all friends, relatives, and acquaintances, conveyed to the
+     grave previously prepared by some near relation or friend.
+     When a wagon is used, the immediate relatives occupy it with
+     the corpse, which is propped in a semi-sitting posture;
+     before the use of wagons among the Otoes, it was necessary
+     to bind the body of the deceased upon a horse and then
+     convey him to his last resting place among his friends. In
+     past days when buffalo were more available, and a tribal
+     hunt was more frequently indulged in, it is said that those
+     dying on the way were bound upon horses and thus frequently
+     carried several hundred miles for interment at the burial
+     places of their friends.
+
+     At the graveyard of the Indians the ceremony partakes of a
+     double nature; upon the one hand it is sanguinary and cruel,
+     and upon the other blended with the deepest grief and most
+     heartfelt sorrow. Before the interment of the dead the
+     chattels of the deceased are unloaded from the wagons or
+     unpacked from the backs of ponies and carefully arranged in
+     the vault-like tomb. The bottom, which is wider than the top
+     (graves here being dug like an inverted funnel), is spread
+     with straw or grass matting, woven generally by the Indian
+     women of the tribe or some near neighbor. The sides are then
+     carefully hung with handsome shawls or blankets, and trunks,
+     with domestic articles, pottery, &c., of less importance,
+     are piled around in abundance. The sacrifices are next
+     inaugurated. A pony, first designated by the dying Indian,
+     is led aside and strangled by men hanging to either end of a
+     rope. Sometimes, but not always, a dog is likewise
+     strangled, the heads of both animals being subsequently laid
+     upon the Indian's grave. The body, which is now often placed
+     in a plain coffin, is lowered into the grave, and if a
+     coffin is used the friends take their parting look at the
+     deceased before closing it at the grave. After lowering, a
+     saddle and bridle, blankets, dishes, &c., are placed upon
+     it, the mourning ceases, and the Indians prepare to close
+     the grave. It should be remembered, among the Otoe and
+     Missouri Indians dirt is not filled in upon the body, but
+     simply rounded up from the surface upon stout logs that are
+     accurately fitted over the opening of the grave. After the
+     burying is completed, a distribution of the property of the
+     deceased takes place, the near relatives receiving
+     everything, from the merest trifle to the tent and homes,
+     leaving the immediate family, wife and children or father
+     out-door pensioners.
+
+     Although the same generosity is not observed towards the
+     whites assisting in funeral rites, it is universally
+     practiced as regards Indians, and poverty's lot is borne by
+     the survivors with a fortitude and resignation which in them
+     amounts to duty, and marks a higher grade of intrinsic worth
+     than pervades whites of like advantages and conditions. We
+     are told in the Old Testament Scriptures, "four days and
+     four nights should the fires burn," &c. In fulfillment of
+     this sacred injunction, we find the midnight vigil carefully
+     kept by these Indians four days and four nights at the
+     graves of their departed. A small fire is kindled for the
+     purpose near the grave at sunset, where the nearest
+     relatives convene and maintain a continuous lamentation till
+     the morning dawn. There was an ancient tradition that at the
+     expiration of this time the Indian arose, and mounting his
+     spirit pony, galloped off to the happy hunting-ground
+     beyond.
+
+     Happily, with the advancement of Christianity these
+     superstitions have faded, and the living sacrifices are
+     partially continued only from a belief that by parting with
+     their most cherished and valuable goods they propitiate the
+     Great Spirit for the sins committed during the life of the
+     deceased. This, though at first revolting, we find was the
+     practice of our own forefathers, offering up as burnt
+     offerings the lamb or the ox; hence we cannot censure this
+     people, but, from a comparison of conditions, credit them
+     with a more strict observance of our Holy Book than pride
+     and seductive fashions permit of us.
+
+     From a careful review of the whole of their attendant
+     ceremonies a remarkable similarity can be marked. The
+     arrangement of the corpse preparatory to interment, the
+     funeral feast, the local service by the aged fathers, are
+     all observances that have been noted among whites, extending
+     into times that are in the memory of those still living.
+
+The Pimas of Arizona, actuated by apparently the same motives that led
+the more eastern tribes to endeavor to prevent contact of earth with the
+corpse, adopted a plan which has been described by Capt. F.E.
+Grossman,[5] and the account is corroborated by M. Alphonse Pinart[6]
+and Bancroft.[7]
+
+Captain Grossman's account follows:
+
+     The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing
+     the latter around their neck and under the knees, and then
+     drawing them tight until the body is doubled up and forced
+     into a sitting position. They dig the graves from four to
+     five feet deep and perfectly round (about two feet in
+     diameter), and then hollow out to one side of the bottom of
+     this grave a sort of vault large enough to contain the body.
+     Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up level
+     with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber
+     placed upon the grave to protect the remains from coyotes.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG 2--Pima burial]
+
+     Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony.
+     The mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are
+     rare. The bodies of their dead are buried if possible,
+     immediately after death has taken place and the graves are
+     generally prepared before the patients die. Sometimes sick
+     persons (for whom the graves had already been dug) recover.
+     In such cases the graves are left open until the persons for
+     whom they are intended die. Open graves of this kind can be
+     seen in several of their burial grounds. Places of burial
+     are selected some distance from the village, and, if
+     possible, in a grove of mesquite trees.
+
+     Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house
+     and personal effects of the deceased are burned and his
+     horses and cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast
+     for the mourners. The nearest relatives of the deceased as a
+     sign of their sorrow remain within their village for weeks,
+     and sometimes months; the men cut off about six inches of
+     their long hair, while the women cut their hair quite short.
+     * * *
+
+     The custom of destroying all the property of the husband
+     when he dies impoverishes the widow and children and
+     prevents increase of stock. The women of the tribe, well
+     aware that they will be poor should their husbands die, and
+     that then they will have to provide for their children by
+     their own exertions, do not care to have many children, and
+     infanticide, both before and after birth, prevails to a
+     great extent. This is not considered a crime, and old women
+     of the tribe practice it. A widow may marry again after a
+     year's mourning for her first husband; but having children
+     no man will take her for a wife and thus burden himself with
+     her children. Widows generally cultivate a small piece of
+     ground, and friends and relatives (men) plow the ground for
+     them.
+
+Fig. 2, drawn from Captain Grossman's description by my friend Dr. W.J.
+Hoffman, will convey a good idea of this mode of burial.
+
+Stephen Powers[8] describes a similar mode of grave preparation among
+the Yuki of California:
+
+     The Yuki bury their dead in a sitting posture. They dig a
+     hole six feet deep sometimes and at the bottom of it
+     "_coyote_" under, making a little recess in which the corpse
+     is deposited.
+
+The Comanches of Indian Territory (_Nem, we, or us, people_), according
+to Dr. Fordyce Grinnell, of the Wichita Agency, Indian Territory, go to
+the opposite extreme, so far as the protection of the dead from the
+surrounding earth is concerned. The account as received is given entire,
+as much to illustrate this point as others of interest.
+
+     When a Comanche is dying, while the death-rattle may yet be
+     faintly heard in the throat, and the natural warmth has not
+     departed from the body, the knees are strongly bent upon the
+     chest, and the legs flexed upon the thighs. The arms are
+     also flexed upon each side of the chest, and the head bent
+     forward upon the knees. A lariat, or rope, is now used to
+     firmly bind the limbs and body in this position. A blanket
+     is then wrapped around the body, and this again tightly
+     corded, so that the appearance when ready for burial is that
+     of an almost round and compact body, very unlike the
+     composed pall of his Wichita or Caddo brother. The body is
+     then taken and placed in a saddle upon a pony, in a sitting
+     posture; a squaw usually riding behind, though sometimes one
+     on either side of the horse, holds the body in position
+     until the place of burial is reached, when the corpse is
+     literally tumbled into the excavation selected for the
+     purpose. The deceased is only accompanied by two or three
+     squaws, or enough to perform the little labor bestowed upon
+     the burial. The body is taken due west of the lodge or
+     village of the bereaved, and usually one of the deep washes
+     or heads of canons in which the Comanche country abounds is
+     selected, and the body thrown in, without special reference
+     to position. With this are deposited the bows and arrows;
+     these, however, are first broken. The saddle is also placed
+     in the grave, together with many of the personal valuables
+     of the departed. The body is then covered over with sticks
+     and earth, and sometimes stones are placed over the whole.
+
+     _Funeral ceremonies._--the best pony owned by the deceased
+     is brought to the grave and killed, that the departed may
+     appear well mounted and caparisoned among his fellows in the
+     other world. Formerly, if the deceased were a chief or man
+     of consequence and had large herds of ponies, many were
+     killed, sometimes amounting to 200 or 300 head in number.
+
+     The Comanches illustrate the importance of providing a good
+     pony for the convoy of the deceased to the happy-grounds by
+     the following story, which is current among both Comanches
+     and Wichitas:
+
+     "A few years since, an old Comanche died who had no
+     relatives and who was quite poor. Some of the tribe
+     concluded that almost any kind of a pony would serve to
+     transport him to the next world. They therefore killed at
+     his grave an old, ill-conditioned, lop-eared horse. But a
+     few weeks after the burial of this friendless one, lo and
+     behold he returned, riding this same old worn-out horse,
+     weary and hungry. He first appeared at the Wichita camps,
+     where he was well known, and asked for something to eat, but
+     his strange appearance, with sunken eyes and hollow cheeks,
+     filled with consternation all who saw him, and they fled
+     from his presence. Finally one bolder than the rest placed a
+     piece of meat on the end of a lodge-pole and extended it to
+     him. He soon appeared at his own camp, creating, if
+     possible, even more dismay than among the Wichitas, and this
+     resulted in both Wichitas and Comanches leaving their
+     villages and moving _en masse_ to a place on Rush Creek, not
+     far distant from the present site of Fort Sill.
+
+     "When the troubled spirit from the sunsetting world was
+     questioned why he thus appeared among the inhabitants of
+     earth, he made reply that when he came to the gates of
+     paradise the keepers would on no account permit him to enter
+     upon such an ill-conditioned beast as that which bore him,
+     and thus in sadness he returned to haunt the homes of those
+     whose stinginess and greed permitted him no better
+     equipment. Since this no Comanche has been permitted to
+     depart with the sun to his chambers in the west without a
+     steed which in appearance should do honor alike to the rider
+     and his friends."
+
+     The body is buried at the sunsetting side of the camp, that
+     the spirit may accompany the setting sun to the world
+     beyond. The spirit starts on its journey the following night
+     after death has taken place; if this occur at night, the
+     journey is not begun until the next night.
+
+     _Mourning observances_.--All the effects of the deceased,
+     the tents, blankets, clothes, treasures, and whatever of
+     value, aside from the articles which have been buried with
+     the body, are burned, so that the family is left in poverty.
+     This practice has extended even to the burning of wagons and
+     harness since some of the civilized habits have been
+     adopted. It is believed that these ascend to heaven in the
+     smoke, and will thus be of service to the owner in the other
+     world. Immediately upon the death of a member of the
+     household, the relatives begin a peculiar wailing, and the
+     immediate members of the family take off their customary
+     apparel and clothe themselves in rags and cut themselves
+     across the arms, breast, and other portions of the body,
+     until sometimes a fond wife or mother faints from loss of
+     blood. This scarification is usually accomplished with a
+     knife, or, as in earlier days, with a flint. Hired mourners
+     are employed at times who are in no way related to the
+     family, but who are accomplished in the art of crying for
+     the dead. These are invariably women. Those nearly related
+     to the departed, cut off the long locks from the entire
+     head, while those more distantly related, or special
+     friends, cut the hair only from one side of the head. In
+     case of the death of a chief, the young warriors also cut
+     the hair, usually from the left side of the head.
+
+     After the first few days of continued grief, the mourning is
+     conducted more especially at sunrise and sunset, as the
+     Comanches venerate the sun; and the mourning at these
+     seasons is kept up, if the death occurred in summer, until
+     the leaves fall, or, if in the winter, until they reappear.
+
+It is a matter of some interest to note that the preparation of the
+corpse and the grave among the Comanches is almost identical with the
+burial customs of some of the African tribes, and the baling of the body
+with ropes or cords is a wide and common usage of savage peoples. The
+hiring of mourners is also a practice which has been very prevalent from
+remotest periods of time.
+
+
+_GRAVE BURIAL._
+
+The following interesting account of burial among the Pueblo Indians of
+San Geronimo de Taos, New Mexico, furnished by Judge Anthony Joseph,
+will show in a manner how civilized customs have become engrafted upon
+those of a more barbaric nature. It should be remembered that the Pueblo
+people are next to the Cherokees, Choctaws, and others in the Indian
+Territory, the most civilized of our tribes.
+
+According to Judge Joseph, these people call themselves _Wee-ka-nahs_.
+
+     These are commonly known to the whites as _Piros_. The
+     manner of burial by these Indians, both ancient and modern,
+     as far as I can ascertain from information obtained from the
+     most intelligent of the tribe, is that the body of the dead
+     is and has been always buried in the ground in a horizontal
+     position with the flat bottom of the grave. The grave is
+     generally dug out of the ground in the usual and ordinary
+     manner, being about 6 feet deep, 7 feet long, and about 2
+     feet wide. It is generally finished after receiving its
+     occupant by being leveled with the hard ground around it,
+     never leaving, as is customary with the whites, a mound to
+     mark the spot. This tribe of Pueblo Indians never cremated
+     their dead, as they do not know, even by tradition, that it
+     was ever done or attempted. There are no utensils or
+     implements placed in the grave, but there are a great many
+     Indian ornaments, such as beads of all colors, sea-shells,
+     hawk-bells, round looking-glasses, and a profusion of
+     ribbons of all imaginable colors; then they paint the body
+     with red vermilion and white chalk, giving it a most
+     fantastic as well as ludicrous appearance. They also place a
+     variety of food in the grave as a wise provision for its
+     long journey to the happy hunting-ground beyond the clouds.
+
+     The funeral ceremonies of this tribe are very peculiar.
+     First, after death, the body is laid out on a fancy buffalo
+     robe spread out on the ground, then they dress the body in
+     the best possible manner in their style of dress; if a male,
+     they put on his beaded leggins and embroidered _saco_, and
+     his fancy dancing-moccasins, and his large brass or shell
+     ear-rings; if a female, they put on her best manta or dress,
+     tied around the waist with a silk sash, put on her feet her
+     fancy dancing-moccasins; her _rosario_ around her neck, her
+     brass or shell ear-rings in her ears, and with her tressed
+     black hair tied up with red tape or ribbon, this completes
+     her wardrobe for her long and happy chase. When they get
+     through dressing the body, they place about a dozen lighted
+     candles around it, and keep them burning continually until
+     the body is buried. As soon as the candles are lighted, the
+     _reloris_, or wake, commences; the body lies in state for
+     about twenty-four hours, and in that time all the friends,
+     relatives, and neighbors of the deceased or "_difunti_"
+     visit the wake, chant, sing, and pray for the soul of the
+     same, and tell one another of the good deeds and traits of
+     valor and courage manifested by the deceased during his
+     earthly career, and at intervals in their praying, singing,
+     &c., some near relative of the deceased will step up to the
+     corpse and every person in the room commences to cry
+     bitterly and express aloud words of endearment to the
+     deceased and of condolence to the family of the same in
+     their untimely bereavement.
+
+     At about midnight supper is announced, and every person in
+     attendance marches out into another room and partakes of a
+     frugal Indian meal, generally composed of wild game; Chile
+     Colorado or red-pepper tortillas, and guayaves, with a good
+     supply of mush and milk, which completes the festive board
+     of the _reloris_ or wake. When the deceased is in good
+     circumstances, the crowd in attendance is treated every
+     little while during the wake to alcoholic refreshments. This
+     feast and feasting is kept up until the Catholic priest
+     arrives to perform the funeral rites.
+
+     When the priest arrives, the corpse is done up or rather
+     baled up in a large and well-tanned buffalo robe, and tied
+     around tight with a rope or lasso made for the purpose; then
+     six or eight men act as pall-bearers, conducting the body to
+     the place of burial, which is in front of their church or
+     chapel. The priest conducts the funeral ceremonies in the
+     ordinary and usual way of mortuary proceedings observed by
+     the Catholic church all over the world. While the
+     grave-diggers are filling up the grave, the friends,
+     relatives, neighbors, and, in fact, all persons that attend
+     the funeral, give vent to their sad feelings by making the
+     whole pueblo howl; after the tremendous uproar subsides,
+     they disband and leave the body to rest until Gabriel blows
+     his trumpet. When the ceremonies are performed with all the
+     pomp of the Catholic church, the priest receives a fair
+     compensation for his services; otherwise he officiates for
+     the yearly rents that all the Indians of the pueblo pay him,
+     which amount in the sum total to about $2,000 per annum.
+
+     These Pueblo Indians are very strict in their mourning
+     observance, which last for one year after the demise of the
+     deceased. While in mourning for the dead, the mourners do
+     not participate in the national festivities of the tribe,
+     which are occasions of state with them, but they retire into
+     a state of sublime quietude which makes more civilized
+     people sad to observe; but when the term of mourning ceases,
+     at the end of the year, they have high mass said for the
+     benefit of the soul of the departed; after this they again
+     appear upon the arena of their wild sports and continue to
+     be gay and happy until the next mortal is called from this
+     terrestrial sphere to the happy hunting-ground, which is
+     their pictured celestial paradise. The above cited facts,
+     which are the most interesting points connected with the
+     burial customs of the Indians of the pueblo San Geronimo de
+     Taos, are not in the least exaggerated, but are the absolute
+     facts, which I have witnessed myself in many instances for a
+     period of more than twenty years that I have resided but a
+     short distant from said pueblo, and, being a close observer
+     of their peculiar burial customs, am able to give you this
+     true and undisguised information relative to your circular
+     on "burial customs."
+
+Another example of the care which is taken to prevent the earth coming
+in contact with the corpse may be found in the account of the burial of
+the Wichita Indians of Indian Territory, furnished by Dr. Fordyce
+Grinnell, whose name has already been mentioned in connection with the
+Comanche customs. The Wichitas call themselves _Kitty-ka-tats,_ or those
+of the tattooed eyelids.
+
+     When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through
+     the village and announces the fact. Preparations are
+     immediately made for the burial, and the body is taken
+     without delay to the grave prepared for its reception. If
+     the grave is some distance from the village, the body is
+     carried thither on the back of a pony, being first wrapped
+     in blankets and then laid prone, across the saddle, one
+     person walking on either side to support it. The grave is
+     dug from three to four feet deep and of sufficient length
+     for the extended body. First blankets and buffalo-robes are
+     laid in the bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken
+     from the horse and unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel
+     and with ornaments is placed upon a couch of blankets and
+     robes, with the head towards the west and the feet to the
+     east; the valuables belonging to the deceased are placed
+     with the body in the grave. With the man are deposited his
+     bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+     utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body
+     sticks are placed six or eight inches deep and grass over
+     these, so that when the earth is filled in, it need not come
+     in contact with the body or its trappings. After the grave
+     is filled with earth, a pen of poles is built around it, or
+     as is frequently the case, stakes are driven so that they
+     cross each other from either side about midway over the
+     grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion
+     of wild animals. After all this is done, the grass or other
+     _debris_ is carefully scraped from about the grave for
+     several feet, so that the ground is left smooth and clean.
+     It is seldom the case that the relatives accompany the
+     remains to the grave, but they more often employ others to
+     bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is similar
+     in this tribe, as in others, and it consists in cutting off
+     the hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave.
+
+The Caddoes, _Ascena,_ or Timber Indians, as they call themselves,
+follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but one custom
+prevailing is worthy of mention:
+
+     If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried,
+     but is left to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey, and
+     the condition of such individuals in the other world is
+     considered to be far better than that of persons dying a
+     natural death.
+
+
+In a work by Bruhier[9] the following remarks, freely translated by the
+writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to the
+exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above:
+
+     The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on
+     the roads, and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts
+     it was esteemed a great honor, a misfortune if not.
+     Sometimes they interred, always wrapping the dead in a wax
+     cloth to prevent odor.
+
+M. Pierre Muret,[10] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his
+information, gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar
+method of treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:
+
+     It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_
+     have ever had the renown of being one of the most civilized
+     Nations in the world, that notwithstanding they should have
+     used such barbarous customs about the Dead as are set down
+     in the Writings of some Historians; and the rather because
+     at this day there are still to be seen among them those
+     remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie us, that their
+     Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet nevertheless, if
+     we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_, the
+     _Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far
+     were they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them: But,
+     as these Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in
+     the open fields, which is the greatest shame our Laws do
+     allot to the most infamous Criminals, by laying them open to
+     the view of all upon the highways: Yea, in their opinion it
+     was a great unhappiness, if either Birds or Beasts did not
+     devour their Carcases; and they commonly made an estimate of
+     the Felicity of these poor Bodies, according as they were
+     sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning these, they
+     resolved that they must needs have been very bad indeed,
+     since even the beasts themselves would not touch them; which
+     caused an extream sorrow to their Relations, they taking it
+     for an ill boding to their Family, and an infallible presage
+     of some great misfortune hanging over their heads; for they
+     persuaded themselves, that the Souls which inhabited those
+     Bodies being dragg'd into Hell, would not fail to come and
+     trouble them; and that being always accompanied with the
+     Devils, their Tormentors, they would certainly give them a
+     great deal of disturbance.
+
+     And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently
+     devoured, their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves
+     in praises of the Deceased; every one esteeming them
+     undoubtedly happy, and came to congratulate their relations
+     on that account: For as they believed assuredly, that they
+     were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so they were
+     persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all
+     those of their family.
+
+     They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones
+     scatered up and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely
+     endure to see those of Horses and Dogs used so. And these
+     remains of Humane Bodies, (the sight whereof gives us so
+     much horror, that we presently bury them out of our sight,
+     whenever we find them elsewhere than in Charnel-houses or
+     Church-yards) were the occasion of their greatest joy;
+     beecause they concluded from thence the happiness of those
+     that had been devoured, wishing after their Death to meet
+     with the like good luck.
+
+The same author states, and Bruhier corroborates the assertion, that the
+Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others, had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead, and
+of their being eaten by worms, that they threw out the bodies into the
+open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief being
+that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but enjoy at
+least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchers. It is quite
+probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and Hircanians
+trained dogs for this special purpose, called _Canes sepulchrales,_
+which received the greatest care and attention, for it was deemed proper
+that the souls of the deceased should have strong and lusty frames to
+dwell in.
+
+The Buddhists of Bhotan are said to expose the bodies of their dead on
+top of high rocks.
+
+According to Tegg, whose work is quoted frequently, in the London Times
+of January 28, 1876, Mr. Monier Williams writes from Calcutta regarding
+the "Towers of Silence," so called, of the Parsees, who, it is well
+known, are the descendants of the ancient Persians expelled from Persia
+by the Mohammedan conquerors, and settled at Surat about 1,100 years
+since. This gentleman's narrative is freely made use of to show how the
+custom of the exposure of the dead to birds of prey has continued up to
+the present time.
+
+     The Dakhmas, or Parsee towers of silence, are erected in a
+     garden on the highest point of Malabar Hill, a beautiful,
+     rising ground on one side of Black Bay, noted for the
+     bungalows and compounds of the European and wealthier
+     inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every direction over its
+     surface.
+
+     The garden is approached by a well-constructed, private
+     road, all access to which, except to Parsees, is barred by
+     strong iron gates.
+
+The garden is described as being very beautiful, and he says:
+
+     No English nobleman's garden could be better kept, and no
+     pen could do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs,
+     cypresses, and palms. It seemed the very ideal, not only of
+     a place of sacred silence, but of peaceful rest.
+
+The towers are five in number, built of hardest black granite, about 40
+feet in diameter and 25 in height, and constructed so solidly as almost
+to resist absolutely the ravages of time. The oldest and smallest of the
+towers was constructed about 200 years since, when the Parsees first
+settled in Bombay, and is used only for a certain family. The next
+oldest was erected in 1756, and the three others during the next
+century. A sixth tower of square shape stands alone, and is only used
+for criminals.
+
+The writer proceeds as follows:
+
+     Though wholly destitute of ornament and even of the simplest
+     moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an
+     extraordinary coping, which instantly attracts and
+     fascinates the gaze. It is a coping formed not of dead
+     stone, but of living vultures. These birds, on the occasion
+     of my visit, had settled themselves side by side in perfect
+     order and in a complete circle around the parapets of the
+     towers, with their heads pointing inwards, and so lazily did
+     they sit there, and so motionless was their whole mien, that
+     except for their color, they might have been carved out of
+     the stonework.
+
+No one is allowed to enter the towers except the corpse-bearers, nor is
+any one permitted within thirty feet of the immediate precincts. A model
+was shown Mr. Williams, and from it he drew up this description:
+
+     Imagine a round column or massive cylinder, 12 or 14 feet
+     high and at least 40 feet in diameter, built throughout of
+     solid stone except in the center, where a well, 5 or 6 feet
+     across, leads down to an excavation under the masonry,
+     containing four drains at right angles to each other,
+     terminated by holes filled with charcoal. Round the upper
+     surface of this solid circular cylinder, and completely
+     hiding the interior from view, is a stone parapet, 10 or 12
+     feet in height. This it is which, when viewed from the
+     outside, appears to form one piece with the solid
+     stone-work, and being, like it, covered with chunam, gives
+     the whole the appearance of a low tower. The upper surface
+     of the solid stone column is divided into 72 compartments,
+     or open receptacles, radiating like the spokes of a wheel
+     from the central well, and arranged in three concentric
+     rings, separated from each other by narrow ridges of stone,
+     which are grooved to act as channels for conveying all
+     moisture from the receptacles into the well and into the
+     lower drains. It should be noted that the number "3" is
+     emblematical of Zoroaster's three precepts, and the number
+     "72" of the chapters of his Yasna, a portion of the
+     Zend-Avesta.
+
+     Each circle of open stone coffins is divided from the next
+     by a pathway, so that there are three circular pathways, the
+     last encircling the central well, and these three pathways
+     are crossed by another pathway conducting from the solitary
+     door which admits the corpse-bearers from the exterior. In
+     the outermost circle of the stone coffins are placed the
+     bodies of males, in the middle those of the females, and in
+     the inner and smallest circle nearest the well those of
+     children.
+
+     While I was engaged with the secretary in examining the
+     model, a sudden stir among the vultures made us raise our
+     heads. At least a hundred birds collected round one of the
+     towers began to show symptoms of excitement, while others
+     swooped down from neighboring trees. The cause of this
+     sudden abandonment of their previous apathy soon revealed
+     itself. A funeral was seen to be approaching. However
+     distant the house of a deceased person, and whether he be
+     rich or poor, high or low in rank, his body is always
+     carried to the towers by the official corpse-bearers, called
+     _Nasasalar,_ who form a distinct class, the mourners walking
+     behind.
+
+     Before they remove the body from the house where the
+     relatives are assembled, funeral prayers are recited, and
+     the corpse is exposed to the gaze of a dog, regarded by the
+     Parsees as a sacred animal. This latter ceremony is called
+     _sagdid_.
+
+     Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a
+     curved metal trough, open at both ends, and the
+     corpse-bearers, dressed in pure white garments, proceed with
+     it towards the towers. They are followed by the mourners at
+     a distance of at least 30 feet, in pairs, also dressed in
+     white, and each couple joined by holding a white
+     handkerchief between them. The particular funeral I
+     witnessed was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers
+     reached the path leading by a steep incline to the door of
+     the tower, the mourners, about eight in number, turned back
+     and entered one of the prayer-houses. "There," said the
+     secretary, "they repeat certain gathas, and pray that the
+     spirit of the deceased may be safely transported, on the
+     fourth day after death, to its final resting-place."
+
+     The tower selected for the present funeral was one in which
+     other members of the same family had before been laid. The
+     two bearers speedily unlocked the door, reverently conveyed
+     the body of the child into the interior, and, unseen by any
+     one, laid it uncovered in one of the open stone receptacles
+     nearest the central well. In two minutes they reappeared
+     with the empty bier and white cloth, and scarcely had they
+     closed the door when a dozen vultures swooped down upon the
+     body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes
+     more we saw the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle
+     down again upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind
+     but a skeleton. Meanwhile, the bearers were seen to enter a
+     building shaped like a high barrel. There, as the secretary
+     informed me, they changed their clothes and washed
+     themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come out and
+     deposit their cast-off funeral garments in a stone
+     receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden,
+     lest it should carry defilement into the city. Perfectly new
+     garments are supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or,
+     at most, four weeks, the same bearers return, and, with
+     gloved hands and implements resembling tongs, place the dry
+     skeleton in the central well. There the bones find their
+     last resting-place, and there the dust of whole generations
+     of Parsees commingling is left undisturbed for centuries.
+
+     The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn my
+     back on the towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I asked
+     the secretary how it was possible to become reconciled to
+     such usage. His reply was nearly in the following words:
+     "Our prophet Zoroaster, who lived 6,000 years ago, taught us
+     to regard the elements as symbols of the Deity. Earth, fire,
+     water, he said, ought never, under any circumstances, to be
+     defiled by contact with putrefying flesh. Naked, he said,
+     came we into the world and naked we ought to leave it. But
+     the decaying particles of our bodies should be dissipated as
+     rapidly as possible and in such a way that neither Mother
+     Earth nor the beings she supports should be contaminated in
+     the slightest degree. In fact, our prophet was the greatest
+     of health officers, and, following his sanitary laws, we
+     build our towers on the tops of the hills, above all human
+     habitations. We spare no expense in constructing them of the
+     hardest materials, and we expose our putrescent bodies in
+     open stone receptacles, resting on fourteen feet of solid
+     granite, not necessarily to be consumed by vultures, but to
+     be dissipated in the speediest possible manner and without
+     the possibility of polluting the earth or contaminating a
+     single being dwelling thereon. God, indeed, sends the
+     vultures, and, as a matter of fact, these birds do their
+     appointed work much more expeditiously than millions of
+     insects would do if we committed our bodies to the ground.
+     In a sanitary point of view, nothing can be more perfect
+     than our plan. Even the rain-water which washes our
+     skeletons is conducted by channels into purifying charcoal.
+     Here in these five towers rest the bones of all the Parsees
+     that have lived in Bombay for the last two hundred years. We
+     form a united body in life and we are united in death."
+
+It would appear that the reasons given for this peculiar mode of
+disposing of the dead by the Parsee secretary are quite at variance with
+the ideas advanced by Muret regarding the ancient Persians, and to which
+allusion has already been made. It might be supposed that somewhat
+similar motives to those governing the Parsees actuated those of the
+North American Indians who deposit their dead on scaffolds and trees,
+but the theory becomes untenable when it is recollected that great care
+is taken to preserve the dead from the ravages of carnivorous birds, the
+corpse being carefully enveloped in skins and firmly tied up with ropes
+or thongs.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 are representations of the Parsee towers of silence,
+drawn by Mr. Holmes, mainly from the description given.
+
+George Gibbs[11] gives the following account of burial among the Klamath
+and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast, the information having been
+originally furnished him by James G. Swan.
+
+     The graves, which are in the immediate vicinity of their
+     houses, exhibit very considerable taste and a laudable care.
+     the dead are inclosed in rude coffins formed by placing four
+     boards around the body, and covered with earth to some
+     depth; a heavy plank, often supported by upright head and
+     foot stones, is laid upon the top, or stones are built up
+     into a wall about a foot above the ground, and the top
+     flagged with others. The graves of the chiefs are
+     surrounded by neat wooden palings, each pale ornamented with
+     a feather from the tail of the bald eagle. Baskets are
+     usually staked down by the side, according to the wealth or
+     popularity of the individual, and sometimes other articles
+     for ornament or use are suspended over them. The funeral
+     ceremonies occupy three days, during which the soul of the
+     deceased is in danger from _O-mak-a_, or the devil. To
+     preserve it from this peril, a fire is kept up at the grave,
+     and the friends of the deceased howl around it to scare away
+     the demon. Should they not be successful in this the soul is
+     carried down the river, subject, however, to redemption by
+     _Peh-ko-wan_ on payment of a big knife. After the expiration
+     of three days it is all well with them.
+
+The question may well be asked, is the big knife a "sop to Cerberus"?
+
+To Dr. Charles E. McChesney, acting assistant surgeon, United States
+Army, one of the most conscientious and careful of observers, the writer
+is indebted for the following interesting account of the mortuary
+customs of the
+
+     WAH-PETON AND SISSETON SIOUX OF DAKOTA.
+
+     A large proportion of these Indians being members of the
+     Presbyterian church (the missionaries of which church have
+     labored among them for more than forty years past), the dead
+     of their families are buried after the customs of that
+     church, and this influence is felt to a great extent among
+     those Indians who are not strict church members, so that
+     they are dropping one by one the traditional customs of
+     their tribe, and but few can now be found who bury their
+     dead in accordance with their customs of twenty or more
+     years ago. The dead of those Indians who still adhere to
+     their modern burial customs are buried in the ways indicated
+     below.
+
+     _Warrior_.--After death they paint a warrior red across the
+     mouth, or they paint a hand in black color, with the thumb
+     on one side of the mouth and the fingers separated on the
+     other cheek, the rest of the face being painted red. (This
+     latter is only done as a mark of respect to a specially
+     brave man.) Spears, clubs, and the medicine-bag of the
+     deceased when alive are buried with the body, the
+     medicine-bag being placed on the bare skin over the region
+     of the heart. There is not now, nor has there been, among
+     these Indians any special preparation of the grave. The body
+     of a warrior is generally wrapped in a blanket or piece of
+     cloth (and frequently in addition is placed in a box) and
+     buried in the grave prepared for the purpose, always, as the
+     majority of these Indians inform me, with the head towards
+     the _south_. (I have, however, seen many graves in which the
+     head of the occupant had been placed to the _east_. It may
+     be that these graves were those of Indians who belonged to
+     the church; and a few Indians inform me that the head is
+     sometimes placed towards the _west_, according to the
+     occupant's belief when alive as to the direction from which
+     his guiding medicine came, and I am personally inclined to
+     give credence to this latter as sometimes occurring.) In all
+     burials, when the person has died a natural death, or had
+     not been murdered, and whether man, woman, or child, the
+     body is placed in the grave with the face _up_. In cases,
+     however, when a man or woman has been murdered by one of
+     their own tribe, the body was, and is always, placed in the
+     grave with the face _down_, head to the _south_, and a piece
+     of fat (bacon or pork) placed in the mouth. This piece of
+     fat is placed in the mouth, as these Indians say, to prevent
+     the spirit of the murdered person driving or scaring the
+     game from that section of country. Those Indians who state
+     that their dead are always buried with the head towards the
+     south say they do so in order that the spirit of the
+     deceased may go to the south, the land from which these
+     Indians believe they originally came.
+
+     _Women and children_.--Before death the face of the person
+     expected to die is often painted in a red color. When this
+     is not done before death it is done afterwards; the body
+     being then buried in a grave prepared for its reception, and
+     in the manner described for a warrior, cooking-utensils
+     taking the place of the warrior's weapons. In cases of boys
+     and girls a kettle of cooked food is sometimes placed at the
+     head of the grave after the body is covered. Now, if the
+     dead body be that of a boy, all the boys of about his age go
+     up and eat of the food, and in cases of girls all the girls
+     do likewise. This, however, has never obtained as a custom,
+     but is sometimes done in cases of warriors and women also.
+
+     Cremation has never been practiced by these Indians. It is
+     now, and always has been, a custom among them to remove a
+     lock of hair from the top or scalp lock of a warrior, or
+     from the left side of the head of a woman, which is
+     carefully preserved by some near relative of the deceased,
+     wrapped in pieces of calico and muslin, and hung in the
+     lodge of the deceased and is considered the ghost of the
+     dead person. To the bundle is attached a tin cup or other
+     vessel, and in this is placed some food for the spirit of
+     the dead person. Whenever a stranger happens in at meal
+     time, this food, however, is not allowed to go to waste; if
+     not consumed by the stranger to whom it is offered, some of
+     the occupants of the lodge eat it. They seem to take some
+     pains to please the ghost of the deceased, thinking thereby
+     they will have good luck in their family so long as they
+     continue to do so. It is a custom with the men when they
+     smoke to offer the pipe to the ghost, at the same time
+     asking it to confer some favor on them, or aid them in their
+     work or in hunting, &c.
+
+     There is a feast held over this bundle containing the ghost
+     of the deceased, given by the friends of the dead man. This
+     feast may be at any time, and is not at any particular time,
+     occurring, however, generally as often as once a year,
+     unless, at the time of the first feast, the friends
+     designate a particular time, such, for instance, as when the
+     leaves fall, or when the grass comes again. This bundle is
+     never permitted to leave the lodge of the friends of the
+     dead person, except to be buried in the grave of one of
+     them. Much of the property of the deceased person is buried
+     with the body, a portion being placed under the body and a
+     portion over it. Horses are sometimes killed on the grave of
+     a warrior, but this custom is gradually ceasing, in
+     consequence of the value of their ponies. These animals are
+     therefore now generally given away by the person before
+     death, or after death disposed of by the near relatives.
+     Many years ago it was customary to kill one or more ponies
+     at the grave. In cases of more than ordinary wealth for an
+     Indian, much of his personal property is now, and has ever
+     been, reserved from burial with the body, and forms the
+     basis for a gambling party, which will be described
+     hereafter. No food is ever buried in the grave, but some is
+     occasionally placed at the head of it; in which case it is
+     consumed by the friends of the dead person. Such is the
+     method that was in vogue with these Indians twenty years
+     ago, and which is still adhered to, with more or less
+     exactness, by the majority of them, the exceptions being
+     those who are strict church members and those very few
+     families who adhere to their ancient customs.
+
+     Before the year 1860 it was a custom, for as long back as
+     the oldest members of these tribes can remember, and with
+     the usual tribal traditions handed down from generation to
+     generation, in regard to this as well as to other things,
+     for these Indians to bury in a tree or on a platform, and in
+     those days an Indian was only buried in the ground as a mark
+     of disrespect in consequence of the person having been
+     murdered, in which case the body would be buried in the
+     ground, _face down_, head toward the south and with a piece
+     of fat in the mouth. * * * The platform upon which the body
+     was deposited was constructed of four crotched posts firmly
+     set in the ground, and connected near the top by
+     cross-pieces, upon which was placed boards, when obtainable,
+     and small sticks of wood, sometimes hewn so as to give a
+     firm resting-place for the body. This platform had an
+     elevation of from six to eight or more feet, and never
+     contained but one body, although frequently having
+     sufficient surface to accommodate two or three. In burying
+     in the crotch of a tree and on platforms, the head of the
+     dead person was always placed towards the south; the body
+     was wrapped in blankets or pieces of cloth securely tied,
+     and many of the personal effects of the deceased were
+     buried with it; as in the case of a warrior, his bows and
+     arrows, war-clubs, &c., would be placed alongside of the
+     body, the Indians saying he would need such things in the
+     next world.
+
+     I am informed by many of them that it was a habit, before
+     their outbreak, for some to carry the body of a near
+     relative whom they held in great respect with them on their
+     moves, for a greater or lesser time, often as long as two or
+     three years before burial. This, however, never obtained
+     generally among them, and some of them seem to know nothing
+     about it. It has of late years been entirely dropped, except
+     when a person dies away from home, it being then customary
+     for the friends to bring the body home for burial.
+
+     _Mourning ceremonies._--The mourning ceremonies before the
+     year 1860 were as follows: After the death of a warrior the
+     whole camp or tribe would be assembled in a circle, and
+     after the widow had cut herself on the arms, legs, and body
+     with a piece of flint, and removed the hair from her head,
+     she would go around the ring any number of times she chose,
+     but each time was considered as an oath that she would not
+     marry for a year, so that she could not marry for as many
+     years as times she went around the circle. The widow would
+     all this time keep up a crying and wailing. Upon the
+     completion of this the friends of the deceased would take
+     the body to the platform or tree where it was to remain,
+     keeping up all this time their wailing and crying. After
+     depositing the body, they would stand under it and continue
+     exhibiting their grief, the squaws by hacking their arms and
+     legs with flint and cutting off the hair from their head.
+     The men would sharpen sticks and run them through the skin
+     of their arms and legs, both men and women keeping up their
+     crying generally for the remainder of the day, and the near
+     relatives of the deceased for several days thereafter. As
+     soon as able, the warrior friends of the deceased would go
+     to a near tribe of their enemies and kill one or more of
+     them if possible, return with their scalps, and exhibit them
+     to the deceased person's relatives, after which their
+     mourning ceased, their friends considering his death as
+     properly avenged; this, however, was many years ago, when
+     their enemies were within reasonable striking distance,
+     such, for instance, as the Chippewas and the Arickarees,
+     Gros Ventres and Mandan Indians. In cases of women and
+     children, the squaws would cut off their hair, hack their
+     persons with flint, and sharpen sticks and run them through
+     the skin of the arms and legs, crying as for a warrior.
+
+     It was an occasional occurrence twenty or more years ago for
+     a squaw when she lost a favorite child to commit suicide by
+     hanging herself with a lariat over the limb of a tree. This
+     could not have prevailed to any great extent, however,
+     although the old men recite several instances of its
+     occurrence, and a very few examples within recent years.
+     Such was their custom before the Minnesota outbreak, since
+     which time it has gradually died out, and at the present
+     time these ancient customs are adhered to by but a single
+     family, known as the seven brothers, who appear to retain
+     all the ancient customs of their tribe. At the present time,
+     as a mourning observance, the squaws hack themselves on
+     their legs with knives, cut off their hair, and cry and wail
+     around the grave of the dead person, and the men in addition
+     paint their faces, but no longer torture themselves by means
+     of sticks passed through the skin of the arms and legs. This
+     cutting and painting is sometimes done before and sometimes
+     after the burial of the body. I also observe that many of
+     the women of these tribes are adopting so much of the
+     customs of the whites as prescribes the wearing of black for
+     certain periods. During the period of mourning these Indians
+     never wash their face, or comb their hair, or laugh. These
+     customs are observed with varying degree of strictness, but
+     not in many instances with that exactness which
+     characterized these Indians before the advent of the white
+     man among them. There is not now any permanent mutilation of
+     the person practiced as a mourning ceremony by them. That
+     mutilation of a finger by removing one or more joints, so
+     generally observed among the Minnetarree Indians at the Fort
+     Berthold, Dak., Agency, is not here seen, although the old
+     men of these tribes inform me that it was an ancient custom
+     among their women, on the occasion of the burial of a
+     husband, to cut off a portion of a finger and have it
+     suspended in the tree above his body. I have, however, yet
+     to see an example of this having been done by any of the
+     Indians now living, and the custom must have fallen into
+     disuse more than seventy years ago.
+
+     In regard to the period of mourning, I would say that there
+     does not now appear to be, and, so far as I can learn, never
+     was, any fixed period of mourning, but it would seem that,
+     like some of the whites, they mourn when the subject is
+     brought to their minds by some remark or other occurrence.
+     It is not unusual at the present time to hear a man or woman
+     cry and exclaim, "O, my poor husband!" "O, my poor wife!" or
+     "O, my poor child!" as the case may be, and, upon inquiring,
+     learn that the event happened several years before. I have
+     elsewhere mentioned that in some cases much of the personal
+     property of the deceased was and is reserved from burial
+     with the body, and forms the basis of a gambling party. I
+     shall conclude my remarks upon the burial customs, &c., of
+     these Indians by an account of this, which they designate as
+     the "ghost's gamble."
+
+The account of the game will be found in another part of this paper.
+
+As illustrative of the preparation of the dead Indian warrior for the
+tomb, a translation of Schiller's beautiful burial song is here given.
+It is believed to be by Bulwer, and for it the writer is indebted to the
+kindness of Mr. Benjamin Drew, of Washington, D.C.:
+
+  BURIAL OF THE CHIEFTAIN.
+
+  See on his mat, as if of yore,
+    How lifelike sits he here;
+  With the same aspect that he wore
+    When life to him was dear.
+  But where the right arm's strength, and where
+    The breath he used to breathe
+  To the Great Spirit aloft in air,
+    The peace-pipe's lusty wreath?
+  And where the hawk-like eye, alas!
+    That wont the deer pursue
+  Along the waves of rippling grass,
+    Or fields that shone with dew?
+  Are these the limber, bounding feet
+    That swept the winter snows?
+  What startled deer was half so fleet,
+    Their speed outstripped the roe's.
+  These hands that once the sturdy bow
+    Could supple from its pride,
+  How stark and helpless hang they now
+    Adown the stiffened side!
+  Yet weal to him! at peace he strays
+    Where never fall the snows,
+  Where o'er the meadow springs the maize
+    That mortal never sows;
+  Where birds are blithe in every brake,
+    Where forests teem with deer,
+  Where glide the fish through every lake,
+    One chase from year to year!
+  With spirits now he feasts above;
+    All left us, to revere
+  The deeds we cherish with our love,
+    The rest we bury here.
+  Here bring the last gifts, loud and shrill
+    Wail death-dirge of the brave
+  What pleased him most in life may still
+    Give pleasure in the grave.
+  We lay the axe beneath his head
+    He swung when strength was strong,
+  The bear on which his hunger fed--
+    The way from earth is long!
+  And here, new-sharpened, place the knife
+    Which severed from the clay,
+  From which the axe had spoiled the life,
+    The conquered scalp away.
+  The paints that deck the dead bestow,
+    Aye, place them in his hand,
+  That red the kingly shade may glow
+    Amid the spirit land.
+
+The position in which the body is placed, as mentioned by Dr. McChesney,
+face upwards, while of common occurrence among most tribes of Indians,
+is not invariable as a rule, for the writer discovered at a cemetery
+belonging to an ancient pueblo in the valley of the Chama, near Abiqum,
+N. Mex., a number of bodies, all of which had been buried face downward.
+The account originally appeared in Field and Forest, 1877, vol. iii, No.
+1, p. 9.
+
+     On each side of the town were noticed two small arroyas or
+     water washed ditches, within 30 feet of the walls, and a
+     careful examination of these revealed the objects of our
+     search. At the bottom of the arroyas, which have certainly
+     formed subsequent to the occupation of the village, we found
+     portions of human remains, and following up the walls of the
+     ditch soon had the pleasure of discovering several skeletons
+     _in situ_. The first found was in the eastern arroya, and
+     the grave in depth was nearly 8 feet below the surface of
+     the mesa. The body had been placed in the grave face
+     downward, the head pointing to the south. Two feet above the
+     skeleton were two shining black earthen vases, containing
+     small bits of charcoal, the bones of mammals, birds, and
+     partially consumed corn, and above these "_ollas_" the earth
+     to the surface was filled with pieces of charcoal. Doubtless
+     the remains found in the vases served at a funeral feast
+     prior to the inhumation. We examined very carefully this
+     grave, hoping to find some utensils, ornaments, or weapons,
+     but none rewarded our search. In all of the graves examined
+     the bodies were found in similar positions and under similar
+     circumstances in both arroyas, several of the skeletons
+     being those of children. No information could be obtained as
+     to the probable age of these interments, the present Indians
+     considering them as dating from the time when their
+     ancestors with Montezuma came from the north.
+
+The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W.J. Hoffman,[12] in disposing
+of their dead, seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any
+needless trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner:
+
+     The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe,
+     partially wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity
+     left by the removal of a small rock or the stump of a tree.
+     After the body has been crammed into the smallest possible
+     space the rock or stump is again rolled into its former
+     position, when a number of stones are placed around the base
+     to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin usually mourn
+     for the period of one month, during that time giving
+     utterance at intervals to the most dismal lamentations,
+     which are apparently sincere. During the day this obligation
+     is frequently neglected or forgotten, but when the mourner
+     is reminded of his duty he renews his howling with evident
+     interest. This custom of mourning for the period of thirty
+     days corresponds to that formerly observed by the Natchez.
+
+Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in the
+life of Moses Van Campen,[13] which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:
+
+     Directly after, the Indians proceeded to bury those who had
+     fallen in battle, which they did by rolling an old log from
+     its place and laying the body in the hollow thus made, and
+     then heaping upon it a little earth.
+
+As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York, is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:
+
+     CANOE BURIAL IN GROUND.
+
+     Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The
+     Indians plant a stake on the right side of the head of the
+     deceased and bury them in a bark canoe. Their children come
+     every year to bring provisions to the place where their
+     fathers are buried. One of the graves had fallen in, and we
+     observed in the soil some sticks for stretching skins, the
+     remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps for carrying it,
+     and near the place where the head lay were the traces of a
+     fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased to
+     come and warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited
+     near it.
+
+     These were probably the Massasanga Indians, then inhabiting
+     the north shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather
+     intruders here, the country being claimed by the Oneidas.
+
+It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1873 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara, California, an entire skeleton which was
+discovered in a redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may
+have been a noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his
+vocation--nets, fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was
+only an exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians,
+that the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were
+employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of
+skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the
+only example of the kind.
+
+Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft, was common, and is thus
+described:
+
+     The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a
+     pitpan which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the
+     funeral and drown their grief in _mushla_, the women giving
+     vent to their sorrow by dashing themselves on the ground
+     until covered with blood, and inflicting other tortures,
+     occasionally even committing suicide. As it is supposed that
+     the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body,
+     musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while
+     preparations are made for its removal. All at once four
+     naked men, who have disguised themselves with paint so as
+     not to be recognized and punished by _Wulasha_, rush out
+     from a neighboring hut, and, seizing a rope attached to the
+     canoe, drag it into the woods, followed by the music and the
+     crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow,
+     arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the
+     departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the boat
+     is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the
+     grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink,
+     and other articles placed there from time to time by
+     relatives.
+
+
+STONE GRAVES OR CISTS
+
+These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting place. In their construction they resemble somewhat, in
+the care that is taken to prevent the earth touching the corpse, the
+class of graves previously described.
+
+A number of cists have been found in Tennessee, and are thus described
+by Moses Fiske[14]
+
+     There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with
+     regular graves. They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed
+     slabs at the bottom ends and sides, forming a kind of stone
+     coffin, and, after laying in the body, covered it over with
+     earth.
+
+It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a
+number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutre, in France,
+and they were almost identical in construction with those described by
+Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were deeper, this,
+however, may be accounted for if it is considered how great a deposition
+of earth may have taken place during the many centuries which have
+elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves explored by the writer in
+1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat cist graves, the bottom and
+sides of the pit being lined with large flat stones, but there were none
+directly over the skeletons.
+
+The next account is by Maj. J.W. Powell, the result of his own
+observation in Tennessee.
+
+     The burial places, or cemeteries are exceedingly abundant
+     throughout the State. Often hundreds of graves may be found
+     on a single hillside. The same people sometimes bury in
+     scattered graves and in mounds--the mounds being composed of
+     a large number of cist graves. The graves are increased by
+     additions from time to time. The additions are sometimes
+     placed above and sometimes at the sides of the others. In
+     the first burials there is a tendency to a concentric system
+     with the feet towards the center, but subsequent burials are
+     more irregular, so that the system is finally abandoned
+     before the place is desired for cemetery purposes.
+
+     Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of
+     interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed
+     there before the decay of the flesh, and in many instances
+     collections of bones are buried. Sometimes these bones are
+     placed in some order about the crania, and sometimes in
+     irregular piles, as if the collection of bones had been
+     emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers, knives,
+     arrowheads, &c., were usually found, with women, pottery,
+     rude beads, shells, &c., with children, toys of pottery,
+     beads, curious pebbles, &c.
+
+     Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a
+     previous burial was used as a portion of the second cist.
+     All of the cists were covered with slabs.
+
+Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work[15] the reader is referred for a
+more detailed account of this mode of burial.
+
+G.K. Gilbert, of the United States Geological Survey, informs the
+writer that in 1878 he had a conversation with an old Moquis chief as to
+their manner of burial, which is as follows: The body is placed in a
+receptacle or cist of stone slabs or wood, in a sitting posture, the
+hands near the knees, and clasping a stick (articles are buried with the
+dead), and it is supposed that the soul finds its way out of the grave
+by climbing up the stick, which is allowed to project above the ground
+after the grave is filled in.
+
+The Indians of Illinois, on the Saline River, according to George Escoll
+Sellers,[16] inclosed their dead in cists, the description of which is
+as follows:
+
+     Above this bluff, where the spur rises at an angle of about
+     30 deg., it has been terraced and the terrace as well as the
+     crown of the spur have been used as a cemetery; portions of
+     the terraces are still perfect; all the burials appear to
+     have been made in rude stone cists, that vary in size from
+     13 inches by 3 feet to 2 feet by 4 feet, and from 18 inches
+     to 2 feet deep. They are made of thin-bedded sandstone
+     slabs, generally roughly shaped, but some of them have been
+     edged and squared with considerable care, particularly the
+     covering slabs. The slope below the terraces was thickly
+     strewed with these slabs, washed out as the terraces have
+     worn away, and which have since been carried off for
+     door-steps and hearth-stones. I have opened many of these
+     cists; they nearly all contain fragments of human bones far
+     gone in decay, but I have never succeeded in securing a
+     perfect skull; even the clay vessels that were interred with
+     the dead have disintegrated, the portions remaining being
+     almost as soft and fragile as the bones. Some of the cists
+     that I explored were paved with valves of fresh-water
+     shells, but most generally with the fragments of the great
+     salt-pans, which in every case are so far gone in decay as
+     to have lost the outside markings. This seems conclusively
+     to couple the tenants of these ancient graves with the
+     makers and users of these salt-pans. The great number of
+     graves and the quantity of slabs that have been washed out
+     prove either a dense population or a long occupancy, or
+     both.
+
+W.J. Owsley, of Fort Hall, Idaho, furnishes the writer with a
+description of the cist graves of Kentucky, which differ somewhat from
+other accounts, inasmuch as the graves appeared to be isolated.
+
+     I remember that when a school-boy in Kentucky, some
+     twenty-five years ago, of seeing what was called "Indian
+     graves," and those that I examined were close to small
+     streams of water, and were buried in a sitting or squatting
+     posture and inclosed by rough, flat stones, and were then
+     buried from 1 to 4 feet from the surface. Those graves which
+     I examined, which examination was not very minute, seemed to
+     be isolated, no two being found in the same locality. When
+     the burials took place I could hardly conjecture, but it
+     must have been, from appearances, from fifty to one hundred
+     years. The bones that I took out on first appearance seemed
+     tolerably perfect, but on short exposure to the atmosphere
+     crumbled, and I was unable to save a specimen. No implements
+     or relics were observed in those examined by me, but I have
+     heard of others who have found such. In that State,
+     Kentucky, there are a number of places where the Indians
+     buried their dead and left mounds of earth over the graves,
+     but I have not examined them myself. * * *
+
+According to Bancroft,[17] the Dorachos, an isthmian tribe of Central
+America, also followed the cist form of burial.
+
+     In Veragia the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the
+     principal men, constructed with flat stones laid together
+     with much care, and in which were placed costly jars and
+     urns filled with food and wine for the dead. Those for the
+     plebians were merely trenches, in which were deposited some
+     gourds of maize and wine, and the place filled with stones.
+     In some parts of Panama and Darien only the chiefs and lords
+     received funeral rites. Among the common people a person
+     feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led
+     to the woods by his wife, family, or friends, who, supplying
+     him with some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water,
+     then left him to die alone or to be assisted by wild beasts.
+     Others, with more respect for their dead, buried them in
+     sepulchers made with niches, where they placed maize and
+     wine and renewed the same annually. With some, a mother
+     dying while suckling her infant, the living child was placed
+     at her breast and buried with her, in order that in her
+     future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk.
+
+
+BURIAL IN MOUNDS.
+
+In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to devote
+any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few interesting
+examples may be noted to serve as indications to future observers.
+
+The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F.W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology,
+Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is
+published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:
+
+     * * * He then stated that it would be of interest to the
+     members, in connection with the discovery of dolmens in
+     Japan, as described by Professor Morse, to know that within
+     twenty-four hours there had been received at the Peabody
+     Museum a small collection of articles taken from rude
+     dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they would be called in
+     England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now
+     engaged, under his direction, in exploration for the Peabody
+     Museum.
+
+     These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of
+     Clay County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides
+     of the Missouri River. The chambers are, in the three opened
+     by Mr. Curtiss, about 8 feet square, and from 4 1/2 to 5
+     feet high, each chamber having a passage-way several feet in
+     length and 2 in width, leading from the southern side and
+     opening on the edge of the mound formed by covering the
+     chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls of the
+     chambered passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and
+     well made of stones, which were evenly laid without clay or
+     mortar of any kind. The top of one of the chambers had a
+     covering of large, flat rocks, but the others seem to have
+     been closed over with wood. The chambers were filled with
+     clay which had been burnt, and appeared as if it had fallen
+     in from above. The inside walls of the chambers also showed
+     signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each chamber, were
+     found the remains of several human skeletons, all of which
+     had been burnt to such an extent as to leave but small
+     fragments of the bones, which were mixed with the ashes and
+     charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in one chamber he found
+     the remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13. With these
+     skeletons there were a few flint implements and minute
+     fragments of vessels of clay.
+
+     A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but
+     in this no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been
+     burnt. This mound proved remarkably rich in large flint
+     implements, and also contained well-made pottery and a
+     peculiar "gorget" of red stone. The connection of the people
+     who placed the ashes of their dead in the stone chambers
+     with those who buried their dead in the earth mounds is, of
+     course, yet to be determined.
+
+It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used for
+secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.
+
+In the volume of the proceedings already quoted, the same investigator
+gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the
+preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:
+
+     Mr. F.W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an
+     account of his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial
+     places in the Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.
+
+     The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by
+     Mr. Edwin Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of
+     the Peabody Museum at Cambridge. During this time many
+     mounds of various kinds had been thoroughly explored, and
+     several thousand of the singular stone graves of the mound
+     builders of Tennessee had been carefully opened. * * * Mr.
+     Putnam's remarks were illustrated by drawings of several
+     hundred objects obtained from the graves and mounds,
+     particularly to show the great variety of articles of
+     pottery and several large and many unique forms of
+     implements of chipped flint. He also exhibited and explained
+     in detail a map of a walled town of this old nation. This
+     town was situated on the Lundsley estate, in a bend of
+     Spring Creek. The earth embankment, with its accompanying
+     ditch, encircled an area of about 12 acres. Within this
+     inclosure there was one large mound with a flat top, 15 feet
+     high, 130 feet long, and 90 feet wide, which was found not
+     to be a burial mound. Another mound near the large one,
+     about 50 feet in diameter, and only a few feet high,
+     contained 60 human skeletons, each in a carefully-made stone
+     grave, the graves being arranged in two rows, forming the
+     four sides of a square, and in three layers. * * * The most
+     important discovery he made within the inclosure was that of
+     finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived in
+     this old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located
+     on the map by Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the
+     survey for Mr. Putnam. Under the floors of hard clay, which
+     was in places much burnt, Mr. Putnam found the graves of
+     children. As only the bodies of adults had been placed in
+     the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly every site of
+     a house he explored had from one to four graves of children
+     under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a regular
+     custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that
+     the children had undoubtedly been treated with affection, as
+     in their small graves were found many of the best pieces of
+     pottery he obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads,
+     several large pearls, and many other objects which were
+     probably the playthings of the little ones while living.[18]
+
+This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as it is
+frequently mentioned by writers on North American archaeology.
+
+The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most part
+used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless common.
+
+Caleb Atwater[19] gives this description of the
+
+     BURIAL MOUNDS OF OHIO.
+
+     Near the center of the round fort * * * was a tumulus of
+     earth about 10 feet in height and several rods in diameter
+     at its base. On its eastern side, and extending 6 rods from
+     it, was a semicircular pavement composed of pebbles such as
+     are now found in the bed of the Scioto River, from whence
+     they appear to have been brought. The summit of this tumulus
+     was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was a raised way
+     to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike. The
+     summit was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement
+     and the walk is still discernible. The earth composing this
+     mound was entirely removed several years since. The writer
+     was present at its removal and carefully examined the
+     contents. It contained--
+
+     1st. Two human skeletons, lying on what had been the
+     original surface of the earth.
+
+     2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so
+     large as to induce a belief that they were used as
+     spear-heads.
+
+     3d. The handle either of a small sword or a huge knife, made
+     of an elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been
+     inserted was a ferule of silver, which, though black, was
+     not much injured by time. Though the handle showed the hole
+     where the blade had been inserted, yet no iron was found,
+     but an oxyde remained of similar shape and size.
+
+     4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay,
+     which were surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The
+     skeleton appeared to have been burned in a large and very
+     hot fire, which had almost consumed the bones of the
+     deceased. This skeleton was deposited a little to the south
+     of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet to the north
+     of it was another, with which were--
+
+     5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1-1/2
+     inches in thickness. This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica
+     membranacea_), and on it--
+
+     6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before
+     it was disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast
+     iron. The mirrour answered the purpose very well for which
+     it was intended. This skeleton had also been burned like the
+     former, and lay on charcoal and a considerable quantity of
+     wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is in my possession, as
+     well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at the time.
+     The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum, at
+     Philadelphia.
+
+     To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is
+     another, more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the
+     plate representing these works. It stands on a large hill,
+     which appears to be artificial. This must have been the
+     common cemetery, as it contains an immense number of human
+     skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons are laid
+     horizontally, with their heads generally towards the center
+     and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus. A
+     considerable part of this work still stands uninjured,
+     except by time. In it have been found, besides these
+     skeletons, stone axes and knives, and several ornaments,
+     with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord
+     passing through these perforations, they could be worn by
+     their owners. On the south side of this tumulus, and not far
+     from it, was a semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw
+     it, was 6 feet deep. On opening it was discovered at the
+     bottom a great quantity of human bones, which I am inclined
+     to believe were the remains of those who had been slain in
+     some great and destructive battle: first, because they
+     belonged to persons who had attained their full size,
+     whereas in the mound adjoining were found the skeletons of
+     persons of all ages; and, secondly, they were here in the
+     utmost confusion, as if buried in a hurry. May we not
+     conjecture that they belonged to the people who resided in
+     the town, and who were victorious in the engagement?
+     Otherwise they would not have been thus honorably buried in
+     the common cemetery.
+
+     _Chillicothe mound._--Its perpendicular height was about 15
+     feet, and the diameter of its base about 60 feet. It was
+     composed of sand and contained human bones belonging to
+     skeletons which were buried in different parts of it. It was
+     not until this pile of earth was removed and the original
+     surface exposed to view that a probable conjecture of its
+     original design could be formed. About 20 feet square of the
+     surface had been leveled and covered with bark. On the
+     center of this lay a human skeleton, over which had been
+     spread a mat manufactured either from weeds or bark. On the
+     breast lay what had been a piece of copper, in the form of a
+     cross, which had now become verdigris. On the breast also
+     lay a stone ornament with two perforations, one near each
+     end, through which passed a string, by means of which it was
+     suspended around the wearer's neck. On this string, which
+     was made of sinews, and very much injured by time, were
+     placed a great many beads made of ivory or bone, for I
+     cannot certainly say which. * * *
+
+     _Mounds of stone._--Two such mounds have been described
+     already in the county of Perry. Others have been found in
+     various parts of the country. There is one at least in the
+     vicinity of Licking River, not many miles from Newark. There
+     is another on a branch of Hargus's Creek, a few miles to the
+     northeast of Circleville. There were several not very far
+     from the town of Chillicothe. If these mounds were sometimes
+     used as cemeteries of distinguished persons, they were also
+     used as monuments with a view of perpetuating the
+     recollection of some great transaction or event. In the
+     former not more generally than one or two skeletons are
+     found; in the latter none. These mounds are like those of
+     earth, in form of a cone, composed of small stones on which
+     no marks of tools were visible. In them some of the most
+     interesting articles are found, such as urns, ornaments of
+     copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal, as well as
+     medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; * * * works of
+     this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they
+     are none of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in
+     the town of Circleville, which belong to the first class. I
+     saw one of these stone tumuli which had been piled on the
+     surface of the earth on the spot where three skeletons had
+     been buried in stone coffins, beneath the surface. It was
+     situated on the western edge of the hill on which the
+     "walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to
+     have been dug to about the depth of ours in the present
+     times. After the bottom and sides were lined with thin flat
+     stones, the corpses were placed in these graves in an
+     eastern and western direction, and large flat stones were
+     laid over the graves; then the earth which had been dug out
+     of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of stones
+     was placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however,
+     that this was a work of our present race of Indians. Such
+     graves are more common in Kentucky than Ohio. No article,
+     except the skeletons, was found in these graves; and the
+     skeletons resembled very much the present race of Indians.
+
+The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W.C.
+Holbrook[20] as follows:
+
+     I recently made an examination of a few of the many Indian
+     mounds found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling,
+     Ill. The first one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet
+     long, 12 feet wide, and 7 feet high. In the interior of this
+     I found a _dolmen_ or quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long,
+     4 feet high, and 4 1/2 feet wide. It had been built of
+     lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was covered with large
+     flat stones. No mortar or cement had been used. The whole
+     structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
+     interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the
+     chamber. Inside of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed
+     remains of eight human skeletons, two very large teeth of an
+     unknown animal, two fossils, one of which is not found in
+     this place, and a plummet. One of the long bones had been
+     splintered; the fragments had united, but there remained
+     large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several places.
+     One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the
+     size of a silver dime. This perforation had been made during
+     life, for the edges had commenced to cicatrize. I later
+     examined three circular mounds, but in them I found no
+     dolmens. The first mound contained three adult human
+     skeletons, a few fragments of the skeleton of a child, the
+     lower maxillary of which indicated it to be about six years
+     old. I also found claws of some carnivorous animal. The
+     surface of the soil had been scooped out and the bodies laid
+     in the excavation and covered with about a foot of earth;
+     fires had then been made upon the grave and the mound
+     afterwards completed. The bones had not been charred. No
+     charcoal was found among the bones, but occurred in
+     abundance in a stratum about one foot above them. Two other
+     mounds, examined at the same time, contain no remains.
+
+     Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular,
+     about 4 feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and
+     was situated on an elevated point of land close to the bank
+     of the river. From the top of this mound one might view the
+     country for many miles in almost any direction. On its
+     summit was an oval altar 6 feet long and 4 1/2 wide. It was
+     composed of flat pieces of limestone, which had been burned
+     red, some portions having been almost converted into lime.
+     On and about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At
+     the sides of the altar were fragments of human bones, some
+     of which had been charred. It was covered by a natural
+     growth of vegetable mold and sod, the thickness of which was
+     about 10 inches. Large trees had once grown in this
+     vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed I could not
+     tell with certainty; to what species they belonged. Another
+     large mound was opened which contained nothing.
+
+The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
+was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army:[21]
+
+     Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians
+     were buried in it in an upright position, each one with a
+     clay pot on his head. This idea was based upon some
+     superficial explorations which had been made from time to
+     time by curiosity hunters. Their excavations had, indeed,
+     brought to light pots containing fragments of skulls, but
+     not buried in the position they imagined. Very extensive
+     explorations, made at different times by myself, have shown
+     that only fragments of skulls and of the long bones of the
+     body are to be found in the mound, and that these are
+     commonly associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole, but
+     more frequently broken fragments only. In some instances
+     portions of the skull were placed in a pot, and the long
+     bones were deposited in its immediate vicinity. Again, the
+     pots would contain only sand, and fragments of bones would
+     be found near them. The most successful "find" I made was a
+     whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen, all in a
+     good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of
+     skull, which I take, from its small size, to have been that
+     of a female. Whether this female was thus distinguished
+     above all others buried in the mound by the number of pots
+     deposited with her remains because of her skill in the
+     manufacture of such ware, or by reason of the unusual wealth
+     of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter of
+     conjecture. I found, altogether, fragments of skulls and
+     thigh-bones belonging to at least fifty individuals, but in
+     no instance did I find anything like a complete skeleton.
+     There wore no vertebrae, no ribs, no pelvic bones, and none
+     of the small bones of the hands and feet. Two or three
+     skulls, nearly perfect, were found, but they were so fragile
+     that it was impossible to preserve them. In the majority of
+     instances, only fragments of the frontal and parietal bones
+     were found, buried in pots or in fragments of pots too small
+     to have ever contained a complete skull. The conclusion was
+     irresistible that this was not a burial-place for _the
+     bodies_ of deceased Indians, but that the bones had been
+     gathered from some other locality for burial in this mound,
+     or that cremation was practiced before burial, and the
+     fragments of bone not consumed by fire were gathered and
+     deposited in the mound. That the latter supposition is the
+     correct one I deem probable from the fact that in digging in
+     the mound evidences of fire are found in numerous places,
+     but without any regularity as to depth and position. These
+     evidences consist in strata of from one to four inches in
+     thickness, in which the sand is of a dark color and has
+     mixed with it numerous small fragments of charcoal.
+
+     My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion
+     in the following manner: That when a death occurred a
+     funeral pyre was erected on the mound, upon which the body
+     was placed. That after the body was consumed, any fragments
+     of bones remaining were gathered, placed in a pot, and
+     buried, and that the ashes and cinders were covered by a
+     layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for that
+     purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that
+     only the shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded
+     extremities, which would be most easily consumed, having
+     disappeared; also, by the fact that no bones of children
+     were found. Their bones being smaller, and containing a less
+     proportion of earthy matter, would be entirely consumed. * *
+     *
+
+     At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different.
+     Here I found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine
+     well-preserved skulls. * * * The bodies were not,
+     apparently, deposited upon any regular system, and I found
+     no objects of interest associated with the remains. It may
+     be that this was due to the fact that the skeletons found
+     were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in which
+     they had sustained defeat. This view is supported by the
+     fact that they were all males, and that two of the skulls
+     bore marks of ante-mortem injuries which must have been of a
+     fatal character.
+
+Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram,[22] in alluding to the ossuary, or
+bone-house, mentions that so soon as this is filled a general inhumation
+takes place, in this manner:
+
+     Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest
+     relatives of the deceased to the place of interment, where
+     they are all piled one upon another in the form of a
+     pyramid, and the conical hill of earth heaped above.
+
+     The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization
+     of a festival called the feast of the dead.
+
+Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a somewhat
+curious mound-burial which had taken place in the Miami Valley of Ohio:
+
+     A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago,
+     containing a central corpse in a sitting posture, and over
+     thirty skeletons buried around it in a circle, also in a
+     sitting posture, but leaning against one another, tipped
+     over towards the right, facing inwards. I did not see this
+     opened, but have seen the mounds and many ornaments, awls,
+     &c., said to have been found near the central body. The
+     parties informing me are trustworthy.
+
+As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting as
+being _sui generis_, the following description by Dr. J. Mason
+Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C., of an excavation made by him March 11, 1871,
+on the farm of R.V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke County,
+N.C., is given. The author bears the reputation of an observer of
+undoubted integrity, whose facts as given may not be doubted:
+
+     EXCAVATION OF AN INDIAN MOUND.
+
+     In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he
+     informed me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which
+     was formerly of considerable height, but had gradually been
+     plowed down; that several mounds in the neighborhood had
+     been excavated, and nothing of interest found in them. I
+     asked permission to examine this mound, which was granted,
+     and upon investigation the following facts were revealed:
+
+     Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in
+     length and ran it down in the earth at several places, and
+     finally struck a rock about 18 inches below the surface,
+     which, on digging down, was found to be smooth on top, lying
+     horizontally upon solid earth, about 18 inches above the
+     bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, and 16 inches in
+     width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with the corners
+     rounded.
+
+     Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an
+     excavation in the south of the grave, and soon struck
+     another rock, which, upon examination, proved to be in front
+     of the remains of a human skeleton in a sitting posture. The
+     bones of the fingers of the right hand were resting on this
+     rock, and on the rock near the hand was a small stone about
+     5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon
+     a further examination many of the bones were found, though
+     in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air
+     soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a
+     considerable portion of the skull, maxillary bones, teeth,
+     neck bones, and the vertebra, were in their proper places,
+     though the weight of the earth above them had driven them
+     down, yet the entire frame was so perfect that it was an
+     easy matter to trace all the bones; the bones of the cranium
+     were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the neck were
+     found coarse beads that seemed to be of some hard substance
+     and resembled chalk. A small lump of red paint about the
+     size of an egg was found near the right side of this
+     skeleton. The sutures of the cranium indicated the subject
+     to have been 25 or 28 years of age, and its top rested about
+     12 inches below the mark of the plow.
+
+     I made a farther excavation toward the west of this grave
+     and found another skeleton, similar to the first, in a
+     sitting posture, facing the east. A rock was on the right,
+     on which the bones of the right hand were resting, and on
+     this rock was a tomahawk which had been about 7 inches in
+     length, but was broken into two pieces, and was much better
+     finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck of
+     this one, but were much smaller and of finer quality than
+     those on the neck of the first. The material, however, seems
+     to be the same. A much larger amount of paint was found by
+     the side of this than the first. The bones indicated a
+     person of large frame, who, I think, was about 50 years of
+     age. Everything about this one had the appearance of
+     superiority over the first. The top of the skull was about 6
+     inches below the mark of the plane.
+
+     I continued the examination, and, after diligent search,
+     found nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on
+     reaching the east, found another skeleton, in the same
+     posture as the others, facing the west. On the right side of
+     this was a rock on which the bones of the right hand were
+     resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, which had been
+     about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
+     pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better
+     finished than the others. Beads were also found on the neck
+     of this, but much smaller and finer than those of the
+     others. A larger amount of paint than both of the others was
+     found near this one. The top of the cranium had been moved
+     by the plow. The bones indicated a person of 40 years of
+     age.
+
+     There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the
+     smaller bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would
+     crumble when taken from their bed in the earth. These two
+     circumstances, coupled with the fact that the farm on which
+     this grave was found was the first settled in that part of
+     the country, the date of the first deed made from Lord
+     Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years (the
+     land still belonging to the descendants of the same family
+     that first occupied it), would prove beyond doubt that it is
+     a very old grave.
+
+     The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by
+     6 feet, the line being distinctly marked by the difference
+     in the color of the soil. It was dug in rich, black loam,
+     and filled around the bodies with white or yellow sand,
+     which I suppose was carried from the river-bank, 200 yards
+     distant. The skeletons approximated the walls of the grave,
+     and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth, and so
+     decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both
+     in quality and odor, that the line of the bodies could be
+     readily traced. The odor of this decomposed earth, which had
+     been flesh, was similar to clotted blood, and would adhere
+     in lumps when compressed in the hand.
+
+     This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we
+     find pots made of earth or stone, and all the implements of
+     war, for the warrior had an idea that after he arose from
+     the dead he would need, in the "hunting-grounds beyond," his
+     bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and scalping-knife.
+
+     The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who
+     will carefully read the account of this remarkable burial
+     that the American Indians were in possession of at least
+     some of the mysteries of our order, and that it was
+     evidently the grave of Masons, and the three highest
+     officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave was situated due east
+     and west; an altar was erected in the center; the south,
+     west, and east were occupied--_the north was not;_
+     implements of authority were near each body. The difference
+     in the quality of the beads, the tomahawks in one, two, and
+     three pieces, and the difference in distance that the bodies
+     were placed from the surface, indicate beyond doubt that
+     these three persons had been buried by Masons, and those,
+     too, that understood what they were doing.
+
+     Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery and inform the
+     Masonic world how the Indians obtained so much Masonic
+     information?
+
+     The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads,
+     and other bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian
+     Institution at Washington, D.C., to be placed among the
+     archives of that institution for exhibition, at which place
+     they may be seen.
+
+Should Dr. Spainhour's inferences be incorrect, there is still a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.
+
+In support of this gentleman's views, attention is called to the
+description of the _Midawan_--a ceremony of initiation for would-be
+medicine men--in Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of the
+United States, 1855, p. 428, relating to the Sioux and Chippewas. In
+this account are found certain forms and resemblances which have led
+some to believe that the Indians possessed a knowledge of Masonry.
+
+
+BURIAL BENEATH, OR IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--they
+differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial burial,
+and must consequently fall under another caption. The narratives which
+are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former kinds of burial.
+
+Bartram[23] relates the following regarding the Muscogulges of the
+Carolinas:
+
+     The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a
+     four-foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which
+     the deceased laid on in his house, lining the grave with
+     cypress bark, when they place the corpse in a sitting
+     posture, as if it were alive, depositing with him his gun,
+     tomahawk, pipe, and such other matters as he had the
+     greatest value for in his lifetime. His oldest wife, or the
+     queen dowager, has the second choice of his possessions, and
+     the remaining effects are divided among his other wives and
+     children.
+
+According to Bernard Roman,[24] the "funeral customs of the Chickasaws
+did not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred
+the dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired."
+
+The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency:
+
+     The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies,
+     closing up the house or hogan or covering the body with
+     stones or brush. In case the body is removed, it is taken to
+     a cleft in the rocks and thrown in, and stones piled over.
+     The person touching or carrying the body first takes off all
+     his clothes and afterwards washes his body with water before
+     putting them on or mingling with the living. When a body is
+     removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and
+     the place in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the
+     devil comes to the place of death and remains where a dead
+     body is. Wild animals frequently (indeed, generally) get the
+     bodies, and it is a very easy matter to pick up skulls and
+     bones around old camping grounds, or where the dead are
+     laid. In case it is not desirable to abandon a place, the
+     sick person is left out in some lone spot protected by
+     brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or food
+     brought to them until they die. This is done only when all
+     hope is gone. I have found bodies thus left so well inclosed
+     with brush that wild animals were unable to get at them; and
+     one so left to die was revived by a cup of coffee from our
+     house and is still living and well.
+
+Lieut. George E. Ford, Third United States Cavalry, in a personal
+communication to the writer, corroborates the account given by Dr.
+Menard, as follows:
+
+     This tribe, numbering about 8,000 souls, occupy a
+     reservation in the extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico
+     and Northeastern Arizona. The funeral ceremonies of the
+     Navajos are of the most simple character. They ascribe the
+     death of an individual to the direct action of _Chinde_, or
+     the devil, and believe that he remains in the vicinity of
+     the dead. For this reason, as soon as a member of the tribe
+     dies a shallow grave is dug within the hogan or dwelling by
+     one of the near male relatives, and into this the corpse is
+     unceremoniously tumbled by the relatives, who have
+     previously protected themselves from the evil influence by
+     smearing their naked bodies with tar from the pinon tree.
+     After the body has thus been disposed of, the hogan
+     (composed of logs and branches of trees covered with earth)
+     is pulled down over it and the place deserted. Should the
+     deceased have no near relatives or was of no importance in
+     the tribe, the formality of digging a grave is dispensed
+     with, the hogan being simply leveled over the body. This
+     carelessness does not appear to arise from want of natural
+     affection for the dead, but fear of the evil influence of
+     _Chinde_ upon the surviving relatives causes them to avoid
+     doing anything that might gain for them his ill-will. A
+     Navajo would freeze sooner than make a fire of the logs of a
+     fallen hogan, even though from all appearances it may have
+     been years in that condition. There are no mourning
+     observances other than smearing the forehead and under the
+     eyes with tar, which is allowed to remain until worn off,
+     and then not renewed. The deceased is apparently forgotten,
+     as his name is never spoken by the survivors for fear of
+     giving offense to _Chinde_.
+
+J.L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians, of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the Navajos:
+
+     When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in
+     the ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and
+     wrap the body into as small a bulk as possible in blankets,
+     tie them firmly with cords, place them in the grave, throw
+     in beads, baskets, clothing, everything owned by the
+     deceased, and often donating much extra; all gathered around
+     the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their faces with
+     their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks, pull
+     out their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These
+     burials were generally made under their thatch houses or
+     very near thereto. The house where one died was always torn
+     down, removed, rebuilt, or abandoned. The wailing, talks,
+     &c., were in their own jargon; none else could understand,
+     and they seemingly knew but little of its meaning (if there
+     was any meaning in it); it simply seemed to be the
+     promptings of grief, without sufficient intelligence to
+     direct any ceremony; each seemed to act out his own impulse.
+
+The next account, taken from M. Butel de Dumont,[25] relating to the
+Paskagoulas and Billoxis of Louisiana, may be considered as an example
+of burial in houses, although the author of the work was pleased to
+consider the receptacles as temples.
+
+     Les Paskagoulas et les Billoxis n'enterent point leur Chef,
+     lorsqu'il est decede; mais-ils font secher son cadavre au
+     feu et a la fumee de facon qu'ils en font un vrai squelette.
+     Apres l'avoir reduit en cet etat, ils le portent au Temple
+     (car ils en ont un ainsi que les Natchez), et le mettent a
+     la place de son predecesseur, qu'ils tirent de l'endroit
+     qu'il occupoit, pour le porter avec les corps de leurs
+     autres Chefs dans le fond du Temple ou ils sont tous ranges
+     de suite dresses sur leurs pieds comme des statues. A
+     l'egard du dernier mort, il est expose a l'entree de ce
+     Temple sur une espece d'autel ou de table faite de cannes,
+     et couverte d'une natte tres-fine travaillee fort proprement
+     en quarreaux rouges et jaunes avec la peau de ces memes
+     cannes. Le cadavre du Chef est expose au milieu de cette
+     table droit sur ses pieds, soutenu par derriere par une
+     longue perche peinte en rouge dont le bout passe au dessus
+     de sa tete, et a laquelle il est attache par le milieu du
+     corps avec une liane. D'une main il tient un casse-tete ou
+     une petite hache, de l'autre un pipe; et au-dessus de sa
+     tete, est attache au bout de la perche qui le soutient, le
+     Calumet le plus fameux de tous ceux qui lui ont ete
+     presentes pendant sa vie. Du reste cette table n'est gueres
+     elevee de terre que d'un demi-pied; mais elle a au moins six
+     pieds de large et dix de longueur.
+
+     C'est sur cette table qu'on vient tous les jours servir a
+     manger a ce Chef mort en mettant devant lui des plats de
+     sagamite, du bled grole ou boucane, &c. C'est-la aussi qu'au
+     commencement de toutes les recoltes ses Sujets vont lui
+     offrir les premiers de tous les fruits qu'ils peuvent
+     recueillir. Tout ce qui lui est presente de la sorte reste
+     sur cette table; et comme la porte de ce Temple est toujours
+     ouverte, qu'il n'y a personne prepose pour y veiller, que
+     par consequent y entre qui veut, et que d'ailleurs il est
+     eloigne du Village d'un grand quart de lieue, il arrive que
+     ce sont ordinairement des Etrangers, Chasseurs ou Sauvages,
+     qui profitent de ces mets et de ces fruits, ou qu'ils sont
+     consommes par les animaux. Mais cela est egal a ces
+     sauvages; et moins il en reste lorsqu'ils retournent le
+     lendemain, plus ils sont dans la joie, disant que leur Chef
+     a bien mange, et que par consequent il est content d'eux
+     quoiqu'il les ait abandonnes. Pour leur ouvrir les yeux sur
+     l'extravagance de cette pratique, on a beau leur representer
+     ce qu'ils ne peuvent s'empecher de voir eux-memes, que ce
+     n'est point ce mort qui mange; ils repondent que si ce n'est
+     pas lui, c'est toujours lui au moins qui offre a qui il lui
+     plait ce qui a ete mis sur la table; qu'apres tout c'etoit
+     la la pratique de leur pere, de leur mere, de leurs parens;
+     qu'ils n'ont pas plus d'esprit qu'eux, et qu'ils ne
+     sauroient mieux faire que de suivre leur example.
+
+     C'est aussi devant cette table, que pendant quelques mois la
+     veuve du Chef, ses enfans, ses plus proches parens, viennent
+     de tems en tems lui rendre visite et lui faire leur
+     harangue, comme s'il etoit en etat de les entendre. Les uns
+     lui demandent pourquoi il s'est laisse mourir avant eux?
+     d'autres lui disent que s'il est mort ce n'est point leur
+     faute; que c'est lui meme qui s'est tue par telle debauche
+     on par tel effort; enfin s'il y a eu quelque defaut dans son
+     gouvernement, on prend ce tems-la pour le lui reprocher.
+     Cependant ils finissent toujours leur harangue, en lui
+     disant de n'etre pas fache contre eux, de bien manger, et
+     qu'ils auront toujours bien soin de lui.
+
+Another example of burial in houses may be found in vol. vi of the
+publications of the Hakluyt Society, 1849, p. 89, taken from Strachey's
+Virginia. It is given more as a curious narrative of an early writer on
+American ethnology than for any intrinsic value it may possess as a
+truthful relation of actual events. It relates to the Indians of
+Virginia:
+
+     Within the chauncell of the temple, by the Okens, are the
+     cenotaphies or the monuments of their kings, whose bodyes,
+     so soon as they be dead, they embowell, and, scraping the
+     flesh from off the bones, they dry the same upon hurdells
+     into ashes, which they put into little potts (like the
+     anncyent urnes): the annathomy of the bones they bind
+     together or case up in leather, hanging braceletts, or
+     chaines of copper, beads, pearle, or such like, as they used
+     to wear about most of their joints and neck, and so repose
+     the body upon a little scaffold (as upon a tomb), laying by
+     the dead bodies' feet all his riches in severall basketts,
+     his apook, and pipe, and any one toy, which in his life he
+     held most deare in his fancy; their inwards they stuff with
+     pearle, copper, beads, and such trash, sowed in a skynne,
+     which they overlapp againe very carefully in whit skynnes
+     one or two, and the bodyes thus dressed lastly they rowle in
+     matte, as for wynding sheets, and so lay them orderly one by
+     one, as they dye in their turnes, upon an arche standing (as
+     aforesaid) for the tomb, and thes are all the ceremonies we
+     yet can learne that they give unto their dead. We heare of
+     no sweet oyles or oyntments that they use to dresse or chest
+     their dead bodies with; albeit they want not of the pretious
+     rozzin running out of the great cedar, wherewith in the old
+     time they used to embalme dead bodies, washing them in the
+     oyle and licoure thereof. Only to the priests the care of
+     these temples and holy interments are committed, and these
+     temples are to them as solitary Asseteria colledged or
+     ministers to exercise themselves in contemplation, for they
+     are seldome out of them, and therefore often lye in them and
+     maynteyne contynuall fier in the same, upon a hearth
+     somewhat neere the east end.
+
+     For their ordinary burialls they digg a deepe hole in the
+     earth with sharpe stakes, and the corps being lapped in
+     skynns and matts with their jewells, they laye uppon sticks
+     in the ground, and soe cover them with earth; the buryall
+     ended, the women (being painted all their faces with black
+     coale and oyle) do sitt twenty-four howers in their howses,
+     mourning and lamenting by turnes, with such yelling and
+     howling as may expresse their great passions.
+
+While this description brings the subject under the head before given
+--house burial--at the same time it might also afford an example of
+embalmment or mummifying.
+
+Figure 1 may be referred to as a probable representation of the temple
+or charnel-house described.
+
+The modes of burial described in the foregoing accounts are not to be
+considered rare; for among certain tribes in Africa similar practices
+prevailed. For instance, the Bari of Central Africa, according to the
+Rev. J.G. Wood,[26] bury their dead within the inclosure of the
+home-stead, fix a pole in the ground, and fasten to it certain emblems.
+The Apingi, according to the same author, permit the corpse to remain in
+its dwelling until it falls to pieces. The bones are then collected and
+deposited on the ground a short distance from the village. The Latookas
+bury within the inclosure of a man's house, although the bones are
+subsequently removed, placed in an earthen jar, and deposited outside
+the village. The Kaffirs bury their head-men within the cattle
+inclosure, the graves of the common people being made outside, and the
+Bechuanas follow the same general plan.
+
+The following description of Damara burial, from the work quoted above
+(p. 314), is added as containing an account of certain details which
+resemble somewhat those followed by North American Indians. In the
+narrative it will be seen that house burial was followed only if
+specially desired by the expiring person:
+
+     When a Damara chief dies, he is buried in rather a peculiar
+     fashion. As soon as life is extinct--some say even before
+     the last breath is drawn--the bystanders break the spine by
+     a blow from a large stone. They then unwind the long rope
+     that encircles the loins, and lash the body together in a
+     sitting posture, the head being bent over the knees.
+     Ox-hides are then tied over it, and it is buried with its
+     face to the north, as already described when treating of the
+     Bechuanas. Cattle are then slaughtered in honor of the dead
+     chief, and over the grave a post is erected, to which the
+     skulls and hair are attached as a trophy. The bow, arrows,
+     assagai, and clubs of the deceased are hung on the same
+     post. Large stones are pressed into the soil above and
+     around the grave, and a large pile of thorns is also heaped
+     over it, in order to keep off the hyenas, who would be sure
+     to dig up and devour the body before the following day. The
+     grave of a Damara chief is represented on page 302. Now and
+     then a chief orders that his body shall be left in his own
+     house, in which case it is laid on an elevated platform, and
+     a strong fence of thorns and stakes built round the hut.
+
+     The funeral ceremonies being completed, the new chief
+     forsakes the place and takes the whole of the people under
+     his command. He remains at a distance for several years,
+     during which time he wears the sign of mourning, i.e., a
+     dark-colored conical cap, and round the neck a thong, to the
+     ends of which are hung two small pieces of ostrich-shell.
+     When the season of mourning is over, the tribe return,
+     headed by the chief, who goes to the grave of his father,
+     kneels over it, and whispers that he has returned, together
+     with the cattle and wives which his father gave him. He then
+     asks for his parent's aid in all his undertakings, and from
+     that moment takes the place which his father filled before
+     him. Cattle are then slaughtered, and a feast held to the
+     memory of the dead chief and in honor of the living one, and
+     each person present partakes of the meat, which is
+     distributed by the chief himself. The deceased chief
+     symbolically partakes of the banquet. A couple of twigs cut
+     from the tree of the particular eanda to which the deceased
+     belonged are considered as his representative, and with this
+     emblem each piece of meat is touched before the guests
+     consume it. In like manner, the first pail of milk that is
+     drawn is taken to the grave and poured over it.
+
+
+CAVE BURIAL.
+
+Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not only
+the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental elevation
+and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous specimens of
+artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives which have
+actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of place at
+this time, except as may incidentally relate to our own Indians, who, so
+far as can be ascertained, simply adopt caves as ready and convenient
+resting places for their deceased relatives and friends.
+
+In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.
+
+While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a natural
+cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance to which
+resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians had
+deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it was
+quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory examination
+made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In the fall of the
+same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian guide, near the
+Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt made to explore it,
+which failed for reasons to be subsequently given. This Indian, a
+Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral ceremonies of his
+tribe, informed the writer that not far from the very spot where the
+party were encamped, was a large cave in which he had himself assisted
+in placing dead members of his tribe. He described it in detail and drew
+a rough diagram of its position and appearance within. He was asked if
+an entrance could be effected, and replied that he thought not, as some
+years previous his people had stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent
+game from seeking a refuge in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it
+was so large and extended so far under ground that no man knew its full
+extent. In consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many
+refusals, he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and
+the desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of
+a small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
+pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This entrance
+was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle. As the
+Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large stones and
+roots of sage brash, and it was only after six hours of uninterrupted,
+faithful labor that the attempt to explore was abandoned. The guide was
+asked if many bodies were therein, and replied "Heaps, heaps," moving
+the hands upwards as far they could be stretched. There is no reason to
+doubt the accuracy of the information received, as it was voluntarily
+imparted.
+
+In a communication received from Dr. A.J. McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of crevice or
+rock-fissure burial, which follows:
+
+     As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced
+     by the medicine man, and without loss of time the squaws are
+     busily engaged in preparing the corpse for the grave. This
+     does not take long; whatever articles of clothing may have
+     been on the body at the time of death are not removed. The
+     dead man's limbs are straightened out, his weapons of war
+     laid by his side, and his robes and blankets wrapped
+     securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready
+     for burial. It is the custom to secure if possible, for the
+     purpose of wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in
+     which the Indian died. At the same time that the body is
+     being fitted for internment, the squaws having immediate
+     care of it, together with all the other squaws in the
+     neighborhood, keep up a continued chant or dirge, the dismal
+     cadence of which may, when the congregation of women is
+     large, be heard for quite a long distance. The death song is
+     not a mere inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces
+     expressions eulogistic in character, but whether or not any
+     particular formula of words is adopted on such occasion is a
+     question which I am unable, with the materials at my
+     disposal, to determine with any degree of certainty.
+
+     The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of
+     placing the dead man on a horse and conducting the remains
+     to the spot chosen for burial. This is in the cleft of a
+     rock, and, so far as can be ascertained, it has always been
+     customary among the Utes to select sepulchers of this
+     character. From descriptions given by Mr. Harris, who has
+     several times been fortunate enough to discover remains, it
+     would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by this
+     tribe with respect to the position in which the body is
+     placed, the space accommodation of the sepulcher probably
+     regulating this matter; and from the same source I learn
+     that it is not usual to find the remains of more than one
+     Indian deposited in one grave. After the body has been
+     received into the cleft, it is well covered with pieces of
+     rock, to protect it against the ravages of wild animals. The
+     chant ceases, the squaws disperse, and the burial ceremonies
+     are at an end. The men during all this time have not been
+     idle, though they have in no way participated in the
+     preparation of the body, have not joined the squaws in
+     chanting praises to the memory of the dead, and have not
+     even as mere spectators attended the funeral, yet they have
+     had their duties to perform. In conformity with a
+     long-established custom, all the personal property of the
+     deceased is immediately destroyed. His horses and his cattle
+     are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c., burned. The
+     performance of this part of the ceremonies is assigned to
+     the men; a duty quite in accord with their taste and
+     inclinations. Occasionally the destruction of horses and
+     other properly is of considerable magnitude, but usually
+     this is not the case, owing to a practice existing with them
+     of distributing their property among their children while
+     they are of a very tender age, retaining to themselves only
+     what is necessary to meet every-day requirements.
+
+     The widow "goes into mourning" by smearing her face with a
+     substance composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is
+     made but once, and is allowed to remain on until it wears
+     off. This is the only mourning observance of which I have
+     any knowledge.
+
+     The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the
+     same as those in the case of a male, except that no
+     destruction of property takes place, and of course no
+     weapons are deposited with the corpse. Should a youth die
+     while under the superintendence of white men, the Indians
+     will not as a role have anything to do with the interment of
+     the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this
+     agency some time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the
+     usual manner; the men of the tribe selected a spot for the
+     burial, and the employee at the agency, after digging a
+     grave and depositing the corpse therein, filled it up
+     according to the fashion of civilized people, and then at
+     the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks
+     on top. Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have
+     the employes perform the service as expeditiously as
+     possible.
+
+
+Within the past year Ouray, the Ute chief living at the Los Pinos
+agency, died and was buried, so far as could be ascertained, in a rock
+fissure or cave 7 or 8 miles from the agency.
+
+An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been used
+for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J.D. Whitney:[27]
+
+     The following is an account of the cave from which the
+     skulls, now in the Smithsonian collection, were taken: It is
+     near the Stanislaus River, in Calaveras County, on a
+     nameless creek, about two miles from Abbey's Ferry, on the
+     road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr. Robinson. There were
+     two or three persons with me, who had been to the place
+     before and knew that the skulls in question were taken from
+     it. Their visit was some ten years ago, and since that the
+     condition of things in the cave has greatly changed. Owing
+     to some alteration in the road, mining operations, or some
+     other cause which I could not ascertain, there has
+     accumulated on the formerly clean stalagmitic floor of the
+     cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface earth that
+     completely conceals the bottom, and which could not be
+     removed without considerable expense. This cave is about 27
+     feet deep at the mouth and 40 to 50 feet at the end, and
+     perhaps 30 feet in diameter. It is the general opinion of
+     those who have noticed this cave and saw it years ago that
+     it was a burying-place of the present Indians. Dr. Jones
+     said he found remains of bows and arrows and charcoal with
+     the skulls he obtained, and which were destroyed at the time
+     the village of Murphy's was burned. All the people spoke of
+     the skulls as lying on the surface and not as buried in the
+     stalagmite.
+
+The next description of cave burial, by W.H. Dall,[28] is so remarkable
+that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It relates probably to
+the Innuits of Alaska.
+
+     The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time
+     of writing I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall].
+     There are some crania found by us in the lowermost part of
+     the Amaknak cave and a cranium obtained at Adakh, near the
+     anchorage in the Bay of Islands. These were deposited in a
+     remarkable manner, precisely similar to that adopted by most
+     of the continental Innuit, but equally different from the
+     modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave we found what at
+     first appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which proved to
+     be made of the very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of
+     some large cetacean. These were arranged so as to form a
+     rude rectangular inclosure covered over with similar pieces
+     of bone. This was somewhat less than 4 feet long, 2 feet
+     wide, and 18 inches deep. The bottom was formed of flat
+     pieces of stone. Three such were found close together,
+     covered with and filled by an accumulation of fine vegetable
+     and organic mold. In each was the remains of a skeleton in
+     the last stages of decay. It had evidently been tied up in
+     the Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow house, but all
+     the bones, with the exception of the skull, were minced to a
+     soft paste, or even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy prompted
+     me to dig into a small knoll near the ancient shell-heap, and
+     here we found, in a precisely similar sarcophagus, the
+     remains of a skeleton, of which also only the cranium
+     retained sufficient consistency to admit of preservation.
+     This inclosure, however, was filled with a dense peaty mass
+     not reduced to mold, the result of centuries of sphagnous
+     growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly 2 feet above
+     the remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness of
+     this kind of growth in these northern regions, attested by
+     numerous Arctic travelers, the antiquity of the remains
+     becomes evident.
+
+It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the interments
+were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the caverns of
+Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States mentioned many
+mummies have been found, but it is also likely that such receptacles
+were largely used as places of secondary deposits. The many fragmentary
+skeletons and loose bones found seem to strengthen this view.
+
+
+
+
+
+EMBALMMENT OR MUMMIFICATION.
+
+Following and in connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying
+or embalming the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind
+have generally been found in such repositories.
+
+It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss
+the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain
+processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh
+must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of
+this work precludes more than a brief mention of certain theories
+advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient Egyptians.
+Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to preserve their
+dead from decomposition, some such ideas may have animated them, but on
+this point no definite information has been procured. In the final
+volume an effort will be made to trace out the origin of mummification
+among the Indians and aborigines of this continent.
+
+The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time of
+the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is more
+than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said by
+others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. "They did not
+inter them," says he, "for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched." According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief,
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had lived,
+provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and the
+ponderously solid nature of the Egyptian tombs, it is not surprising
+that this theory has obtained many believers. M. Gannal believes
+embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate sentiments of our
+nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the mortal remains of
+loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariset think it was intended to obviate,
+in hot climates especially, danger from pestilence, being primarily a
+cheap and simple process, elegance and luxury coming later; and the
+Count de Caylus states the idea of embalmment was derived from the
+finding of desiccated bodies which the burning sands of Egypt had
+hardened and preserved. Many other suppositions have arisen, but it is
+thought the few given above are sufficient to serve as an introduction
+to embalmment in North America.
+
+From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it
+appears that mummifying was resorted to, among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly,[29] being as follows:
+
+     The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of
+     their Kings and Rulers after Death, which they order in the
+     following manner: First, they neatly flay off the Skin as
+     entire as they can, slitting it only in the Back; then they
+     pick all the Flesh off from the Bones as clean as possible,
+     leaving the Sinews fastned to the Bones, that they may
+     preserve the Joints together; then they dry the Bones in the
+     Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean
+     time has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones
+     are placed right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the
+     Vacuities, with a very fine white Sand. After this they sew
+     up the Skin again, and the Body looks as if the Flesh had
+     not been removed. They take care to keep the Skin from
+     shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease, which
+     saves it also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar'd,
+     they lay it in an apartment for that purpose, upon a large
+     Shelf rais'd above the Floor. This Shelf is spread with
+     Mats, for the Corpse to rest easy on, and skreened with the
+     same, to keep it from the Dust. The Flesh they lay upon
+     Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and when it is thoroughly dried,
+     it is sewed up in a Basket, and set at the Feet of the
+     Corpse, to which it belongs. In this place also they set up
+     a _Quioccos_, or Idol, which they believe will be a Guard to
+     the Corpse. Here Night and Day one or the other of the
+     Priests must give his Attendance, to take care of the dead
+     Bodies. So great an Honour and Veneration have these
+     ignorant and unpolisht People for their Princes even after
+     they are dead.
+
+It should be added that, in the writer's opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.
+
+According to Pinkerton,[30] who took the account from Smith's Virginia,
+the Werowance of Virginia preserved their dead as follows:
+
+     In their Temples they have his [their chief God, the
+     Devil's] image euill favouredly carved, and then painted
+     and adorned with chaines of copper, and beads, and covered
+     with a skin, in such manner as the deformitie may well suit
+     with such a God. By him is commonly the sepulchre of their
+     Kings. Their bodies are first bowelled, then dried upon
+     hurdles till they be very dry, and so about the most of
+     their ioynts and necke they hang bracelets, or chaines of
+     copper, pearle, and such like, as they use to wear. Their
+     inwards they stuffe with copper beads, hatchets, and such
+     trash. Then lappe they them very carefully in white skins,
+     and so rowle them in mats for their winding-sheets. And in
+     the Tombe, which is an arch made of mats, they lay them
+     orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth their Kings
+     have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples and
+     bodies are kept by their Priests.
+
+     For their ordinary burials, they dig a deepe hole in the
+     earth with sharpe stakes, and the corpse being lapped in
+     skins and mats with their Jewels they lay them upon stickes
+     in the ground, and so cover them with earth. The buriale
+     ended, the women being painted all their faces with blacke
+     cole and oyle doe sit twenty-foure houres in the houses
+     mourning and lamenting by turnes with such yelling and
+     howling as may expresse their great passions. * * *
+
+     Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there
+     are three great houses filled with images of their Kings and
+     devils and the tombes of their predecessors. Those houses
+     are near sixty feet in length, built harbourwise after their
+     building. This place they count so holey as that but the
+     priests and Kings dare come into them; nor the savages dare
+     not go up the river in boates by it, but that they solemnly
+     cast some piece of copper, white beads or pocones into the
+     river for feare their Okee should be offended and revenged
+     of them.
+
+     They think that their Werowances and priests which they also
+     esteeme quiyough-cosughs, when they are deade doe goe beyond
+     the mountains towards the setting of the sun, and ever
+     remain there in form of their Okee, with their bedes paynted
+     rede with oyle and pocones, finely trimmed with feathers,
+     and shall have beads, hatchets, copper, and tobacco, doing
+     nothing but dance and sing with all their predecessors. But
+     the common people they suppose shall not live after deth,
+     but rot in their graves like dede dogges.
+
+This is substantially the same account as has been given on a former
+page, the verbiage differing slightly, and the remark regarding
+truthfulness will apply to it as well as to the other.
+
+Figure 1 may again be referred to as an example of the dead-house
+described.
+
+The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson,
+used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the subjoined
+extract from Schoolcraft;[31] but instead of laying away the remains in
+caves, placed them in boxes supported above the ground by crotched
+sticks.
+
+     The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of
+     earth is raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth
+     and even, sometimes higher or lower according to the dignity
+     of the person whose monument it is. On the top thereof is an
+     umbrella, made ridgeways, like the roof of a house. This in
+     supported by nine stakes or small posts, the grave being
+     about 6 to 8 feet in length and 4 feet in breadth, about
+     which is hung gourds, feathers, and other such like
+     trophies, placed there by the dead man's relations in
+     respect to him in the grave. The other parts of the funeral
+     rites are thus: As soon as the party is dead they lay the
+     corpse upon a piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or
+     embalming it with a small root beaten to powder, which looks
+     as red as vermillion; the same is mixed with bear's oil to
+     beautify the hair. After the carcass has laid a day or two
+     in the sun they remove it and lay it upon crotches cut on
+     purpose for the support thereof from the earth; then they
+     anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients of
+     the powder of this root and bear's oil. When it is so done
+     they cover it over very exactly with the bark or pine of the
+     cypress tree to prevent any rain to fall upon it, sweeping
+     the ground very clean all about it. Some of his nearest of
+     kin brings all the temporal estate he was possessed of at
+     his death, as guns, bows and arrows, beads, feathers,
+     match-coat, &c. This relation is the chief mourner, being
+     clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful
+     ditty for three or four days, his face being black with the
+     smoke of pitch pine mixed with bear's oil. All the while he
+     tells the dead man's relations and the rest of the
+     spectators who that dead person was, and of the great feats
+     performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks tending to the
+     praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows mellow and
+     will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it,
+     making the bones very clean, then anoint them with the
+     ingredients aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very
+     carefully) in a cloth artificially woven of opossum's hair.
+     The bones they carefully preserve in a wooden box, every
+     year oiling and cleansing them. By these means they preserve
+     them for many ages, that you may see an Indian in possession
+     of the bones of his grandfather or some of his relations of
+     a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs, as when
+     an Indian is slain in that very place they make a heap of
+     stones (or sticks where stones are not to be found); to this
+     memorial every Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment
+     the heap in respect to the deceased hero. The Indians make a
+     roof of light wood or pitch-pine over the graves of the
+     more distinguished, covering it with bark and then with
+     earth, leaving the body thus in a subterranean vault until
+     the flesh quits the bones. The bones are then taken up,
+     cleaned, jointed, clad in white-dressed deerskins, and laid
+     away in the _Quiogozon_, which is the royal tomb or
+     burial-place of their kings and war-captains, being a more
+     magnificent cabin reared at the public expense. This
+     Quiogozon is an object of veneration, in which the writer
+     says he has known the king, old men, and conjurers to spend
+     several days with their idols and dead kings, and into which
+     he could never gain admittance.
+
+Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpetre and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of doubt
+with archaeologists whether any special pains were taken to preserve
+these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the soil with
+certain minerals would account for the condition in which the specimens
+were found. Charles Wilkins[32] thus describes one:
+
+     * * * An exsiccated body of a female[33] * * * was found at
+     the depth of about 10 feet from the surface of the cave
+     bedded in clay strongly impregnated with nitre, placed in a
+     sitting posture, incased in broad stones standing on their
+     edges, with a flat atone covering the whole. It was
+     enveloped in coarse clothes, * * * the whole wrapped in
+     deer-skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the manner
+     in which the Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in
+     the stone coffin were the working utensils, beads, feathers,
+     and other ornaments of dress which belonged to her.
+
+The next description is by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill.[34]
+
+     AUG. 24TH, 1815.
+
+     Dear Sir: I offer you some observations on a curious piece
+     of American antiquity now in New York. It is a human body:
+     found in one of the limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a
+     perfect desiccation; all the fluids are dried up. The skin,
+     bones, and other firm parts are in a state of entire
+     preservation. I think it enough to have puzzled Bryant and
+     all the archaeologists.
+
+     This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the
+     neighborhood of Glasgow for saltpetre.
+
+     These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to
+     attract and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime
+     and potash; and probably the earthy matter of these
+     excavations contains a good proportion of calcareous
+     carbonate. Amidst them drying and antiseptick ingredients,
+     it may be conceived that putrefaction would be stayed, and
+     the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope of the
+     body is a deer-skin, probably dried in the usual way, and
+     perhaps softened before its application by rubbing. The next
+     covering is a deer's skin, whose hair had been cut away by a
+     sharp instrument resembling a batter's knife. The remnant of
+     the hair and the gashes in the skin nearly resemble a
+     sheared pelt of beaver. The next wrapper is of cloth made of
+     twine doubled and twisted. But the thread does not appear to
+     have been formed by the wheel, nor the web by the loom. The
+     warp and filling seem to have been crossed and knotted by an
+     operation like that of the fabricks of the northwest coast,
+     and of the Sandwich Islands. Such a botanist as the lamented
+     Muhlenbergh could determine the plant which furnished the
+     fibrous material.
+
+     The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth, like the
+     preceding, but furnished with large brown feathers, arranged
+     and fashioned with great art, so as to be capable of
+     guarding the living wearer from wet and cold. The plumage is
+     distinct and entire, and the whole bears a near similitude
+     to the feathery cloaks now worn by the nations of the
+     northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell from what
+     bird they were derived.
+
+     The body is in a squatting posture, with the right arm
+     reclining forward, and its hand encircling the right leg.
+     The left arm hangs down, with its hand inclined partly under
+     the seat. The individual, who was a male, did not probably
+     exceed the age of fourteen at his death. There is near the
+     oociput a deep and extensive fracture of the skull, which
+     probably killed him. The skin has sustained little injury;
+     it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be
+     decided with exactness, from its present appearance. The
+     scalp, with small exceptions, is covered with sorrel or
+     foxey hair. The teeth are white and sound. The hands and
+     feet, in their shrivelled state, are slender and delicate.
+     All this is worthy the investigation of our acute and
+     perspicacious colleague, Dr. Holmes.
+
+     There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the
+     body, like the Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages
+     around any part. Except the several wrappers, the body is
+     totally naked. There is no sign of a suture or incision
+     about the belly; whence it seems that the viscera were not
+     removed.
+
+     It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion as
+     to the antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.
+
+     First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that
+     class of white men of which we are members.
+
+     2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the
+     bands of Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500
+     and 1600, rambled up the Mississippi, and along its
+     tributary streams. But on this head I should like to know
+     the opinion of my learned and sagacious friend, Noah
+     Webster.
+
+     3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it
+     belonged to any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately
+     inhabiting Kentucky.
+
+     4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of
+     twisted threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the
+     indigines of Wakash and the Pacifick Islands, that I refer
+     this individual to that era of time, and that generation of
+     men, which preceded the Indians of the Green River, and of
+     the place where these relicks were found. This conclusion is
+     strengthened by the consideration that such manufactures are
+     not prepared by the actual and resident red men of the
+     present day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before
+     him, he would have thought of the people who constructed
+     those ancient forts and mounds, whose exact history no man
+     living can give. But I forbear to enlarge; my intention
+     being merely to manifest my respect to the society for
+     having enrolled me among its members, and to invite the
+     attention of its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a
+     subject of such curiousity.
+
+     With respect, I remain yours,
+
+     SAMUEL L. MITCHILL.
+
+It would appear, from recent researches on the Northwest coast, that the
+natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W.H. Dall,[35] the description
+of the mummies being as follows:
+
+     We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by
+     interment in their compartments of the communal dwelling, as
+     already described; second, by being laid on a rude platform
+     of drift-wood or stones in some convenient rock shelter.
+     These lay on straw and moss, covered by matting, and rarely
+     have either implements, weapons, or carvings associated with
+     them. We found only three or four specimens in all in these
+     places, of which we examined a great number. This was
+     apparently the more ancient form of disposing of the dead,
+     and one which more recently was still pursued in the case of
+     poor or unpopular individuals.
+
+     Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few
+     centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another
+     mode was adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more
+     distinguished class. The bodies were eviscerated, cleansed
+     from fatty matters in running water, dried, and usually
+     placed in suitable cases in wrappings of fur and fine grass
+     matting. The body was usually doubled up into the smallest
+     compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of
+     children, was usually suspended (so as not to touch the
+     ground) in some convenient rock shelter. Sometimes, however,
+     the prepared body was placed in a lifelike position, dressed
+     and armed. They were placed as if engaged in some congenial
+     occupation, such as hunting, fishing, sewing, &c. With them
+     were also placed effigies of the animals they were pursuing,
+     while the hunter was dressed in his wooden armor and
+     provided with an enormous mask all ornamented with feathers,
+     and a countless variety of wooden pendants, colored in gay
+     patterns. All the carvings were of wood, the weapons even
+     were only fac-similes in wood of the original articles.
+     Among the articles represented were drums, rattles, dishes,
+     weapons, effigies of men, birds, fish, and animals, wooden
+     armor of rods or scales of wood, and remarkable masks, so
+     arranged that the wearer when erect could only see the
+     ground at his feet. These were worn at their religious
+     dances from an idea that a spirit which was supposed to
+     animate a temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look
+     upon it while so occupied. An extension of the same idea led
+     to the masking of those who had gone into the land of
+     spirits.
+
+     The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to
+     the whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak
+     Innuit--has erroneously been confounded with the one now
+     described. The latter included women as well as men, and all
+     those whom the living desired particularly to honor. The
+     whalers, however, only preserved the bodies of males, and
+     they were not associated with the paraphernalia of those I
+     have described. Indeed, the observations I have been able to
+     make show the bodies of the whalers to have been preserved
+     with stone weapons and actual utensils instead of effigies,
+     and with the meanest apparel, and no carvings of
+     consequence. These details, and those of many other customs
+     and usages of which the shell heaps bear no testimony * * *
+     do not come within my line.
+
+Figure 5, copied from Dall, represents the Alaskan mummies.
+
+Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings' Expedition,[36] speaks of the
+Aleutian Islanders embalming their dead, as follows:
+
+     They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for
+     they embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass;
+     bury them in their best attire, in a sitting posture, in a
+     strong box, with their darts and instruments; and decorate
+     the tomb with various coloured mats, embroidery, and
+     paintings. With women, indeed, they use less ceremony. A
+     mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut for
+     some months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when
+     it begins to smell, or when they get reconciled to parting
+     with it.
+
+Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account:
+
+     The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska
+     Commercial Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the
+     company with the mummified remains of Indians who lived on
+     an island north of Ounalaska one hundred and fifty years
+     ago. This contribution to science was secured by Captain
+     Henning, an agent of the company who has long resided at
+     Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians he learned
+     that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the
+     island in question, as the last resting-place of a great
+     chief, known as Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was
+     in the neighborhood of Kagamale in quest of sea-otter and
+     other furs, and he bore up for the island, with the
+     intention of testing the truth of the tradition he had
+     heard. He had more difficulty in entering the cave than in
+     finding it, his schooner having to beat on and off shore for
+     three days. Finally he succeeded in affecting a landing, and
+     clambering up the rocks he found himself in the presence of
+     the dead chief, his family and relatives.
+
+     The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great
+     care the mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets
+     and ornaments scattered around were also taken away.
+
+     In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or
+     three have as yet been opened. The body of the chief is
+     inclosed in a large basket-like structure, about four feet
+     in height. Outside the wrappings are finely wrought
+     sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in texture, and skins.
+     At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of thinly cut wood,
+     and adjoining the center portions are pieces of body armor
+     composed of reeds bound together. The body is covered with
+     the fine skin of the sea-otter, always a mark of distinction
+     in the interments of the Aleuts, and round the whole package
+     are stretched the meshes of a fish-net, made of the sinews
+     of the sea lion; also those of a bird-net. There are
+     evidently some bulky articles inclosed with the chief's
+     body, and the whole package differs very much from the
+     others, which more resemble, in their brown-grass matting,
+     consignments of crude sugar from the Sandwich Islands than
+     the remains of human beings. The bodies of a pappoose and of
+     a very little child, which probably died at birth or soon
+     after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of the feet
+     of the latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The
+     remaining mummies are of adults.
+
+     One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man's
+     body in tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of
+     the face decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled
+     up at death by severing some of the muscles at the hip and
+     knee joints and bending the limbs downward horizontally upon
+     the trunk. Perhaps the most peculiar package, next to that
+     of the chief, is one which incloses in a single matting,
+     with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and woman. The
+     collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and
+     female, which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The
+     hair has changed its color to a brownish red. The relics
+     obtained with the bodies include a few wooden vessels
+     scooped out smoothly: a piece of dark, greenish, flat stone,
+     harder than the emerald, which the Indians use to tan skins;
+     a scalp-lock of jet-black hair; a small rude figure, which
+     may have been a very ugly doll or an idol; two or three tiny
+     carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very neatly executed; a
+     comb, a necklet made of bird's claws inserted into one
+     another, and several specimens of little bags, and a cap
+     plaited out of sea-grass and almost water-tight.
+
+In Cary's translation of Herodotus (1853, p. 180) the following passage
+occurs which purports to describe the manner in which the Macrobrian
+Ethiopians preserved their dead. It is added, simply as a matter of
+curious interest, nothing more, for no remains so preserved have ever
+been discovered.
+
+     After this, they visited last of all their sepulchres, which
+     are said to be prepared from crystal in the following
+     manner. When they have dried the body, either as the
+     Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster it all over
+     with gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible
+     resemble real life; they then put round it a hollow column
+     made of crystal, which they dig up in abundance, and is
+     easily wrought. The body being in the middle of the column
+     is plainly seen, nor does it emit an unpleasant smell, nor
+     is it in any way offensive, and it is all visible as the
+     body itself. The nearest relations keep the column in their
+     houses for a year, offering to it the first-fruits of all,
+     and performing sacrifices; after that time they carry it out
+     and place it somewhere near the city.
+
+     NOTE.--The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the
+     back being covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies
+     could be seen all round, as the column of glass was
+     transparent.
+
+With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the soil
+of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.
+
+
+
+
+URN-BURIAL.
+
+To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster[37] may be added:
+
+     Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by
+     the mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern
+     States. In the mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden,
+     S.C., according to Dr. Blanding, ranges of vases, one above
+     the other, filled with human remains, were found. Sometimes
+     when the mouth of the vase is small the skull is placed with
+     the face downward in the opening, constituting a sort of
+     cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in which urn-burial
+     alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was
+     accidentally discovered not many years since in Saint
+     Catherine's Island, off the coast of Georgia. Professor
+     Swallow informs me that from a mound at New Madrid, Mo., he
+     obtained a human skull inclosed in an earthen jar, the lips
+     of which were too small to admit of its extraction. It must
+     therefore have been molded on the head after death.
+
+     A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans,
+     where the funeral jars often contain a human cranium much
+     too expanded to admit of the possibility of its passing out
+     of it, so that either the clay must have been modeled over
+     the corpse, and then baked, or the neck of the jar must have
+     been added subsequently to the other rites of interment.[38]
+
+It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary, but
+_to a very limited extent_, in North America, except as a secondary
+interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in urns or
+ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number of
+ollas were found in long used burying places, and it is probable that as
+the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were simply
+tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may have been
+that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough for the
+fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected, placed in
+urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian Institution,
+furnishes the following account of urns used for burial:
+
+     I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and
+     cover, Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very
+     recently received from Mr. William McKinley, of
+     Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on his plantation, ten
+     miles below that city, on the bottom lands of the Oconee
+     River, now covered with almost impassible canebrakes, tall
+     grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same
+     source one of the covers, of which the ornamentation was
+     different but more entire. A portion of a similar cover has
+     been received also from Chattanooga, Tenn. Mr. McKinley
+     ascribes the use of these urns and covers to the Muscogees,
+     a branch of the Creek Nation.
+
+These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top was
+a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and around
+the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are indented
+scroll ornamentations.
+
+The burial urns of New Mexico are thus described by E.A. Barber:[39]
+
+     Burial-urns * * * comprise vessels or ollas without handles,
+     for cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height,
+     with broad, open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a
+     laminated exterior (partially or entirely ornamented).
+     Frequently the indentations extend simply around the neck or
+     rim, the lower portion being plain.
+
+So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J.C. Bransford, U.S.N., but it is quite within the range of possibility
+that future researches in regions not far distant from that which he
+explored may reveal similar treasures. Figure 6 represents different
+forms of burial-urns, _a_, _b_, and _e_, after Foster, are from Laporte,
+Ind. _f_, after Foster, is from Greenup County, Kentucky; _d_ is from
+Milledgeville, Ga., in Smithsonian collection, No. 27976; and _c_ is one
+of the peculiar shoe-shaped urns brought from Ometepec Island, Lake
+Nicaragua, by Surgeon J.C. Bransford, U.S.N.
+
+
+
+
+SURFACE BURIAL
+
+This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far as
+can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it was
+employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed for
+time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow trees,
+the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally the dead
+being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With some of the
+Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out sufficiently
+large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together with withes and
+permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In some cases a pen
+was built over and around it. This statement is corroborated by R.S.
+Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states, in a communication received
+in 1877, that the Miamis practiced surface burial in two different ways:
+
+     * * * 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have
+     been found in heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split
+     and the two halves hollowed out to receive the body, when it
+     was either closed with withes or confined to the ground with
+     crossed stakes; and sometimes a hollow tree is used by
+     closing the ends.
+
+     2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen
+     of logs laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every
+     course until they meet in a single log at the top.
+
+The writer has recently received from Prof, C. Engelhardt, of Copenhagen,
+Denmark, a brochure describing the oak coffins of Borum-Aesshoei. From an
+engraving in this volume it would appear that the manner employed by the
+ancient Danes of hollowing out logs for coffins has its analogy among
+the North American Indians.
+
+Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent
+in accordance with the ante mortem wishes of the dead, were the
+obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is
+given by George Catlin:[40]
+
+     He requested them to take his body down the river to this
+     his favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering
+     bluff to bury him on the back of his favorite war-horse,
+     which was to be buried alive under him, from whence he could
+     see, as he said, "the Frenchmen passing up and down the
+     river in their boats." He owned, amongst many horses, a
+     noble white steed, that was led to the top of the
+     grass-covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the
+     presence of the whole nation and several of the fur-traders
+     and the Indian agent, he was placed astride of his horse's
+     back, with his bow in his hand, and his shield and quiver
+     slung, with his pipe and his medicine bag, with his supply
+     of dried meat, and his tobacco-pouch replenished to last him
+     through the journey to the beautiful hunting grounds of the
+     shades of his fathers, with his flint, his steel, and his
+     tinder to light his pipe by the way; the scalps he had taken
+     from his enemies' heads could be trophies for nobody else,
+     and were hung to the bridle of his horse. He was in full
+     dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved to the last
+     moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles' plumes.
+     In this plight, and the last funeral honors having been
+     performed by the medicine-men, every warrior of his band
+     painted the palm and fingers of his right hand with
+     vermillion, which was stamped and perfectly impressed on the
+     milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This all done, turfs
+     were brought and placed around the feet and legs of the
+     horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over
+     the back and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of
+     all over the head and even the eagle plumes of its valiant
+     rider, where all together have smouldered and remained
+     undisturbed to the present day.
+
+Figure 7, after Schoolcraft, represents an Indian burial-ground on a
+high bluff of the Missouri River.
+
+According to the Rev. J.G. Wood,[41] the Obongo, an African tribe,
+buried their dead in a manner similar to that which has been stated of
+the Seminoles:
+
+     When an Obongo dies it is usual to take the body to a hollow
+     tree in the forest and drop it into the hollow, which is
+     afterwards filled to the top with earth, leaves, and
+     branches.
+
+M. de la Potherie[42]--gives an account of surface burial as practiced
+by the Iroquois of New York:
+
+     Quand ce malade est mort, on le met sur son seant, on oint
+     ses cheveux et tout son corps d'huile d'animaux, on lui
+     applique du vermillon sur le visage; on lui met toutes
+     sortes de beaux plumages de la rassade de la porcelaine et
+     on le pare des plus beaux habits que l'on peut trouver,
+     pendant que les parens et des vieilles continuent toujours a
+     pleurer. Cette ceremonie finie, les alliez apportent
+     plusieurs presens. Les uns sont pour essuyer les larmes et
+     les autres pour servir de matelas au defunt, on en destine
+     certains pour couvrir la fosse, de peur, disent-ils, que la
+     plague ne l'incommode, on y etend fort proprement des peaux
+     d'ours et de chevreuils qui lui servent de lit, et on lui
+     met ses ajustemens avec un sac de farine de bled d'Inde, de
+     la viande, sa cuilliere generalement tout ce qu'il faut a un
+     homme qui veut faire un long voyage, avec toux les presens
+     qui lui ont ete faits a sa mort, et s'il a ete guerrier on
+     lui donne ses armes pour s'en servir au pais des morts. L'on
+     couvre ensuite ce cadavre d'ecorce d'arbres sur lesqelles on
+     jette de la terre et quantite de pierres, et on l'entoure de
+     pierres pour empecher que les animaux ne le deterrent. Ces
+     sortes de funerailles ne se font que dans leur village.
+     Lorsqu'ils meurent en campagne on les met dans un cercueil
+     d'ecorce, entre les branches des arbres ou on les eleve sur
+     quatre pilliers.
+
+     On observe ces memes funerailles aux femmes et aux filles.
+     Tous ceux qui ont assiste aux obseques profitent de toute la
+     depouille du defunt et s'il n'avoit rien, les parens y
+     supleent. Ainsi ils ne pleurent pas en vain. Le deuil
+     consiste a ne se point couper ni graisser les cheveux et de
+     se tenir neglige sans aucune parure, couverts de mechantes
+     hardes. Le pere et la mere portent le deuil de leur fils. Si
+     le pere meurt les garcons le portent, et les filles de leur
+     mere.
+
+Dr. P. Gregg, of Rock Island, Illinois, has been kind enough to forward
+to the writer an interesting work by J.V. Spencer,[43] containing
+annotations by himself. He gives the following account of surface and
+partial surface burial occurring among the Sacs and Foxes formerly
+inhabiting Illinois:
+
+     Black Hawk was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture,
+     his hands grasping his cane. They usually made a shallow
+     hole in the ground, setting the body in up to the waist, so
+     the most of the body was above ground. The part above ground
+     was then covered by a buffalo robe, and a trench about eight
+     feet square was then dug about the grave. In this trench
+     they set picketing about eight feet high, which secured the
+     grave against wild animals. When I first came here there
+     were quite a number of these high picketings still standing
+     where their chiefs had been buried, and the body of a chief
+     was disposed of in this way while I lived near their
+     village. The common mode of burial was to dig a shallow
+     grave, wrap the body in a blanket, place it in the grave,
+     and fill it nearly full of dirt; then take split sticks
+     about three feet long and stand them in the grave so that
+     their tops would come together in the form of a roof; then
+     they filled in more earth so as to hold the sticks in place.
+     I saw a father and mother start out alone to bury their
+     child about a year old; they carried it by tieing it up in a
+     blanket and putting a long stick through the blanket, each
+     taking an end of the stick.
+
+     I have also seen the dead bodies placed in trees. This is
+     done by digging a trough out of a log, placing the body in
+     it, and covering it. I have seen several bodies in one tree.
+     I think when they are disposed of in this way it is by
+     special request, as I knew of an Indian woman who lived with
+     a white family who desired her body placed in a tree, which
+     was accordingly done.[44] Doubtless there was some peculiar
+     superstition attached to this mode, though I do not remember
+     to have heard what it was.
+
+Judge H. Welch[45] states that "the Sauks, Foxes, and Pottawatomies
+buried by setting the body on the ground and building a pen around it of
+sticks or logs. I think the bodies lay heads to the east." And C.C.
+Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, sends a more detailed account, as follows:
+
+     I was some time since in Seneca County and there met Judge
+     Welch. * * * In 1824 he went with his father-in-law, Judge
+     Gibson, to Fort Wayne. On the way they passed the grave of
+     an Ottawa or Pottawatomie chief. The body lay on the ground
+     covered with notched poles. It had been there but a few days
+     and the worms were crawling around the body. My special
+     interest in the case was the accusation of witchcraft
+     against a young squaw who was executed for killing him by
+     her arts. In the Summit County mounds there were only parts
+     of skeletons with charcoal and ashes, showing they had been
+     burned.
+
+W.A. Brice[46] mentions a curious variety of surface burial not
+heretofore met with:
+
+     And often had been seen, years ago, swinging from the bough
+     of a tree, or in a hammock stretched between two trees, the
+     infant of the Indian mother; or a few little log inclosures,
+     where the bodies of adults sat upright, with all their
+     former apparel wrapped about them, and their trinkets,
+     tomahawks, &c., by their side, could be seen at any time for
+     many years by the few pale-faces visiting or sojourning
+     here.
+
+A method of interment so closely allied to surface burial that it may be
+considered under that head is the one employed by some of the Ojibways
+and Swampy Crees of Canada. A small cavity is scooped out, the body
+deposited therein, covered with a little dirt, the mound thus formed
+being covered either with split planks, poles, or birch bark.
+
+Prof. Henry Youle Hind, who was in charge of the Canadian Red River
+exploring expedition of 1858, has been good enough to forward to the
+Bureau of Ethnology two photographs representing the variety of grave,
+which he found 15 or 20 miles from the present town of Winnipeg, and
+they are represented in the woodcuts, Figures 8 and 9.
+
+
+_CAIRN-BURIAL._
+
+The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable extent
+among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas.
+
+In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries in
+Middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen or
+twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon the
+side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so carefully
+chosen for concealment that it would have been almost impossible to find
+it without a guide. Several of the graves were opened, and found to have
+been constructed in the following manner: A number of bowlders had been
+removed from the bed of the slide until a sufficient cavity had been
+obtained; this was lined with skins, the corpse placed therein, with
+weapons, ornaments, &c., and covered over with saplings of the mountain
+aspen; on the top of these the removed bowlders were piled, forming a
+huge cairn, which appeared large enough to have marked the last resting
+place of an elephant. In the immediate vicinity of the graves were
+scattered the osseous remains of a number of horses which had been
+sacrificed, no doubt, during the funeral ceremonies. In one of the
+graves, said to contain the body of a chief, in addition to a number of
+articles useful and ornamental, were found parts of the skeleton of a
+boy, and tradition states that a captive boy was buried alive at this
+place.
+
+From Dr. O.G. Given, physician to the Kiowa and Comanche Agency, Indian
+Territory, the following description of burial ceremonies was received.
+According to this gentleman the Kiowas call themselves _Kaw-a-w[=a]h_, the
+Comanches _Nerm_, and the Apaches _T[=a]h-zee_.
+
+     They bury in the ground or in crevices of rocks. They do not
+     seem to have any particular rule with regard to the
+     position. Sometimes prone, sometimes supine, but always
+     decumbent. They select a place where the grave is easily
+     prepared, which they do with such implements as they chance
+     to have, viz, a squaw-axe, or hoe. If they are traveling,
+     the grave is often very hastily prepared and not much time
+     is spent in finishing. I was present at the burial of Black
+     Hawk, an Apache chief, some two years ago, and took the body
+     in my light wagon up the side of a mountain to the place of
+     burial. They found a crevice in the rocks about four feet
+     wide and three feet deep. By filling in loose rocks at
+     either end they made a very nice tomb. The body was then put
+     in face downwards, short sticks were put across, resting on
+     projections of rock at the sides, brush was thrown on this,
+     and flat rocks laid over the whole of it.
+
+     The body of the deceased is dressed in the best clothing,
+     together with all the ornaments most admired by the person
+     when living. The face is painted with any colored paint they
+     may have, mostly red and yellow, as I have observed. The
+     body is then wrapped in skins, blankets, or domestic, with
+     the hands laid across the breast, and the legs placed upon
+     the thighs. They put into the grave their guns, bows and
+     arrows, tobacco, and if they have it a blanket, moccasins,
+     and trinkets of various kinds. One or more horses are killed
+     over or near the grave. Two horses and a mule were killed
+     near Black Hawk's grave. They were led up near and shot in
+     the head. At the death of a Comanche chief, some years ago,
+     I am told about seventy horses were killed, and a greater
+     number than that were said to have been killed at the death
+     of a prominent Kiowa chief a few years since.
+
+     The mourning is principally done by the relatives and
+     immediate friends, although any one of their own tribe, or
+     one of another tribe, who chances to be passing, will stop
+     and moan with the relatives. Their mourning consists in a
+     weird wail, which to be described must be heard, and once
+     heard is never forgotten, together with the scarifying of
+     their faces, arms, and legs with some sharp instrument, the
+     cutting off of the hair, and oftentimes the cutting off of a
+     joint of a finger, usually the little finger (Comanches do
+     not cut off fingers). The length of time and intensity of
+     their mourning depends upon the relation and position of the
+     deceased in the tribe. I have known instances where, if they
+     should be passing along where any of their friends had died,
+     even a year after their death, they would mourn.
+
+The Shoshones, of Nevada, generally concealed their dead beneath heaps
+of rocks, according to H. Butterfield, of Tyho, Nye County, Nevada,
+although occasionally they either burn or bury them. He gives as reasons
+for rock burial: 1st, to prevent coyotes eating the corpses; 2d, because
+they have no tools for deep excavations; and 3d, natural indolence of
+the Indians--indisposition to work any more than can be helped.
+
+The Pi-Utes, of Oregon, bury in cairns; the Blackfeet do the same, as
+did also the Acaxers and Yaquis, of Mexico, and the Esquimaux; in fact,
+a number of examples might be quoted. In foreign lands the custom
+prevailed among certain African tribes, and it is said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.
+
+
+
+
+CREMATION.
+
+Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common custom
+to a considerable extent among North American tribes, especially those
+living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, although we have
+undoubted evidence that it was also practiced, among the more eastern
+ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly interesting from its
+great antiquity, for Tegg[47] informs us that it reached as far back as
+the Theban war, in the account of which mention is made of the burning
+of Menoeacus and Archemorus, who were contemporary with Jair, eighth
+judge of Israel. It was common in the interior of Asia, and among the
+ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also prevailed among the Hindoos up
+to the present time. In fact, it is now rapidly becoming a custom among
+civilized people.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance
+of this rite among the people spoken of and the Indians of North
+America, yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be entered
+upon regarding the details of it among the ancients and the origin of
+the ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in the country,
+with discursive notes and an account of its origin among the Nishinams
+of California, by Stephen Powers,[48] seem to be all that is required at
+this time:
+
+     The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all
+     things that exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was
+     bad. In making men and women, the moon wished to so fashion
+     their souls that when they died they should return to the
+     earth after two or three days as he himself does when he
+     dies. But the coyote was evil disposed and said this should
+     not be; but that when men died their friends should burn
+     their bodies and once a year make a great mourning for them
+     and the coyote prevailed. So, presently when deer died, they
+     burned his body, as the coyote had decreed and after a year
+     they made a great mourning for him. But the moon created the
+     rattlesnake and caused it to bite the coyote's son, so that
+     he died. Now, though the coyote had been willing to burn the
+     deer's relations, he refused to burn his own son. Then the
+     moon said unto him, "This is your own rule. You would have
+     it so, and now your son shall be burned like the others." So
+     he was burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for him.
+     Thus the law was established over the coyote also, and, as
+     he had dominion over men, it prevailed over men likewise.
+
+     This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its
+     value in that it shows there was a time when the California
+     Indians did not practice cremation, which is also
+     established by other traditions. It hints at the additional
+     fact that the Nishinams to this day set great store by the
+     moon, consider it their benefactor in a hundred ways and
+     observe its changes for a hundred purposes.
+
+Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston in
+Schoolcraft[49] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:
+
+     The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their
+     number died the body became full of little animals or
+     spirits, as they thought then. After crawling over the body
+     for a time they took all manner of shapes, some that of the
+     deer, others the elk, antelope, etc. It was discovered
+     however, that great numbers were taking wings and for a
+     while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they
+     would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians,
+     fearing the earth might become depopulated in this way,
+     concluded to stop it at once and ordered that when one of
+     their people died the body must be burnt. Ever after they
+     continued to burn the bodies of deceased persons.
+
+Ross Cox gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins
+of Oregon:[50]
+
+     The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular and
+     quite peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is
+     kept nine days laid out in his lodge and on the tenth it is
+     buried. For this purpose a rising ground is selected, on
+     which are laid a number of sticks, about 7 feet long, of
+     cypress, neatly split and in the interstices, placed a
+     quantity of gummy wood. During these operations invitations
+     are dispatched to the natives of the neighboring villages
+     requesting their attendance at the ceremony. When the
+     preparations are perfected, the corpse is placed on the
+     pile, which is immediately ignited and during the process of
+     burning, the bystanders appear to be in a high state of
+     merriment. If a stranger happen to be present they
+     invariably plunder him, but if that pleasure be denied them,
+     they never separate without quarreling among themselves.
+     Whatever property the deceased possessed is placed about the
+     corpse, and if he happened to be a person of consequence,
+     his friends generally purchase a capote, a shirt, a pair of
+     trousers, &c, which articles are also laid around the pile.
+     If the doctor who attended him has escaped uninjured, he is
+     obliged to be present at the ceremony, and for the last time
+     tries his skill in restoring the defunct to animation.
+     Failing in this, he throws on the body a piece of leather,
+     or some other article, as a present, which in some measure
+     appeases the resentment of his relatives, and preserves the
+     unfortunate quack from being maltreated. During the nine
+     days the corpse is laid out, the widow of the deceased is
+     obliged to sleep along side it from sunset to sunrise, and
+     from this custom there is no relaxation even during the
+     hottest days of summer! While the doctor is performing his
+     last operations she must lie on the pile, and after the fire
+     is applied to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her
+     to be removed, which, however, is never done until her body
+     is completely covered with blisters. After being placed on
+     her legs, she is obliged to pass her hands gently through
+     the flame and collect some of the liquid fat which issues
+     from the corpse, with which she is permitted to wet her face
+     and body. When the friends of the deceased observe the
+     sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they
+     compel the unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by
+     dint of hard pressing to straighten those members.
+
+     If during her husband's life time she has been known to have
+     committed any act of infidelity or omitted administering to
+     him savory food or neglected his clothing, &c. she is now
+     made to suffer severely for such lapses of duty by his
+     relations, who frequently fling her in the funeral pile,
+     from which she is dragged by her friends, and thus between
+     alternate scorching and cooling she is dragged backwards and
+     forwards until she falls into a state of insensibility.
+
+     After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the
+     widow collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an
+     envelope of birch bark and which she is obliged for some
+     years afterwards to carry on her back. She is now considered
+     and treated as a slave, all the laborious duties of cooking,
+     collecting food, &c. devolve on her. She must obey the
+     orders of all the women, and even of the children belonging
+     to the village, and the slightest mistake or disobedience
+     subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment. The
+     ashes of her husband are carefully collected and deposited
+     in a grave which it is her duty to keep free from weeds, and
+     should any such appear, she is obliged to root them out with
+     her fingers. During this operation her husband's relatives
+     stand by and beat her in a cruel manner until the task is
+     completed or she falls a victim to their brutality. The
+     wretched widows, to avoid this complicated cruelty,
+     frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on
+     for three or four years, the friends of her husband agree to
+     relieve her from the her painful mourning. This is a
+     ceremony of much consequence and the preparations for it
+     occupy a considerable time generally from six to eight
+     months. The hunters proceed to the various districts in
+     which deer and beaver abound and after collecting large
+     quantities of meat and fur return to the village. The skins
+     are immediately bartered for guns, ammunition, clothing,
+     trinkets, &c. Invitations are then sent to the inhabitants
+     of the various friendly villages, and when they have all
+     assembled the feast commences, and presents are distributed
+     to each visitor. The object of their meeting is then
+     explained, and the woman is brought forward, still carrying
+     on her back the bones of her late husband, which are now
+     removed and placed in a covered box, which is nailed or
+     otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her conduct
+     as a faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the
+     ceremony of her manumission is completed by one man
+     powdering on her head the down of birds and another pouring
+     on it the contents of a bladder of oil. She is then at
+     liberty to marry again or lead a life of single blessedness,
+     but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter the risk
+     attending a second widowhood. The men are condemned to a
+     similar ordeal, but they do not bear it with equal
+     fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid the
+     brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of
+     religious rite.
+
+Figure 10 is an ideal sketch of the cremation according to the
+description given.
+
+Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted.
+
+It is stated that the corpse is kept nine days after death--certainly a
+long period of time, when it is remembered that Indians as a rule
+endeavor to dispose of their dead as soon as possible. This may be
+accounted for on the supposition that it is to give the friends and
+relatives an opportunity of assembling, verifying the death, and of
+making proper preparations for the ceremony. With regard to the
+verification of the dead person, William Sheldon[51] gives an account of
+a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of Jamaica, and
+which seems to throw some light upon the unusual retention of deceased
+persons by the tribe in question, although it most be admitted that this
+is mere hypothesis:
+
+     They had some very extraordinary customs respecting
+     deceased persons. When one of them died, it was necessary
+     that all his relations should see him and examine the body
+     in order to ascertain that he died a natural death. They
+     acted so rigidly on this principle, that if one relative
+     remained who had not seen the body all the others could not
+     convince that one that the death was natural. In such a case
+     the absent relative considered himself as bound in honor to
+     consider all the other relatives as having been accessories
+     to the death of the kinsman, and did not rest until he had
+     killed one of them to revenge the death of the deceased. If
+     a Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe and but his
+     relations lived in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon
+     them to see the body, and several months sometimes elapsed
+     before it could be finally interred. When a Caraib died he
+     was immediately painted all over with _roucou_, and had his
+     mustachios and the black streaks in his face made with a
+     black paint, which was different from that used in their
+     lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the _carbet_ where
+     he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep. The body
+     was let down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached
+     to the knees, and the body was placed in it in a sitting
+     posture, resembling that in which they crouched round the
+     fire or the table when alive, with the elbows on the knees
+     and the palms of the hands against the cheeks. No part of
+     the body touched the outside of the grave, which was covered
+     with wood and mats until all the relations had examined it.
+     When the customary examinations and inspections were ended
+     the hole was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained
+     undisturbed. The hair of the deceased was kept tied behind.
+     In this way bodies have remained several months without any
+     symptoms of decay or producing any disagreeable smell. The
+     _roucou_ not only preserved them from the sun, air, and
+     insects during their lifetime, but probably had the same
+     effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs were placed by
+     them when they were covered over for inspection, and they
+     were finally buried with them.
+
+Again, we are told that during the burning the bystanders are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are over
+for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it may be
+remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas. As
+already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which the
+widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee, but,
+if the account be true, it would appear that death might be preferable
+to such torments.
+
+It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a husband
+died, women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her severely.
+Brohier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to take good
+care of their husbands.
+
+George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft,[52] states that among the Indians of Clear
+Lake, California, "the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a
+hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered."
+
+According to Stephen Powers,[53] cremation was common among the Se-nel
+of California. He thus relates it.
+
+     The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a
+     scene of incremation that he once witnessed, which was
+     frightful for its exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and
+     infatuation. The corpse was that of a wealthy chieftain, and
+     as he lay upon the funeral pyre they placed in his month two
+     gold twenties, and other smaller coins in his ears and
+     hands, on his breast, &c. besides all his finery, his
+     feather mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy
+     bows, painted arrows, &c. When the torch was applied they
+     set up a mournful ululation, chanting and dancing about him,
+     gradually working themselves into a wild and ecstatic
+     raving, which seemed almost a demoniacal possession,
+     leaping, howling, lacerating their flesh. Many seemed to
+     lose all self-control. The younger English-speaking Indians
+     generally lend themselves charily to such superstitious
+     work, especially if American spectators are present, but
+     even they were carried away by the old contagious frenzy of
+     their race. One stripped off a broadcloth coat, quite new
+     and fine, and ran frantically yelling and cast it upon the
+     blazing pile. Another rushed up, and was about to throw on a
+     pile of California blankets, when a white man, to test his
+     sincerity, offend him $16 for them, jingling the bright
+     coins before his eyes, but the savage (for such he had
+     become again for the moment) otherwise so avaricious, hurled
+     him away with a yell of execration and ran and threw his
+     offering into the flames. Squaws, even more frenzied, wildly
+     flung upon the pyre all they had in the world--their dearest
+     ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings of
+     glittering shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair,
+     beating their breasts in their mad and insensate
+     infatuation, some of them would have cast themselves bodily
+     into the flaming ruins and perished with the chief had they
+     not been restrained by their companions. Then the bright,
+     swift flames, with their hot tongues, licked this "cold
+     obstruction" into chemic change, and the once "delighted
+     spirit" of the savage was borne up. * * *
+
+     It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare's shudder at
+     the thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the
+     one passion of his superstition to think of the soul, of his
+     departed friend set free and purified by the swift purging
+     heat of the flames not dragged down to be clogged and bound
+     in the mouldering body, but borne up in the soft, warm
+     chariots of the smoke toward the beautiful sun, to bask in
+     his warmth and light, and then to fly away to the Happy
+     Western Land. What wonder if the Indian shrinks with
+     unspeakable horror from the thought of burying his friend's
+     soul!--of pressing and ramming down with pitiless clods that
+     inner something which once took such delight in the sweet
+     light of the sun! What wonder if it takes years to persuade
+     him to do otherwise and follow our custom! What wonder if
+     even then he does it with sad fears and misgivings! Why not
+     let him keep his custom! In the gorgeous landscapes and
+     balmy climate of California an Indian incremation is as
+     natural to the savage as it is for him to love the beauty of
+     the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the frozen Siberian bury
+     their dead if they will; it matters little, the earth is the
+     same above as below; or to them the bosom of the earth may
+     seem even the better; but in California do not blame the
+     savage if he recoils at the thought of going underground!
+     This soft pale halo of the lilac hills--ah, let him console
+     himself if he will with the belief that his lost friend
+     enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by saying that they
+     destroyed full $500 worth of property. "The blankets," said
+     he with a fine Californian scorn of much absurd
+     insensibility to such a good bargain, "the blankets that the
+     American offered him $16 for were not worth half the money."
+
+     After death the Se-nel hold that bad Indians return into
+     coyotes. Others fall off a bridge which all souls must
+     traverse, or are hooked off by a raging bull at the further
+     end, while the good escape across. Like the Yokain and the
+     Konkan, they believe it necessary to nourish the spirits of
+     the departed for the space of a year. This is generally done
+     by a squaw, who takes pinole in her blanket, repairs to the
+     scene of the incremation, or to places hallowed by the
+     memory of the dead, when she scatters it over the ground,
+     meantime rocking her body violently to and fro in a dance
+     and chanting the following chorous:
+
+       Hel-lel-li-ly,
+       Hel-lel-lo,
+       Hel-lel-lu.
+
+     This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the
+     words have no meaning whatever.
+
+Henry Gillman[54] has published an interesting account of the
+exploration of a mound near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant
+evidence that cremation had existed among the former Indian population.
+It is as follows:
+
+     In opening a burial-mound at Cade's Pond, a small body of
+     water situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fe
+     Lake, Fla., the writer found two instances of cremation, in
+     each of which the skull of the subject, which was
+     unconsumed, was used as the depository of his ashes. The
+     mound contained besides a large number of human burials, the
+     bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a great
+     number of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in
+     brilliant colors, chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some
+     of them ornamented with indented patterns, displaying not a
+     little skill in the ceramic art, though they are reduced to
+     fragments. The first of the skulls referred to was exhumed
+     at a depth of 2-1/2 feet. It rested on its apex (base
+     uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half
+     incinerated human bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and
+     the sand which invariably sifts into crania under such
+     circumstances. Immediately beneath the skull lay the greater
+     part of a human tibia, presenting the peculiar compression
+     known as a platyonemism [*transcriber's guess] to the degree
+     of affording a latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and
+     surrounding it lay the fragments of a large number of human
+     bones, probably constituting an entire individual. In the
+     second instance of this peculiar mode in cremation, the
+     cranium was discovered on nearly the opposite side of the
+     mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and, like the former, resting
+     on its apex. It was filled with a black mass--the
+     residuum of burnt human bones mingled with sand. At
+     three feet to the eastward lay the shaft of a flattened
+     tibia, which presents the longitudinal index of .527. Both
+     the skulls were free from all action of fire, and though
+     subsequently crumbling to pieces on their removal, the
+     writer had opportunity to observe their strong resemblance
+     to the small, orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed from
+     mounds in Michigan. The same resemblance was perceptible in
+     the other cranium belonging to this mound. The small narrow,
+     retreating frontal, prominent parietal protuberances, rather
+     protuberant occipital, which was not in the least
+     compressed, the well defined supracilliary ridges, and the
+     superior border of the orbits, presenting a quadrilateral
+     outline, were also particularly noticed. The lower facial
+     bones, including the maxillaries, were wanting. On
+     consulting such works as are accessible to him, the writer
+     finds no mention of any similar relics having been
+     discovered in mounds in Florida, or elsewhere. For further
+     particulars reference may be had to a paper on the subject
+     read before the Saint Louis meeting of the American
+     Association, August, 1878.
+
+The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The use
+of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.
+
+The fact is well-known to archaeologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property as
+occurred when the Indians of Southern Utah burned their dead, for Dr. E.
+Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the account
+of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proves that at
+the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by fire, but
+all articles of personal property, even the very habitation which had
+served as a home. After the process was completed, what remained
+unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.
+
+A.S. Tiffany[55] describes what he calls a cremation-furnace,
+discovered within seven miles of Davenport, Iowa.
+
+     * * * Mound seven miles, below the city, a projecting point
+     known as Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black
+     soil to the depth of from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a
+     burnt indurated clay, resembling in color and texture a
+     medium-burned brick, and about 30 inches in depth.
+     Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred human
+     remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged
+     and undisturbed loam of the bluffs, which formed the floor
+     of the pit. Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a
+     few very much decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No
+     implements of any kind were discovered. The furnace appears
+     to have been constructed by excavating the pit and placing
+     at the bottom of it the bodies or skeletons which had
+     possibly been collected from scaffolds, and placing the fuel
+     among and above the bodies, with a covering of poles or
+     split timbers extending over and resting upon the earth,
+     with the clay covering above, which latter we now find
+     resting upon the charred remains. The ends of the timber
+     covering, where they were protected by the earth above and
+     below, were reduced to charcoal, parallel pieces of which
+     were found at right angles to the length of the mound. No
+     charcoal was found among or near the remains, the combustion
+     there having been complete. The porous and softer portions
+     of the bones were reduced to pulverized bone-black. Mr.
+     Stevens also examined the furnace. The mound had probably
+     not been opened after the burning.
+
+This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect.
+
+Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given to
+show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.
+
+
+PARTIAL CREMATION.
+
+Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees, or some other tribe of
+North Carolina, and which is thus described by J.W. Foster:[56]
+
+     Up to 1819 the Cherokee held possession of this region,
+     when, in pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of
+     the lands lying in the valley of the Little Tennesee River.
+     In 1821 Mr. McDowell commenced farming. During the first
+     season's operations the plowshare, in passing over a certain
+     portion of a field, produced a hollow rumbling sound, and in
+     exploring for the cause the first object met with was a
+     shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a slab of burnt
+     clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which, in the
+     attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing
+     beneath this slab was found, but on examining its under
+     side, to his great surprise there was the mould of a naked
+     human figure. Three of these burned-clay sepulchers were
+     thus raised and examined during the first year of his
+     occupancy, since which time none have been found until
+     recently. During the past season, (1878) the plow brought up
+     another fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the
+     impress of a plump human arm.
+
+     Col. C.W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines,
+     which have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me
+     thus:
+
+     "We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending
+     back for 500 years. In this time they have buried their dead
+     under huge piles of stones. We have at one point the remains
+     of 600 warriors under one pile, but a grave has just been
+     opened of the following construction: A pit was dug, into
+     which the corpse was placed, face upward; then over it was
+     moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the form and features.
+     On this was built a hot fire, which formed an entire shield
+     of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such tomb
+     gives a perfect cast of the form of the occupant."
+
+     Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these
+     archeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the
+     exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the
+     mould, which he reached through a layer of charcoal, and
+     then with a trowel excavated beneath it. The clay was not
+     thoroughly baked, and no impression of the corpse was left,
+     except of the forehead and that portion of the limbs between
+     the ankles and the knees, and even these portions of the
+     mould crumbled. The body had been placed east and west, the
+     head toward the east. "I had hoped," continues Mr. McDowell,
+     "that the cast in the clay would be as perfect as one I
+     found 51 years ago, a fragment of which I presented to
+     Colonel Jenkes, with the impression of a part of the arm on
+     one side and on the other of the fingers, that had pressed
+     down the soft clay upon the body interred beneath it." The
+     mound-builders of the Ohio valley, as has been shown, often
+     placed a layer of clay over the dead, but not in immediate
+     contact, upon which they builded fires; and the evidence
+     that cremation was often resorted to in their disposition
+     are too abundant to be gainsaid.
+
+This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox:[57]
+
+     Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina
+     his attention was called to an unusual method of burial by
+     an ancient race of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous
+     instances burial places were discovered where the bodies had
+     been placed with the face up and covered with a coating of
+     plastic clay about an inch thick. A pile of wood was then
+     placed on top and fired, which consumed the body and baked
+     the clay, which retained the impression of the body. This
+     was then lightly covered with earth.
+
+It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the cases
+are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with in the
+extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the subject of
+burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states that the
+ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with plaster
+(probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.
+
+Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been practiced
+by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who
+
+     Bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the
+     shoulders nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared
+     by digging a hole of sufficient depth and circumference to
+     admit the body, the head being cut off. In the grave are
+     placed the bows and arrows, bead-work, trappings, &c.,
+     belonging to the deceased; quantities of food, consisting of
+     dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with the body
+     also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless
+     body; then a bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the
+     grave by the different members of the tribe, and on these
+     fagots the head was placed, the pile fired, and the head
+     consumed to ashes; after this was done the female relatives
+     of the deceased, who had appeared as mourners with their
+     faces blackened with a preparation resembling tar or paint,
+     dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head and
+     made three marks on their right cheek. This constituted the
+     mourning garb, the period of which lasted until this black
+     substance wore off from the face. In addition to this
+     mourning, the blood female relatives of the deceased (who,
+     by the way, appeared to be a man of distinction) had their
+     hair cropped short. I noticed while the head was burning
+     that the old women of the tribe sat on the ground, forming a
+     large circle, inside of which another circle of young girls
+     were formed standing and swaying their bodies to and fro and
+     singing a mournful ditty. This was the only burial of a male
+     that I witnessed. The custom of burying females is very
+     different, their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in skins
+     and laid away in caves, with their valuables and in some
+     cases food being placed with them in their mouths.
+     Occasionally money is left to pay for food in the spirit
+     land.
+
+This account is furnished by Gen. Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E.A. Barber[58] has
+described what may possibly have been a case of cremation like the one
+above noted:
+
+     A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my
+     notice recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia.
+     On the New Jersey bank of the Delaware River, a short
+     distance below Gloucester City, the skeleton of a man was
+     found buried in a standing position, in a high, red,
+     sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few inches below
+     the surface the neck bones were found, and below these the
+     remainder of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones
+     of the hands and feet. The skull being wanting, it could not
+     be determined whether the remains were those of an Indian or
+     of a white man, but in either case the sepulture was
+     peculiarly aboriginal. A careful exhumation and critical
+     examination by Mr. Klingbeil disclosed the fact that around
+     the lower extremities of the body had been placed a number
+     of large stones, which revealed traces of fire, in
+     conjunction with charred wood, and the bones of the feet had
+     undoubtedly been consumed. This fact makes it appear
+     reasonably certain that the subject had been executed,
+     probably as a prisoner of war. A pit had been dug, in which
+     he was placed erect, and a fire kindled around him. Then he
+     had been buried alive, or, at least, if he did not survive
+     the fiery ordeal, his body was imbedded in the earth, with
+     the exception of his head, which was left protruding above
+     the surface. As no trace of the cranium could be found, it
+     seems probable that the head had either been burned or
+     severed from the body and removed, or else left a prey to
+     ravenous birds. The skeleton, which would have measured
+     fully six feet in height, was undoubtedly that of a man.
+
+Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of mourning.
+The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their bodies as an
+outward expression of grief, and it is well known that the ancient
+Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments. Placing food with
+the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand, finds its analogue in
+the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time before interment,
+placed a piece of money in the corpse's mouth, which was thought to be
+Charon's fare for wafting the departed soul over the Infernal River.
+Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a certain cake,
+composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to appease the fury of
+Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure a safe and quiet
+entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if nothing more.
+
+
+
+
+AERIAL SEPULTURE.
+
+
+_LODGE-BURIAL._
+
+Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Slansbury,[59]
+and relates to the Sioux:
+
+     I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a
+     flag to the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had
+     attracted our curiosity. There were five of them pitched
+     upon the open prairie, and in them we found the bodies of
+     nine Sioux laid out upon the ground, wrapped in their robes
+     of buffalo-skin, with their saddles, spears, camp-kettles,
+     and all their accoutrements piled up around them. Some
+     lodges contained three, others only one body, all of which
+     were more or less in a state of decomposition. A short
+     distance apart from these was one lodge which, though small,
+     seemed of rather superior pretensions, and was evidently
+     pitched with great care. It contained the body of a young
+     Indian girl of sixteen or eighteen years, with a countenance
+     presenting quite an agreeable expression: she was richly
+     dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth elaborately
+     ornamented; a new pair of moccasins, beautifully embroidered
+     with porcupine quills, was on her feet, and her body was
+     wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes worked in like manner;
+     she had evidently been dead but a day or two, and to our
+     surprise a portion of the upper part of her person was bare,
+     exposing the face and a part of the breast, as if the robes
+     in which she was wrapped had by some means been disarranged,
+     whereas all the other bodies were closely covered up. It
+     was, at the time, the opinion of our mountaineers, that
+     these Indians must have fallen in an encounter with a party
+     of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they had all died
+     of the cholera, and that this young girl, being considered
+     past recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the
+     habiliments of the dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and
+     abandoned to her fate, so fearfully alarmed were the Indians
+     by this to them novel and terrible disease.
+
+It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional, and
+due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the homes
+of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was not the
+case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among the same
+tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of their chiefs
+(Long Horse) being disposed of as follows:
+
+     The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet
+     at the base, converging to a point, at least 30 feet high,
+     covered with buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a
+     part of the tail switch, which floats outside like, and
+     mingled with human scalps. The different skins are neatly
+     fitted and sewed together with sinew, and all painted in
+     seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and yellow,
+     decorated with various lifelike war scenes. Over the small
+     entrance is a large bright cross, the upright being a large
+     stuffed white wolf-skin upon his war lance, and the
+     cross-bar of bright scarlet flannel, containing the quiver
+     of bow and arrows, which nearly all warriors still carry,
+     even when armed with repeating rifles. As the cross is not a
+     pagan but a Christian (which Long Horse was not either by
+     profession or practice) emblem, it was probably placed there
+     by the influence of some of his white friends. I entered,
+     finding Long Horse buried Indian fashion, in full war dress,
+     paint and feathers, in a rude coffin, upon a platform about
+     breast high, decorated with weapons, scalps, and ornaments.
+     A large opening and wind-flap at the top favored
+     ventilation, and though he had lain there in an open coffin
+     a full month, some of which was hot weather, there was but
+     little effluvia; in fact, I have seldom found much in a
+     burial-teepee, and when this mode of burial is thus
+     performed it is less repulsive than natural to suppose.
+
+This account is furnished by Col. P.W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876; and although the account has been questioned, it is
+admitted for the reason that this gentleman persists, after a reperusal
+of his article, that the facts are correct.
+
+General Stewart Van Vliet, U.S.A., informs the writer that among the
+Sioux of Wyoming and Nebraska when a person of consequence dies a small
+scaffold is erected inside his lodge and the body wrapped in skins
+deposited therein. Different utensils and weapons are placed by his
+side, and in front a horse is slaughtered; the lodge is then closed up.
+
+Dr. W.J. Hoffman writes as follows regarding the burial lodges of the
+Shoshones of Nevada:
+
+     The Shoshones of the upper portion of Nevada are not known
+     to have at any time practiced cremation. In Independence
+     Valley, under a deserted and demolished _wickeup_ or "brush
+     tent," I found the dried-up corpse of a boy, about twelve
+     years of age. The body had been here for at least six weeks,
+     according to information received, and presented a shriveled
+     and hideous appearance. The dryness of the atmosphere
+     prevented decomposition. The Indians in this region usually
+     leave the body when life terminates, merely throwing over it
+     such rubbish as may be at hand, or the remains of their
+     primitive shelter tents, which are mostly composed of small
+     branches, leaves, grass, &c.
+
+     The Shoshones living on Independence Creek and on the
+     eastern banks of the Owybee River, upper portion of Nevada,
+     did not bury their dead at the time of my visit in 1871.
+     Whenever the person died, his lodge (usually constructed of
+     poles and branches of _Saler_) was demolished and placed in
+     one confused mass over his remains, when the band removed a
+     short distance. When the illness is not too great, or death
+     sudden, the sick person is removed to a favorable place,
+     some distance from their temporary camping ground, so as to
+     avoid the necessity of their own removal. Coyotes, ravens,
+     and other carnivores soon remove all the flesh so that there
+     remains nothing but the bones, and even these are scattered
+     by the wolves. The Indians at Tuscarora, Nevada, stated
+     that when it was possible and that they should by chance
+     meet the bony remains of any Shoshone, they would bury it,
+     but in what manner I failed to discover as the were very
+     reticent, and avoided giving any information regarding the
+     dead. One corpse was found totally dried and shrivelled,
+     owing to the dryness of the atmosphere in this region.
+
+Capt. F.W. Beechey[60] describes a curious mode of burial among the
+Esquimaux on the west coast of Alaska, which appears to be somewhat
+similar to lodge burial. Figure 11, after his illustration, affords a
+good idea of these burial receptacles.
+
+     Near us there was a burying ground, which in addition to
+     what we had already observed at Cape Espenburg furnished
+     several examples of the manner in which this tribe of
+     natives dispose of their dead. In some instances a platform
+     was constructed of drift-wood raised about two feet and a
+     quarter from the ground, upon which the body was placed,
+     with its head to the westward and a double tent of
+     drift-wood erected over it, the inner one with spars about
+     seven feet long, and the outer one with some that were three
+     times that length. They were placed close together, and at
+     first no doubt sufficiently so to prevent the depredations
+     of foxes and wolves, but they had yielded at last, and all
+     the bodies, and even the hides that covered them, had
+     suffered by these rapacious animals.
+
+     In these tents of the dead there were no coffins or planks,
+     as at Cape Espenburg, the bodies were dressed in a frock
+     made of eider duck skins, with one of deer skin over it, and
+     were covered with a sea horse hide, such as the natives use
+     for their _baidars_. Suspended to the poles, and on the
+     ground near them, were several Esquimaux implements,
+     consisting of wooden trays, paddles, and a tamborine, which,
+     we were informed as well as signs could convey the meaning
+     of the natives, were placed there for the use of the
+     deceased, who, in the next world (pointing to the western
+     sky) ate, drank, and sang songs. Having no interpreter, this
+     was all the information I could obtain, but the custom of
+     placing such instruments around the receptacles of the dead
+     is not unusual, and in all probability the Esquimaux may
+     believe that the soul has enjoyments in the next world
+     similar to those which constitute their happiness in this.
+
+The Blackfeet, Cheyennes, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the
+Indians of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J.F. Hammond, U.S.A.,
+place their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material. Some of the tribes of the
+northwest coast bury in houses similar to those shown in Figure 12.
+
+Bancroft[61] states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a
+death occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited
+palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
+attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently
+informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic
+accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of the
+Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred beneath the
+floors of their houses, a custom which has been followed by the Mosquito
+Indians of Central America and one or two of our own tribes.
+
+
+BOX-BURIAL
+
+Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain tribes
+on the northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead wonderfully
+carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a low platform
+or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small house with an
+angular roof, and each one has an opening through which food may be
+passed to the corpse.
+
+Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees did
+the same.
+
+Capt. J.H. Gageby, United States Army, furnishes the following relating to
+the Creeks in Indian Territory.
+
+     * * * are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute
+     made of branches of trees, covered with small branches,
+     leaves, and earth. I have seen several of their graves,
+     which after a few weeks had become uncovered and the remains
+     exposed to view. I saw in one Creek grave (a child's) a
+     small sum of silver, in another (adult male) some implements
+     of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred with the
+     feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies
+     of the Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and
+     faces with a composition made of grease and wood ashes, and
+     would remain in that condition for several days, and
+     probably a month.
+
+Josiah Priest[62] gives an account of the burial repositories of a tribe
+of Pacific coast Indians living on the Talomeco River, Oregon. The
+writer believes it to be entirely unreliable and gives it place as an
+example of credulity shown by many writers and readers.
+
+     The corpses of the Caciques were so well embalmed that there
+     was no bad smell, they were deposited in large wooden
+     coffins, well constructed, and placed upon benches two feet
+     from the ground. In smaller coffins, and in baskets, the
+     Spaniards found the clothes of the deceased men and women,
+     and so many pearls that they distributed them among the
+     officers and soldiers by handsfulls.
+
+In Bancroft[63] may be found the following account of the burial boxes
+of the Esquimaux.
+
+     The Eskimos do not as a rule bury their dead, but double the
+     body up and place it on the side in a plank box which is
+     elevated three or four feet from the ground and supported by
+     four posts. The grave-box is often covered with painted
+     figures of birds, fishes and animals. Sometimes it is
+     wrapped in skins placed upon an elevated frame and covered
+     with planks or trunks of trees so as to protect it from wild
+     beasts. Upon the frame, or in the grave box are deposited
+     the arms, clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of
+     the deceased. Frequent mention is made by travelers of
+     burial places where the bodies lie exposed with their heads
+     placed towards the north.
+
+Frederic Whymper[64] describes the burial boxes of the Kalosh of that
+Territory.
+
+     Their grave boxes or tombs are interesting. They contain
+     only the ashes of the dead. These people invariably burn the
+     deceased. On one of the boxes I saw a number of faces
+     painted, long tresses of human hair depending therefrom.
+     Each head represented a victim of the (happily) deceased
+     one's ferocity. In his day he was doubtless more esteemed
+     than if he had never harmed a fly. All their graves are much
+     ornamented with carved and painted faces and other devices.
+
+W.H. Dall,[65] well known as one of the most experienced and careful of
+American Ethnologic observers, describes the burial boxes of the Innuits
+of Unalaklik, Innuits of Yuka, and Ingaliks of Ulukuk as follows: Figs.
+13 and 14 are after his illustrations in the volume noted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 13--Innuit Grave]
+
+     INNUIT OF UNALAKLIK
+
+     The usual fashion is to place the body doubled up on its
+     side in a box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about
+     four feet long. This is elevated several feet above the
+     ground on four posts which project above the coffin or box.
+     The sides are often painted with red chalk in figures of fur
+     animals, birds, and fishes. According to the wealth of the
+     dead man, a number of articles which belonged to him are
+     attached to the coffin or strewed around it; some of them
+     have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes,
+     or even kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and
+     almost invariably the wooden dish, or "kantag," from which
+     the deceased was accustomed to eat, is hung on one of the
+     posts.
+
+     INNUIT OF YUKON.
+
+     The dead are enclosed above ground in a box in the manner
+     previously described. The annexed sketch shows the form of
+     the sarcophagus, which, in this case, is ornamented with
+     snow-shoes, a reel for seal-lines, a fishing-rod, and a
+     wooden dish or kantag. The latter is found with every grave,
+     and usually one is placed in the box with the body.
+     Sometimes a part of the property of the dead person is
+     placed in the coffin or about it; occasionally the whole is
+     thus disposed of. Generally the furs, possessions, and
+     clothing (except such as has been worn) are divided among
+     the nearer relatives of the dead, or remain in possession of
+     his family if he has one; such clothing, household utensils,
+     and weapons as the deceased had in daily use are almost
+     invariably enclosed in his coffin. If there are many deaths
+     about the same time, or an epidemic occurs, everything
+     belonging to the dead is destroyed. The house in which a
+     death occurs is always deserted and usually destroyed. In
+     order to avoid this, it is not uncommon to take the sick
+     person out of the house and put him in a tent to die.
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Ingalik grave.]
+
+     A woman's coffin may be known by the kettles and other
+     feminine utensils about it. There is no distinction between
+     the sexes in method of burial. On the outside of the coffin,
+     figures are usually drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur
+     animals usually indicate that the dead person was a good
+     trapper; if seal or deer skin, his proficiency as a hunter;
+     representation of parkies that he was wealthy; the manner of
+     his death is also occasionally indicated. For four days
+     after a death the women in the village do no sewing; for
+     five days the men do not cut wood with an axe. The relatives
+     of the dead must not seek birds' eggs on the overhanging
+     cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under them
+     and they will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or
+     indicated, except by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch
+     the body, chanting a mournful refrain until he is interred.
+     They seldom suspect that others have brought the death about
+     by shamanism, as the Indians almost invariably do.
+
+     At the end of a year from the death, a festival is given,
+     presents are made to those who assisted in making the
+     coffin, and the period of mourning is over. Their grief
+     seldom seems deep but they indulge for a long time in
+     wailing for the dead at intervals. I have seen several women
+     who refused to take a second husband, and had remained
+     single in spite of repeated offers for many years.
+
+     INGALIKS OF ULUKUK
+
+     As we drew near, we heard a low, wailing chant, and Mikala,
+     one of my men, informed me that it was women lamenting for
+     the dead. On landing, I saw several Indians hewing out the
+     box in which the dead are placed. * * * The body lay on its
+     side on a deer skin, the heels were lashed to the small of
+     the back, and the head bent forward on the chest so that his
+     coffin needed to be only about four feet long.
+
+
+TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL
+
+We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the most
+common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite extensively
+practiced even at the present time. From what can be learned the choice
+of this mode depends greatly on the facilities present, where timber
+abounds, trees being used, if absent, scaffolds being employed.
+
+From William J. Cleveland, of the Spotted Tail Agency, Nebraska, has been
+received a most interesting account of the mortuary customs of the Brule
+or Teton Sioux, who belong to the Lakotah alliance. They are called
+_Sicaugu_, in the Indian tongue _Seechaugas_, or the "burned thigh"
+people. The narrative is given in its entirety, not only on account of
+its careful attention to details, but from its known truthfulness of
+description. It relates to tree and scaffold burial.
+
+     FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND MOURNING OBSERVANCES
+
+     Though some few of this tribe now lay their dead in rude
+     boxes, either burying them when implements for digging can
+     be had, or, when they have no means of making a grave,
+     placing them on top of the ground on some hill or other
+     slight elevation, yet this is done in imitation of the
+     whites, and their general custom, as a people, probably does
+     not differ in any essential way from that of their
+     forefathers for many generations in the past. In disposing
+     of the dead, they wrap the body tightly in blankets or robes
+     (sometimes both) wind it all over with thongs made of the
+     hide of some animal and place it reclining on the back at
+     full length, either in the branches of some tree or on a
+     scaffold made for the purpose. These scaffolds are about
+     eight feet high and made by planting four forked sticks
+     firmly in the ground, one at each corner and then placing
+     others across on top, so as to form a floor on which the
+     body is securely fastened. Sometimes more than one body is
+     placed on the same scaffold, though generally a separate one
+     is made for each occasion. These Indians being in all things
+     most superstitious, attach a kind of sacredness to these
+     scaffolds and all the materials used or about the dead. This
+     superstition is in itself sufficient to prevent any of their
+     own people from disturbing the dead, and for one of another
+     nation to in any wise meddle with them is considered an
+     offense not too severely punished by death. The same
+     feeling also prevents them from ever using old scaffolds or
+     any of the wood which has been used about them, even for
+     firewood, though the necessity may be very great, for fear
+     some evil consequences will follow. It is also the custom,
+     though not universally followed, when bodies have been for
+     two years on the scaffolds to take them down and bury them
+     under ground.
+
+     All the work about winding up the dead, building the
+     scaffold, and placing the dead upon it is done by women
+     only, who, after having finished their labor, return and
+     bring the men, to show them where the body is placed, that
+     they may be able to find it in future. Valuables of all
+     kinds, such as weapons, ornaments, pipes, &c.--in short,
+     whatever the deceased valued most highly while living, and
+     locks of hair cut from the heads of the mourners at his
+     death, are always bound up with the body. In case the dead
+     was a man of importance, or if the family could afford it,
+     even though he were not, one or several horses (generally,
+     in the former case, those which the departed thought most
+     of) are shot and placed under the scaffold. The idea in this
+     is that the spirit of the horse will accompany and be of use
+     to his spirit in the "happy hunting grounds," or, as these
+     people express it, "the spirit land."
+
+     When an Indian dies, and in some cases even before death
+     occurs, the friends and relatives assemble at the lodge and
+     begin crying over the departed or departing one. This
+     consists in uttering the most heartrending, almost hideous
+     wails and lamentations, in which all join until exhausted.
+     Then the mourning ceases for a time until some one starts it
+     again, when all join in as before and keep it up until
+     unable to cry longer. This is kept up until the body is
+     removed. This crying is done almost wholly by women, who
+     gather in large numbers on such occasions, and among them a
+     few who are professional mourners. These are generally old
+     women and go whenever a person is expected to die, to take
+     the leading part in the lamentations, knowing that they will
+     be well paid at the distribution of goods which follows. As
+     soon as death takes place, the body is dressed by the women
+     in the best garments and blankets obtainable, new ones if
+     they can be afforded. The crowd gathered near continue
+     wailing piteously, and from time to time cut locks of hair
+     from their own heads with knives, and throw them on the dead
+     body. Those who wish to show their grief most strongly, cut
+     themselves in various places, generally in the legs and
+     arms, with their knives or pieces of flint, more commonly
+     the latter, causing the blood to flow freely over their
+     persons. This custom is followed to a less degree by the
+     men.
+
+     A body is seldom kept longer than one day as, besides the
+     desire to get the dead out of sight, the fear that the
+     disease which caused the death will communicate itself to
+     others of the family causes them to hasten the disposition
+     of it as soon as they are certain that death has actually
+     taken place.
+
+     Until the body is laid away the mourners eat nothing. After
+     that is done, connected with which there seems to be no
+     particular ceremony, the few women who attend to it return
+     to the lodge and a distribution is made among them and
+     others, not only of the remaining property of the deceased,
+     but of all the possessions, even to the lodge itself of the
+     family to which he belonged. This custom in some cases has
+     been carried so far as to leave the rest of the family not
+     only absolutely destitute but actually naked. After
+     continuing in this condition for a time, they gradually
+     reach the common level again by receiving gifts from various
+     sources.
+
+     The received custom requires of women, near relatives of the
+     dead, a strict observance of the ten days following the
+     death, as follows: They are to rise at a very early hour and
+     work unusually hard all day, joining in no feast, dance,
+     game, or other diversion, eat but little, and retire late,
+     that they may be deprived of the usual amount of sleep as of
+     food. During this they never paint themselves, but at
+     various times go to the top of some hill and bewail the dead
+     in loud cries and lamentations for hours together. After the
+     ten days have expired they paint themselves again and engage
+     in the usual amusements of the people as before. The men are
+     expected to mourn and fast for one day and then go on the
+     war-path against some other tribe, or on some long journey
+     alone. If he prefers, he can mourn and fast for two or more
+     days and remain at home. The custom of placing food at the
+     scaffold also prevails to some extent. If but little is
+     placed there it is understood to be for the spirit of the
+     dead, and no one is allowed to touch it. If much is
+     provided, it is done with the intention that those of the
+     same sex and age as the deceased shall meet there and
+     consume it. If the dead be a little girl, the young girls
+     meet and eat what is provided; if it be a man, then men
+     assemble for the same purpose. The relatives never mention
+     the name of the dead.
+
+     "KEEPING THE GHOST."
+
+     Still another custom, though at the present day by no means
+     generally followed, is still observed to some extent among
+     them. This is called _wanagce yuhapee_, or "keeping the
+     ghost." A little of the hair from the head of the deceased
+     being preserved is bound up in calico and articles of value
+     until the roll is about two feet long and ten inches or more
+     in diameter, when it is placed in a case made of hide
+     handsomely ornamented with various designs in different
+     colored paints. When the family is poor, however, they may
+     substitute for this case blue or scarlet blanket or cloth.
+     The roll is then swung lengthwise between two supports made
+     of sticks, placed thus X in front of a lodge which has been
+     set apart for the purpose. In this lodge are gathered
+     presents of all kinds, which are given out when a sufficient
+     quantity is obtained. It is often a year and sometimes
+     several years before this distribution is made. During all
+     this time the roll containing the hair of the deceased is
+     left undisturbed in front of the lodge. The gifts as they
+     are brought in are piled in the back part of the lodge, and
+     are not to be touched until given out. No one but men and
+     boys are admitted to the lodge unless it be a wife of the
+     deceased, who may go in if necessary very early in the
+     morning. The men sit inside, as they choose, to smoke, eat,
+     and converse. As they smoke they empty the ashes from their
+     pipes in the center of the lodge, and they, too, are left
+     undisturbed until after the distribution. When they eat, a
+     portion is always placed first under the roll outside for
+     the spirit of the deceased. No one is allowed to take this
+     unless a large quantity is so placed, in which case it may
+     be eaten by any persons actually in need of food, even
+     though strangers to the dead. When the proper time comes the
+     friends of the deceased and all to whom presents are to be
+     given are called together to the lodge and the things are
+     given out by the man in charge. Generally this is some near
+     relative of the departed. The roll is now undone and small
+     locks of the hair distributed with the other presents, which
+     ends the ceremony.
+
+     Sometimes this "keeping the ghost" is done several times,
+     and it is then looked upon as a repetition of the burial or
+     putting away of the dead. During all the time before the
+     distribution of the hair, the lodge, as well as the roll, is
+     looked upon as in a manner sacred, but after that ceremony
+     it becomes common again and may be used for any ordinary
+     purpose. No relative or near friend of the dead wishes to
+     retain anything in his possession that belonged to him while
+     living, or to see, hear, or own anything which will remind
+     him of the departed. Indeed, the leading idea in all their
+     burial customs in the laying away with the dead their most
+     valuable possessions, the giving to others what is left of
+     his and the family property, the refusal to mention his
+     name, &c., is to put out of mind as soon and as effectual as
+     possible the memory of the departed.
+
+     From what has been said, however, it will be seen that they
+     believe each person to have a spirit which continues to live
+     after the death of the body. They have no idea of a future
+     life in the body, but believe that after death their spirits
+     will meet and recognize the spirits of their departed
+     friends in the spirit land. They deem it essential to their
+     happiness here, however, to destroy as far as practicable
+     their recollection of the dead. They frequently speak of
+     death as a sleep, and of the dead as asleep or having gone
+     to sleep at such a time. These customs are gradually losing
+     their hold upon them, and are much less generally and
+     strictly observed than formerly.
+
+Figure 15 furnishes a good example of scaffold burial. Figure 16,
+offering of food and drink to the dead. Figure 17, depositing the dead
+upon the scaffold.
+
+A. Delano,[66] mentions as follows an example of tree-burial which he
+noticed in Nebraska.
+
+     * * * During the afternoon we passed a Sioux burying-ground,
+     if I may be allowed to use an Irishism. In a hackberry tree,
+     elevated about twenty feet from the ground, a kind of rack
+     was made of broken tent poles, and the body (for there was
+     but one) was placed upon it, wrapped in his blanket, and a
+     tanned buffalo skin, with his tin cup, moccasins, and
+     various things which he had used in life, were placed upon
+     his body, for his use in the land of spirits.
+
+Figure 18 represents tree-burial, from a sketch drawn by my friend Dr.
+Washington Matthews, United States Army.
+
+John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:
+
+     Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to
+     inclose the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned
+     by the departed, closely sewed up, and then, if a male or
+     chief, fasten in the branches of a tree so high as to be
+     beyond the reach of wolves, and then left to slowly waste in
+     the dry winds. If the body was that of a squaw or child, it
+     was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where it soon
+     became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes,
+     &c., of men were inclosed, and the small toys of children
+     with them. The ceremonies were equally barbarous, the
+     relatives cutting off, according to the depth of their
+     grief, one or more joints of the fingers, divesting
+     themselves of clothing even in the coldest weather, and
+     filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing up
+     and burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men
+     would not touch nor remain in proximity to a dead body.
+
+The following account of scaffold burial among the Gros Ventres and
+Mandans of Dakota is furnished by E.H. Alden, United States Indian
+agent at Fort Berthold:
+
+     The Gros Ventres and Mandans never bury in the ground, but
+     always on a scaffold, made of four posts about eight feet
+     high, on which the box is placed, or, if no box is used, the
+     body wrapped in red or blue cloth if able, or, if not, a
+     blanket of cheapest white cloth, the tools and weapons being
+     placed directly under the body, and there they remain
+     forever, no Indian ever daring to touch one of them. It
+     would be bad medicine to touch the dead or anything so
+     placed belonging to him. Should the body by any means fall
+     to the ground, it is never touched or replaced on the
+     scaffold. As soon as one dies he is immediately buried,
+     sometimes within an hour, and the friends begin howling and
+     wailing as the process of interment goes on, and continue
+     mourning day and night around the grave, without food
+     sometimes three or four days. Those who mourn are always
+     paid for it in some way by the other friends of the
+     deceased, and those who mourn the longest are paid the most.
+     They also show their grief and affection for the dead by a
+     fearful cutting of their own bodies, sometimes only in part,
+     and sometimes all over their whole flesh, and this sometimes
+     continues for weeks. Their hair, which is worn in long
+     braids, is also cut off to show their mourning. They seem
+     proud of their mutilations. A young man who had just buried
+     his mother came in boasting of, and showing his mangled
+     legs.
+
+According to Thomas L. McKenney,[67] the Chippewas of Fond du Lac, Wis.,
+buried on scaffolds, inclosing the corpse in a box. The narrative is as
+follows:
+
+     One mode of burying the dead among the Chippewas is to place
+     the coffin or box containing their remains on two
+     cross-pieces, nailed or tied with wattap to four poles. The
+     poles are about ten feet high. They plant near these posts
+     the wild hop or some other kind of running vine, which
+     spreads over and covers the coffin. I saw one of these on
+     the island, and as I have described it. It was the coffin of
+     a child about four years old. It was near the lodge of the
+     sick girl. I have a sketch of it. I asked the chief why his
+     people disposed of their dead in that way. He answered they
+     did not like to put them out of their sight so soon by
+     putting them under ground. Upon a platform they could see
+     the box that contained their remains, and that was a comfort
+     to them.
+
+Figure 19 is copied from McKenney's picture of this form of burial.
+Keating[68] thus describes burial scaffolds:
+
+     On these scaffolds, which are from eight to ten feet high,
+     corpses were deposited in a box made from part of a broken
+     canoe. Some hair was suspended, which we at first mistook
+     for a scalp, but our guide informed us that these were locks
+     of hair torn from their heads by the relatives to testify
+     their grief. In the center, between the four posts which
+     supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the ground,
+     it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human
+     figures, five of which had a design of a petticoat
+     indicating them to be females; the rest amounting to
+     seven, were naked and were intended for male figures; of
+     the latter four were headless, showing that they had been
+     slain, the three other male figures were unmutilated, but
+     held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide informed us
+     designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an
+     usual accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a
+     warrior's remains, does not represent the achievements of
+     the deceased, but those of the warriors that assembled near
+     his remains danced the dance of the post, and related their
+     martial exploits. A number of small bones of animals were
+     observed in the vicinity, which were probably left there
+     after a feast celebrated in honor of the dead.
+
+     The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that
+     a man could not lie in them extended at full length, but in
+     a country where boxes and boards are scarce this is
+     overlooked. After the corpses have remained a certain time
+     exposed, they are taken down and burned. Our guide,
+     Renville, related to us that he had been a witness to an
+     interesting, though painful, circumstance that occurred
+     here. An Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing that
+     his son had died at this spot, came up in a canoe to take
+     charge of the remains and convey them down the river to his
+     place of abode but on his arrival he found that the corpse
+     had already made such progress toward decomposition as
+     rendered it impossible for it to be removed. He then
+     undertook with a few friends, to clean off the bones. All
+     the flesh was scraped off and thrown into the stream, the
+     bones were carefully collected into his canoe, and
+     subsequently carried down to his residence.
+
+Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is
+the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, United States Army, and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis, United
+States Army, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to the
+Cheyennes of Kansas.
+
+     The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the
+     banks of Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet
+     from the ground by four notched poles, which were firmly
+     planted in the ground. The unusual care manifested in the
+     preparation of the case induced Dr. Sternberg to infer that
+     some important chief was inclosed in it. Believing that
+     articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and that
+     their value would be enhanced if the were received at the
+     Museum as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to
+     send the case unopened.
+
+     I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of
+     the contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced
+     branches of white willow, about six feet long, three feet
+     broad, and three feet high, with a flooring of buffalo
+     thongs arranged as a net-work. This cradle was securely
+     fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles of ironwood
+     and cottonwood, about twelve feet in length. These poles
+     doubtless rested upon the forked extremities of the vertical
+     poles described by Dr. Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in
+     two buffalo robes of large size and well preserved. On
+     removing these an aperture eighteen inches square was found
+     at the middle of the right-side of the cradle or basket.
+     Within appeared other buffalo robes folded about the
+     remains, and secured by gaudy-colored sashes. Five robes
+     were successively removed, making seven in all. Then we came
+     to a series of new blankets folded about the remains. There
+     were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one white.
+     These being removed, the next wrappings consisted of a
+     striped white and gray sack, and of a United States Infantry
+     overcoat, like the other coverings nearly new. We had now
+     come apparently upon the immediate envelope of the remains,
+     which it was now evident must be those of a child. These
+     consisted of three robes, with hoods very richly ornamented
+     with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of buffalo-calf
+     skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated with
+     bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of
+     blue and white bead-work, the second was green and yellow,
+     and the third blue and red. All were further adorned by
+     spherical brass bells attached all about the borders by
+     strings of beads.
+
+     The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar
+     to that used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern
+     plains, and upon a pillow of dirty rags, in which were
+     folded a bag of red paint, bits of antelope skin, bunches of
+     straps, buckles, &c. The three bead-work hooded cloaks were
+     now removed, and then we successively unwrapped a gray
+     woolen double shawl, five yards of blue cassimere, six yards
+     of red calico, and six yards of brown calico, and finally
+     disclosed the remains of a child, probably about a year old,
+     in an advanced stage of decomposition. The cadaver had a
+     beaver-cap ornamented with disks of copper containing the
+     bones of the cranium, which had fallen apart. About the neck
+     were long wampum necklaces, with _Dentalium, Unionidae_, and
+     _Auriculae_, interspersed with beads. There were also strings
+     of the pieces of _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so
+     valued by the Indians on this side of the Rocky Mountains.
+     The body had been elaborately dressed for burial, the
+     costume consisting of a red-flannel cloak, a red tunic, and
+     frock-leggins adorned with bead-work, yarn stockings of red
+     and black worsted, and deer-skin beadwork moccasins. With
+     the remains were numerous trinkets, a porcelain image, a
+     China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a pair of
+     mittens, a fur collar, a pouch of the skin of _Putorius
+     vison_, &c.
+
+Another extremely interesting account of scaffold-burial, furnished by
+Dr. L.S. Turner, United States Army, Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to
+the Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious
+mourning observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the
+entire globe:
+
+     The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs
+     can be found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding
+     on which to lay the body, but as such growth is not common
+     in Dakota, the more general practice is to lay them upon
+     scaffolds from seven to ten feet high and out of the reach
+     of carnivorous animals, as the wolf. These scaffolds are
+     constructed upon four posts set into the ground something
+     after the manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like
+     all labors of a domestic kind, the preparation for burial is
+     left to the women, usually the old women. The work begins as
+     soon as life is extinct. The face, neck, and hands are
+     thickly painted with vermilion, or a species of red earth
+     found in various portions of the Territory when the
+     vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The clothes and
+     personal trinkets of the deceased ornament the body. When
+     blankets are available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts
+     of the body being completely enveloped. Around this a
+     dressed skin of buffalo is then securely wrapped, with the
+     flesh side out, and the whole securely bound with thongs of
+     skins, either raw or dressed; and for ornament, when
+     available, a bright-red blanket envelopes all other
+     coverings, and renders the general scene more picturesque
+     until dimmed by time and the elements. As soon as the
+     scaffold is ready, the body is borne by the women, followed
+     by the female relatives, to the place of final deposit, and
+     left prone in its secure wrappings upon this airy bed of
+     death. This ceremony is accompanied with lamentations wild
+     and weird that one must see and hear in order to appreciate.
+     If the deceased be a brave, it is customary to place upon or
+     beneath the scaffold a few buffalo-heads which time has
+     rendered dry and inoffensive; and if he has been brave in
+     war some of his implements of battle are placed on the
+     scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If the deceased
+     has been a chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it is
+     not uncommon to slay his favorite pony and place the body
+     beneath the scaffold, under the superstition, I suppose,
+     that the horse goes with the man. As illustrating the
+     propensity to provide the dead with the things used while
+     living, I may mention that some years ago I loaned to an old
+     man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a young man who
+     was slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made him promise
+     faithfully that he would return it as soon as his son was
+     done using it. Not long afterwards the urinal graced the
+     scaffold which held the remains of the dead warrior, and as
+     it has not to this day been returned I presume the young man
+     is not done using it.
+
+     The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them
+     appear to be of universal observance, cover considerable
+     ground. The hair, never cut under other circumstances, is
+     cropped off even with the neck, and the top of the head and
+     forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole body, are smeared
+     with a species of white earth resembling chalk, moistened
+     with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family
+     possessions except the few shabby articles of apparel worn
+     by the mourners, are given away and the family left
+     destitute. Thus far the custom is universal or nearly so.
+     The wives, mother, and sisters of a deceased man, on the
+     first, second, or third day after the funeral, frequently
+     throw off their moccasins and leggings and gash their legs
+     with their butcher-knives, and march through the camp and to
+     the place of burial with bare and bleeding extremities,
+     while they chant or wail their dismal songs of mourning. The
+     men likewise often gash themselves in many places, and
+     usually seek the solitude of the higher point on the distant
+     prairie, where they remain fasting, smoking, and wailing out
+     their lamentations for two or three days. A chief who had
+     lost a brother once came to me after three or four days of
+     mourning in solitude almost exhausted from hunger and bodily
+     anguish. He had gashed the outer side of both lower
+     extremities at intervals of a few inches all the way from
+     the ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds had inflamed
+     from exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me
+     that he had not slept for several days or nights. I dressed
+     his wounds with a soothing ointment, and gave him a full
+     dose of an effective anodyne, after which he slept long and
+     refreshingly, and awoke to express his gratitude and shake
+     my hand in a very cordial and sincere manner. When these
+     harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the mourners
+     usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial,
+     toward the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until it is
+     apparently assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely
+     kept up for more than four or five days, but is occasionally
+     resorted to, at intervals, for weeks, or even months,
+     according to the mood of the bereft. I have seen few things
+     in life so touching as the spectacle of an old father going
+     daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows are
+     lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would
+     move a demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight,
+     when, silent and solemn, he returns to his desolate family.
+     The weird effect of this observance is sometimes heightened,
+     when the deceased was a grown-up son, by the old man
+     kindling a little fire near the head of the scaffold, and
+     varying his lamentations with smoking in silence. The
+     foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances
+     during a period of more than six years' constant intercourse
+     with several subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may
+     be much which memory has failed to recall upon a brief
+     consideration.
+
+Figure 20 represents scarification as a form of grief-expression for the
+dead.
+
+Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner's narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.
+
+Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears to
+have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied cremation,
+and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes, oil, &c., were
+thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this, articles supposed or
+known to have been agreeable to the deceased were also consumed. The
+Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese, Caribs, and many of
+the tribes of North American Indians followed these customs. The cutting
+of hair as a mourning observance is of very great antiquity, and Tegg
+relates that among the ancients whole cities and countries were shaved
+(_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians not only shaved themselves
+on such occasions, but extended the same process to their domestic
+animals, and Alexander, at the death of Hephaestin, not only cut off the
+manes of his horses and mules, but took down the battlements from the
+city walls, that even towns might seem in mourning and look bald.
+Scarifying and mutilating the body has prevailed from a remote period of
+time, having possibly replaced, in the process of evolution, to a
+certain extent, the more barbarous practice of absolute personal
+sacrifice. In later days, among our Indians, human sacrifices have taken
+place to only a limited extent, but formerly many victims were
+immolated, for at the funerals of the chiefs of the Florida and Carolina
+Indians all the male relatives and wives were slain, for the reason,
+according to Gallatin, that the hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun
+descended, as usual, by the female line, and he, as well as all other
+members of his clan, whether male or female, could marry only persons of
+an inferior clan. To this day mutilation of the person among some tribes
+of Indians is usual. The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by
+no means peculiar to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans,
+and possibly even among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutre,
+in France, the writer saw horses' bones exhumed from the graves examined
+in 1873. The writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this
+subject, and they have invariably informed him that when horses were
+slain great care was taken to select the poorest of the band.
+
+Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+Colchiens enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to trees;
+the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to the use
+of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it seems
+somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the eastern
+portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in this way,
+which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much easier
+method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living in
+sparsely-wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider that the
+Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as possible, the
+fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds would lead to the
+supposition that those living on the plains were well aware of the
+desiccating property of the dry air of that arid region. This
+desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.
+
+The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in loud
+cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a greater
+significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe, and on this
+point Bruhier[69] seems quite positive, his interpretation being that
+such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He gives some
+interesting examples, which may be admitted here:
+
+     The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed
+     with comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he
+     preferred to leave this world, having everything to make
+     life comfortable. They place the corpse on a little seat in
+     a ditch or grave four or five feet deep, and for ten days
+     they bring food, requesting the corpse to eat. Finally,
+     being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor return to
+     life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and fill
+     up the grave.
+
+When one died among the Romans, the nearest relatives embraced the body,
+closed the eyes and month, and when one was about to die received the
+last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the deceased
+by name was known as the _conclamation_, and was a custom anterior even
+to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from home was immediately
+removed thither, in order that this might be performed with greater
+propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the relatives threw themselves
+on the corpse and with loud cries called it by name, and up to 1855 the
+Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of one of their number,
+performed mournful musical airs on brass instruments from the village
+church steeple and again at the grave[70]. This custom, however, was
+probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to
+prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, was intended to scare away bad
+spirits.
+
+W.L. Hardisty[71] gives a curious example of log-burial in trees,
+relating to the Loncheux of British America:
+
+     They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood,
+     and secure it to two or more trees, about six feet from the
+     ground. A log about eight feet long is first spilt in two,
+     and each of the parts carefully hollowed out to the required
+     size The body is then inclosed and the two pieces well
+     lashed together, preparatory to being finally secured, as
+     before stated, to the trees.
+
+The American Indians are by no means the only savages employing
+scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead, for Wood[72] gives a number
+of examples of this mode of burial.
+
+     In some parts of Australia the natives, instead of consuming
+     the body by fire, or hiding it in caves or in graves, make
+     it a peculiarly conspicuous object. Should a tree grow
+     favorably for their purpose, they will employ it as the
+     final resting place for the dead body. Lying in its canoe
+     coffin, and so covered over with leaves and grass that its
+     shape is quite disguised, the body is lifted into a
+     convenient fork of the tree and lashed to the boughs, by
+     native ropes. No farther care is taken of it, and if in
+     process of time it should be blown out of the tree, no one
+     will take the trouble of replacing it.
+
+     Should no tree be growing in the selected spot, an
+     artificial platform is made for the body, by fixing the ends
+     of stout branches in the ground and connecting them at their
+     tops by smaller horizontal branches. Such are the curious
+     tombs which are represented in the illustration. * * * These
+     strange tombs are mostly placed among the reeds, so that
+     nothing can be more mournful than the sound of the wind as
+     it shakes the reeds below the branch in which the corpse is
+     lying. The object of this aerial tomb is evident enough,
+     namely, to protect the corpse from the dingo, or native dog.
+     That the ravens and other carrion-eating birds should make a
+     banquet upon the body of the dead man does not seem to
+     trouble the survivors in the least, and it often happens
+     that the traveler is told by the croak of the disturbed
+     ravens that the body of a dead Australian is lying in the
+     branches over his head.
+
+     The aerial tombs are mostly erected for the bodies of old
+     men who have died a natural death; but when a young warrior
+     has fallen in battle the body is treated in a very different
+     manner. A moderately high platform is erected, and upon this
+     is seated the body of the dead warrior with the face toward
+     the rising sun. The legs are crossed and the arms kept
+     extended by means of sticks. The fat is then removed, and
+     after being mixed with red ochre is rubbed over the body,
+     which has previously been carefully denuded of hair, as is
+     done in the ceremony of initiation. The legs and arms are
+     covered with zebra-like stripes of red, white, and yellow,
+     and the weapons of the dead man are laid across his lap.
+
+     The body being thus arranged, fires are lighted under the
+     platform, and kept up for ten days or more, during the whole
+     of which time the friends and mourners remain by the body,
+     and are not permitted to speak. Sentinels relieve each other
+     at appointed intervals, their duty being to see that the
+     fires are not suffered to go out, and to keep the flies away
+     by waving leafy boughs or bunches of emu feathers. When a
+     body has been treated in this manner it becomes hard and
+     mummy-like, and the strongest point is that the wild dogs
+     will not touch it after it has been so long smoked. It
+     remains sitting on the platform for two months or so, and is
+     then taken down and buried, with the exception of the skull,
+     which is made into a drinking-cup for the nearest relative.
+     * * *
+
+This mode of mummifying resembles somewhat that already described as the
+process by which the Virginia kings were preserved from decomposition.
+
+Figs. 21 and 22 represent the Australian burials described, and are
+after the original engravings in Wood's work. The one representing
+scaffold-burial resembles greatly the scaffolds of our own Indians.
+
+With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead,
+the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, United States Army, are given:
+
+     If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the
+     dead bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon
+     scaffolds resembling trees, instead of burying them in the
+     ground, or burning them and preserving their ashes in urns,
+     I think we can answer the inquiry by recollecting that most
+     if not all the tribes of American Indians, as well as other
+     nations of a higher civilization, believed that the human
+     soul, spirit, or immortal part was of the form and nature of
+     a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their
+     habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the soul-bird
+     would have readier access to its former home or
+     dwelling-place if it was placed upon a tree or scaffold than
+     if it was buried in the earth; moreover, from this lofty
+     eyrie the souls of the dead could rest secure from the
+     attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard like
+     sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones.
+
+This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the writer's
+possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct without
+farther investigation.
+
+
+PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES.
+
+Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures, called by
+writers "bone-houses." Roman[73] relates the following concerning the
+Choctaws:
+
+     The following treatment of the dead is very strange. * * * As
+     soon as the deceased is departed, a stage is erected (as in
+     the annexed plate is represented) and the corpse is laid on
+     it and covered with a bear-skin; if he be a man of note, it
+     is decorated, and the poles painted red with vermillion and
+     bear's oil; if a child, it is put upon stakes set across; at
+     this stage the relations come and weep, asking many
+     questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did not
+     his wife serve him well? was he not contented with his
+     children? had he not corn enough? did not his land produce
+     sufficient of everything? was he afraid of his enemies? &c.,
+     and this accompanied by loud howlings; the women will be
+     there constantly, and sometimes, with the corrupted air and
+     heat of the sun, faint so as to oblige the bystanders to
+     carry them home; the men will also come and mourn in the
+     same manner, but in the night or at other unseasonable times
+     when they are least likely to be discovered.
+
+     The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a
+     certain time, but not a fixed space; this is sometimes
+     extended to three or four months, but seldom more than half
+     that time. A certain set of venerable old Gentlemen, who
+     wear very long nails as a distinguishing badge on the thumb,
+     fore, and middle finger of each hand, constantly travel
+     through the nation (when I was there I was told there were
+     but five of this respectable order) that one of them may
+     acquaint those concerned, of the expiration of this period,
+     which is according to their own fancy; the day being come,
+     the friends and relations assemble near the stage, a fire is
+     made, and the respectable operator, after the body is taken
+     down, with his nails tears the remaining flesh off the
+     bones, and throws it with the entrails into the fire, where
+     it is consumed; then he scrapes the bones and burns the
+     scrapings likewise; the head being painted red with
+     vermillion is with the rest of the bones put into a neatly
+     made chest (which for a Chief is also made red) and
+     deposited in the loft of a hut built for that purpose, and
+     called bone house; each town has one of these; after
+     remaining here one year or thereabouts, if he be a man of
+     any note, they take the chest down, and in an assembly of
+     relations and friends they weep once more over him, refresh
+     the colour of the head, paint the box, and then deposit him
+     to lasting oblivion.
+
+     An enemy and one who commits suicide is buried under the
+     earth as one to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above
+     ceremonial obsequies and mourning.
+
+Jones[74] quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the
+Natchez tribe:
+
+     Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in
+     tombs. These tombs were located within or very near their
+     temples. They rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in
+     the ground, and were raised some three feet above the earth.
+     About eight feet long and a foot and a half wide, they were
+     prepared for the reception of a single corpse. After the
+     body was placed upon it, a basket-work of twigs was woven
+     around and covered with mud, an opening being left at the
+     head, through which food was presented to the deceased. When
+     the flesh had all rotted away, the bones were taken out,
+     placed in a box made of canes, and then deposited in the
+     temple. The common dead were mourned and lamented for a
+     period of three days. Those who fell in battle were honored
+     with a more protracted and grievous lamentation.
+
+Bartram[75] gives a somewhat different account from Roman of burial
+among the Choctaws of Carolina:
+
+     The Chactaws pay their last duties and respect to the
+     deceased in a very different manner. As soon as a person is
+     dead, they erect a scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove
+     adjacent to the town, where they lay the corps, lightly
+     covered with a mantle; here it is suffered to remain,
+     visited and protected by the friends and relations, until
+     the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from the
+     bones; then undertakers, who make it their business,
+     carefully strip the flesh from the bones, wash and cleanse
+     them, and when dry and purified by the air, having provided
+     a curiously-wrought chest or coffin, fabricated of bones and
+     splints, they place all the bones therein, which is
+     deposited in the bone-house, a building erected for that
+     purpose in every town; and when this house is full a general
+     solemn funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or
+     friends of the deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the
+     bone-house, take up the respective coffins, and, following
+     one another in order of seniority, the nearest relations and
+     connections attending their respective corps, and the
+     multitude following after them, all as one family, with
+     united voice of alternate allelujah and lamentation, slowly
+     proceeding on to the place of general interment, when they
+     place the coffins in order, forming a pyramid;[76] and,
+     lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a conical
+     hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn
+     procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is
+     called the feast of the dead.
+
+Morgan[77] also alludes to this mode of burial:
+
+     The body of the deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding
+     erected upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where
+     it was left to waste to a skeleton. After this had been
+     effected by the process of decomposition in the open air,
+     the bones were removed either to the former house of the
+     deceased, or to a small bark house by its side, prepared for
+     their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the whole
+     family were preserved from generation to generation by the
+     filial or parental affection of the living. After the lapse
+     of a number of years, or in a season of public insecurity,
+     or on the eve of abandoning a settlement, it was customary
+     to collect these skeletons from the whole community around
+     and consign them to a common resting-place.
+
+     To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is
+     doubtless to be ascribed the burrows and bone-mounds which
+     have been found in such numbers in various parts of the
+     country. On opening these mounds the skeletons are usually
+     found arranged in horizontal layers, a conical pyramid,
+     those in each layer radiating from a common center. In other
+     cases they are found placed promiscuously.
+
+Dr. D.G. Brinton[78] likewise gives an account of the interment of
+collected bones:
+
+     East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed
+     at stated periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to
+     collect and clean the osseous remains of those of its number
+     who had died in the intervening time, and inter them in one
+     common sepulcher, lined with choice furs, and marked with a
+     mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such is the origin of those
+     immense tumuli filed with the mortal remains of nations and
+     generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent curiosity,
+     so frequently chances upon in all portions of our territory.
+     Throughout Central America the same usage obtained in
+     various localities, as early writers and existing monuments
+     abundantly testify. Instead of interring the bones, were
+     they those of some distinguished chieftain, they were
+     deposited in the temples or the council-houses, usually in
+     small chests of canes or splints. Such were the
+     charnel-houses which the historians of De Soto's expedition
+     so often mention, and these are the "arks" Adair and other
+     authors who have sought to trace the decent of the Indians
+     from the Jews have likened to that which the ancient
+     Israelites bore with them in their migration.
+
+     A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of
+     her deceased husband wherever she went for four years,
+     preserving them in such a casket, handsomely decorated with
+     feathers (Rich. Arc. Exp., p. 200). The Caribs of the
+     mainland adopted the custom for all, without exception.
+     About a year after death the bones were cleaned, bleached,
+     painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a wicker
+     basket, and kept suspended from the door of their dwelling
+     (Gumilla Hist. del Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the
+     quantity of these heirlooms became burdensome they were
+     removed to some inaccessible cavern and stowed away with
+     reverential care.
+
+George Catlin[79] describes what he calls the "Golgothas" of the
+Mandans:
+
+     There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty
+     or thirty feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring
+     or circle is a little mound of three feet high, on which
+     uniformly rest two buffalo skulls (a male and female), and
+     in the center of the little mound is erected "a medicine
+     pole," of about twenty feet high, supporting many curious
+     articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose
+     have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred
+     arrangement.
+
+     Here, then, to this strange place do these people again
+     resort to evince their further affections for the dead, not
+     in groans and lamentations, however, for several years have
+     cured the anguish, but fond affection and endearments are
+     here renewed, and conversations are here held and cherished
+     with the dead. Each one of these skulls is placed upon a
+     bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and placed under
+     it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the skull
+     of her husband or her child which lies in this group, and
+     there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it with a
+     dish of the best-cooked food that her wigwam affords, which
+     she sets before the skull at night, and returns for the dish
+     in the morning. As soon as it is discovered that the sage on
+     which the skull rests is beginning to decay, the woman cuts
+     a fresh bunch and places the skull carefully upon it,
+     removing that which was under it.
+
+     Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women
+     to this spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger
+     upon it to hold converse and company with the dead. There is
+     scarcely an hour in a pleasant day but more or less of these
+     women may be seen sitting or lying by the skull of their
+     child or husband, talking to it in the most pleasant and
+     endearing language that they can use (as they were wont to
+     do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back.
+
+From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which have
+been described by the authors cited were not confined to any special
+tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have prevailed
+among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.
+
+
+SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES.
+
+The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast.
+
+The first example given relates to the Chinooks of Washington Territory,
+and may be found in Swan.[80]
+
+     In this instance old Cartumhays, and old Mahar, a celebrated
+     doctor, were the chief mourners, probably from being the
+     smartest scamps among the relatives. Their duty was to
+     prepare the canoe for the reception of the body. One of the
+     largest and best the deceased had owned was then hauled into
+     the woods, at some distance back of the lodge, after having
+     been first thoroughly washed and scrubbed. Two large square
+     holes were then cut in the bottom, at the bow and stern, for
+     the twofold purpose of rendering the canoe unfit for further
+     use, and therefore less likely to excite the cupidity of the
+     whites (who are but too apt to help themselves to these
+     depositories for the dead), and also to allow any rain to
+     pass off readily.
+
+     When the canoe was ready, the corpse, wrapped in blankets,
+     was brought out, and laid in it on mats previously spread.
+     All the wearing apparel was next put in beside the body,
+     together with her trinkets, beads, little baskets, and
+     various trifles she had prized. More blankets were then
+     covered over the body, and mats smoothed over all. Next, a
+     small canoe, which fitted into the large one, was placed,
+     bottom up, over the corpse, and the whole then covered with
+     mats. The canoe was then raised up and placed on two
+     parallel bars, elevated four or five feet from the ground,
+     and supported by being inserted through holes mortised at
+     the top of four stout posts previously firmly planted in the
+     earth. Around these holes were then hung blankets, and all
+     the cooking utensils of the deceased, pots, kettles, and
+     pans, each with a hole punched through it, and all her
+     crockery-ware, every piece of which was first cracked or
+     broken, to render it useless; and then, when all was done,
+     they left her to remain for one year, when the bones would
+     be buried in a box in the earth directly under the canoe;
+     but that, with all its appendages, would never be molested,
+     but left to go to gradual decay.
+
+     They regard these canoes precisely as we regard coffins, and
+     would no more think of using one than we would of using our
+     own graveyard relics; and it is, in their view, as much of a
+     desecration for a white man to meddle or interfere with
+     these, to them, sacred mementoes, as it would be to us to
+     have an Indian open the graves of our relatives. Many
+     thoughtless white men have done this, and animosities have
+     been thus occasioned.
+
+Figure 23 represents this mode of burial.
+
+From a number of other examples, the following, relating to the Twanas,
+and furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency,
+Washington Territory, is selected:
+
+     The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years
+     of age, dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in
+     the afternoon I went to the house to attend the funeral.
+     She had then been placed in a Hudson's Bay Company's box for
+     a coffin, which was about 3-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 wide, and
+     1-1/2 high. She was very poor when she died, owing to her
+     disease, or she could not have been put in this box. A fire
+     was burning near by, where a large number of her things had
+     been consumed, and the rest was in three boxes near the
+     coffin. Her mother sang the mourning song, sometimes with
+     others, and often saying, "My daughter, my daughter, why did
+     you die?" and similar words. The burial did not take place
+     until the next day, and I was invited to go. It was an
+     aerial burial in a canoe. The canoe was about 25 feet long.
+     The posts, of old Indian layered boards, were about a foot
+     wide. Holes were cut in those, in which boards were placed,
+     on which the canoe rested. One thing I noticed while this
+     was done which was new to me, but the significance of which
+     I did not learn. As fast as the holes were cut in the posts,
+     green leaves were gathered and placed over the holes until
+     the posts were put in the ground. The coffin-box and the
+     three others containing her things were placed in the canoe
+     and a roof of boards made over the central part, which was
+     entirely covered with white cloth. The head part and the
+     foot part of her bedstead were then nailed on to the posts,
+     which front the water, and a dress nailed on each of these.
+     After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hull and
+     went to the beach except her father, mother, and brother,
+     who remained ten or fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe
+     and mourning. They then came down and made a present to
+     those persons who were there--a gun to one, a blanket to
+     each of two or three others, and a dollar and a half to each
+     of the rest, including myself, there being about fifteen
+     persons present. Three or four of them then made short
+     speeches, and we came home. The reason why she was buried
+     thus is said to be because she is a prominent woman in the
+     tribe. In about nine months it is expected that there will
+     be a "_pot-latch_" or distribution of money near this place,
+     and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation of
+     two or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at
+     the grave; soon after that shall be done she will be buried
+     in the ground. Shortly after her death both her father and
+     mother cut off their hair as a sign of their grief.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--Twana Canoe Burial.]
+
+Figure 24 is from a sketch kindly furnished by Mr. Eells, and represents
+the burial mentioned in his narrative.
+
+The Clallams and Twanas, an allied tribe, have not always followed
+canoe-burial, as may be seen from the following account, also written by
+Mr. Eells, who gives the reasons why the original mode of disposing of
+the dead was abandoned. It is extremely interesting, and characterized
+by painstaking attention to detail:
+
+     I divide this subject into five periods, varying according
+     to time, though they are somewhat intermingled.
+
+     _(a)_ There are places where skulls and skeletons have been
+     plowed up or still remain in the ground and near together,
+     in such a way as to give good ground for the belief which is
+     held by white residents in the region, that formerly persons
+     were buried in the ground and in irregular cemeteries. I
+     know of such places in Duce Waillops among the Twanas, and
+     at Dungeness and Port Angeles among the Clallam. These
+     graves were made so long ago that the Indians of the present
+     day profess to have no knowledge as to who is buried in
+     them, except that they believe, undoubtedly, that they are
+     the graves of their ancestors. I do not know that any care
+     has ever been exercised by any one in exhuming these
+     skeletons so as to learn any particulars about them. It is
+     possible, however, that these persons were buried according
+     to the _(b)_ or canoe method, and that time has buried them
+     where they now are.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 25--Posts for Burial Canoes.]
+
+     _(b)_ Formerly when a person died the body was placed in the
+     forks of two trees and left there. There was no particular
+     cemetery, but the person was generally left near the place
+     where the death occurred. The Skokomish Valley is said to
+     have been full of canoes containing persons thus buried.
+     What their customs were while burying, or what they placed
+     around the dead, I am not informed but am told that they did
+     not take as much care then of their dead as they do now. I
+     am satisfied, however, that they then left some articles
+     around the dead. An old resident informs me that the Clallam
+     Indians always bury their dead in a sitting posture.
+
+     _(c)_ About twenty years ago gold mines were discovered in
+     British Columbia, and boats being scarce in the region,
+     unprincipled white men took many of the canoes in which the
+     Indian dead had been left, emptying them of their contents.
+     This incensed the Indians and they changed their mode of
+     burial somewhat by burying the dead in one place, placing
+     them in boxes whenever they could obtain them, by building
+     scaffolds for them instead of placing them in forks of
+     trees, and in cutting their canoes so as to render them
+     useless, when they were used as coffins or left by the side
+     of the dead. The ruins of one such graveyard now remain
+     about two miles from this agency. Nearly all the remains
+     were removed a few years ago.
+
+     With this I furnish you the outlines of such graves which I
+     have drawn. Fig 25 shows that at present only one pair of
+     posts remains. I have supplied the other pair as they
+     evidently were.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 26--Tent on Scaffold.]
+
+     Figure 26 is a recent grave at another place. That part
+     which is covered with board and cloth incloses the coffin
+     which is on a scaffold.
+
+     As the Indians have been more in contact with the whites
+     they have learned to bury in the ground, and this is the
+     most common method at the present time. There are cemetaries
+     everywhere where Indians have resided any length of time.
+     After a person has died a coffin is made after the cheaper
+     kinds of American ones, the body is placed in it, and also
+     with it a number of articles, chiefly cloth or clothes,
+     though occasionally money. I lately heard of a child being
+     buried with a twenty-dollar gold piece in each hand and
+     another in its month, but I am not able to vouch for the
+     truth of it. As a general thing, money is too valuable with
+     them for this purpose and there is too much temptation for
+     some one to rob the grave when this is left in it.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 27--House-Burial]
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 28--House-Burial]
+
+     _(d)_ The grave is dug after the style of the whites and
+     the coffin then placed in it. After it has been covered it
+     is customary though not universal, to build some kind of an
+     inclosure over it or around it in the shape of a small
+     house, shed, lodge or fence. These are from 2 to 12 feet
+     high, from 2 to 6 feet wide, and from 5 to 12 feet long.
+     Some of these are so well inclosed that it is impossible to
+     see within and some are quite open. Occasionally a window is
+     placed in the front side. Sometimes these enclosures are
+     covered with cloth, which is generally white, sometimes
+     partly covered, and some have none. Around the grave, both
+     outside and inside of the inclosure, various articles are
+     placed, as guns, canoes, dishes, pails, cloth, sheets,
+     blankets, beads, tubs, lamps, bows, mats, and occasionally a
+     roughly-carved human image rudely painted. It is said that
+     around and in the grave of one Clallam chief, buried a few
+     years ago, $500 worth of such things were left. Most of
+     these articles are cut or broken so as to render them
+     valueless to man and to prevent their being stolen. Poles
+     are also often erected, from 10 to 30 feet long, on which
+     American flags, handkerchiefs, clothes, and cloths of
+     various colors are hung. A few graves have nothing of this
+     kind. On some graves these things are renewed every year or
+     two. This depends mainly on the number of relatives living
+     and the esteem in which they hold the deceased.
+
+     The belief exists that as the body decays spirits carry it
+     away particle by particle to the spirit of the deceased in
+     the spirit land, and also as these articles decay they are
+     also carried away in a similar manner. I have never known of
+     the placing food near a grave. Figures 27 and 28 will give
+     you some idea of this class of graves. Figure 27 has a
+     paling fence 12 feet square around it. Figure 28 is simply a
+     frame over a grave where there is no enclosure.
+
+     _(e)_ civilized mode.--A few persons, of late, have fallen
+     almost entirely into the American custom of burying,
+     building a simple paling fence around it, but placing no
+     articles around it; this is more especially true of the
+     Clallams.
+
+     FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
+
+     In regard to the funeral ceremonies and mourning observances
+     of sections _(a)_ and _b_ of the preceding subject I know
+     nothing. In regard to _(c)_ and _d_, they begin to mourn,
+     more especially the women, as soon as a person dies. Their
+     mourning song consists principally of the sounds represented
+     by the three English notes mi mi, do do, la la; those who
+     attend the funeral are expected to bring some articles to
+     place in the coffin or about the grave as a token of respect
+     for the dead. The articles which I have seen for this
+     purpose have been cloth of some kind; a small piece of cloth
+     is returned by the mourners to the attendants as a token of
+     remembrance. They bury much sooner after death than white
+     persons do, generally as soon as they can obtain a coffin. I
+     know of no other native funeral ceremonies. Occasionally
+     before being taken to the grave, I have held Christian
+     funeral ceremonies over them, and these services increase
+     from year to year. One reason which has rendered them
+     somewhat backward about having these funeral services is,
+     that they are quite superstitions about going near the dead,
+     fearing that the evil spirit which killed the deceased will
+     enter the living and kill them also. Especially are they
+     afraid of having children go near, being much more fearful
+     of the effect of the evil spirit on them than on older
+     persons.
+
+     MOURNING OBSERVANCES.
+
+     They have no regular period, so far as I know, for mourning,
+     but often continue it after the burial, though I do not know
+     that they often visit the grave. If they feel the loss very
+     much, sometimes they will mourn nearly every day for several
+     weeks; especially is this true when they meet an old friend
+     who has not been seen since the funeral, or when they
+     see an article owned by the deceased which they have not
+     seen for a long time. The only other thing of which I think,
+     which bears on this subject, is an idea they have, that
+     before a person dies--it may be but a short time or it may
+     be several months--a spirit from the spirit land comes and
+     carries off the spirit of the individual to that place.
+     There are those who profess to discover when this is done,
+     and if by any of their incantations they can compel that
+     spirit to return, the person will not die, but if they are
+     not able, then the person will become dead at heart and in
+     time die, though it may not be for six months or even
+     twelve. You will also find a little on this subject in a
+     pamphlet which I wrote on the Twana Indians and which has
+     recently been published by the Department of the Interior,
+     under Prof. F.V. Hayden, United States Geologist.
+
+George Gibbs[81] gives a most interesting account of the
+burial ceremonies of the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory,
+which is here reproduced in its entirety, although it contains examples
+of other modes of burial besides that in canoes; but to separate the
+narrative would destroy the thread of the story:
+
+     The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing
+     tribes was in canoes. These were generally drawn into the
+     woods at some prominent point a short distance from the
+     village, and sometimes placed between the forks of trees or
+     raised from the ground on posts. Upon the Columbia River the
+     Tsinuk had in particular two very noted cemeteries, a high
+     isolated bluff about three miles below the mouth of the
+     Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance above,
+     called Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been
+     very ancient. Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver's lieutenants,
+     who explored the river, makes mention only of _several_
+     canoes at this place; and Lewis and Clarke, who noticed the
+     mount, do not speak of them at all, but at the time of
+     Captain Wilkes's expedition it is conjectured that there
+     were at least 3,000. A fire caused by the carelessness of
+     one of his party destroyed the whole, to the great
+     indignation of the Indians.
+
+     Captain Bolcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited
+     the river in 1839, remarks: "In the year 1836 [1826] the
+     small-pox made great ravages, and it was followed a few
+     years since by the ague. Consequently Corpse Island and
+     Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent shores, were studded
+     not only with canoes, but at the period of our visit the
+     skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all directions."
+     This method generally prevailed on the neighboring coasts,
+     as at Shoal Water Bay, &c. Farther up the Columbia, as at
+     the Cascades, a different form was adopted, which is thus
+     described by Captain Clarke:
+
+     "About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of
+     the woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of
+     eight vaults, made of pine cedar boards, closely connected,
+     about 8 feet square and 6 in height, the top securely
+     covered with wide boards, sloping a little, so as to convey
+     off the rain. The direction of all these is east and west,
+     the door being on the eastern side, and partially stopped
+     with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of men and
+     other animals. On entering we found in some of them four
+     dead bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of
+     grass and bark, lying on a mat in a direction east and west;
+     the other vaults contained only bones, which in some of them
+     were piled to a height of 4 feet; on the tops of the vaults
+     and on poles attached to them hung brass kettles and
+     frying-pans with holes in their bottoms, baskets, bowls,
+     sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of trinkets,
+     and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection,
+     which have been saved by a pious veneration from the
+     ferocity of war or the more dangerous temptation of
+     individual gain. The whole of the walls as well as the door
+     were decorated with strange figures cut and painted on them,
+     and besides these were several wooden images of men, some of
+     them so old and decayed as to have almost lost their shape,
+     which were all placed against the sides of the vault. These
+     images, as well as those in the houses we have lately seen,
+     do not appear to be at all the objects of adoration in this
+     place; they were most probably intended as resemblances of
+     those whose decease they indicate, and when we observe them
+     in houses they occupy the most conspicuous part, but are
+     treated more like ornaments than objects of worship. Near
+     the vaults which are still standing are the remains of
+     others on the ground, completely rotted and covered with
+     moss; and as they are formed of the most durable pine and
+     cedar timber, there is every appearance that for a very long
+     series of years this retired spot has been the depository
+     for the Indians near this place."
+
+     Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river
+     a few miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Inland. The
+     _Watlala,_ a tribe of the Upper Tainuk, whose burial place
+     is here described, are now nearly extinct; but a number of
+     the sepulchers still remain in different states of
+     preservation. The position of the body, as noticed by
+     Clarke, is, I believe, of universal observance, the head
+     being always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me
+     is that the road to the _me-mel us-illa-hee,_ the country
+     of the dead, is toward the west, and if they place them
+     otherwise they would be confused. East of the Cascade
+     Mountains the tribes whose habits are equestrian, and who
+     use canoes only for ferriage or transportation purposes,
+     bury their dead, usually heaping over them piles of stones,
+     either to mark the spot or to prevent the bodies from being
+     exhumed by the prairie wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many
+     of their graves placed in conspicuous points of the basaltic
+     walls which line the lower valleys, and designated by a
+     clump of poles planted over them, from which fluttered
+     various articles of dress. Formerly these prairie tribes
+     killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling into
+     disuse in consequence of the teachings of the whites.
+
+     Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different
+     localities. Among the Makuh of Cape Flattery the graves are
+     covered with a sort of box, rudely constructed of boards,
+     and elsewhere on the Sound the same method is adopted in
+     some cases, while in others the bodies are placed on
+     elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the Indians
+     upon the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a
+     distance from it buried them. Most of the graves are
+     surrounded with strips of cloth, blankets, and other
+     articles of property. Mr. Cameron, an English gentleman
+     residing at Esquimalt Harbor, Vancouver Island, informed me
+     that on his place there were graves having at each corner a
+     large stone, the interior space filled with rubbish. The
+     origin of these was unknown to the present Indians.
+
+     The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very
+     marked; persons of no consideration and slaves being buried
+     with very little care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention
+     was particularly attracted to their methods of disposing of
+     the dead, mentions that at Port Discovery he saw baskets
+     suspended to the trees containing the skeletons of young
+     children, and, what is not easily explained, small square
+     boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think that any
+     of these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor
+     have I been able to learn from living Indians that they
+     formerly followed that practice. What he took for such I do
+     not understand. He also mentions seeing in the same place a
+     cleared space recently burned over, in which the skulls and
+     bones of a number lay among the ashes. The practice of
+     burning the dead exists in parts of California and among the
+     Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also pursued by the
+     "Carriers" of New California, but no intermediate tribes, to
+     my knowledge, follow it. Certainly those of the Sound do not
+     at present.
+
+     It is clear from Vancouver's narrative that some great
+     epidemic had recently passed through the country, as
+     manifested by the quantity of human remains uncared for and
+     exposed at the time of his visit, and very probably the
+     Indians, being afraid, had buried a house, in which the
+     inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is
+     frequently done. They almost invariably remove from any
+     place where sickness has prevailed, generally destroying the
+     house also.
+
+     At Penn Cove Mr. Whalbey, one of Vancouver's officers,
+     noticed several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box.
+     Some of them were open, and contained the skeletons of many
+     young children tied up in baskets. The smaller bones of
+     adults were likewise noticed, but not one of the limb bones
+     was found, which gave rise to an opinion that these, by the
+     living inhabitants of the neighborhood, were appropriated to
+     useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows, spears, or
+     other weapons.
+
+     It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is
+     altogether foreign to Indian character. The bones of the
+     adults had probably been removed and buried elsewhere. The
+     corpses of children are variously disposed of; sometimes by
+     suspending them, at others by placing in the hollows of
+     trees. A cemetery devoted to infants is, however, an unusual
+     occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note much pomp was
+     used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes were of
+     great size and value--the war or state canoes of the
+     deceased. Frequently one was inverted over that holding the
+     body, and in one instance, near Shoalwater Bay, the corpse
+     was deposited in a small canoe, which again was placed in a
+     larger one and covered with a third. Among the _Tsinuk_ and
+     _Tsihalis_ the _tamahno-[=u]s_ board of the owner was placed
+     near him. The Puget Sound Indians do not make these
+     _tamahno-[=u]s_ boards, but they sometimes constructed effigies
+     of their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as
+     possible, dressed in his usual costume, and wearing the
+     articles of which he was fond. One of these, representing
+     the Skagit chief Sneestum, stood very conspicuously upon a
+     high bank on the eastern side of Whidbey Island. The figures
+     observed by Captain Clarke at the Cascades were either of
+     this description or else the carved posts which had
+     ornamented the interior of the houses of the deceased, and
+     were connected with the superstition of the _tamahno-[=u]s_. The
+     most valuable articles of property were put into or hung up
+     around the grave, being first carefully rendered
+     unserviceable, and the living family were literally stripped
+     to do honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have
+     been practiced in parting with articles so precious, but
+     those interested frequently had the least to say on the
+     subject. The graves of women were distinguished by a cap, a
+     Kamas stick, or other implement of their occupation, and by
+     articles of dress.
+
+     Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
+     deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or
+     even tied to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly.
+     At present this practice has been almost entirely given up,
+     but till within a very few years it was not uncommon. A case
+     which occurred in 1850 has been already mentioned. Still
+     later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsinuk chief living at Shoalwater
+     Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging to his
+     daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be
+     done. The woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the
+     woods half starved. Her master attempted to reclaim her, but
+     was soundly thrashed and warned against another attempt.
+
+     It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a
+     considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of
+     the burial-place. With the common class of persons family
+     pride or domestic affection was satisfied with the gathering
+     together of the bones after the flesh had decayed and
+     wrapping them in a new mat. The violation of the grave was
+     always regarded as an offense of the first magnitude and
+     provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher remarks: "Great
+     secrecy is observed in all their burial ceremonies, partly
+     from fear of Europeans, and as among themselves they will
+     instantly punish by death any violation of the tomb or wage
+     war if perpetrated by another tribe, so they are inveterate
+     and tenaceously bent on revenge should they discover that
+     any act of the kind has been perpetrated by a white man. It
+     is on record that part of the crew of a vessel on her return
+     to this port (the Columbia) suffered because a person who
+     belonged to her (but not then in her) was known to have
+     taken a skull, which, from the process of flattening, had
+     become an object of curiosity." He adds, however, that at
+     the period of his visit to the river "the skulls and
+     skeletons were scattered about in all directions; and as I
+     was on most of their positions unnoticed by the natives, I
+     suspect the feeling does not extend much beyond their
+     relatives, and then only till decay has destroyed body,
+     goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are watched, as
+     their canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care
+     taken by placing them in sequestered spots."
+
+     The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on
+     occasion of death will be referred to in treating of their
+     religious ideas. Wailing for the dead is continued for a
+     long time, and it seems to be rather a ceremonial
+     performance than an act of spontaneous grief. The duty, of
+     course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is
+     usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some
+     place a little distant from the lodge or camp and in a loud,
+     sobbing voice repeat a sort of stereotyped formula; as, for
+     instance, a mother, on the loss of her child, _"A seahb
+     shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud! ad-de-dah,"_ "Ah chief!" "My
+     child dead, alas!" When in dreams they see any of their
+     deceased friends this lamentation is renewed.
+
+With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned by
+Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who, failing to
+die within three days, was strangled by another slave; but the custom
+has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many cases the
+individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices. Bancroft states
+that--
+
+     In Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique
+     died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, those
+     that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain
+     servants, killed themselves and were interred with him. This
+     they did in order that they might wait upon him in the land
+     of spirits.
+
+It is well known to all readers of history to what an extreme this
+revolting practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATIC BURIAL.
+
+As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead has
+never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+water-courses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in canoes.
+Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon, for we are
+informed that the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned by Ptolemy,
+living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf, invariably committed
+their dead to the sea, thus repaying the obligations they had incurred
+to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did the same, and the Hyperboreans,
+with a commendable degree of forethought for the survivors, when ill or
+about to die, threw themselves into the sea. The burial of Balder "the
+beautiful," it may be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which
+was pushed down to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The
+Itzas of Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peten, according to
+Bancroft, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of
+room. The Indians of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of
+thus getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee "seldom bury the dead, but throw them into the
+river."
+
+The Alibamans, as they were called by Bossu, denied the rite of
+sepulture to suicides; they were looked upon as cowards, and their
+bodies thrown into a river. The Rev. J.G. Wood[82] states that the
+Ohongo or African tribe takes the body to some running stream, the
+course of which has been previously diverted. A deep grave is dug in the
+bed of the stream, the body placed in it, and covered over carefully.
+Lastly, the stream is restored to its original course, so that all
+traces of the grave are soon lost.
+
+The Kavague also bury their common people, or wanjambo, by simply
+sinking the body in some stream.
+
+Historians inform us that Alaric was buried in a manner similar to that
+employed by the Obongo, for in 410, at Cosenca, a town of Calabria, the
+Goths turned aside the course of the river Vasento, and having made a
+grave in the midst of its bed, where its course was most rapid, they
+interred their king with a prodigious amount of wealth and riches. They
+then caused the river to resume its regular course, and destroyed all
+persons who had been concerned in preparing this romantic grave.
+
+A later example of water-burial is that afforded by the funeral of De
+Soto. Dying in 1542, his remains were inclosed in a wooden chest well
+weighted, and committed to the turbid and tumultuous waters of the
+Mississippi.
+
+After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, among North American Indians, but two have
+been found, which are here given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes,
+and is by Capt. J.H. Simpson:[83]
+
+     Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert,
+     and which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my
+     guide over this route last fall, says derives its name from
+     the number of skulls which have been found in it, and which
+     have arisen from the custom of the Goshute Indians burying
+     their dead in springs, which they sank with stones or keep
+     down with sticks. He says he has actually seen the Indians
+     bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo, where he
+     resides.
+
+As corroborative of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in another
+part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening, they were
+obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at the bottom
+before using the water.
+
+This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be questioned,
+especially when it is remembered that in the country spoken of water is
+quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute the streams or
+springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless to establish a
+reason for this disposition of the dead, unless we are inclined to
+attribute it to the natural indolence of the savage, or a desire to
+poison the springs for white persons.
+
+The second example is by George Catlin,[84] and relates to the Chinook:
+
+     * * * This little cradle has a strap which passes over the
+     woman forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if
+     the child dies during its subjection to this rigid mode,
+     its cradle becomes its coffin, forming a little canoe, in
+     which it lies floating on the water in some sacred pool,
+     where they are often in the habit of fastening their canoes
+     containing the dead bodies of the old and young, or, which
+     in often the case, elevated into the branches of trees,
+     where their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry
+     whilst they are bandaged in many skins and curiously packed
+     in their canoes, with paddles to propel and ladles to bale
+     them out, and provisions to last and pipes to smoke as they
+     are performing their "long journey after death to their
+     contemplated hunting grounds," which these people think is
+     to be performed in their canoes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30--Mourning Cradle]
+
+Figure 30, after Catlin, is a representation of a mourning-cradle.
+Figure 31 represents the sorrowing mother committing the body of her
+dead child to the mercy of the elements.
+
+
+
+
+LIVING SEPULCHERS
+
+This is a term quaintly used by the learned M. Pierre Muret to express
+the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving friends
+and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has already
+been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof, it is not
+believed that the North American Indians followed the custom, although
+cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is true that a
+few accounts are given by authors, but these are considered apochryphal
+in character, and the one mentioned is only offered to show how
+credulous were the early writers on American natives.
+
+That such a means of disposing of the dead was not in practice is
+somewhat remarkable when we take into consideration how many analogies
+been found in comparing old and new world funeral observances, and the
+statements made by Bruhier, Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a
+number of examples of this peculiar mode of burial.
+
+For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the Massagetics,
+Padaeans, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously
+strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and
+Tertulian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the
+dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did the
+same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to be
+preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms.
+
+J.G. Wood, in his work already quoted, states that the Fans of Africa
+devour their dead, but this disposition is followed only for the common
+people, the kings and chiefs being buried with much ceremony.
+
+The following extract is from Lafitau:[85]
+
+     Dans l'Amerique Meridionale quelque Peuples decharnent les
+     corps de leurs Guerriers et les mangent leurs chairs, ainsi
+     que je viens de le dire, et apres les avoir consumees, ils
+     conservent pendant quelque temps leurs cadavres avec respect
+     dans leurs Cabanes, et il portent ces squeletes dans les
+     combats en guise d'Etendard, pour ranimer leur courage par
+     cette vue et inspirer de la terreur a leurs ennemis. * * *
+
+     Il est vrai qu'il y en a qui font festin des cadavres de
+     leurs parens; mais il est faux qu'elles les mettent a mort
+     dans leur vieillesse, pour avoir le plaisir de se nourrir de
+     leur chair, et d'en faire un repas. Quelques Nations de
+     l'Amerique Meridionale, qui ont encore cette coutume de
+     manger les corps morts de leurs parens, n'en usent ainsi que
+     par piete, piete mal entendue a la verite, mais piete
+     coloree neanmoins par quelque ombre de raison; car ils
+     croyent leur donner une sepulture bien plus honorable.
+
+To the credit of our savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is
+not believed to have been practiced by them.
+
+
+
+
+MOURNING, SACRIFICE, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES,
+AND SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.
+
+The above subjects are coincident with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this paper,
+yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected examples,
+under separate heads.
+
+
+_MOURNING_
+
+One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of a
+chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth,[86] who for
+many years lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction
+as a warrior.
+
+     I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the
+     head chief's death, and then, burying him according to his
+     directions, we slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul
+     sickened at the contemplation of the scenes that would be
+     enacted at my arrival. When we drew in sight of the village,
+     we found every lodge laid prostrate. We entered amid
+     shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was streaming from every
+     conceivable part of the bodies of all who were old enough to
+     comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were dismembered;
+     hair torn from the head lay in profusion about the paths;
+     wails and moans in every direction assailed the ear, where
+     unrestrained joy had a few hours before prevailed. This
+     fearful mourning lasted until evening of the next day. * * *
+
+     A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to
+     acquaint them with the death of our head chief, and request
+     them to assemble at the Rose Bud, in order to meet our
+     village and devote themselves to a general time of mourning,
+     there met, in conformity to the summons, over ten thousand
+     Crows at the place indicated. Such a scene of disorderly,
+     vociferous mourning, no imagination can conceive nor any pen
+     portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his hair; a thing
+     he was never known to do before. The cutting and hacking of
+     human flesh exceeded all my previous experience; fingers
+     were dismembered as readily as twigs, and blood was poured
+     out like water. Many of the warriors would cut two gashes
+     nearly the entire length of their arm; then, separating the
+     skin from the flesh at one end, would grasp it in their
+     other hand, and rip it asunder to the shoulder. Others would
+     carve various devices upon their breasts and shoulders, and
+     raise the skin in the same manner to make the scars show to
+     advantage after the wound was healed. Some of their
+     mutilations were ghastly, and my heart sickened to look at
+     them, but they would not appear to receive any pain from
+     them.
+
+It should be remembered that many of Beckwourth's statements are to be
+taken _cum grana salis_.
+
+From L.L. Mahan, United States Indian agent for the Chippewas of Lake
+Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received:
+
+     There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and
+     grief for their dead than they. The young widow mourns the
+     loss of her husband; by day as by night she is heard
+     silently sobbing; she is a constant visitor to the place of
+     rest; with the greatest reluctance will she follow the
+     raised camp. The friends and relatives of the young mourner
+     will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind from
+     the thought of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment,
+     but as nature is exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake
+     of food; the supply is scant, but on every occasion the best
+     and largest proportion is deposited upon the grave of her
+     husband. In the mean time the female relatives of the
+     deceased have, according to custom, submitted to her charge
+     a parcel made up of different cloths ornamented with
+     bead-work and eagle's feathers, which she is charged to keep
+     by her side--the place made vacant by the demise of her
+     husband--a reminder of her widowhood. She is therefore for a
+     term of twelve moons not permitted to wear any finery,
+     neither is she permitted to slicken up and comb her head;
+     this to avoid attracting attention. Once in a while a female
+     relative of deceased, commiserating with her grief and
+     sorrow, will visit her and voluntarily proceed to comb out
+     the long-neglected and matted hair. With a jealous eye a
+     vigilant watch is kept over her conduct during the term of
+     her widowhood, yet she is allowed the privilege to marry,
+     any time during her widowhood, an unmarried brother or
+     cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [sic] (family mark)
+     of her husband.
+
+     At the expiration of her term, the vows having been
+     faithfully performed and kept, the female relatives of
+     deceased assemble and, with greetings commensurate to the
+     occasion, proceed to wash her face, comb her hair, and
+     attire her person with new apparel, and otherwise
+     demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint. Still
+     she has not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to
+     marry a relative of the deceased and will marry another, she
+     then has to purchase her freedom by giving a certain amount
+     of goods and whatever else she might have manufactured
+     during her widowhood in anticipation of the future now at
+     hand. Frequently, though, during widowhood the vows are
+     disregarded and an inclination to flirt and play courtship
+     or form an alliance of marriage outside of the relatives of
+     the deceased is being indulged, and when discovered the
+     widow is set upon by the female relatives, her slick braided
+     hair is shorn close up to the back of her neck, all her
+     apparel and trinkets are torn from her person, and a quarrel
+     frequently results fatally to some member of one or the
+     other side.
+
+Thomas L. McKenney[87] gives a description of the Chippewa widow which
+differs slightly from the one above:
+
+     I have noticed several women here carrying with them rolls
+     of clothing. On inquiring what these imported, I learn that
+     they _are widows_ who carry them, and that these are badges
+     of mourning. It is indispensable, when a woman of the
+     Chippeway Nation loses her husband, for her to take of her
+     best apparel--and the whole of it is not worth a dollar--and
+     roll it up, and confine it by means of her husband's sashes;
+     and if he had ornaments, these are generally put on the top
+     of the roll, and around it is wrapped a piece of cloth. This
+     bundle is called her husband, and it is expected that she is
+     never to be seen without it. If she walks out she takes it
+     with her; if she sits down in her lodge, she places it by
+     her side. This badge of widowhood and of mourning the widow
+     is compelled to carry with her until some of her late
+     husband's family shall call and take it away, which is done
+     when they think she has mourned long enough, and which is
+     generally at the expiration of a year. She is then, but not
+     before, released from her mourning, and at liberty to marry
+     again. She has the privilege to take this husband to the
+     family of the deceased and leave it, but this is considered
+     indecorous, and is seldom done. Sometimes a brother of the
+     deceased takes the widow for his wife at the grave of her
+     husband, which is done by a ceremony of walking her over it.
+     And this he has a right to do; and when this is done she is
+     not required to go into mourning; or, if she chooses, she
+     has the right _to go to him_, and he is _bound_ to support her.
+
+     I visited a lodge to-day, where I saw one of these badges.
+     The size varies according to the quantity of clothing which
+     the widow may happen to have. It is expected of her to put
+     up her _best_ and wear her _worst_. The "_husband_" I saw just now
+     was 30 inches high and 18 inches in circumference.
+
+     I was told by the interpreter that he knew a woman who had
+     been left to mourn after this fashion for years, none of her
+     husband's family calling for the badge or token of her
+     grief. At a certain time it was told her that some of her
+     husband's family were passing, and she was advised to speak
+     to them on the subject. She did so, and told them she had
+     mourned long and was poor; that she had no means to buy
+     clothes, and her's being all in the mourning badge, and
+     sacred, could not be touched. She expressed a hope that her
+     request might not be interpreted into a wish to marry; it
+     was only made that she might be placed in a situation to get
+     some clothes. She got for answer, that "they were going to
+     Mackinac, and would think of it." They left her in this
+     state of uncertainty, but on returning, and finding her
+     faithful still, they took her "husband" and presented her
+     with clothing of various kinds. Thus was she rewarded for
+     her constancy and made comfortable.
+
+     The Choctaw widows mourn by never combing their hair for the
+     term of their grief, which is generally about a year. The
+     Chippeway men mourn by painting their faces black.
+
+     I omitted to mention that when presents are going round, the
+     badge of mourning, this "_husband_" comes in for an equal
+     share, as if it were the living husband.
+
+     A Chippeway mother, on losing her child, prepares an image
+     of it in the best manner she is able, and dresses it as she
+     did her living child, and fixes it in the kind of cradle I
+     have referred to, and goes through the ceremonies of nursing
+     it as if it were alive, by dropping little particles of food
+     in the direction of its mouth, and giving it of whatever the
+     living child partook. This ceremony also is generally
+     observed for a year.
+
+Figure 32 represents the Chippewa widow holding in her arms the
+substitute for the dead husband.
+
+The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas, other
+tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are obliged
+to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle containing
+the bones of the deceased consort.
+
+Similar observances, according to Bancroft,[88] were followed by some
+of the Central American tribes of Indians, those of the Sambos and
+Mosquitos being as follows:
+
+     The widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband for a
+     year, after which she took up the bones and carried them
+     with her for another year, at last placing them upon the
+     roof of her house, and then only was she allowed to marry
+     again. On returning from the grave the property of the
+     deceased is destroyed, the cocoa palms being cut down, and
+     all who have taken part in the funeral undergo a lustration
+     in the river. Relatives cut off the hair, the men leaving a
+     ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck to the
+     forehead. Widows, according to some old writers, after
+     supplying the grave with food for a year take up the bones
+     and carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with
+     them at night for another year, after which they are placed
+     at the door or upon the house-top. On the anniversary of
+     deaths, friends of the deceased hold a feast, called
+     _serkroe,_ at which large quantities of liquor are drained
+     to his memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an
+     occasion of this kind, says that males and females were
+     dressed in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and
+     white, while their faces were correspondingly streaked with
+     red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk around,
+     prostrating themselves at intervals and calling loudly upon
+     the dead and tearing the ground with their hands. At no
+     other time is the departed referred to, the very mention of
+     his name being superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a
+     thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in
+     a straight line over every obstacle. Froeebel states that
+     among the Woolwas all property of the deceased is buried
+     with him, and that both husband and wife cut the hair and
+     burn the hut on the death of either, placing a gruel of
+     maize upon the grave for a certain time.
+
+Benson[89] gives the following account of the Choctaws' funeral
+ceremonies, embracing the disposition of the body, mourning feast and
+dance:
+
+     Their funeral is styled by them "the last cry."
+
+     When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the
+     grave, and place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up.
+     The gun, bow and arrows, hatchet, and knife are deposited in
+     the grave. Poles are planted at the head and the foot, upon
+     which flags are placed; the grave is then inclosed by
+     pickets driven in the ground. The funeral ceremonies now
+     begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night and
+     morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most
+     piteous cries and wailings. It is not important that any
+     other member of the family should take any very active part
+     in the "cry," though they do participate to some extent.
+
+     The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes
+     to the grave during one entire moon from the date when the
+     death occurred. On the evening of the last day of the moon
+     the friends all assemble at the cabin of the disconsolate
+     widow, bringing provisions for a sumptuous feast, which
+     consists of corn and jerked beef boiled together in a
+     kettle. While the supper is preparing the bereaved wife goes
+     to the grave and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her
+     bitter wailings and lamentations. When the food is
+     thoroughly cooked the kettle is taken from the fire and
+     placed in the center of the cabin, and the friends gather
+     around it, passing the buffalo-horn spoon from hand to hand
+     and from mouth to mouth till all have been bountifully
+     supplied. While supper is being served, two of the oldest
+     men of the company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and
+     fill it up, taking down the flags. All then join in a dance,
+     which not unfrequently is continued till morning; the widow
+     does not fail to unite in the dance, and to contribute her
+     part to the festivities of the occasion. This is the "_last
+     cry_," the days of mourning are ended, and the widow is now
+     ready to form another matrimonial alliance. The ceremonies
+     are precisely the same when a man has lost his wife, and
+     they are only slightly varied when any other member of the
+     family has died. (Slaves were buried without ceremonies.)
+
+
+SACRIFICE.
+
+Some examples of human sacrifice have already been given in connection
+with another subject, but it is thought others might prove interesting.
+The first relates to the Natchez of Louisiana.[90]
+
+     When their sovereign died he was accompanied in the grave by
+     his wives and by several of his subjects. The lesser Suns
+     took care to follow the same custom. The law likewise
+     condemned every Natchez to death who had married a girl of
+     the blood of the Suns as soon as she was expired. On this
+     occasion I must tell you the history of an Indian who was
+     noways willing to submit to this law. His name was
+     _Elteacteal_; he contracted an alliance with the Suns, but
+     the consequences which this honor brought along with it had
+     like to have proved very unfortunate to him. His wife fell
+     sick; as soon as he saw her at the point of death he fled,
+     embarked in a piragua on the _Mississippi,_ and came to New
+     Orleans. He put himself under the protection of M. de
+     Bienville, the then governor, and offered to be his
+     huntsman. The governor accepted his services, and interested
+     himself for him with the Natchez, who declared that he had
+     nothing more to fear, because the ceremony was past, and he
+     was accordingly no longer a lawful prize.
+
+     _Elteacteal_, being thus assured, ventured to return to his
+     nation, and, without settling among them, he made several
+     voyages thither. He happened to be there when the Sun called
+     the _Stung Serpent_, brother to the Great Sun, died. He was
+     a relative of the late wife of _Elteacteal_, and they
+     resolved to make him pay his debt. M. de Bienville had been
+     recalled to France, and the sovereign of the Natchez thought
+     that the protector's absence had annulled the reprieve
+     granted to the protected person, and accordingly he caused
+     him to be arrested. As soon as the poor fellow found himself
+     in the hut of the grand chief of war, together with the
+     other victims destined to be sacrificed to the _Stung
+     Serpent_, he gave vent to the excess of his grief. The
+     favorite wife of the late Son, who was likewise to be
+     sacrificed, and who saw the preparations for her death with
+     firmness, and seemed impatient to rejoin her husband,
+     hearing _Elteacteal's_ complaints and groans, said to him:
+     "Art thou no warrior?" He answered, "Yes: I am one."
+     "However," said she, "thou cryest; life is dear to thee, and
+     as that is the case, it is not good that thou shouldst go
+     along with us; go with the women." _Elteacteal_ replied:
+     "True; life is dear to me. It would be well if I walked yet
+     on earth till to the death of the Great Sun, and I would die
+     with him." "Go thy way," said the favorite, "it is not fit
+     thou shouldst go with us, and that thy heart should remain
+     behind on earth. Once more, get away, and let me see thee no
+     more."
+
+     _Elteacteal_ did not stay to hear this order repeated to
+     him; he disappeared like lightning; three old women, two of
+     which were his relatives, offered to pay his debt; their age
+     and their infirmities had disgusted them of life; none of
+     them had been able to use their legs for a great while. The
+     hair of the two that were related to _Elteacteal_ was no
+     more gray than those of women of fifty-five years in France.
+     the other old woman was a hundred and twenty years old, and
+     had very white hair, which is a very uncommon thing among
+     the Indians. None of the three had a quite wrinkled skin.
+     They were dispatched in the evening, one at the door of the
+     _Stung Serpent_, and the other two upon the place before the
+     temple. * * * A cord is fastened round their necks with a
+     slip-knot, and eight men of their relations strangle them by
+     drawing, four one way and four the other. So many are not
+     necessary, but as they acquire nobility by such executions,
+     there are always more than are wanting, and the operation is
+     performed in an instant. The generosity of these women gave
+     _Elteacteal_ life again, acquired him the degree of
+     _considered_, and cleared his honor, which he had sullied by
+     fearing death. He remained quiet after that time, and taking
+     advantage of what he had learned during his stay among the
+     French, he became a juggler and made use of his knowledge to
+     impose upon his countrymen.
+
+     The morning after this execution they made everything ready
+     for the convoy, and the hour being come, the great master of
+     the ceremonies appeared at the door of the hut, adorned
+     suitably to his quality. The victims who were to accompany
+     the deceased prince into the mansion of the spirits came
+     forth; they consisted of the favorite wife of the deceased,
+     of his second wife, his chancellor, his physician, his hired
+     man, that is, his first servant, and of some old women.
+
+     The favorite went to the Great Sun, with whom there were
+     several Frenchmen, to take leave of him; she gave orders for
+     the Suns of both sexes that were her children to appear, and
+     spoke to the following effect:
+
+     "Children, this is the day on which I am to tear myself from
+     you (_sic_) arms and to follow your father's steps, who
+     waits for me in the country of the spirits; if I were to
+     yield to your tears I would injure my love and fail in my
+     duty. I have done enough for you by bearing you next to my
+     heart, and by suckling you with my breasts. You that are
+     descended of his blood and fed by my milk, ought you to shed
+     tears? Rejoice rather that you are _Suns_ and warriors; you
+     are bound to give examples of firmness and valor to the
+     whole nation: go, my children, I have provided for all your
+     wants, by procuring you friends; my friends and those of
+     your father are yours too; I leave you amidst them; they are
+     the French; they are tender-hearted and generous; make
+     yourselves worthy of their esteem by not degenerating from
+     your race; always act openly with them and never implore
+     them with meanness.
+
+     "And you, Frenchmen," added she, turning herself towards our
+     officers, "I recommend my orphan children to you; they will
+     know no other fathers than you; you ought to protect them."
+
+     After that she got up; and, followed by her troop, returned
+     to her husband's hut with a surprising firmness.
+
+     A noble woman came to join herself to the number of victims
+     of her own accord, being engaged by the friendship she bore
+     the _Stung Serpent_ to follow him into the other world. The
+     Europeans called her the _haughty_ lady, on account of her
+     majestic deportment and her proud air, and because she only
+     frequented the company of the most distinguished Frenchmen.
+     They regretted her much, because she had the knowledge of
+     several simples with which she had saved the lives of many
+     of our sick. This moving sight filled our people with grief
+     and horror. The favorite wife of the deceased rose up and
+     spoke to them with a smiling countenance: "I die without
+     fear;" said she, "grief does not embitter my last hours. I
+     recommend my children to you; whenever you see them, noble
+     Frenchmen, remember that you have loved their father, and
+     that he was till death a true and sincere friend of your
+     nation, whom he loved more than himself. The disposer of
+     life has been pleased to call him, and I shall soon go and
+     join him; I shall tell him that I have seen your hearts
+     moved at the sight of his corps; do not be grieved; we shall
+     be longer friends in the _country of the spirits_ than here,
+     because we do not die there again."[91]
+
+     These words forced tears from the eyes of all the French;
+     they were obliged to do all they could to prevent the Great
+     Sun from killing himself, for he was inconsolable at the
+     death of his brother, upon whom he was used to lay the
+     weight of government, he being great chief of war of the
+     Natches, i.e. generalissimo of their armies; that prince
+     grew furious by the resistance he met with; he held his gun
+     by the barrel, and the Sun, his presumptive heir, held it by
+     the lock, and caused the powder to fall out of the pan; the
+     hut was full of Suns, Nobles, and Honorables[92] but the
+     French raised their spirits again, by hiding all the arms
+     belonging to the sovereign, and filling the barrel of his
+     gun with water, that it might be unfit for use for some
+     time.
+
+     As soon as the Suns saw their sovereign's life in safety,
+     they thanked the French, by squeezing their hands, but
+     without speaking; a most profound silence reigned
+     throughout, for grief and awe kept in bounds the multitude
+     that were present.
+
+     The wife of the Great Sun was seized with fear during this
+     transaction. She was asked whether she was ill, and she
+     answered aloud, "Yes, I am"; and added with a lower voice,
+     "If the Frenchmen go out of this hut, my husband dies and
+     all the Natches will die with him; stay, then, brave
+     Frenchmen, because your words are as powerful as arrows;
+     besides, who could have ventured to do what you have done?
+     But you are his true friends and those of his brother."
+     Their laws obliged the Great Sun's wife to follow her
+     husband in the grave; this was doubtless the cause of her
+     fears; and likewise the gratitude towards the French, who
+     interested themselves in behalf of his life, prompted her to
+     speak in the above-mentioned manner.
+
+     The Great Sun gave his hand to the officers, and said to
+     them: "My friends, my heart is so overpowered with grief
+     that, though my eyes were open, I have not taken notice that
+     you have been standing all this while, nor have I asked you
+     to sit down; but pardon the excess of my affliction."
+
+     The Frenchmen told him that he had no need of excuses; that
+     they were going to leave him alone, but that they would
+     cease to be his friends unless he gave orders to light the
+     fires again,[93] lighting his own before them; and that they
+     should not leave him till his brother was buried.
+
+     He took all the Frenchmen by the hands, and said: "Since all
+     the chiefs and noble officers will have me stay on earth, I
+     will do it; I will not kill myself; let the fires be lighted
+     again immediately, and I'll wait till death joins me to my
+     brother; I am already old, and till I die I shall walk with
+     the French; had it not been for them I should have gone with
+     my brother, and all the roads would have been covered with
+     dead bodies."
+
+Improbable as this account may appear, it has nevertheless been credited
+by some of the wisest and most careful of ethnological writers, and its
+seeming appearance of romance disappears when the remembrance of similar
+ceremonies among Old World peoples comes to our minds.
+
+An apparently well-authenticated case of attempted burial sacrifice is
+described by Miss A.J. Allen,[94] and refers to the Wascopums, of
+Oregon.
+
+     At length, by meaning looks and gestures rather than words,
+     it was found that the chief had determined that the deceased
+     boy's friend, who had been his companion in hunting the
+     rabbit, snaring the pheasant, and fishing in the streams,
+     was to be his companion to the spirit land; his son should
+     not be deprived of his associate in the strange world to
+     which he had gone; that associate should perish by the hand
+     of his father, and be conveyed with him to the dead-house.
+     This receptacle was built on a long, black rock in the
+     center of the Columbia River, around which, being so near
+     the falls, the current was amazingly rapid. It was thirty
+     feet in length, and perhaps half that in breadth, completely
+     enclosed and sodded except at one end, where was a narrow
+     aperture just sufficient to carry a corpse through. The
+     council overruled, and little George, instead of being
+     slain, was conveyed living to the dead-house about sunset.
+     The dead were piled on each side, leaving a narrow aisle
+     between, and on one of these was placed the deceased boy;
+     and, bound tightly till the purple, quivering flesh puffed
+     above the strong bark cords, that he might die very soon,
+     the living was placed by his side, his face to his till the
+     very lips met, and extending along limb to limb and foot to
+     foot, and nestled down into his couch of rottenness, to
+     impede his breathing as far as possible and smother his
+     cries.
+
+Bancroft[95] states that--
+
+     the slaves sacrificed at the graves by the Aztecs and
+     Tarascos were selected from various trades and professions,
+     and took with them the most cherished articles of the master
+     and the implements of their trade wherewith to supply his
+     wants--
+
+while among certain of the Central American tribe death was voluntary,
+wives, attendants, slaves, friends, and relations sacrificing themselves
+by means of a vegetable poison.
+
+To the mind of a savage man unimpressed with the idea that self-murder
+is forbidden by law or custom, there can seem no reason why, if he so
+wills, he should not follow his beloved chief, master, or friend to the
+"happy other world;" and when this is remembered we need not feel
+astonished as we read of accounts in which scores of self immolations
+are related. It is quite likely that among our own people similar
+customs might be followed did not the law and society frown down such
+proceedings. In fact the daily prints occasionally inform us,
+notwithstanding the restraints mentioned, that sacrifices do take place
+on the occasion of the death of a beloved one.
+
+
+FEASTS.
+
+In Beltrami[96] an account is given of the funeral ceremonies of one of
+the tribes of the west, including a description of the feast which took
+place before the body was consigned to its final resting-place:
+
+     I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor
+     of the manes of _Cloudy Weather's_ son-in-law, whose body
+     had remained with the Sioux, and was suspected to have
+     furnished one of their repasts. What appeared not a little
+     singular and indeed ludicrous in this funeral comedy was the
+     contrast exhibited by the terrific lamentations and yells of
+     one part of the company while the others were singing and
+     dancing with all their might.
+
+     At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand
+     Medicine_, and at which as _a man of another world_ I was
+     permitted to attend, the same practice occurred. But at the
+     feast which took place on that occasion an allowance was
+     served up for the deceased out of every article of which it
+     consisted, while others were beating, wounding, and
+     torturing themselves, and letting their blood flow both over
+     the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that this
+     was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they
+     could possibly supply. His wife furnished out an
+     entertainment present for him of all her hair and rags,
+     with which, together with his arms, his provisions, his
+     ornaments, and his mystic medicine bag, he was wrapped up in
+     the skin which had been his last covering when alive. He was
+     then tied round with the bark of some particular trees which
+     they use for making cords, and bonds of a very firm texture
+     and hold (the only ones indeed which they have), and instead
+     of being buried in the earth was hung up to a large oak. The
+     reason of this was that, as his favorite Manitou was the
+     eagle, his spirit would be enabled more easily from such a
+     situation to fly with him to Paradise.
+
+Hind[97] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which
+occurred among the Hurons of New York:
+
+     The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of
+     the "feasts of the dead" at the village of Ossosane, before
+     the dispersion of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took
+     place in the presence of 2,000 Indians, who offered 1,300
+     presents at the common tomb, in testimony of their grief.
+     The people belonging to five large villages deposited the
+     bones of their dead in a gigantic shroud, composed of
+     forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten beaver skins.
+     After being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they were
+     placed between moss and bark. A wall of stones was built
+     around this vast ossuary to preserve it from profanation.
+     Before covering the bones with earth a few grains of Indian
+     corn were thrown by the women upon the sacred relics.
+     According to the superstitious belief of the Hurons the
+     souls of the dead remain near the bodies until the "feast of
+     the dead"; after which ceremony they become free, and can at
+     once depart for the land of spirits, which they believe to
+     be situated in the regions of the setting sun.
+
+Ossuaries have not been used by savage nations alone, for the custom of
+exhuming the bones of the dead after a certain period, and collecting
+them in suitable receptacles, is well known to have been practiced in
+Italy, Switzerland, and France. The writer saw in the church-yard of
+Zug, Switzerland, in 1857, a slatted pen containing the remains of
+hundreds of individuals. These had been dug up from the grave-yard and
+preserved in the manner indicated. The catacombs of Naples and Paris
+afford examples of burial ossuaries.
+
+
+SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS.
+
+The following account is by Dr. S.G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:--
+
+     Pagan Indians or those who have not become Christians still
+     adhere to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of
+     departed friends; the object is to feast with the departed;
+     that is, they believe that while they partake of the visible
+     material the departed spirit partakes at the same time of
+     the spirit that dwells in the food. From ancient time it was
+     customary to bury with the dead various articles, such
+     especially as were most valued in lifetime. The idea was
+     that there was a spirit dwelling in the article represented
+     by the material article; thus the war-club contained a
+     spiritual war-club, the pipe a spiritual pipe, which could
+     be used by the departed in another world. These several
+     spiritual implements were supposed, of course, to accompany
+     the soul, to be used also on the way to its final abode.
+     This habit has now ceased.
+
+
+FOOD.
+
+This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been an
+almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country to
+place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.
+
+
+DANCES.
+
+Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan:[98]
+
+     An occasional and very singular figure was called the "dance
+     for the dead." It was known as the _O-ke-wa._ It was danced
+     by the women alone. The music was entirely vocal, a select
+     band of singers being stationed in the center of the room.
+     To the songs for the dead which they sang the dancers joined
+     in chorus. It was plaintive and mournful music. This dance
+     was usually separate from all councils and the only dance of
+     the occasion. It was commenced at dusk or soon after and
+     continued until towards morning, when the shades of the dead
+     who were believed to be present and participate in the dance
+     were supposed to disappear. The dance was had whenever a
+     family which had lost a member called for it, which was
+     usually a year after the event. In the spring and fall it
+     was often given for all the dead indiscriminately, who were
+     believed then to revisit the earth and join in the dance.
+
+The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers[99] and
+relates to the Yo-kai-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial:
+
+     I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and
+     finding there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to
+     enter and examine it, but was not allowed to do so until I
+     had gained the confidence of the old sexton by a few
+     friendly words and the tender of a silver half dollar. The
+     pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 feet
+     deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the
+     interior was damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low
+     tumulus, and was provided with a tunnel-like entrance about
+     10 feet long and 4 feet high, and leading down to a level
+     with the floor of the pit. The mouth of the tunnel was
+     closed with brush, and the venerable sexton would not remove
+     it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several times to
+     and fro before the entrance.
+
+     Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of
+     peeled poles painted white and ringed with black and
+     ornamented with rude devices. The floor was covered thick
+     and green with sprouting wheat, which had been scattered to
+     feed the spirit of the captain of the tribe, lately
+     deceased. Not long afterwards a deputation of the Senel come
+     up to condole with the Yo-kai-a on the loss of their chief,
+     and a dance or series of dances was held which lasted three
+     days. During this time of course the Senel were the guests
+     of the Yo-kai-a, and the latter were subjected to a
+     considerable expense. I was prevented by other engagements
+     from being present, and shall be obliged to depend on the
+     description of an eye-witness, Mr. John Tenney, whose
+     account is here given with a few changes:
+
+     There are four officials connected with the building, who
+     are probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no
+     intruders. They are the assistants of the chief. The
+     invitation to attend was from one of them, and admission was
+     given by the same. These four wore black vests trimmed with
+     red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief made no special
+     display on the occasion. In addition to these four, who were
+     officers of the assembly-chamber, there were an old man and
+     a young woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The
+     young woman was dressed differently from any other, the
+     rest dressing in plain calico dresses. Her dress was white
+     covered with spots of red flannel, cut in neat figure,
+     ornamented with shells. It looked gorgeous and denoted some
+     office, the name of which I could not ascertain. Before the
+     visitors were ready to enter, the older men of the tribe
+     were reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As the
+     ceremonies were about to commence, the old man and young
+     woman were summoned, and, standing at the end opposite the
+     entrance, they inaugurated the exercises by a brief service,
+     which seemed to be a dedication of the house to the
+     exercises about to commence. Each of them spoke a few words,
+     joined in a brief chant, and the house was thrown open for
+     their visitors. They staid at their post until the visitors
+     entered and were seated on one side of the room. After the
+     visitors then others were seated, making about 200 in all,
+     though there was plenty of room in the center for the
+     dancing.
+
+     Before the dance commented the chief of the visiting tribe
+     made a brief speech in which he no doubt referred to the
+     death of the chief of the Yo-kai-n, and offered the sympathy
+     of his tribe in this loss. As he spoke, some of the women
+     scarcely refrained from crying out, and with difficulty they
+     suppressed their sobs. I presume that he proposed a few
+     moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole
+     assemblage burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming
+     as if in agony. The whole thing created such a din that I
+     was compelled to stop my ears. The air was rent and pierced
+     with their cries. This wailing and shedding of tears lasted
+     about three or five minutes, though it seemed to last a half
+     hour. At a given signal they ceased, wiped their eyes, and
+     quieted down.
+
+     Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the
+     room was set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors
+     wens five men, who were muscular and agile. They were
+     profusely decorated with paint and feathers, while white and
+     dark stripes covered their bodies. They were girt about the
+     middle with cloth of bright colors, sometimes with
+     variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the shoulder,
+     reaching below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the
+     neck, while their heads were covered with a crown of eagle
+     feathers. They had whistles in their months as they danced,
+     swaying their heads, bending and whirling their bodies;
+     every muscle seemed to be exercised, and the feather
+     ornaments quivered with light. They were agile and graceful
+     as they bounded about in the sinuous course of the dance.
+
+     The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women,
+     who only marked time by stepping up and down with short
+     step. They always took their places first and disappeared
+     first, the men making their exit gracefully one by one. The
+     dresses of the women were suitable for the occasion. They
+     were white dresses, trimmed heavily with black velvet. The
+     stripes were about three inches wide, some plain and others
+     edged like saw teeth. This was an indication of their
+     mourning for the dead chief, in whose honor they had
+     prepared that style of dancing. Strings of haliotis and
+     pachydesma shell beads encircled their necks, and around
+     their waists were belts heavily loaded with the same
+     material. Their head-dresses were more showy than those of
+     the men. The head was encircled with a bandeau of otters' or
+     beavers' fur, to which were attached short wires standing
+     out in all directions, with glass or shell beads strung on
+     them, and at the tips little feather flags and quail plumes.
+     Surmounting all was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black,
+     gray, and scarlet, the top generally being a bright scarlet
+     bunch, waving and tossing very beautifully. All these
+     combined gave their heads a very brilliant and spangled
+     appearance.
+
+     The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of
+     the Yo-kai-a chief who died a short time before. The music
+     was mournful and simple, being a monotonous chant in which
+     only two tones were used, accompanied with a rattling of
+     split sticks and stamping on a hollow slab. The second day
+     the dance was more lively on the part of the men, the music
+     was better, employing airs which had a greater range of
+     tune, and the women generally joined in the chorus. The
+     dress of the women was not so beautiful, as they appeared in
+     ordinary calico. The third day, if observed in accordance
+     with Indian custom, the dancing was still more lively and
+     the proceedings more gay, just as the coming home from a
+     Christian funeral is apt to be much more jolly than the
+     going out.
+
+     A Yo-kai-a widow's style of mourning is peculiar. In
+     addition to the usual evidences of grief, she mingles the
+     ashes of her dead husband with pitch, making a white tar or
+     unguent, with which she smears a band about two inches wide
+     all around the edge of the hair (which is previously cut off
+     close to the head), so that at a little distance she appears
+     to be wearing a white chaplet.
+
+     It is their custom to "feed the spirits of the dead" for the
+     space of one year by going daily to places which they were
+     accustomed to frequent while living, where they sprinkle
+     pinole upon the ground. A Yo-kai-a mother who has lost her
+     babe goes every day for a year to some place where her
+     little one played when alive, or to the spot where the body
+     was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This is
+     accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous
+     calling upon her little one to return, and sometimes she
+     sings a hoarse and melancholy chant, and dances with a wild
+     static swaying of the body.
+
+
+SONGS.
+
+It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals,
+but for varying periods of time afterwards, although these chants may no
+doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful ejaculation. A
+writer[100] mentions it as follows:
+
+     At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of
+     singing, with no accompaniments, but generally all do not
+     sing the same melody at the same time in unison. Several may
+     sing the same song and at the same time, but each begins and
+     finishes when he or she may wish. Often for weeks, or even
+     months, after the decease of a dear friend, a living one,
+     usually a woman, will sit by her house and sing or cry by
+     the hour, and they also sing for a short time when they
+     visit the grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have
+     not seen since the decease. At the funeral both men and
+     women sing. No. 11 I have heard more frequently some time
+     after the funeral, and No. 12 at the time of the funeral, by
+     the Twanos, (For song see p. 251 of the magazine quoted.)
+     The words are simply an exclamation of grief, as our word
+     "alas," but they also have other words which they use, and
+     sometimes they use merely the syllable _la_. Often the notes
+     are sung in this order, and sometimes not, but in some order
+     the notes _do_ and _la,_ and occasionally _mi,_ are sung.
+
+Some pages back will be found a reference, and the words of a peculiar
+death dirge sung by the Senel of California, as related by Mr. Powers.
+It is as follows:
+
+  Hel-lel-li-ly,
+  Hel-lel-lo,
+  Hel-lel-lo.
+
+Mr. John Campbell, of Montreal, Canada, has kindly called the attention
+of the writer to death songs very similar in character; for instance,
+the Basques of Spain ululate thus:
+
+  Lelo il Lelo, Lelo dead Lelo,
+  Lelo il Lelo,
+  Lelo zarat, Lelo zara,
+  Il Lelon killed Lelo.
+
+This was called the "ululating Lelo." Mr. Campbell says:
+
+     This again connects with the Linns or Ailinus of the Greeks
+     and Egyptians * * * which Wilkinson connects with the Coptic
+     "ya lay-lee-ya lail." The Alleluia which Lescarbot heard the
+     South Americans sing must have been the same wail. The Greek
+     verb [Greek: ololuzo] and the Latin ululare, with an English
+     howl and wail, are probably derived from this ancient form
+     of lamentation.
+
+In our own time a writer on the manner and customs of the Creeks
+describes a peculiar alleluia or hallelujah he heard, from which he
+inferred that the American Indians must be the descendants of the lost
+tribes of Israel.
+
+
+GAMES
+
+It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to a
+practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the defunct.
+Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U.S.A., who for some time was stationed
+among the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed and
+interesting account of what is called the "ghost gamble." This is played
+with marked wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is peculiar to
+the Sioux. Figure 33 appears as a fair illustration of the manner in
+which this game is played.
+
+     After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take
+     charge of the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the
+     time of the first feast held over the bundle containing the
+     lock of hair--they are divided into many small piles, so as
+     to give all the Indians invited to play an opportunity to
+     win something. One Indian is selected to represent the ghost
+     and he plays against all the others, who are not required to
+     stake anything on the result, but simply invited to take
+     part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the lodge of
+     the dead person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing
+     the lock of hair. In cases where the ghost himself is not
+     wealthy the stakes are furnished by his rich friends, should
+     he have any. The players are called in one at a time, and
+     play singly against the ghost's representative, the gambling
+     being done in recent years by means of cards. If the invited
+     player succeeds in beating the ghost, he takes one of the
+     piles of goods and passes out, when another is invited to
+     play, &c., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases of
+     men only the men play, and in cases of women the women only
+     take part in the ceremony.
+
+     Before white men came among these Indians and taught them
+     many of his improved vices, this game was played by means of
+     figured plum-seeds, the men using eight and the women seven
+     seeds, figured as follows, and shown in Figure 34.
+
+     Two seeds are simply blackened on one side, the reverse
+     containing nothing. Two seeds are black on one side, with a
+     small spot of the color of the seed left in the center, the
+     reverse side having a black spot in the center, the body
+     being plain. Two seeds have a buffalo's head on one side and
+     the reverse simply two crossed black lines. There is but one
+     seed of this kind in the set used by the women. Two seeds
+     have half of one side blackened and the rest left plain, so
+     as to represent a half moon; the reverse has a black
+     longitudinal line crossed at right angles by six small ones.
+     There are six throws whereby the player can win, and five
+     that entitle him to another throw. The winning throws are as
+     follows, each winner taking a pile of the ghost's goods:
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 47--Auxiliary throw No 5.]
+
+     Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, buffalo's
+     head up, and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black
+     ones up, two black with natural spots up, two longitudinally
+     crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up wins a
+     pile. Two plain black ones up, two black with natural spots
+     up, two half moons up, and the transversely crossed one up
+     wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two black with natural
+     spots up, two half moons up, and the buffalo's head up wins
+     a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two
+     longitudinally crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed
+     one up wins a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots
+     up, buffalo's head up, and two long crossed up wins a pile.
+     The following auxiliary throws entitle to another chance to
+     win: two plain ones up, two with black spots up, one half
+     moon up, one longitudinally crossed one up, and buffalo's
+     head up gives another throw, and on this throw, if the two
+     plain ones up and two with black spots with either of the
+     half moons or buffalo's head up, the player takes a pile.
+     Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two half moons
+     up, and the transversely crossed one up entitles to another
+     throw, when, if all of the black sides come up, excepting
+     one, the throw wins. One of the plain ones up and all the
+     rest with black sides up gives another throw, and the same
+     then turning up wins. One of the plain black ones up with
+     that side up of all the others having the least black on
+     gives another throw, when the same turning up again wins.
+     One half moon up, with that side up of all the others having
+     the least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is
+     then duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men,
+     has its place in their game whenever its facings are
+     mentioned above. I transmit with this paper a set of these
+     figured seeds, which can be used to illustrate the game if
+     desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a hundred years
+     old, and sets of them are now very rare.
+
+For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Dr. C.C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian
+Agency.
+
+Figures 35 to 45 represent the appearance of the plum stones and the
+different throws; these have been carefully drawn from the set of stones
+sent by Dr. McChesney.
+
+
+POSTS.
+
+These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or at both ends, and
+have painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family,
+certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the
+achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and danced
+at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently plant poles
+near the graves, suspending therefrom bite of rag, flags, horses' tails,
+&c. The custom among the present Indians does not exist to any extent.
+Beltrami[101] speaks of it as follows:
+
+     Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was
+     surmounted by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a
+     trunk of a tree was raised, covered with hieroglyphics
+     recording the number of enemies slain by the tenant of the
+     tomb and several of his tutelary Manitous.
+
+The following extract from Schoolcraft[102] relates to the burial posts
+used by the Sioux and Chippewas. Figure 40 is after the picture given by
+this author in connection with the account quoted:
+
+     Among the Sioux and Western Chippawas, after the body had
+     been wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then
+     placed on a scaffold or in a tree until the flesh is entirely
+     decayed, after which the bones are buried and grave-posts
+     fixed. At the head of the grave a tubular piece of cedar or
+     other wood, called the _adjedatig,_ is set. This grave-board
+     contains the symbolic or representative figure, which
+     records, if it be a warrior, his totem, that is to say the
+     symbol of his family, or surname, and such arithmetical or
+     other devices as seem to denote how many times the deceased
+     has been in war parties, and how many scalps he has taken
+     from the enemy--two facts from which his reputation is
+     essentially to be derived. It is seldom that more is
+     attempted in the way of inscription. Often, however,
+     distinguished chiefs have their war flag, or, in modern
+     days, a small ensign of American fabric, displayed on a
+     standard at the head of their graves, which is left to fly
+     over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps
+     of their enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the
+     swallow-tailed falcon, or some carnivorous bird, are also
+     placed, in such instances, on the _adjedatig,_ or suspended,
+     with offerings of various kinds, on a separate staff. But
+     the latter are superadditions of a religious character, and
+     belong to the class of the Ke-ke-wa-o-win-an-tig (_ante_,
+     No. 4). The building of a funeral fire on recent graves is
+     also a rite which belongs to the consideration of their
+     religious faith.
+
+
+FIRES.
+
+It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building fires
+on or near graves was originated, some authors stating that the soul
+thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that demons
+were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford light to
+the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One writer states
+that--
+
+     The Algonkins believed that the fire lighted nightly on the
+     grave was to light the spirit on its journey. By a
+     coincidence to be explained by the universal sacredness of
+     the number, both Algonkins and Mexicans maintained it for
+     four nights consecutively. The former related the tradition
+     that one of their ancestors returned from the spirit land
+     and informed their nation that the journey thither consumed
+     just four days, and that collecting fuel every night added
+     much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered, all of
+     which could be spared it.
+
+So it would appear that the belief existed that the fire was also
+intended to assist the spirit in preparing its repast.
+
+Stephen Powers[103] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires:
+
+     After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the
+     vicinity of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the
+     "Big Indians" do, that the spirits of the departed are
+     compelled to cross an extremely attenuated greasy pole,
+     which bridges over the chasm of the debatable land, and that
+     they require the fire to light them on their darksome
+     journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker than a
+     wicked one, hence they regulate the number of nights for
+     burning a light according to the character for goodness or
+     the opposite which the deceased possessed in this world.
+
+Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris expedition, informs the writer that a
+somewhat similar belief obtains among the Esquimaux.
+
+Figure 47 is a fair illustration of a grave-fire; it also shows one of
+the grave-posts mentioned in a previous section.
+
+
+SUPERSTITIONS.
+
+An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitious regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is mainly tentative, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, United States Army,[104]
+and relates to the Hidatsa:
+
+     When a Hidatsa dies, his shade lingers four nights around
+     the camp or village in which he died, and then goes to the
+     lodge of his departed kindred in the "village of the dead."
+     When he has arrived there he is rewarded for his valor,
+     self-denial, and ambition on earth by receiving the same
+     regard in the one place as in the other, for there as here
+     the brave man is honored and the coward despised. Some say
+     that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a
+     separate part of the village, but that their condition
+     differs in no wise from that of the others. In the next
+     world human shades hunt and live in the shades of buffalo
+     and other animals that have here died. There, too there are
+     four seasons, but they come in an inverse order to the
+     terrestrial seasons. During the four nights that the ghost
+     is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who
+     disliked or feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit
+     from the shade, scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins
+     which they leave at the door of the lodge. The smell of the
+     burning leather they claim keeps the ghost out; but the true
+     friends of the dead man take no such precautions.
+
+From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before the
+spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning leather
+should be offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless to
+speculate on.
+
+The next account, by Keating,[105] relating to the Chippewas, shows a
+slight analogy regarding the slippery-pole tradition already alluded to:
+
+     The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence
+     entirely distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag_,
+     and appear to supply to it the qualities which we refer to
+     the soul. They believe that it quits the body it the time of
+     death, and repairs to what they term _Chekechekchekawe;_
+     this region is supposed to be situated to the south, and on
+     the shores of the great ocean. Previous to arriving there
+     they meet with a stream which they are obliged to cross upon
+     a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those
+     who die from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream;
+     they are thrown into it and remain there forever. Some souls
+     come to the edge of the stream, but are prevented from
+     passing by the snake, which threatens to devour them; these
+     are the souls of the persons in a lethargy or trance. Being
+     refused a passage these souls return to their bodies and
+     reanimate them. They believe that animals have souls, and
+     even that inorganic substances, such as kettles, &c., have
+     in them a similar essence.
+
+     In this land of souls all are treated according to their
+     merits. Those who have been good men are free from pain;
+     they have no duties to perform, their time is spent in
+     dancing and singing, and they feed upon mushrooms, which are
+     very abundant. The souls of bad men are haunted by the
+     phantom of the persons or things that they have injured;
+     thus, if a man has destroyed much property the phantoms of
+     the wrecks of this property obstruct his passage wherever he
+     goes; if he has been cruel to his dogs or horses they also
+     torment him after death. The ghosts of those whom during his
+     lifetime he wronged are there permitted to avenge their
+     injuries. They think that when a soul has crossed the stream
+     it cannot return to its body, yet they believe in
+     apparitions, and entertain the opinion that the spirits of
+     the departed will frequently revisit the abodes of their
+     friends in order to invite them to the other world, and to
+     forewarn them of their approaching dissolution.
+
+Stephen Powers, in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of
+examples of superstitions regarding the dead, of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California:
+
+     How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the
+     dead is shown by the fact that the highest crime one can
+     commit is the _pet-chi-e-ri_ the mere mention of the dead
+     relative's name. It is a deadly insult to the survivors, and
+     can be atoned for only by the same amount of blood-money
+     paid for willful murder. In default of that they will have
+     the villain's blood. * * * At the mention of his name the
+     mouldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do
+     not like stragglers even to inspect the burial place. * * *
+     They believe that the soul of a good Karok goes to the
+     "happy western land" beyond the great ocean. That they have
+     a well-grounded assurance of an immortality beyond the grave
+     is proven, if not otherwise, by their beautiful and poetical
+     custom of whispering a message in the ear of the dead. * * *
+     Believe that dancing will liberate some relative's soul from
+     bonds of death, and restore him to earth.
+
+According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies away
+with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk will
+catch the little bird and eat him up, soul and feathers, but if he was
+good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that--
+
+     The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the
+     memory of the dead which is common to the Northern
+     Californian tribes. When I asked the chief Tahhokolli to
+     tell me the Indian words for "father" and "mother" and
+     certain others similar, he shook his head mournfully and
+     said, "All dead," "All dead," "No good."' They are forbidden
+     to mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult to
+     the relatives, * * * and that the Mat-toal hold that the
+     good depart to a happy region somewhere southward in the
+     great ocean, but the soul of a bad Indian transmigrates into
+     a grizzly bear, which they consider, of all animals, the
+     cousin-german of sin.
+
+The same author who has been so freely quoted states as follows
+regarding some of the superstitions and beliefs of the Modocs:
+
+     * * * It has always been one of the most passionate desires
+     among the Modok, as well as their neighbors, the Shastika,
+     to live, die, and be buried where they were born. Some of
+     their usages in regard to the dead and their burial may be
+     gathered from an incident that occurred while the captives
+     of 1873 were on their way from the Lava Beds to Fort
+     Klamath, as it was described by an eye-witness. Curly-headed
+     Jack, a prominent warrior, committed suicide with a pistol.
+     His mother and female friends gathered about him and set up
+     a dismal wailing; they besmeared themselves with his blood
+     and endeavored by other Indian customs to restore his life.
+     The mother took his head in her lap and scooped the blood
+     from his ear, another old woman placed her hand upon his
+     heart, and a third blew in his face. The sight of the
+     group--these poor old women, whose grief was unfeigned, and
+     the dying man--was terrible in its sadness. Outside the
+     tent stood Bogus-Charley, Huka Jim, Shucknasty Jim,
+     Steamboat Frank, Curly-headed Doctor, and others who had
+     been the dying man's companions from childhood, all affected
+     to tears. When he was lowered into the grave, before the
+     soldiers began to cover the body, Huka Jim was seen running
+     eagerly about the camp trying to exchange a two-dollar bill
+     of currency for silver. He owed the dead warrior that amount
+     of money, and he had grave doubts whether the currency would
+     be of any use to him in the other world--sad commentary on
+     our national currency!--and desired to have the coin
+     instead. Procuring it from one of the soldiers he cast it in
+     and seemed greatly relieved. All the dead man's other
+     effects, consisting of clothing, trinkets, and a half
+     dollar, were interred with him, together with some
+     root-flour as victual for the journey to the spirit land.
+
+The superstitious fear Indians have of the dead or spirit of the dead
+may be observed from the following narrative by Swan.[106] It regards
+the natives of Washington Territory:
+
+     My opinion about the cause of these deserted villages is
+     this: It is the universal custom with these Indians never to
+     live in a lodge where a person has died. If a person of
+     importance dies, the lodge is usually burned down, or taken
+     down and removed to some other part of the bay; and it can
+     be readily seen that in the case of the Palox Indians, who
+     had been attacked by the Chehalis people, as before stated,
+     their relatives chose at once to leave for some other place.
+     This objection to living in a lodge where a person has died
+     is the reason why their sick slaves are invariably carried
+     out into the woods, where they remain either to recover or
+     die. There is, however, no disputing the fact that an
+     immense mortality has occurred among these people, and they
+     are now reduced to a mere handful.
+
+     The great superstitious dread these Indians have for a dead
+     person, and their horror of touching a corpse, oftentimes
+     give rise to a difficulty as to who shall perform the
+     funeral ceremonies; for any person who handles a dead body
+     must not eat of salmon or sturgeon for thirty days.
+     Sometimes, in cases of small-pox, I have known them leave
+     the corpse in the lodge, and all remove elsewhere; and in
+     two instances that came to my knowledge, the whites had to
+     burn the lodges, with the bodies in them, to prevent
+     infection.
+
+     So, in the instances I have before mentioned, where we had
+     buried Indians, not one of their friends or relatives could
+     be seen. All kept in their lodges, singing and drumming to
+     keep away the spirits of the dead.
+
+According to Bancroft[107]--
+
+     The Tlascaltecs supposed that the common people were after
+     death transformed into beetles and disgusting objects, while
+     the nobler became stars and beautiful birds.
+
+The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously
+avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those
+of our own country.
+
+Enough of illustrative examples have now been given, it is thought, to
+enable observers to thoroughly comprehend the scope of the proposed
+final volume on the mortuary customs of North American Indians, and
+while much more might have been added from the stored-up material on
+hand, it has not been deemed advisable at this time to yield to a desire
+for amplification. The reader will notice, as in the previous paper,
+that discussion has been avoided as foreign to the present purpose of
+the volume, which is intended, as has been already stated, simply to
+induce further investigation and contribution from careful and
+conscientious observers. From a perusal of the excerpts from books and
+correspondence given will be seen what facts are useful and needed; in
+short, most of them may serve as copies for preparation of similar
+material.
+
+To assist observers, the queries published in the former volume are also
+given.
+
+_1st._ NAME OF THE TRIBE; present appellation; former, if differing any;
+and that used by the Indians themselves.
+
+_2d._ LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range
+of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+_3d._ DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and
+characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse
+prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it
+spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the character
+of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and why? Is food
+put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this said to be an
+ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried together; and is the
+clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever prevail?
+
+_4th._ MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF
+THE GRAVES; CREMATION.--Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water? Are
+scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe construction
+of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether placed in
+skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether they are
+suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to float on the
+water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can any reasons be
+given for the prevalence of any one or all of the methods? Are burial
+posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags or other insignia of
+position of deceased. Describe embalmment, mummification, desiccation,
+or if antiseptic precautions are taken, and subsequent disposal of
+remains. Are bones collected and reinterred; describe ceremonies, if
+any, whether modern or ancient. If charnel houses exist or have been
+used, describe them.
+
+_5th._ MOURNING OBSERVANCES.--Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves; why, and at what time, and for how long?
+
+_6th._ BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS.--Give in full all that can
+be learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.
+
+In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead; and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.
+
+One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the "why" and "wherefore" for every rite and custom; for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it.
+
+Any material the result of careful observation will be most gratefully
+received and acknowledged in the final volume; but the writer must here
+confess the lasting obligation he is under to those who have already
+contributed, a number so large that limited space precludes a mention of
+their individual names.
+
+Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested
+in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general.
+Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious
+forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.
+
+The lithographs which illustrate this paper have been made by Thos.
+Sinclair & Son, of Philadelphia, Pa., after original drawings made by
+Mr. W.H. Holmes, who has with great kindness superintended their
+preparation.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S. 1853 pt. 3, p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 108-110.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Hist. of Carolina, 1714, p. 181.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Hist. Ind. Tribes of U.S., 1855, pt. 5, p.270.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Rep. Smithsonian Institution, 1871, p. 407.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Nov. dans l'Arizona in Ball. Soc. de Geographic 1877.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Nat. Races Pacif. States 1874, vol. i, p 555.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 133.]
+
+[Footnote 9: L'incertitude des Signes de la Mort, 1749, t. 1, p. 439.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern, 1683, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Schoolcraft Hist. Ind. Tribes of the United States, 1853,
+Pt. 3, p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 12: U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr. 1876, p. 473.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Life and adventures of Moses Van Campen, 1841, p. 252.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1830, vol i, p. 302.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Antiquities of Tennessee. Smith. Inst. Cont. to Knowledge.
+No. 259, 1876. pp. 1, 8, 37, 52, 55, 82.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Pop. Sc. Month, Sept., 1877, p. 577.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Nat. Races of the Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, p. 780.]
+
+[Footnote 18: A detailed account of this exploration, with many
+illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh Annual Report of the
+Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 174 _et seq_.]
+
+[Footnote 20: American Naturalist, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 513.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 515.]
+
+[Footnote 24: A Concise Nat. Hist. of East and West Florida, 1775.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Mem. Hist. sur la Louisiane, 1753, vol. i, pp. 241-243.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol i, p. 464.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1867, p. 406.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Contrib. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p.62.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p. 185.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol. xiii, p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Hist. Ind. Tribes United States, 1854, Part IV, pp. 155
+_et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 32: Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 33: A mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age,
+discovered in Kentucky, is now in the cabinet of the American
+Antiquarian Society. It is a female. Several human bodies were found
+enwrapped carefully in skins and cloths. They were inhumed below the
+floor of the cave; _inhumed_, and not lodged in catacombs.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Letter to Samuel M. Burnside, in Trans. and Coll. Amer.
+Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 318.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. i, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Billings' Exped., 1802, p. 161.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Pre-historic Races, 1873, p. 199.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Rawlinson's Herodotus, Book I, chap. 198, _note_.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Amer. Naturalist, 1876, vol. x, p. 465 et seq.]
+
+[Footnote[40]: Manners, Customs, &c., of North American Indians, 1844,
+vol. ii, p. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p. 483.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Hist, de l'Amerique Septentrionale, 1753, tome ii, p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Pioneer Life, 1872.]
+
+[Footnote 44: I saw the body of this woman in the tree. It was
+undoubtedly an exceptional case. When I came here (Rock Island) the
+bluffs on the peninsula between Mississippi and Rock River (three miles
+distant) were thickly studded with Indian grave mounds, showing
+conclusively that subterranean was the usual mode of burial. In making
+roads, streets, and digging foundations, skulls, bones, trinkets,
+beads, etc., in great numbers, were exhumed, proving that many things
+(according to the wealth or station of survivors) were deposited in the
+graves. In 1836 I witnessed the burial of two chiefs in the manner
+stated.--P. GREGG.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Tract No. 50, West. Reserve and North. Ohio Hist. Soc.
+(1879f), p. 107.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Hist. of Ft. Wayne, 1868, p. 284.]
+
+[Footnote 47: The Last Act, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1854, part IV,
+p. 224.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831. vol. ii, p. 387.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. i, p. 377.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Hist Indian Tribes of the United States, 1853, part iii,
+p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Contrib. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol iii, p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Amer. Naturalist, November 1878, p. 753]
+
+[Footnote 55: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1867-76, p. 64.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Pre-historic Races. 1873, p. 149.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Nov. 1874; p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1878, p. 629.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah,
+1852, p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, 1831, vol. 1, p.
+332.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1871, vol. 1, p. 780.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Am. Antiq. and Discov., 1838, p 286.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874 vol 1, p 69.]
+
+[Footnote 64: Prav. Is. in Alaska, 1869 p. 100]
+
+[Footnote 65: Alaska and its Resources, 1870, pp. 19, 132, 145]
+
+[Footnote 66: Life on the Plains, 1854, p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 305.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Long's Exped. to the St. Peter's River, 1824, p. 332]
+
+[Footnote 69: L'incertitude des signes de la Mort, 1742, tome 1, p. 475,
+_et seq_.]
+
+[Footnote 70: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that the
+custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the Moravian
+settlement of Salem, N.C.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Rep Smithsonian Inst., 1806, p.319]
+
+[Footnote 72: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1874, v. II, p. 774, _et
+seq._]
+
+[Footnote 73: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p. 88.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, p. 105.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Bartram's Travels, 1791, p. 516.]
+
+[Footnote 76: "Some ingenious men whom I have conversed with have given
+it as their opinion that all those pyramidal artificial hills, usually
+called Indian mounds, were raised on this occasion, and are generally
+sepulchers. However, I am of different opinion."]
+
+[Footnote 77: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 173.]
+
+[Footnote 78: Myths of the New World, 1868, p. 255.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Hist. N.A. Indians, 1844, i, p. 90.]
+
+[Footnote 80: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 185.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Cont. N.A. Ethnol., 1877, i., p.200.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Uncivilized Races of the World, 1870, vol. i, p. 483.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859, p. 48]
+
+[Footnote 84: Hist. North American Indians, 1844, vol. ii, p. 141.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Moeurs des Sauvages, 1724, tome ii, p. 406.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 269.]
+
+[Footnote 87: Tour to the Lakes, 1827, p. 292.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Nat. Races of Pacific States, 1874, vol. i, pp. 731, 744.]
+
+[Footnote 89: Life Among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Bossu's Travels (Forster's translation), 1771, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 91: At the hour intended for the ceremony, they made the
+victims swallow little balls or pills of tobacco, in order to make them
+giddy, and as it were to take the sensation of pain from them; after
+that they were all strangled and put upon mats, the favorite on the
+right, the other wife on the left, and the others according to their
+rank.]
+
+[Footnote 92: The established distinctions among these Indians were as
+follows: The Suns, relatives of the Great Sun, held the highest rank;
+next come the Nobles; after them the Honorables; and last of all the
+common people, who were very much despised. As the nobility was
+propagated by the women, this contributed much to multiply it.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The Great Sun had given orders to put out all the fires,
+which is only done at the death of the sovereign.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Ten Years in Oregon, 1850, p. 261.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Nat. Races of Pacif. States, 1875, vol iii, p. 513.]
+
+[Footnote 96: Pilgrimage, 1828, vol. ii, p. 443.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii, p.
+164.]
+
+[Footnote 98: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 287.]
+
+[Footnote 99: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iii, p. 164.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Am. Antiq., April, May, June, 1879, p. 251.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Hist. Indian Tribes of the United States, 1851, part i,
+p. 356.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Cont. to N.A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. ii., p. 58.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. Geol.
+Surv. of Terr., 1877, p. 409.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Long's Exped., 1824, vol. ii, p. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Northwest Coast, 1857, p. 212.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Nat. Races Pacif. States, 1875, vol. iii, p. 512.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Further Contribution to the Study of
+the Mortuary Customs of the North American Indians, by H.C. Yarrow
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