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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:34:48 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:34:48 -0700 |
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diff --git a/10611-h/10611-h.htm b/10611-h/10611-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac761e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/10611-h/10611-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7738 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of An essay on the slavery and + commerce of the human species, particularly the African by + THOMAS CLARKSON. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + <!-- + * { font-family: Times;} + P { text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 14pt; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; } + H3 { text-align: left; } + HR { width: 65%; } + // --> + </style> + <style type="text/css"> + hr.c4 {width: 45%;} + hr.c3 {width: 65%;} + div.c2 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center} + div.c1 {text-align: center} + </style> + + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10611 ***</div> + + <center> +<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Bookspace"> +<tr><td> + <div class="c1"> + <h1> + <br> + AN ESSAY<br> + ON THE SLAVERY AND COMMERCE<br> + OF THE HUMAN SPECIES,<br> + PARTICULARLY THE AFRICAN, + </h1> + </div> + <p> + + </p> + <div class="c1"> + <h2> + TRANSLATED FROM A LATIN DISSERTATION,<br> + WHICH WAS HONOURED<br> + WITH THE FIRST PRIZE<br> + IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE,<br> + FOR THE YEAR 1785,<br> + WITH ADDITIONS. + </h2> + </div> + <br> + <br> + <hr> + <div class="c1"> + <i>Neque premendo alium me extulisse velim</i>.-LIVY. + </div> + <br> + <br> + <br> + <br> + + <div class="c2"> + M.DCC.LXXXVI. + </div> + <br> + <br> + <br> + <br> + <hr> + <br> + <br> + <a name="TO_THE"></a> + <h3> + TO THE<br> + RIGHT HONOURABLE<br> + WILLIAM CHARLES COLYEAR,<br> + EARL OF PORTMORE,<br> + VISCOUNT MILSINTOWN. + </h3> + <br> + + <p> + <br> + MY LORD, + </p> + <p> + The dignity of the subject of this little Treatise, not any + persuasion of its merits as a literary composition, + encourages me to offer it to your Lordship's patronage. The + cause of freedom has always been found sufficient, in every + age and country, to attract the notice of the generous and + humane; and it is therefore, in a more peculiar manner, + worthy of the attention and favour of a personage, who + holds a distinguished rank in that illustrious island, the + very air of which has been determined, upon a late + investigation of its laws, to be an antidote against + slavery. I feel a satisfaction in the opportunity, which + the publication of this treatise affords me, of + acknowledging your Lordship's civilities, which can only be + equalled by the respect, with which I am, + </p> + <p> + <br> + Your Lordship's,<br> + much obliged,<br> + and obedient servant, + </p> + <p> + THOMAS CLARKSON. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr> + <br> + <br> + + <h3> + Publisher's Commendations<a name="FNanchor119"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_119"><sup>[119]</sup></a> + </h3> + <br> + <br> + <hr> + <br> + <br> + <h2> + THE PREFACE. + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + As the subject of the following work has fortunately become + of late a topick of conversation, I cannot begin the + preface in a manner more satisfactory to the feelings of + the benevolent reader, than by giving an account of those + humane and worthy persons, who have endeavoured to draw + upon it that share of the publick attention which it has + obtained. + </p> + <p> + Among the well disposed individuals, of different nations + and ages, who have humanely exerted themselves to suppress + the abject personal slavery, introduced in the original + cultivation of the <i>European</i> colonies in the western + world, <i>Bartholomew de las Casas</i>, the pious bishop of + <i>Chiapa</i>, in the fifteenth century, seems to have been + the first. This amiable man, during his residence in + <i>Spanish America</i>, was so sensibly affected at the + treatment which the miserable Indians underwent that he + returned to <i>Spain</i>, to make a publick remonstrance + before the celebrated emperor <i>Charles</i> the fifth, + declaring, that heaven would one day call him to an account + for those cruelties, which he then had it in his power to + prevent. The speech which he made on the occasion, is now + extant, and is a most perfect picture of benevolence and + piety. + </p> + <p> + But his intreaties, by opposition of avarice, were rendered + ineffectual: and I do not find by any books which I have + read upon the subject, that any other person interfered + till the last century, when <i>Morgan Godwyn</i>, a + <i>British</i> clergyman, distinguished himself in the + cause. + </p> + <p> + The present age has also produced some zealous and able + opposers of the <i>colonial</i> slavery. For about the + middle of the present century, <i>John Woolman</i> and + <i>Anthony Benezet</i>, two respectable members of the + religious society called Quakers, devoted much of their + time to the subject. The former travelled through most + parts of <i>North America</i> on foot, to hold + conversations with the members of his own sect, on the + impiety of retaining those in a state of involuntary + servitude, who had never given them offence. The latter + kept a free school at <i>Philadelphia</i>, for the + education of black people. He took every opportunity of + pleading in their behalf. He published several treatises + against slavery,<a name="FNanchor001"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_001"><sup>[001]</sup></a> and gave an hearty + proof of his attachment to the cause, by leaving the whole + of his fortune in support of that school, to which he had + so generously devoted his time and attention when alive. + </p> + <p> + Till this time it does not appear, that any bodies of men, + had collectively interested themselves in endeavouring to + remedy the evil. But in the year 1754, the religious + society, called Quakers, publickly testified their + sentiments upon the subject,<a name="FNanchor002"></a><a + href="#Footnote_002"><sup>[002]</sup></a> declaring, that + "to live in ease and plenty by the toil of those, whom + fraud and violence had put into their power, was neither + consistent with Christianity nor common justice." + </p> + <p> + Impressed with these sentiments, many of this society + immediately liberated their slaves; and though such a + measure appeared to be attended with considerable loss to + the benevolent individuals, who unconditionally presented + them with their freedom, yet they adopted it with pleasure: + nobly considering, that to possess a little, in an + honourable way, was better than to possess much, through + the medium of injustice. Their example was gradually + followed by the rest. A general emancipation of the slaves + in the possession of Quakers, at length took place; and so + effectually did they serve the cause which they had + undertaken, that they denied the claim of membership in + their religious community, to all such as should hereafter + oppose the suggestions of justice in this particular, + either by retaining slaves in their possession, or by being + in any manner concerned in the slave trade: and it is a + fact, that through the vast tract of North America, there + is not at this day a single slave in the possession of an + acknowledged Quaker. + </p> + <p> + But though this measure appeared, as has been observed + before, to be attended with considerable loss to the + benevolent individuals who adopted it, yet, as virtue + seldom fails of obtaining its reward, it became ultimately + beneficial. Most of the slaves, who were thus + unconditionally freed, returned without any solicitation to + their former masters, to serve them, at stated wages; as + free men. The work, which they now did, was found to better + done than before. It was found also, that, a greater + quantity was done in the same time. Hence less than the + former number of labourers was sufficient. From these, and + a variety of circumstances, it appeared, that their + plantations were considerably more profitable when worked + by free men, than when worked, as before, by slaves; and + that they derived therefore, contrary to their + expectations, a considerable advantage from their + benevolence. + </p> + <p> + Animated by the example of the Quakers, the members of + other sects began to deliberate about adopting the same + measure. Some of those of the church of England, of the + Roman Catholicks, and of the Presbyterians and + Independants, freed their slaves; and there happened but + one instance, where the matter was debated, where it was + not immediately put in force. This was in + <i>Pennsylvania</i>. It was agitated in the synod of the + Presbyterians there, to oblige their members to liberate + their slaves. The question was negatived by a majority of + but one person; and this opposition seemed to arise rather + from a dislike to the attempt of forcing such a measure + upon the members of that community, than from any other + consideration. I have the pleasure of being credibly + informed, that the manumission of slaves, or the employment + of free men in the plantations, is now daily gaining ground + in North America. Should slavery be abolished there, (and + it is an event, which, from these circumstances, we may + reasonably expect to be produced in time) let it be + remembered, that the Quakers will have had the merit of its + abolition. + </p> + <p> + Nor have their brethren here been less assiduous in the + cause. As there are happily no slaves in this country, so + they have not had the same opportunity of shewing their + benevolence by a general emancipation. They have not + however omitted to shew it as far as they have been able. + At their religious meetings they have regularly inquired if + any of their members are concerned in the iniquitous + <i>African</i> trade. They have appointed a committee for + obtaining every kind of information on the subject, with a + view to its suppression, and, about three or four years + ago, petitioned parliament on the occasion for their + interference and support. I am sorry to add, that their + benevolent application was ineffectual, and that the + reformation of an evil, productive of consequences equally + impolitick and immoral, and generally acknowledged to have + long disgraced our national character, is yet left to the + unsupported efforts of piety morality and justice, against + interest violence and oppression; and these, I blush to + acknowledge, too strongly countenanced by the legislative + authority of a country, the basis of whose government is + <i>liberty</i>. + </p> + <p> + Nothing can be more clearly shewn, than that an + inexhaustible mine of wealth is neglected in <i>Africa</i>, + for prosecution of this impious traffick; that, if proper + measures were taken, the revenue of this country might be + greatly improved, its naval strength increased, its + colonies in a more flourishing situation, the planters + richer, and a trade, which is now a scene of blood and + desolation, converted into one, which might be prosecuted + with <i>advantage</i> and <i>honour</i>. + </p> + <p> + Such have been the exertions of the Quakers in the cause of + humanity and virtue. They are still prosecuting, as far as + they are able, their benevolent design; and I should stop + here and praise them for thus continuing their humane + endeavours, but that I conceive it to be unnecessary. They + are acting consistently with the principles of religion. + They will find a reward in their own consciences; and they + will receive more real pleasure from a single reflection on + their conduct, than they can possibly experience from the + praises of an host of writers. + </p> + <p> + In giving this short account of those humane and worthy + persons, who have endeavoured to restore to their fellow + creatures the rights of nature, of which they had been + unjustly deprived, I would feel myself unjust, were I to + omit two zealous opposers of the <i>colonial</i> tyranny, + conspicuous at the present day. + </p> + <p> + The first is Mr. <i>Granville Sharp</i>. This Gentleman has + particularly distinguished himself in the cause of freedom. + It is a notorious fact, that, but a few years since, many + of the unfortunate black people, who had been brought from + the colonies into this country, were sold in the metropolis + to merchants and others, when their masters had no farther + occasion for their services; though it was always + understood that every person was free, as soon as he landed + on the British shore. In consequence of this notion, these + unfortunate black people, refused to go to the new masters, + to whom they were consigned. They were however seized, and + forcibly conveyed, under cover of the night, to ships then + lying in the <i>Thames</i>, to be retransported to the + colonies, and to be delivered again to the planters as + merchantable goods. The humane Mr. <i>Sharpe</i>, was the + means of putting a stop to this iniquitous traffick. + Whenever he gained information of people in such a + situation, he caused them to be brought on shore. At a + considerable expence he undertook their cause, and was + instrumental in obtaining the famous decree in the case of + <i>Somersett</i>, that as soon as any person whatever set + his foot in this country, he came under the protection of + the <i>British</i> laws, and was consequently free. Nor did + he interfere less honourably in that cruel and disgraceful + case, in the summer of the year 1781, when <i>an hundred + and thirty two</i> negroes, in their passage to the + colonies, were thrown into the sea alive, to defraud the + underwriters; but his pious endeavours were by no means + attended with the same success. To enumerate his many + laudable endeavours in the extirpation of tyranny and + oppression, would be to swell the preface into a volume: + suffice it to say, that he has written several books on the + subject, and one particularly, which he distinguishes by + the title of "<i>A Limitation of Slavery</i>." + </p> + <p> + The second is the <i>Rev. James Ramsay</i>. This gentleman + resided for many years in the <i>West-Indies</i>, in the + clerical office. He perused all the colonial codes of law, + with a view to find if there were any favourable clauses, + by which the grievances of slaves could be redressed; but + he was severely disappointed in his pursuits. He published + a treatise, since his return to England, called <i>An Essay + on the Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves in the + British Sugar Colonies</i>, which I recommend to the + perusal of the humane reader. This work reflects great + praise upon the author, since, in order to be of service to + this singularly oppressed part of the human species, he + compiled it at the expence of forfeiting that friendship, + which he had contracted with many in those parts, during a + series of years, and at the hazard, as I am credibly + informed, of suffering much, in his private property, as + well as of subjecting himself to the ill will and + persecution of numerous individuals. + </p> + <p> + This Essay <i>on the Treatment and Conversion of African + Slaves</i>, contains so many important truths on the + colonial slavery, and has come so home to the planters, + (being written by a person who has a thorough knowledge of + the subject) as to have occasioned a considerable alarm. + Within the last eight months, two publications have + expressly appeared against it. One of them is intitled + "<i>Cursory Remarks</i> on Mr. Ramsay's Essay;" the other + an "<i>Apology for Negroe Slavery</i>." On each of these I + am bound, as writing on the subject, to make a few remarks. + </p> + <p> + The <i>cursory remarker</i> insinuates, that Mr. Ramsay's + account of the treatment is greatly exaggerated, if not + wholly false. To this I shall make the following reply. I + have the honour of knowing several disinterested gentlemen, + who have been acquainted with the West Indian islands for + years. I call them disinterested, because they have neither + had a concern in the <i>African</i> trade, nor in the + <i>colonial</i> slavery: and I have heard these unanimously + assert, that Mr. <i>Ramsay's</i> account is so far from + being exaggerated, or taken from the most dreary pictures + that he could find, that it is absolutely below the truth; + that he must have omitted many instances of cruelty, which + he had seen himself; and that they only wondered, how he + could have written with so much moderation upon the + subject. They allow the <i>Cursory Remarks</i> to be + excellent as a composition, but declare that it is + perfectly devoid of truth. + </p> + <p> + But the <i>cursory remarker</i> does not depend so much on + the circumstances which he has advanced, (nor can he, since + they have no other existence than in his own, brain) as on + the instrument <i>detraction</i>. This he has used with the + utmost virulence through the whole of his publication, + artfully supposing, that if he could bring Mr. + <i>Ramsay's</i> reputation into dispute, his work would + fall of course, as of no authenticity. I submit this simple + question to the reader. When a writer, in attempting to + silence a publication, attacks the character of its author, + rather than the principles of the work itself, is it not a + proof that the work itself is unquestionable, and that this + writer is at a loss to find an argument against it? + </p> + <p> + But there is something so very ungenerous in this mode of + replication, as to require farther notice. For if this is + the mode to be adopted in literary disputes, what writer + can be safe? Or who is there, that will not be deterred + from taking up his pen in the cause of virtue? There are + circumstances in every person's life, which, if given to + the publick in a malevolent manner, and without + explanation, might essentially injure him in the eyes of + the world; though, were they explained, they would be even + reputable. The <i>cursory remarker</i> has adopted this + method of dispute; but Mr. <i>Ramsay</i> has explained + himself to the satisfaction of all parties, and has refuted + him in every point. The name of this <i>cursory + remarker</i> is <i>Tobin</i>: a name, which I feel myself + obliged to hand down with detestation, as far as I am able; + and with an hint to future writers, that they will do + themselves more credit, and serve more effectually the + cause which they undertake, if on such occasions they + attack the work, rather than the character of the writer, + who affords them a subject for their lucubrations. + </p> + <p> + Nor is this the only circumstance, which induces me to take + such particular notice of the <i>Cursory Remarks</i>. I + feel it incumbent upon me to rescue an injured person from + the cruel aspersions that have been thrown upon him, as I + have been repeatedly informed by those, who have the + pleasure of his acquaintance, that his character is + irreproachable. I am also interested myself. For if such + detraction is passed over in silence, my own reputation, + and not my work, may be attacked by an anonymous hireling + in the cause of slavery. + </p> + <p> + The <i>Apology for Negroe Slavery</i> is almost too + despicable a composition to merit a reply. I have only + therefore to observe, (as is frequently the case in a bad + cause, or where writers do not confine themselves to truth) + that the work refutes itself. This writer, speaking of the + slave-trade, asserts, that people are never kidnapped on + the coast of <i>Africa</i>. In speaking of the treatment of + slaves, he asserts again, that it is of the very mildest + nature, and that they live in the most comfortable and + happy manner imaginable. To prove each of his assertions, + he proposes the following regulations. That the + <i>stealing</i> of slaves from <i>Africa</i> should be + felony. That the <i>premeditated murder</i> of a slave by + any person on board, should come under the same + denomination. That when slaves arrive in the colonies, + lands should be allotted for their provisions, <i>in + proportion to their number</i>, or commissioners should see + that a <i>sufficient</i> quantity of <i>sound wholesome</i> + provisions is purchased. That they should not work on + <i>Sundays</i> and <i>other</i> holy-days. That extra + labour, or <i>night-work, out of crop</i>, should be + prohibited. That a <i>limited number</i> of stripes should + be inflicted upon them. That they should have + <i>annually</i> a suit of clothes. That old infirm slaves + should be <i>properly cared for</i>, &c.-Now it can + hardly be conceived, that if this author had tried to + injure his cause, or contradict himself, he could not have + done it in a more effectual manner, than by this proposal + of these salutary regulations. For to say that slaves are + honourably obtained on the coast; to say that their + treatment is of the mildest nature, and yet to propose the + above-mentioned regulations as necessary, is to refute + himself more clearly, than I confess myself to be able to + do it: and I have only to request, that the regulations + proposed by this writer, in the defence of slavery, may be + considered as so many proofs of the assertions contained in + my own work. + </p> + <p> + I shall close my account with an observation, which is of + great importance in the present case. Of all the + publications in favour of the slave-trade, or the + subsequent slavery in the colonies, there is not one, which + has not been written, either by a chaplain to the African + factories, or by a merchant, or by a planter, or by a + person whose interest has been connected in the cause which + he has taken upon him to defend. Of this description are + Mr. <i>Tobin</i>, and the <i>Apologist for Negroe + Slavery</i>. While on the other hand those, who have had as + competent a knowledge of the subject, but not the <i>same + interest</i> as themselves, have unanimously condemned it; + and many of them have written their sentiments upon it, at + the hazard of creating an innumerable host of enemies, and + of being subjected to the most malignant opposition. Now, + which of these are we to believe on the occasion? Are we to + believe those, who are parties concerned, who are + interested in the practice?-But the question does not admit + of a dispute. + </p> + <p> + Concerning my own work, it seems proper to observe, that + when, the original Latin Dissertation, as the title page + expresses, was honoured by the University of Cambridge with + the first of their annual prizes for the year 1785, I was + waited upon by some gentlemen of respectability and + consequence, who requested me to publish it in English. The + only objection which occurred to me was this; that having + been prevented, by an attention to other studies, from + obtaining that critical knowledge of my own language, which + was necessary for an English composition, I was fearful of + appearing before the publick eye: but that, as they + flattered me with the hope, that the publication of it + might be of use, I would certainly engage to publish it, if + they would allow me to postpone it for a little time, till + I was more in the habit of writing. They replied, that as + the publick attention was now excited to the case of the + unfortunate <i>Africans</i>, it would be serving the cause + with double the effect, if it were to be published within a + few months. This argument prevailed. Nothing but this + circumstance could have induced me to offer an English + composition to the inspection of an host of criticks: and I + trust therefore that this circumstance will plead much with + the benevolent reader, in favour of those faults, which he + may find in the present work. + </p> + <p> + Having thus promised to publish it, I was for some time + doubtful from which of the copies to translate. There were + two, the original, and an abridgement. The latter (as these + academical compositions are generally of a certain length) + was that which was sent down to Cambridge, and honoured + with the prize. I was determined however, upon consulting + with my friends, to translate from the former. This has + been faithfully done with but few<a name= + "FNanchor003"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_003"><sup>[003]</sup></a> additions. The reader + will probably perceive the Latin idiom in several passages + of the work, though I have endeavoured, as far as I have + been able, to avoid it. And I am so sensible of the + disadvantages under which it must yet lie, as a + translation, that I wish I had written upon the subject, + without any reference at all to the original copy. + </p> + <p> + It will perhaps be asked, from what authority I have + collected those facts, which relate to the colonial + slavery. I reply, that I have had the means of the very + best of information on the subject; having the pleasure of + being acquainted with many, both in the naval and military + departments, as well as with several others, who have been + long acquainted with <i>America</i> and the + <i>West-Indian</i> islands. The facts therefore which I + have related, are compiled from the disinterested accounts + of these gentlemen, all of whom, I have the happiness to + say, have coincided, in the minutest manner, in their + descriptions. It mud be remarked too, that they were + compiled, not from what these gentlemen heard, while they + were resident in those parts, but from what they actually + <i>saw</i>. Nor has a single instance been taken from any + book whatever upon the subject, except that which is + mentioned in the 235th page; and this book was published in + <i>France</i>, in the year 1777, by <i>authority</i>. + </p> + <p> + I have now the pleasure to say, that the accounts of these + disinterested gentlemen, whom I consulted on the occasion, + are confirmed by all the books which I have ever perused + upon slavery, except those which have been written by + <i>merchants, planters, &c</i>. They are confirmed by + Sir <i>Hans Sloane's</i> Voyage to Barbadoes; <i>Griffith + Hughes's</i> History of the same island, printed 1750; an + Account of North America, by <i>Thomas Jeffries</i>, 1761; + all <i>Benezet's</i> works, &c. &c. and + particularly by Mr. <i>Ramsay's</i> Essay on the Treatment + and Conversion of the African Slaves in the British Sugar + Colonies; a work which is now firmly established; and, I + may add in a very extraordinary manner, in consequence of + the controversy which this gentleman has sustained with the + <i>Cursory Remarker</i>, by which several facts which were + mentioned in the original copy of my own work, before the + controversy began, and which had never appeared in any work + upon the subject, have been brought to light. Nor has it + received less support from a letter, published only last + week, from Capt. J.S. Smith, of the Royal Navy, to the Rev. + Mr. Hill; on the former of whom too high encomiums cannot + be bestowed, for standing forth in that noble and + disinterested manner, in behalf of an injured character. + </p> + <p> + I have now only to solicit the reader again, that he will + make a favourable allowance for the present work, not only + from those circumstances which I have mentioned, but from + the consideration, that only two months are allowed by the + University for these their annual compositions. Should he + however be unpropitious to my request, I must console + myself with the reflection, (a reflection that will always + afford me pleasure, even amidst the censures of the great,) + that by undertaking the cause of the unfortunate + <i>Africans</i>, I have undertaken, as far as my abilities + would permit, the cause of injured innocence. + </p> + <p> + London, June 1st 1786. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + + <h2> + CONTENTS. + </h2> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <a name="PART_I."></a> + <h2> + PART I. + </h2> + <h2> + The History of Slavery. + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_101">Chap. I. Introduction.-Division of + slavery into voluntary and involuntary.-The latter the + subject of the present work.</a><br> + <br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_102">Chap. II. The first class of + involuntary slaves among the ancients, from + war.-Conjecture concerning their antiquity.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_103">Chap. III. The second class from + piracy.-Short history of piracy.-The dance + carpoea.-Considerations from hence on the former + topick.-Three orders of involuntary slaves among the + ancients.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_104">Chap. IV. Their personal + treatment.-Exception in Ægypt.-Exception at + Athens.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_105">Chap. V. The causes of such treatment + among the ancients in general.-Additional causes among + the Greeks and Romans.-A refutation of their + principles.-Remarks on the writings of + Æsop.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_106">Chap. VI. The ancient + slave-trade.-Its antiquity.-Ægypt the first market + recorded for this species of traffick.-Cyprus the + second.-The agreement of the writings of Moses and Homer + on the subject.-The universal prevalence of the + trade.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_107">Chap. VII. The decline of this + commerce and slavery in Europe.-The causes of their + decline.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_108">Chap. VIII. Their revival in + Africa.-Short history of their revival.-Five classes of + involuntary slaves among the moderns.-Cruel instance of + the Dutch colonists at the Cape.</a><br> + </p> + </blockquote> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="PART_II."></a> + <h2> + PART II. + </h2> + <h2> + The African Commerce or Slave-Trade. + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_201">Chap. I. The history of mankind from + their first situation to a state of government.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_202">Chap. II. An account of the first + governments.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_203">Chap. III. Liberty a natural + right.-That of government adventitious.-Government, its + nature.-Its end.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_204">Chap. IV. Mankind cannot be + considered as property.-An objection answered.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_205">Chap. V. Division of the commerce + into two parts, as it relates to those who sell, and + those who purchase the human species into slavery.-The + right of the sellers examined with respect to the two + orders of African slaves, "of those who are publickly + seized by virtue of the authority of their prince, and of + those, who are kidnapped by individuals."</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_206">Chap. VI. Their right with respect to + convicts.-From the proportion of the punishment to the + offence.-From its object and end.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_207">Chap. VII. Their right with respect + to prisoners of war.-The jus captivitatis, or right of + capture explained.-Its injustice.-Farther explication of + the right of capture, in answer to some supposed + objections.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_208">Chap. VIII. Additional remarks on the + two orders that were first mentioned.-The number which + they annually contain.-A description of an African + battle.-Additional remarks on prisoners of war.-On + convicts.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_209">Chap. IX. The right of the purchasers + examined.-Conclusion.</a><br> + </p> + </blockquote> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="PART_III."></a> + <h2> + PART III. + </h2> + <h2> + The Slavery of the Africans in the European Colonies. + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_301">Chap. I. Imaginary scene in + Africa.-Imaginary conversation with an African.-His ideas + of Christianity.-A Description of a body of slaves going + to the ships.-Their embarkation.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_302">Chap. II. Their treatment on + board.-The number that annually perish in the + voyage.-Horrid instance at sea.-Their debarkation in the + colonies.-Horrid instance on the shore.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_303">Chap. III. The condition of their + posterity in the colonies.-The lex nativitatis + explained.-Its injustice.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_304">Chap. IV. The seasoning in the + colonies.-The number that annually die in the + seasoning.-The employment of the survivors.-The colonial + discipline.-Its tendency to produce cruelty.-Horrid + instance of this effect.-Immoderate labour, and its + consequences.-Want of food and its consequences.-Severity + and its consequences.-The forlorn situation of slaves.-An + appeal to the memory of Alfred.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_305">Chap. V. The contents of the two + preceding Chapters denied by the purchasers.-Their first + argument refuted.-Their second refuted.-Their third + refuted.<br> + </a> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_306">Chap. VI. Three arguments, which they + bring in vindication of their treatment, refuted.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_307">Chap. VII. The argument, that the + Africans are an inferiour link of the chain of nature, as + far as it relates to their genius, refuted.-The causes of + this apparent inferiority.-Short dissertation on African + genius.-Poetry of an African girl.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_308">Chap. VIII. The argument, that they + are an inferiour link of the chain of nature, as far as + it relates to colour, &c. refuted.-Examination of the + divine writings in this particular.-Dissertation on the + colour.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_309">Chap. IX. Other arguments of the + purchasers examined.-Their comparisons unjust.-Their + assertions, with respect to the happy situation of the + Africans in the colonies, without foundation.-Their + happiness examined with respect to manumission.-With + respect to holy-days.-Dances, &c.-An estimate made at + St. Domingo.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_310">Chap. X. The right of the purchasers + over their slaves refuted upon their own + principles.</a><br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + <a href="#Part_311">Chap. XI. Dreadful arguments against + this commerce and slavery of the human species.-How the + Deity seems already to punish us for this inhuman + violation of his laws.-Conclusion.</a><br> + </p> + </blockquote> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <br> + + <h3> + ERRATA. + </h3> + <blockquote> + <p> + <br> + For <i>Dominique</i>, (Footnote 107) read + <i>Domingue</i>.<br> + <br> + </p> + <p> + <br> + N. B.<br> + A Latin note has been inserted by mistake, under the + quotation of Diodorus Siculus (Footnote 017). The reader + will find the original Greek of the same signification, + in the same author, at page 49, Editio Stephani. + </p> + </blockquote> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + + <h2> + AN ESSAY<br> + <br> + ON THE SLAVERY and COMMERCE<br> + <br> + OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.<br> + <br> + IN THREE PARTS. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <h2> + PART I. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <h2> + THE HISTORY OF SLAVERY. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_101"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. I.</a> + </h2> + <p> + When civilized, as well as barbarous nations, have been + found, through a long succession of ages, uniformly to + concur in the same customs, there seems to arise a + presumption, that such customs are not only eminently + useful, but are founded also on the principles of justice. + Such is the case with respect to <i>Slavery</i>: it has had + the concurrence of all the nations, which history has + recorded, and the repeated practice of ages from the + remotest antiquity, in its favour. Here then is an + argument, deduced from the general consent and agreement of + mankind, in favour of the proposed subject: but alas! when + we reflect that the people, thus reduced to a state of + servitude, have had the same feelings with ourselves; when + we reflect that they have had the same propensities to + pleasure, and the same aversions from pain; another + argument seems immediately to arise in opposition to the + former, deduced from our own feelings and that divine + sympathy, which nature has implanted in our breasts, for + the most useful and generous of purposes. To ascertain the + truth therefore, where two such opposite sources of + argument occur; where the force of custom pleads strongly + on the one hand, and the feelings of humanity on the other; + is a matter of much importance, as the dignity of human + nature is concerned, and the rights and liberties of + mankind will be involved in its discussion. + </p> + <p> + It will be necessary, before this point can be determined, + to consult the History of Slavery, and to lay before the + reader, in as concise a manner as possible, a general view + of it from its earliest appearance to the present day. + </p> + <p> + The first, whom we shall mention here to have been reduced + to a state of servitude, may be comprehended in that class, + which is usually denominated the <i>Mercenary</i>. It + consisted of free-born citizens, who, from the various + contingencies of fortune, had become so poor, as to have + recourse for their support to the service of the rich. Of + this kind were those, both among the Egyptians and the + Jews, who are recorded in the sacred writings.<a name= + "FNanchor004"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_004"><sup>[004]</sup></a> The Grecian + <i>Thetes</i><a name="FNanchor005"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_005"><sup>[005]</sup></a> also were of this + description, as well as those among the Romans, from whom + the class receives its appellation, the + <i>Mercenarii</i>.<a name="FNanchor006"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_006"><sup>[006]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + We may observe of the above-mentioned, that their situation + was in many instances similar to that of our own servants. + There was an express contract between the parties; they + could, most of them, demand their discharge, if they were + ill used by their respective masters; and they were treated + therefore with more humanity than those, whom we usually + distinguish in our language by the appellation of + <i>Slaves</i>. + </p> + <p> + As this class of servants was composed of men, who had been + reduced to such a situation by the contingencies of + fortune, and not by their own misconduct; so there was + another among the ancients, composed entirely of those, who + had suffered the loss of liberty from their own imprudence. + To this class may be reduced the Grecian <i>Prodigals</i>, + who were detained in the service of their creditors, till + the fruits of their labour were equivalent to their debts; + the <i>delinquents</i>, who were sentenced to the oar; and + the German <i>enthusiasts</i>, as mentioned by Tacitus, who + were so immoderately charmed with gaming, as, when every + thing else was gone, to have staked their liberty and their + very selves. "The loser," says he, "goes into a voluntary + servitude, and though younger and stronger than the person + with whom he played, patiently suffers himself to be bound + and sold. Their perseverance in so bad a custom is stiled + honour. The slaves, thus obtained, are immediately + exchanged away in commerce, that the winner may get rid of + the scandal of his victory." + </p> + <p> + To enumerate other instances, would be unnecessary; it will + be sufficient to observe, that the servants of this class + were in a far more wretched situation, than those of the + former; their drudgery was more intense; their treatment + more severe; and there was no retreat at pleasure, from the + frowns and lashes of their despotick masters. + </p> + <p> + Having premised this, we may now proceed to a general + division of slavery, into <i>voluntary</i> and + <i>involuntary</i>. The <i>voluntary</i> will comprehend + the two classes, which we have already mentioned; for, in + the first instance, there was a <i>contract</i>, founded on + <i>consent</i>; and, in the second, there was a + <i>choice</i> of engaging or not in those practices, the + known consequences of which were servitude. The + <i>involuntary</i>; on the other hand, will comprehend + those, who were forced, without any such <i>condition</i> + or <i>choice</i>, into a situation, which as it tended to + degrade a part of the human species, and to class it with + the brutal, must have been, of all human situations, the + most wretched and insupportable. These are they, whom we + shall consider solely in the present work. We shall + therefore take our leave of the former, as they were + mentioned only, that we might state the question with + greater accuracy, and, be the better enabled to reduce it + to its proper limits. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_102"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. II.</a> + </h2> + <p> + The first that will be mentioned, of the + <i>involuntary</i>, were <i>prisoners of war</i>.<a name= + "FNanchor007"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_007"><sup>[007]</sup></a> "It was a law, + established from time immemorial among the nations of + antiquity, to oblige those to undergo the severities of + servitude, whom victory had thrown into their hands." + Conformably with this, we find all the Eastern nations + unanimous in the practice. The same custom prevailed among + the people of the West; for as the Helots became the slaves + of the Spartans, from the right of conquest only, so + prisoners of war were reduced to the same situation by the + rest of the inhabitants of Greece. By the same principles + that actuated these, were the Romans also influenced. Their + History will confirm the fact: for how many cities are + recorded to have been taken; how many armies to have been + vanquished in the field, and the wretched survivors, in + both instances, to have been doomed to servitude? It + remains only now to observe, in shewing this custom to have + been universal, that all those nations which assisted in + overturning the Roman Empire, though many and various, + adopted the same measures; for we find it a general maxim + in their polity, that whoever should fall into their hands + as a prisoner of war, should immediately be reduced to the + condition of a slave. + </p> + <p> + It may here, perhaps, be not unworthy of remark, that the + <i>involuntary</i> were of greater antiquity than the + <i>voluntary</i> slaves. The latter are first mentioned in + the time of Pharaoh: they could have arisen only in a state + of society; when property, after its division, had become + so unequal, as to multiply the wants of individuals; and + when government, after its establishment, had given + security to the possessor by the punishment of crimes. + Whereas the former seem to be dated with more propriety + from the days of Nimrod; who gave rise probably to that + inseparable idea of <i>victory</i> and <i>servitude</i>, + which we find among the nations of antiquity, and which has + existed uniformly since, in one country or another, to the + present day.<a name="FNanchor008"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_008"><sup>[008]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + Add to this, that they might have arisen even in a state of + nature, and have been coequal with the quarrels of mankind. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_103"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. III.</a> + </h2> + <p> + But it was not victory alone, or any presupposed right, + founded in the damages of war, that afforded a pretence for + invading the liberties of mankind: the honourable light, in + which <i>piracy</i> was considered in the uncivilized ages + of the world, contributed not a little to the + <i>slavery</i> of the human species. Piracy had a very + early beginning. "The Grecians,"<a name= + "FNanchor009"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_009"><sup>[009]</sup></a> says Thucydides, "in + their primitive state, as well as the contemporary + barbarians, who inhabited the sea coasts and islands, gave + themselves wholly to it; it was, in short, their only + profession and support." The writings of Homer are + sufficient of themselves to establish this account. They + shew it to have been a common practice at so early a period + as that of the Trojan war; and abound with many lively + descriptions of it; which, had they been as groundless as + they are beautiful, would have frequently spared the sigh + of the reader of sensibility and reflection. + </p> + <p> + The piracies, which were thus practised in the early ages, + may be considered as <i>publick</i> or <i>private</i>. In + the former, whole crews embarked for the benefit<a name= + "FNanchor010"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_010"><sup>[010]</sup></a> of their respective + tribes. They made descents on the sea coasts, carried off + cattle, surprized whole villages, put many of the + inhabitants to the sword, and carried others into slavery. + </p> + <p> + In the latter, individuals only were concerned, and the + emolument was their own. These landed from their ships, + and, going up into the country, concealed themselves in the + woods and thickets; where they waited every opportunity of + catching the unfortunate shepherd or husbandman alone. In + this situation they sallied out upon him, dragged him on + board, conveyed him to a foreign market, and sold him for a + slave. + </p> + <p> + To this kind of piracy Ulysses alludes, in opposition to + the former, which he had been just before mentioning, in + his question to Eumoeus. + </p> + "Did pirates wait, till all thy friends were gone,<br> + To catch thee singly with thy flocks alone;<br> + Say, did they force thee from thy fleecy care,<br> + And from thy fields transport and sell thee here?"<a name= + "FNanchor011"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_011"><sup>[011]</sup></a><br> + + <p> + But no picture, perhaps, of this mode of depredation, is + equal to that, with which Xenophon<a name= + "FNanchor012"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_012"><sup>[012]</sup></a> presents us in the + simple narrative of a dance. He informs us that the Grecian + army had concluded a peace with the Paphlagonians, and that + they entertained their embassadors in consequence with a + banquet, and the exhibition of various feats of activity. + "When the Thracians," says he, "had performed the parts + allotted them in this entertainment, some Aenianian and + Magnetian soldiers rose up, and, accoutred in their proper + arms, exhibited that dance, which is called <i>Karpoea</i>. + The figure of it is thus. One of them, in the character of + an husbandman, is seen to till his land, and is observed, + as he drives his plough, to look frequently behind him, as + if apprehensive of danger. Another immediately appears in + fight, in the character of a robber. The husbandman, having + seen him previously advancing, snatches up his arms. A + battle ensues before the plough. The whole of this + performance is kept in perfect time with the musick of the + flute. At length the robber, having got the better of the + husbandman, binds him, and drives him off with his team. + Sometimes it happens that the husbandman subdues the + robber: in this case the scene is only reversed, as the + latter is then bound and driven, off by the former." + </p> + <p> + It is scarcely necessary to observe, that this dance was a + representation of the general manners of men, in the more + uncivilized ages of the world; shewing that the husbandman + and shepherd lived in continual alarm, and that there were + people in those ages, who derived their pleasures and + fortunes from <i>kidnapping</i> and <i>enslaving</i> their + fellow creatures. + </p> + <p> + We may now take notice of a circumstance in this narration, + which will lead us to a review of our first assertion on + this point, "that the honourable light, in which + <i>piracy</i> was considered in the times of barbarism, + contributed not a little to the <i>slavery</i> of the human + species." The robber is represented here as frequently + defeated in his attempts, and as reduced to that deplorable + situation, to which he was endeavouring to bring another. + This shews the frequent difficulty and danger of his + undertakings: people would not tamely resign their lives or + liberties, without a struggle. They were sometimes + prepared; were superior often, in many points of view, to + these invaders of their liberty; there were an hundred + accidental circumstances frequently in their favour. These + adventures therefore required all the skill, strength, + agility, valour, and every thing, in short, that may be + supposed to constitute heroism, to conduct them with + success. Upon this idea piratical expeditions first came + into repute, and their frequency afterwards, together with + the danger and fortitude, that were inseparably connected + with them, brought them into such credit among the + barbarous nations of antiquity, that of all human + professions, piracy was the most honourable.<a name= + "FNanchor013"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_013"><sup>[013]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + The notions then, which were thus annexed to piratical + expeditions, did not fail to produce those consequences, + which we have mentioned before. They afforded an + opportunity to the views of avarice and ambition, to + conceal themselves under the mask of virtue. They excited a + spirit of enterprize, of all others the most irresistible, + as it subsisted on the strongest principles of action, + emolument and honour. Thus could the vilest of passions be + gratified with impunity. People were robbed, stolen, + murdered, under the pretended idea that these were + reputable adventures: every enormity in short was + committed, and dressed up in the habiliments of honour. + </p> + <p> + But as the notions of men in the less barbarous ages, which + followed, became more corrected and refined, the practice + of piracy began gradually to disappear. It had hitherto + been supported on the grand columns of <i>emolument</i> and + <i>honour</i>. When the latter therefore was removed, it + received a considerable shock; but, alas! it had still a + pillar for its support! <i>avarice</i>, which exists in all + states, and which is ready to turn every invention to its + own ends, strained hard for its preservation. It had been + produced in the ages of barbarism; it had been pointed out + in those ages as lucrative, and under this notion it was + continued. People were still stolen; many were intercepted + (some, in their pursuits of pleasure, others, in the + discharge of their several occupations) by their own + countrymen; who previously laid in wait for them, and sold + them afterwards for slaves; while others seized by + merchants, who traded on the different coasts, were torn + from their friends and connections, and carried into + slavery. The merchants of Thessaly, if we can credit + Aristophanes<a name="FNanchor014"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_014"><sup>[014]</sup></a> who never spared the + vices of the times, were particularly infamous for the + latter kind of depredation; the Athenians were notorious + for the former; for they had practised these robberies to + such an alarming degree of danger to individuals, that it + was found necessary to enact a law,<a name= + "FNanchor015"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_015"><sup>[015]</sup></a> which punished + kidnappers with death.-But this is sufficient for our + present purpose; it will enable us to assert, that there + were two classes of <i>involuntary</i> slaves among the + ancients, "of those who were taken publickly in a state of + war, and of those who were privately stolen in a state of + innocence and peace." We may now add, that the children and + descendents of these composed a third. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_104"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. IV.</a> + </h2> + <p> + It will be proper to say something here concerning the + situation of the unfortunate men, who were thus doomed to a + life of servitude. To enumerate their various employments, + and to describe the miseries which they endured in + consequence, either from the severity, or the long and + constant application of their labour, would exceed the + bounds we have proposed to the present work. We shall + confine ourselves to their <i>personal treatment</i>, as + depending on the power of their masters, and the protection + of the law. Their treatment, if considered in this light, + will equally excite our pity and abhorrence. They were + beaten, starved, tortured, murdered at discretion: they + were dead in a civil sense; they had neither name nor + tribe; were incapable of a judicial process; were in short + without appeal. Poor unfortunate men! to be deprived of all + possible protection! to suffer the bitterest of injuries + without the possibility of redress! to be condemned + unheard! to be murdered with impunity! to be considered as + dead in that state, the very members of which they were + supporting by their labours! + </p> + <p> + Yet such was their general situation: there were two places + however, where their condition, if considered in this point + of view, was more tolerable. The Ægyptian slave, + though perhaps of all others the greatest drudge, yet if he + had time to reach the temple<a name="FNanchor016"></a><a + href="#Footnote_016"><sup>[016]</sup></a> of Hercules, + found a certain retreat from the persecution of his master; + and he received additional comfort from the reflection, + that his life, whether he could reach it or not, could not + be taken with impunity. Wise and salutary law!<a name= + "FNanchor017"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_017"><sup>[017]</sup></a> how often must it have + curbed the insolence of power, and stopped those passions + in their progress, which had otherwise been destructive to + the slave! + </p> + <p> + But though the persons of slaves were thus greatly secured + in Ægypt, yet there was no place so favourable to + them as Athens. They were allowed a greater liberty of + speech;<a name="FNanchor018"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_018"><sup>[018]</sup></a> they had their + convivial meetings, their amours, their hours of + relaxation, pleasantry, and mirth; they were treated, in + short, with so much humanity in general, as to occasion + that observation of Demosthenes, in his second Philippick, + "that the condition of a slave, at Athens, was preferable + to that of a free citizen, in many other countries." But if + any exception happened (which was sometimes the case) from + the general treatment described; if persecution took the + place of lenity, and made the fangs of servitude more + pointed than before,<a name="FNanchor019"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_019"><sup>[019]</sup></a> they had then their + temple, like the Ægyptian, for refuge; where the + legislature was so attentive, as to examine their + complaints, and to order them, if they were founded in + justice, to be sold to another master. Nor was this all: + they had a privilege infinitely greater than the whole of + these. They were allowed an opportunity of working for + themselves, and if their diligence had procured them a sum + equivalent with their ransom, they could immediately, on + paying it down,<a name="FNanchor020"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_020"><sup>[020]</sup></a> demand their freedom + for ever. This law was, of all others, the most important; + as the prospect of liberty, which it afforded, must have + been a continual source of the most pleasing reflections, + and have greatly sweetened the draught, even of the most + bitter slavery. + </p> + <p> + Thus then, to the eternal honour of Ægypt and Athens, + they were the only places that we can find, where slaves + were considered with any humanity at all. The rest of the + world seemed to vie with each other, in the debasement and + oppression of these unfortunate people. They used them with + as much severity as they chose; they measured their + treatment only by their own passion and caprice; and, by + leaving them on every occasion, without the possibility of + an appeal, they rendered their situation the most + melancholy and intolerable, that can possibly be conceived. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_105"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. V.</a> + </h2> + <p> + As we have mentioned the barbarous and inhuman treatment + that generally fell to the lot of slaves, it may not be + amiss to inquire into the various circumstances by which it + was produced. + </p> + <p> + The first circumstance, from whence it originated, was the + <i>commerce</i>: for if men could be considered as + <i>possessions</i>; if, like <i>cattle</i>, they could be + <i>bought</i> and <i>sold</i>, it will not be difficult to + suppose, that they could be held in the same consideration, + or treated in the same manner. The commerce therefore, + which was begun in the primitive ages of the world, by + classing them with the brutal species, and by habituating + the mind to consider the terms of <i>brute</i> and + <i>slave</i> as <i>synonimous</i>, soon caused them to be + viewed in a low and despicable light, and as greatly + inferiour to the human species. Hence proceeded that + treatment, which might not unreasonably be supposed to + arise from so low an estimation. They were tamed, like + beasts, by the stings of hunger and the lash, and their + education was directed to the same end, to make them + commodious instruments of labour for their possessors. + </p> + <p> + This <i>treatment</i>, which thus proceeded in the ages of + barbarism, from the low estimation, in which slaves were + unfortunately held from the circumstances of the commerce, + did not fail of producing, in the same instant, its + <i>own</i> effect. It depressed their minds; it numbed + their faculties; and, by preventing those sparks of genius + from blazing forth, which had otherwise been conspicuous; + it gave them the appearance of being endued with inferiour + capacities than the rest of mankind. This effect of the + <i>treatment</i> had made so considerable a progress, as to + have been a matter of observation in the days of Homer. + </p> + For half <i>his</i> senses Jove conveys away,<br> + <i>Whom</i> once he dooms to see the <i>servile</i> day.<a + name="FNanchor021"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_021"><sup>[021]</sup></a><br> + + <p> + Thus then did the <i>commerce</i>, by classing them + originally with <i>brutes</i>, and the consequent + <i>treatment</i>, by cramping their <i>abilities</i>, and + hindering them from becoming <i>conspicuous</i>, give to + these unfortunate people, at a very early period, the most + unfavourable <i>appearance</i>. The rising generations, who + received both the commerce and treatment from their + ancestors, and who had always been accustomed to behold + their <i>effects</i>, did not consider these <i>effects</i> + as <i>incidental</i>: they judged only from what they saw; + they believed the <i>appearances</i> to be <i>real</i>; and + hence arose the combined principle, that slaves were an + <i>inferiour</i> order of men, and perfectly void of + <i>understanding</i>. Upon this <i>principle</i> it was, + that the former treatment began to be fully confirmed and + established; and as this <i>principle</i> was handed down + and disseminated, so it became, in succeeding ages, an + <i>excuse</i> for any severity, that despotism might + suggest. + </p> + <p> + We may observe here, that as all nations had this excuse in + common, as arising from the <i>circumstances</i> + above-mentioned, so the Greeks first, and the Romans + afterwards, had an <i>additional excuse</i>, as arising + from their own <i>vanity</i>. + </p> + <p> + The former having conquered Troy, and having united + themselves under one common name and interest, began, from + that period, to distinguish the rest of the world by the + title of <i>barbarians</i>; inferring by such an + appellation, "that they were men who were only noble in + their own country; that they had no right, from their + <i>nature</i>, to authority or command; that, on the + contrary, so low were their capacities, they were + <i>destined</i> by nature <i>to obey</i>, and to live in a + state of perpetual drudgery and subjugation."<a name= + "FNanchor022"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_022"><sup>[022]</sup></a> Conformable with this + opinion was the treatment, which was accordingly prescribed + to a <i>barbarian</i>. The philosopher Aristotle himself, + in the advice which he gave to his pupil Alexander, before + he went upon his Asiatick expedition, intreated him to "use + the Greeks, as it became a <i>general</i>, but the + <i>barbarians</i>, as it became a <i>master</i>; consider, + says he, the former as <i>friends</i> and + <i>domesticks</i>; but the latter, as <i>brutes</i> and + <i>plants</i>;"<a name="FNanchor023"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_023"><sup>[023]</sup></a> inferring that the + Greeks, from the superiority of their capacities, had a + <i>natural</i> right to dominion, and that the rest of the + world, from the inferiority of their own, were to be + considered and treated as the <i>irrational</i> part of the + creation. + </p> + <p> + Now, if we consider that this was the treatment, which they + judged to be absolutely proper for people of this + description, and that their slaves were uniformly those, + whom they termed <i>barbarians</i>; being generally such, + as were either kidnapped from <i>Barbary</i>, or purchased + from the <i>barbarian</i> conquerors in their wars with one + another; we shall immediately see, with what an additional + excuse their own vanity had furnished them for the sallies + of caprice and passion. + </p> + <p> + To refute these cruel sentiments of the ancients, and to + shew that their slaves were by no means an inferiour order + of beings than themselves, may perhaps be considered as an + unnecessary task; particularly, as having shewn, that the + causes of this inferiour appearance were <i>incidental</i>, + arising, on the one hand, from the combined effects of the + <i>treatment</i> and <i>commerce</i>, and, on the other, + from <i>vanity</i> and <i>pride</i>, we seem to have + refuted them already. But we trust that some few + observations, in vindication of these unfortunate people, + will neither be unacceptable nor improper. + </p> + <p> + How then shall we begin the refutation? Shall we say with + Seneca, who saw many of the slaves in question, "What is a + <i>knight</i>, or a <i>libertine</i>, or a <i>slave</i>? + Are they not names, assumed either from <i>injury</i> or + <i>ambition</i>?" Or, shall we say with him on another + occasion, "Let us consider that he, whom we call our slave, + is born in the same manner as ourselves; that he enjoys the + same sky, with all its heavenly luminaries; that he + breathes, that he lives, in the same manner as ourselves, + and, in the same manner, that he expires." These + considerations, we confess, would furnish us with a + plentiful source of arguments in the case before us; but we + decline their assistance. How then shall we begin? Shall we + enumerate the many instances of fidelity, patience, or + valour, that are recorded of the <i>servile</i> race? Shall + we enumerate the many important services, that they + rendered both to the individuals and the community, under + whom they lived? Here would be a second source, from whence + we could collect sufficient materials to shew, that there + was no inferiority in their nature. But we decline to use + them. We shall content ourselves with some few instances, + that relate to the <i>genius</i> only: we shall mention the + names of those of a <i>servile</i> condition, whose + writings, having escaped the wreck of time, and having been + handed down even to the present age, are now to be seen, as + so many living monuments, that neither the Grecian, nor + Roman genius, was superiour to their own. + </p> + <p> + The first, whom we shall mention here, is the famous + Æsop. He was a Phrygian by birth, and lived in the + time of Croesus, king of Lydia, to whom he dedicated his + fables. The writings of this great man, in whatever light + we consider them, will be equally entitled to our + admiration. But we are well aware, that the very mention of + him as a writer of fables, may depreciate him in the eyes + of some. To such we shall propose a question, "Whether this + species of writing has not been more beneficial to mankind; + or whether it has not produced more important events, than + any other?" + </p> + <p> + With respect to the first consideration, it is evident that + these fables, as consisting of plain and simple + transactions, are particularly easy to be understood; as + conveyed in images, they please and seduce the mind; and, + as containing a <i>moral</i>, easily deducible on the side + of virtue; that they afford, at the same time, the most + weighty precepts of philosophy. Here then are the two grand + points of composition, "a manner of expression to be + apprehended by the lowest capacities, and, (what is + considered as a victory in the art) an happy conjunction of + utility and pleasure."<a name="FNanchor024"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_024"><sup>[024]</sup></a> Hence Quintilian + recommends them, as singularly useful, and as admirably + adapted, to the puerile age; as a just gradation between + the language of the nurse and the preceptor, and as + furnishing maxims of prudence and virtue, at a time when + the speculative principles of philosophy are too difficult + to be understood. Hence also having been introduced by most + civilized nations into their system of education, they have + produced that general benefit, to which we at first + alluded. Nor have they been of less consequence in + maturity; but particularly to those of inferiour + capacities, or little erudition, whom they have frequently + served as a guide to conduct them in life, and as a medium, + through which an explanation might be made, on many and + important occasions. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the latter consideration, which is easily + deducible from hence, we shall only appeal to the wonderful + effect, which the fable, pronounced by Demosthenes against + Philip of Macedon, produced among his hearers; or to the + fable, which was spoken by Menenius Agrippa to the Roman + populace; by which an illiterate multitude were brought + back to their duty as citizens, when no other species of + oratory could prevail. + </p> + <p> + To these truly <i>ingenious</i>, and <i>philosophical</i> + works of Æsop, we shall add those of his imitator + Phoedrus, which in purity and elegance of style, are + inferiour to none. We shall add also the Lyrick + <i>Poetry</i> of Alcman, which is no <i>servile</i> + composition; the sublime <i>Morals</i> of Epictetus, and + the incomparable <i>comedies</i> of Terence. + </p> + <p> + Thus then does it appear, that the <i>excuse</i> which was + uniformly started in defence of the <i>treatment</i> of + slaves, had no foundation whatever either in truth or + justice. The instances that we have mentioned above, are + sufficient to shew, that there was no inferiority, either + in their <i>nature</i>, or their understandings: and at the + same time that they refute the principles of the ancients, + they afford a valuable lesson to those, who have been + accustomed to form too precipitate a judgment on the + abilities of men: for, alas! how often has <i>secret + anguish</i> depressed the spirits of those, whom they have + frequently censured, from their gloomy and dejected + appearance! and how often, on the other hand, has their + judgment resulted from their own <i>vanity</i> and + <i>pride</i>! + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_106"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. VI.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We proceed now to the consideration of the <i>commerce</i>: + in consequence of which, people, endued with the same + feelings and faculties as ourselves, were made subject to + the laws and limitations of <i>possession</i>. + </p> + <p> + This commerce of the human species was of a very early + date. It was founded on the idea that men were + <i>property</i>; and, as this idea was coeval with the + first order of <i>involuntary</i> slaves, it must have + arisen, (if the date, which we previously affixed to that + order, be right) in the first practices of barter. The + Story of Joseph, as recorded in the sacred writings, whom + his brothers sold from an envious suspicion of his future + greatness, is an ample testimony of the truth of this + conjecture. It shews that there were men, even at that + early period, who travelled up and down as merchants, + collecting not only balm, myrrh, spicery, and other wares, + but the human species also, for the purposes of traffick. + The instant determination of the brothers, on the first + sight of the merchants, <i>to sell him</i>, and the + immediate acquiescence of these, who purchased him for a + foreign market, prove that this commerce had been then + established, not only in that part of the country, where + this transaction happened, but in that also, whither the + merchants were then travelling with their camels, namely, + Ægypt: and they shew farther, that, as all customs + require time for their establishment, so it must have + existed in the ages, previous to that of Pharaoh; that is, + in those ages, in which we fixed the first date of + <i>involuntary</i> servitude. This commerce then, as + appears by the present instance, existed in the earliest + practices of barter, and had descended to the + Ægyptians, through as long a period of time, as was + sufficient to have made it, in the times alluded to, an + established custom. Thus was Ægypt, in those days, + the place of the greatest resort; the grand emporium of + trade, to which people were driving their merchandize, as + to a centre; and thus did it afford, among other + opportunities of traffick, the <i>first market</i> that is + recorded, for the sale of the human species. + </p> + <p> + This market, which was thus supplied by the constant + concourse of merchants, who resorted to it from various + parts, could not fail, by these means, to have been + considerable. It received, afterwards, an additional supply + from those piracies, which we mentioned to have existed in + the uncivilized ages of the world, and which, in fact, it + greatly promoted and encouraged; and it became, from these + united circumstances, so famous, as to have been known, + within a few centuries from the time of Pharaoh, both to + the Grecian colonies in Asia, and the Grecian islands. + Homer mentions Cyprus and Ægypt as the common markets + for slaves, about the times of the Trojan war. Thus + Antinous, offended with Ulysses, threatens to send him to + one of these places, if he does not instantly depart from + his table.<a name="FNanchor025"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_025"><sup>[025]</sup></a> The same poet also, in + his hymn to Bacchus,<a name="FNanchor026"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_026"><sup>[026]</sup></a> mentions them again, + but in a more unequivocal manner, as the common markets for + slaves. He takes occasion, in that hymn, to describe the + pirates method of scouring the coast, from the circumstance + of their having kidnapped Bacchus, as a noble youth, for + whom they expected an immense ransom. The captain of the + vessel, having dragged him on board, is represented as + addressing himself thus, to the steersman: + </p> + "Haul in the tackle, hoist aloft the sail,<br> + Then take your helm, and watch the doubtful gale!<br> + To mind the captive prey, be our's the care,<br> + While you to <i>Ægypt</i> or to <i>Cyprus</i> + steer;<br> + There shall he go, unless his friends he'll tell,<br> + Whose ransom-gifts will pay us full as well."<br> + + <p> + It may not perhaps be considered as a digression, to + mention in few words, by itself, the wonderful concordance + of the writings of Moses and Homer with the case before us: + not that the former, from their divine authority, want + additional support, but because it cannot be unpleasant to + see them confirmed by a person, who, being one of the + earliest writers, and living in a very remote age, was the + first that could afford us any additional proof of the + circumstances above-mentioned. Ægypt is represented, + in the first book of the sacred writings, as a market for + slaves, and, in the <a name="FNanchor027"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_027"><sup>[027]</sup></a>second, as famous for + the severity of its servitude. <a name="FNanchor028"></a><a + href="#Footnote_028"><sup>[028]</sup></a>The same line, + which we have already cited from Homer, conveys to us the + same ideas. It points it out as a market for the human + species, and by the epithet of "<i>bitter</i> Ægypt," + (<a name="FNanchor029"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_029"><sup>[029]</sup></a>which epithet is + peculiarly annexed to it on this occasion) alludes in the + strongest manner to that severity and rigour, of which the + sacred historian transmitted us the first account. + </p> + <p> + But, to return. Though Ægypt was the first market + recorded for this species of traffick; and though + Ægypt, and Cyprus afterwards, were particularly + distinguished for it, in the times of the Trojan war; yet + they were not the only places, even at that period, where + men were bought and sold. The Odyssey of Homer shews that + it was then practised in many of the islands of the + Ægean sea; and the Iliad, that it had taken place + among those Grecians on the continent of Europe, who had + embarked from thence on the Trojan expedition. This appears + particularly at the end of the seventh book. A fleet is + described there, as having just arrived from Lemnos, with a + supply of wine for the Grecian camp. The merchants are + described also, as immediately exposing it to sale, and as + receiving in exchange, among other articles of barter, + "<i>a number of slaves</i>." + </p> + <p> + It will now be sufficient to observe, that, as other states + arose, and as circumstances contributed to make them known, + this custom is discovered to have existed among them; that + it travelled over all Asia; that it spread through the + Grecian and Roman world; was in use among the barbarous + nations, which overturned the Roman empire; and was + practised therefore, at the same period, throughout all + Europe. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_107"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. VII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + This <i>slavery</i> and <i>commerce</i>, which had + continued for so long a time, and which was thus practised + in Europe at so late a period as that, which succeeded the + grand revolutions in the western world, began, as the + northern nations were settled in their conquests, to + decline, and, on their full establishment, were abolished. + A difference of opinion has arisen respecting the cause of + their abolition; some having asserted, that they were the + necessary consequences of the <i>feudal system</i>; while + others, superiour both in number and in argument, have + maintained that they were the natural effects of + <i>Christianity</i>. The mode of argument, which the former + adopt on this occasion, is as follows. "The multitude of + little states, which sprang up from one great one at this + Æra, occasioned infinite bickerings and matter for + contention. There was not a state or seignory, which did + not want all the hands they could muster, either to defend + their own right, or to dispute that of their neighbours. + Thus every man was taken into the service: whom they armed + they must trust: and there could be no trust but in free + men. Thus the barrier between the two natures was thrown + down, and <i>slavery</i> was no more heard of, in the + <i>west</i>." + </p> + <p> + That this was not the <i>necessary</i> consequence of such + a situation, is apparent. The political state of Greece, in + its early history, was the same as that of Europe, when + divided, by the feudal system, into an infinite number of + small and independent kingdoms. There was the same matter + therefore for contention, and the same call for all the + hands that could be mustered: the Grecians, in short, in + <i>heroick</i>, were in the same situation in these + respects as the <i>feudal barons</i> in the <i>Gothick</i> + times. Had this therefore been a <i>necessary</i> effect, + there had been a cessation of servitude in Greece, in those + ages, in which we have already shewn that it existed. + </p> + <p> + But with respect to <i>Christianity</i>, many and great are + the arguments, that it occasioned so desirable an event. It + taught, "that all men were originally equal; that the Deity + was no respecter of persons, and that, as all men were to + give an account of their actions hereafter, it was + necessary that they should be free." These doctrines could + not fail of having their proper influence on those, who + first embraced <i>Christianity</i>, from a + <i>conviction</i> of its truth; and on those of their + descendents afterwards, who, by engaging in the + <i>crusades</i>, and hazarding their lives and fortunes + there, shewed, at least, an <i>attachment</i> to that + religion. We find them accordingly actuated by these + principles: we have a positive proof, that the <i>feudal + system</i> had no share in the honour of suppressing + slavery, but that <i>Christianity</i> was the only cause; + for the greatest part of the <i>charters</i> which were + granted for the freedom of slaves in those times (many of + which are still extant) were granted, "<i>pro amore Dei, + pro mercede animæ</i>." They were founded, in short, + on religious considerations, "that they might procure the + favour of the Deity, which they conceived themselves to + have forfeited, by the subjugation of those, whom they + found to be the objects of the divine benevolence and + attention equally with themselves." + </p> + <p> + These considerations, which had thus their first origin in + <i>Christianity</i>, began to produce their effects, as the + different nations were converted; and procured that general + liberty at last, which, at the close of the twelfth + century, was conspicuous in the west of Europe. What a + glorious and important change! Those, who would have had + otherwise no hopes, but that their miseries would be + terminated by death, were then freed from their servile + condition; those, who, by the laws of war, would have had + otherwise an immediate prospect of servitude from the hands + of their imperious conquerors, were then <i>exchanged</i>; + a custom, which has happily descended to the present day. + Thus, "a numerous class of men, who formerly had no + political existence, and were employed merely as + instruments of labour, became useful citizens, and + contributed towards augmenting the force or riches of the + society, which adopted them as members;" and thus did the + greater part of the Europeans, by their conduct on this + occasion, assert not only liberty for themselves, but for + their fellow-creatures also. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_108"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_I.">CHAP. VIII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + But if men therefore, at a time when under the influence of + religion they exercised their serious thoughts, abolished + slavery, how impious must they appear, who revived it; and + what arguments will not present themselves against their + conduct!<a name="FNanchor030"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_030"><sup>[030]</sup></a> The Portuguese, within + two centuries after its suppression in Europe, in imitation + of those <i>piracies</i>, which we have shewn to have + existed in the <i>uncivilized</i> ages of the world, made + their descents on Africa, and committing depredations on + the coast,<a name="FNanchor031"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_031"><sup>[031]</sup></a> <i>first</i> carried + the wretched inhabitants into slavery. + </p> + <p> + This practice, however trifling and partial it might appear + at first, soon became serious and general. A melancholy + instance of the depravity of human nature; as it shews, + that neither the laws nor religion of any country, however + excellent the forms of each, are sufficient to bind the + consciences of some; but that there are always men, of + every age, country, and persuasion, who are ready to + sacrifice their dearest principles at the shrine of gain. + Our own ancestors, together with the Spaniards, French, and + most of the maritime powers of Europe, soon followed the + <i>piratical</i> example; and thus did the Europeans, to + their eternal infamy, renew a custom, which their + <i>own</i> ancestors had so lately exploded, from a + <i>conscientiousness</i> of its <i>impiety</i>. + </p> + <p> + The unfortunate Africans, terrified at these repeated + depredations, fled in confusion from the coast, and sought, + in the interiour parts of the country, a retreat from the + persecution of their invaders. But, alas, they were + miserably disappointed! There are few retreats, that can + escape the penetrating eye of avarice. The Europeans still + pursued them; they entered their rivers; sailed up into the + heart of the country; surprized the unfortunate Africans + again; and carried them into slavery. + </p> + <p> + But this conduct, though successful at first, defeated + afterwards its own ends. It created a more general alarm, + and pointed out, at the same instant, the best method of + security from future depredations. The banks of the rivers + were accordingly deserted, as the coasts had been before; + and thus were the <i>Christian</i> invaders left without a + prospect of their prey. + </p> + <p> + In this situation however, expedients were not wanting. + They now formed to themselves the resolution of settling in + the country; of securing themselves by fortified ports; of + changing their system of force into that of pretended + liberality; and of opening, by every species of bribery and + corruption, a communication with the natives. These plans + were put into immediate execution. The Europeans erected + their forts;<a name="FNanchor032"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_032"><sup>[032]</sup></a> landed their + merchandize; and endeavoured, by a peaceable deportment, by + presents, and by every appearance of munificence, to seduce + the attachment and confidence of the Africans. These + schemes had the desired effect. The gaudy trappings of + European art, not only caught their attention, but excited + their curiosity: they dazzled the eyes and bewitched the + senses, not only of those, to whom they were given, but of + those, to whom they were shewn. Thus followed a speedy + intercourse with each other, and a confidence, highly + favourable to the views of avarice or ambition. + </p> + <p> + It was now time for the Europeans to embrace the + opportunity, which this intercourse had thus afforded them, + of carrying their schemes into execution, and of fixing + them on such a permanent foundation, as should secure them + future success. They had already discovered, in the + different interviews obtained, the chiefs of the African + tribes. They paid their court therefore to these, and so + compleatly intoxicated their senses with the luxuries, + which they brought from home, as to be able to seduce them + to their designs. A treaty of peace and commerce was + immediately concluded: it was agreed, that the kings, on + their part, should, from this period, sentence <i>prisoners + of war</i> and <i>convicts</i> to <i>European + servitude</i>; and that the Europeans should supply them, + in return, with the luxuries of the north. This agreement + immediately took place; and thus begun that + <i>commerce</i>, which makes so considerable a figure at + the present day. + </p> + <p> + But happy had the Africans been, if those only, who had + been justly convicted of crimes, or taken in a just war, + had been sentenced to the severities of servitude! How many + of those miseries, which afterwards attended them, had been + never known; and how would their history have saved those + sighs and emotions of pity, which must now ever accompany + its perusal. The Europeans, on the establishment of their + western colonies, required a greater number of slaves than + a strict adherence to the treaty could produce. The princes + therefore had only the choice of relinquishing the + commerce, or of consenting to become unjust. They had long + experienced the emoluments of the trade; they had acquired + a taste for the luxuries it afforded; and they now beheld + an opportunity of gratifying it, but in a more extentive + manner. <i>Avarice</i> therefore, which was too powerful + for <i>justice</i> on this occasion, immediately turned the + scale: not only those, who were fairly convicted of + offences, were now sentenced to servitude, but even those + who were <i>suspected</i>. New crimes were invented, that + new punishments might succeed. Thus was every appearance + soon construed into reality; every shadow into a substance; + and often virtue into a crime. + </p> + <p> + Such also was the case with respect to prisoners of war. + Not only those were now delivered into slavery, who were + taken in a state of publick enmity and injustice, but those + also, who, conscious of no injury whatever, were taken in + the <i>arbitrary</i> skirmishes of these <i>venal</i> + sovereigns. War was now made, not as formerly, from the + motives of retaliation and defence, but for the sake of + obtaining prisoners alone, and the advantages resulting + from their sale. If a ship from Europe came but into sight, + it was now considered as a sufficient motive for a war, and + as a signal only for an instantaneous commencement of + hostilities. + </p> + <p> + But if the African kings could be capable of such + injustice, what vices are there, that their consciences + would restrain, or what enormities, that we might not + expect to be committed? When men once consent to be unjust, + they lose, at the same instant with their virtue, a + considerable portion of that sense of shame, which, till + then, had been found a successful protector against the + sallies of vice. From that awful period, almost every + expectation is forlorn: the heart is left unguarded: its + great protector is no more: the vices therefore, which so + long encompassed it in vain, obtain an easy victory: in + crouds they pour into the defenceless avenues, and take + possession of the soul: there is nothing now too vile for + them to meditate, too impious to perform. Such was the + situation of the despotick sovereigns of Africa. They had + once ventured to pass the bounds of virtue, and they soon + proceeded to enormity. This was particularly conspicuous in + that general conduct, which they uniformly observed, after + any unsuccessful conflict. Influenced only by the venal + motives of European traffick, they first made war upon the + neighbouring tribes, contrary to every principle of + justice; and if, by the flight of the enemy, or by other + contingencies, they were disappointed of their prey, they + made no hesitation of immediately turning their arms + against their own subjects. The first villages they came + to, were always marked on this occasion, as the first + objects of their avarice. They were immediately surrounded, + were afterwards set on fire, and the wretched inhabitants + seized, as they were escaping from the flames. These, + consisting of whole families, fathers, brothers, husbands, + wives, and children, were instantly driven in chains to the + merchants, and consigned to slavery. + </p> + <p> + To these calamities, which thus arose from the tyranny of + the kings, we may now subjoin those, which arose from the + avarice of private persons. Many were kidnapped by their + own countrymen, who, encouraged by the merchants of Europe, + previously lay in wait for them, and sold them afterwards + for slaves; while the seamen of the different ships, by + every possible artifice, enticed others on board, and + transported them to the regions of servitude. + </p> + <p> + As these practices are in full force at the present day, it + appears that there are four orders of <i>involuntary</i> + slaves on the African continent; of <a name= + "FNanchor033"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_033"><sup>[033]</sup></a><i>convicts</i>; of + <i>prisoners of war</i>; of those, who are publickly seized + by virtue of the <i>authority</i> of their prince; and of + those, who are privately <i>kidnapped</i> by individuals. + </p> + <p> + It remains only to observe on this head, that in the sale + and purchase of these the African commerce or <i>Slave + Trade</i> consists; that they are delivered to the + merchants of Europe in exchange for their various + commodities; that these transport them to their colonies in + the west, where their <i>slavery</i> takes place; and that + a fifth order arises there, composed of all such as are + born to the native Africans, after their transportation and + slavery have commenced. + </p> + <p> + Having thus explained as much of the history of modern + servitude, as is sufficient for the prosecution of our + design, we should have closed our account here, but that a + work, just published, has furnished us with a singular + anecdote of the colonists of a neighbouring nation, which + we cannot but relate. The learned <a name= + "FNanchor034"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_034"><sup>[034]</sup></a>author, having + described the method which the Dutch colonists at the Cape + make use of to take the Hottentots and enslave them, takes + occasion, in many subsequent parts of the work, to mention + the dreadful effects of the practice of slavery; which, as + he justly remarks, "leads to all manner of misdemeanours + and wickedness. Pregnant women," says he, "and children in + their tenderest years, were not at this time, neither + indeed are they ever, exempt from the effects of the hatred + and spirit of vengeance constantly harboured by the + colonists, with respect to the <a name="FNanchor035"></a><a + href="#Footnote_035"><sup>[035]</sup></a>Boshies-man + nation; <i>excepting such indeed as are marked out to be + carried away into bondage</i>. + </p> + <p> + "Does a colonist at any time get sight of a Boshies-man, he + takes fire immediately, and spirits up his horse and dogs, + in order to hunt him with more ardour and fury than he + would a wolf, or any other wild beast? On an open plain, a + few colonists on horseback are always sure to get the + better of the greatest number of Boshies-men that can be + brought together; as the former always keep at the distance + of about an hundred, or an hundred and fifty paces (just as + they find it convenient) and charging their heavy fire-arms + with a very large kind of shot, jump off their horses, and + rest their pieces in their usual manner on their ramrods, + in order that they may shoot with the greater certainty; so + that the balls discharged by them will sometimes, as I have + been assured, go through the bodies of six, seven, or eight + of the enemy at a time, especially as these latter know no + better than to keep close together in a body."- + </p> + <p> + "And not only is the capture of the Hottentots considered + by them merely as a party of pleasure, but in cold blood + they destroy the bands which nature has knit between their + husbands, and their wives and children, &c." + </p> + <p> + With what horrour do these passages seem to strike us! What + indignation do they seem to raise in our breasts, when we + reflect, that a part of the human species are considered as + <i>game</i>, and that <i>parties of pleasure</i> are made + for their <i>destruction</i>! The lion does not imbrue his + claws in blood, unless called upon by hunger, or provoked + by interruption; whereas the merciless Dutch, more savage + than the brutes themselves, not only murder their + fellow-creatures without any provocation or necessity, but + even make a diversion of their sufferings, and enjoy their + pain. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <h2> + PART II. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="THE_AFRICAN_COMMERCE,"></a> + <h2> + THE AFRICAN COMMERCE,<br> + <br> + <br> + OR<br> + <br> + <br> + SLAVE TRADE. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_201"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. I.</a> + </h2> + <p> + As we explained the History of Slavery in the first part of + this Essay, as far as it was necessary for our purpose, we + shall now take the question into consideration, which we + proposed at first as the subject of our inquiry, viz. how + far the commerce and slavery of the human species, as + revived by some of the nations of Europe in the persons of + the unfortunate Africans, and as revived, in a great + measure, on the principles of antiquity, are consistent + with the laws of nature, or the common notions of equity, + as established among men. + </p> + <p> + This question resolves itself into two separate parts for + discussion, into <i>the African commerce (as explained in + the history of slavery)</i> and <i>the subsequent slavery + in the colonies, as founded on the equity of the + commerce</i>. The former, of course, will be first + examined. For this purpose we shall inquire into the rise, + nature, and design of government. Such an inquiry will be + particularly useful in the present place; it will afford us + that general knowledge of subordination and liberty, which + is necessary in the case before us, and will be found, as + it were, a source, to which we may frequently refer for + many and valuable arguments. + </p> + <p> + It appears that mankind were originally free, and that they + possessed an equal right to the soil and produce of the + earth. For proof of this, we need only appeal to the + <i>divine</i> writings; to the <i>golden age</i> of the + poets, which, like other fables of the times, had its + origin in truth; and to the institution of the + <i>Saturnalia</i>, and of other similar festivals; all of + which are so many monuments of this original equality of + men. Hence then there was no rank, no distinction, no + superiour. Every man wandered where he chose, changing his + residence, as a spot attracted his fancy, or suited his + convenience, uncontrouled by his neighbour, unconnected + with any but his family. Hence also (as every thing was + common) he collected what he chose without injury, and + enjoyed without injury what he had collected. Such was the + first situation of mankind;<a name="FNanchor036"></a><a + href="#Footnote_036"><sup>[036]</sup></a> a state of + <i>dissociation</i> and <i>independence</i>. + </p> + <p> + In this dissociated state it is impossible that men could + have long continued. The dangers to which they must have + frequently been exposed, by the attacks of fierce and + rapacious beasts, by the proedatory attempts of their own + species, and by the disputes of contiguous and independent + families; these, together with their inability to defend, + themselves, on many such occasions, must have incited them + to unite. Hence then was <i>society</i> formed on the grand + principles of preservation and defence: and as these + principles began to operate, in the different parts of the + earth, where the different families had roamed, a great + number of these <i>societies</i> began to be formed and + established; which, taking to themselves particular names + from particular occurrences, began to be perfectly distinct + from one another. + </p> + <p> + As the individuals, of whom these societies were composed, + had associated only for their defence, so they experienced, + at first, no change in their condition. They were still + independent and free; they were still without discipline or + laws; they had every thing still in common; they pursued + the same, manner of life; wandering only, in <i>herds</i>, + as the earth gave them or refused them sustenance, and + doing, as a <i>publick body</i>, what they had been + accustomed to do as <i>individuals</i> before. This was the + exact situation of the Getæ and Scythians,<a name= + "FNanchor037"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_037"><sup>[037]</sup></a> of the Lybians and + Goetulians<a name="FNanchor038"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_038"><sup>[038]</sup></a> of the Italian + Aborigines,<a name="FNanchor039"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_039"><sup>[039]</sup></a> and of the Huns and + Alans.<a name="FNanchor040"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_040"><sup>[040]</sup></a> They had left their + original state of <i>dissociation</i>, and had stepped into + that, which has been just described. Thus was the second + situation of men a state of <i>independent society</i>. + </p> + <p> + Having thus joined themselves together, and having formed + themselves into several large and distinct bodies, they + could not fail of submitting soon to a more considerable + change. Their numbers must have rapidly increased, and + their societies, in process of time, have become so + populous, as frequently to have experienced the want of + subsistence, and many of the commotions and tumults of + intestine strife. For these inconveniences however there + were remedies to be found. <i>Agriculture</i> would furnish + them with that subsistence and support, which the earth, + from the rapid increase of its inhabitants, had become + unable spontaneously to produce. An <i>assignation</i> of + <i>property</i> would not only enforce an application, but + excite an emulation, to labour; and <i>government</i> would + at once afford a security to the acquisitions of the + industrious, and heal the intestine disorders of the + community, by the introduction of laws. + </p> + <p> + Such then were the remedies, that were gradually applied. + The <i>societies</i>, which had hitherto seen their + members, undistinguished either by authority or rank, + admitted now of magistratical pre-eminence. They were + divided into tribes; to every tribe was allotted a + particular district for its support, and to every + individual his particular spot. The Germans,<a name= + "FNanchor041"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_041"><sup>[041]</sup></a> who consisted of many + and various nations, were exactly in this situation. They + had advanced a step beyond the Scythians, Goetulians, and + those, whom we described before; and thus was the third + situation of mankind a state of <i>subordinate society</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_202"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. II.</a> + </h2> + <p> + As we have thus traced the situation of man from unbounded + liberty to subordination, it will be proper to carry our + inquiries farther, and to consider, who first obtained the + pre-eminence in these <i>primoeval societies</i>, and by + what particular methods it was obtained. + </p> + <p> + There were only two ways, by which such an event could have + been produced, by <i>compulsion</i> or <i>consent</i>. When + mankind first saw the necessity of government, it is + probable that many had conceived the desire of ruling. To + be placed in a new situation, to be taken from the common + herd, to be the first, distinguished among men, were + thoughts, that must have had their charms. Let us suppose + then, that these thoughts had worked so unusually on the + passions of any particular individual, as to have driven + him to the extravagant design of obtaining the preeminence + by force. How could his design have been accomplished? How + could he forcibly have usurped the jurisdiction at a time, + when, all being equally free, there was not a single + person, whose assistance he could command? Add to this, + that, in a state of universal liberty, force had been + repaid by force, and the attempt had been fatal to the + usurper. + </p> + <p> + As <i>empire</i> then could never have been gained at first + by <i>compulsion</i>, so it could only have been obtained + by <i>consent</i>; and as men were then going to make an + important sacrifice, for the sake of their <i>mutual</i> + happiness, so he alone could have obtained it, (not whose + <i>ambition</i> had greatly distinguished him from the + rest) but in whose <i>wisdom, justice, prudence</i>, and + <i>virtue</i>, the whole community could confide. + </p> + <p> + To confirm this reasoning, we shall appeal, as before, to + facts; and shall consult therefore the history of those + nations, which having just left their former state of + <i>independent society</i>, were the very people that + established <i>subordination</i> and <i>government</i>. + </p> + <p> + The commentaries of Cæsar afford us the following + accounts of the ancient Gauls. When any of their kings, + either by death, or deposition, made a vacancy in the regal + office, the whole nation was immediately convened for the + appointment of a successor. In these national conventions + were the regal offices conferred. Every individual had a + voice on the occasion, and every individual was free. The + person upon whom the general approbation appeared to fall, + was immediately advanced to pre-eminence in the state. He + was uniformly one, whose actions had made him eminent; + whose conduct had gained him previous applause; whose + valour the very assembly, that elected him, had themselves + witnessed in the field; whose prudence, wisdom and justice, + having rendered him signally serviceable, had endeared him + to his tribe. For this reason, their kingdoms were not + hereditary; the son did not always inherit the virtues of + the sire; and they were determined that he alone should + possess authority, in whose virtues they could confide. Nor + was this all. So sensible were they of the important + sacrifice they had made; so extremely jealous even of the + name of superiority and power, that they limited, by a + variety of laws, the authority of the very person, whom + they had just elected, from a confidence of his integrity; + Ambiorix himself confessing, "that his people had as much + power over him, as he could possibly have over his people." + </p> + <p> + The same custom, as appears from Tacitus, prevailed also + among the Germans. They had their national councils, like + the Gauls; in which the regal and ducal offices were + confirmed according to the majority of voices. They elected + also, on these occasions, those only, whom their virtue, by + repeated trial, had unequivocally distinguished from the + rest; and they limited their authority so far, as neither + to leave them the power of inflicting imprisonment or + stripes, nor of exercising any penal jurisdiction. But as + punishment was necessary in a state of civil society, "it + was permitted to the priests alone, that it might appear to + have been inflicted, by the order of the gods, and not by + any superiour authority in man." + </p> + <p> + The accounts which we have thus given of the ancient + Germans and Gauls, will be found also to be equally true of + those people, which had arrived at the same state of + subordinate society. We might appeal, for a testimony of + this, to the history of the Goths; to the history of the + Franks and Saxons; to, the history, in short, of all those + nations, from which the different governments, now + conspicuous in Europe, have undeniably sprung. And we might + appeal, as a farther proof, to the Americans, who are + represented by many of the moderns, from their own ocular + testimony, as observing the same customs at the present + day. + </p> + <p> + It remains only to observe, that as these customs prevailed + among the different nations described, in their early state + of subordinate society, and as they were moreover the + customs of their respective ancestors, it appears that they + must have been handed down, both by tradition and use, from + the first introduction of <i>government</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_203"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. III.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We may now deduce those general maxims concerning + <i>subordination</i>, and <i>liberty</i>, which we + mentioned to have been essentially connected with the + subject, and which some, from speculation only, and without + any allusion to facts, have been bold enough to deny. + </p> + <p> + It appears first, that <i>liberty</i> is a <i>natural</i>, + and <i>government</i> an <i>adventitious</i> right, because + all men were originally free. + </p> + <p> + It appears secondly, that government is a <i>contract</i><a + name="FNanchor042"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_042"><sup>[042]</sup></a> because, in these + primeval subordinate societies, we have seen it voluntarily + conferred on the one hand, and accepted on the other. We + have seen it subject to various restrictions. We have seen + its articles, which could then only be written by tradition + and use, as perfect and binding as those, which are now + committed to letters. We have seen it, in short, partaking + of the <i>federal</i> nature, as much as it could in a + state, which wanted the means of recording its + transactions. + </p> + <p> + It appear thirdly, that the grand object of the + <i>contrast</i>, is the <i>happiness</i> of the people; + because they gave the supremacy to him alone, who had been + conspicuous for the splendour of his abilities, or the + integrity of his life: that the power of the multitude + being directed by the <i>wisdom</i> and <i>justice</i> of + the prince, they might experience the most effectual + protection from injury, the highest advantages of society, + the greatest possible <i>happiness</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_204"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. IV.</a> + </h2> + <p> + Having now collected the materials that are necessary for + the prosecution of our design, we shall immediately enter + upon the discussion. + </p> + <p> + If any man had originally been endued with power, as with + other faculties, so that the rest of mankind had discovered + in themselves an <i>innate necessity</i> of obeying this + particular person; it is evident that he and his + descendants, from the superiority of their nature, would + have had a claim upon men for obedience, and a natural + right to command: but as the right to empire is + <i>adventitious</i>; as all were originally free; as nature + made every man's body and mind <i>his own</i>; it is + evident that no just man can be consigned to + <i>slavery</i>, without his own <i>consent</i>. + </p> + <p> + Neither can men, by the same principles, be considered as + lands, goods, or houses, among <i>possessions</i>. It is + necessary that all <i>property</i> should be inferiour to + its <i>possessor</i>. But how does the <i>slave</i> differ + from his <i>master</i>, but by <i>chance</i>? For though + the mark, with which the latter is pleased to brand him, + shews, at the first sight, the difference of their + <i>fortune</i>; what mark can be found in his + <i>nature</i>, that can warrant a distinction? + </p> + <p> + To this consideration we shall add the following, that if + men can justly become the property of each other, their + children, like the offspring of cattle, must inherit their + <i>paternal</i> lot. Now, as the actions of the father and + the child must be thus at the sole disposal of their common + master, it is evident, that the <i>authority</i> of the + one, as a <i>parent</i>, and the <i>duty</i> of the other, + as a <i>child</i>, must be instantly annihilated; rights + and obligations, which, as they are sounded in nature, are + implanted in our feelings, and are established by the voice + of God, must contain in their annihilation a solid argument + to prove, that there cannot be any <i>property</i> whatever + in the <i>human species</i>. + </p> + <p> + We may consider also, as a farther confirmation, that it is + impossible, in the nature of things, that <i>liberty</i> + can be <i>bought</i> or <i>sold</i>! It is neither + <i>saleable</i>, nor <i>purchasable</i>. For if any one man + can have an absolute property in the liberty of another, + or, in other words, if he, who is called a <i>master</i>, + can have a <i>just</i> right to command the actions of him, + who is called a <i>slave</i>, it is evident that the latter + cannot be accountable for those crimes, which the former + may order him to commit. Now as every reasonable being is + accountable for his actions, it is evident, that such a + right cannot <i>justly</i> exist, and that human liberty, + of course, is beyond the possibility either of <i>sale</i> + or <i>purchase</i>. Add to this, that, whenever you sell + the liberty of a man, you have the power only of alluding + to the <i>body</i>: the <i>mind</i> cannot be confined or + bound: it will be free, though its mansion be beset with + chains. But if, in every sale of the <i>human species</i>, + you are under the necessity of considering your slave in + this abstracted light; of alluding only to the body, and of + making no allusion to the mind; you are under the necessity + also of treating him, in the same moment, as a + <i>brute</i>, and of abusing therefore that nature, which + cannot otherwise be considered, than in the double capacity + of <i>soul</i> and <i>body</i>. + </p> + <p> + But some person, perhaps, will make an objection to one of + the former arguments. "If men, from <i>superiority</i> of + their nature, cannot be considered, like lands, goods, or + houses, among possessions, so neither can cattle: for being + endued with life, motion, and sensibility, they are + evidently <i>superiour</i> to these." But this objection + will receive its answer from those observations which have + been already made; and will discover the true reason, why + cattle are justly to be estimated as property. For first, + the right to empire over brutes, is <i>natural</i>, and not + <i>adventitious</i>, like the right to empire over men. + There are, secondly, many and evident signs of the + <i>inferiority</i> of their nature; and thirdly, their + liberty can be bought and sold, because, being void of + reason, they cannot be <i>accountable</i> for their + actions. + </p> + <p> + We might stop here for a considerable time, and deduce many + valuable lessons from the remarks that have been made, but + that such a circumstance might be considered as a + digression. There is one, however, which, as it is so + intimately connected with the subject, we cannot but + deduce. We are taught to treat men in a different manner + from brutes, because they are so manifestly superiour in + their nature; we are taught to treat brutes in a different + manner from stones, for the same reason; and thus, by + giving to every created thing its due respect, to answer + the views of Providence, which did not create a variety of + natures without a purpose or design. + </p> + <p> + But if these things are so, how evidently against reason, + nature, and every thing human and divine, must they act, + who not only force men into <i>slavery</i>, against their + own <i>consent</i>; but treat them altogether as + <i>brutes</i>, and make the <i>natural liberty</i> of man + an article of publick commerce! and by what arguments can + they possibly defend that commerce, which cannot be carried + on, in any single instance, without a flagrant violation of + the laws of nature and of God? + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_205"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. V.</a> + </h2> + <p> + That we may the more accurately examine the arguments that + are advanced on this occasion, it will be proper to divide + the <i>commerce</i> into two parts; first, as it relates to + those who <i>sell</i>, and secondly, as it relates to those + who <i>purchase</i>, the <i>human species</i> into slavery. + To the former part of which, having given every previous + and necessary information in the history of servitude, we + shall immediately proceed. + </p> + <p> + Let us inquire first, by what particular right the + <i>liberties</i> of the harmless people are invaded by the + <i>prince</i>. "By the <i>right of empire</i>," it will be + answered; "because he possesses dominion and power by their + own approbation and consent." But subjects, though under + the dominion, are not the <i>property</i>, of the prince. + They cannot be considered as his <i>possessions</i>. Their + <i>natures</i> are both the same; they are both born in the + same manner; are subject to the same disorders; must apply + to the same remedies for a cure; are equally partakers of + the grave: an <i>incidental</i> distinction accompanies + them through life, and this-is all. + </p> + <p> + We may add to this, that though the prince possesses + dominion and power, by the consent and approbation of his + subjects, he possesses it only for the most <i>salutary</i> + ends. He may tyrannize, if he can: he may alter the + <i>form</i> of his government: he cannot, however, alter + its <i>nature</i> and <i>end</i>. These will be immutably + the same, though the whole system of its administration + should be changed; and he will be still bound to + <i>defend</i> the lives and properties of his subjects, and + to make them <i>happy</i>. + </p> + <p> + Does he defend those therefore, whom he invades at + discretion with the sword? Does he protect the property of + those, whose houses and effects he consigns at discretion + to the flames? Does he make those happy, whom he seizes, as + they are trying to escape the general devastation, and + compels with their wives and families to a wretched + <i>servitude?</i> He acts surely, as if the use of empire + consisted in violence and oppression; as if he, that was + most exalted, ought, of necessity, to be most unjust. Here + then the voice of <i>nature</i> and <i>justice</i> is + against him. He breaks that law of <i>nature</i>, which + ordains, "that no just man shall be given into slavery, + against his own <i>consent</i>:" he violates the first law + of <i>justice</i>, as established among men, "that no + person shall do harm to another without a previous and + sufficient <i>provocation</i>;" and he violates also the + sacred condition of <i>empire</i>, made with his ancestors, + and necessarily understood in every species of government, + "that, the power of the multitude being given up to the + wisdom and justice of the prince, they may experience, in + return, the most effectual protection from injury, the + highest advantages of society, the greatest possible + <i>happiness</i>." + </p> + <p> + But if kings then, to whom their own people have granted + dominion and power, are unable to invade the liberties of + their harmless subjects, without the highest + <i>injustice</i>; how can those private persons be + justified, who treacherously lie in wait for their + fellow-creatures, and sell them into slavery? What + arguments can they possibly bring in their defence? What + treaty of empire can they produce, by which their innocent + victims ever resigned to them the least portion of their + <i>liberty</i>? In vain will they plead the + <i>antiquity</i> of the custom: in vain will the + <i>honourable</i> light, in which <i>piracy</i> was + considered in the ages of barbarism, afford them an excuse. + Impious and abandoned men! ye invade the liberties of + those, who, (with respect to your impious selves) are in a + state of <i>nature</i>, in a state of original + <i>dissociation</i>, perfectly <i>independent</i>, + perfectly <i>free</i>. + </p> + <p> + It appears then, that the two orders of slaves, which have + been mentioned in the history of the African servitude, "of + those who are publickly seized by virtue of the authority + of their prince; and of those, who are privately kidnapped + by individuals," are collected by means of violence and + oppression; by means, repugnant to <i>nature</i>, the + principles of <i>government</i>, and the common notions of + <i>equity</i>, as established among men. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_206"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. VI.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We come now to the third order of <i>involuntary</i> + slaves, "to convicts." The only argument that the sellers + advance here, is this, "that they have been found guilty of + offences, and that the punishment is just." But before the + equity of the sentence can be allowed two questions must be + decided, whether the punishment is <i>proportioned</i> to + the offence, and what is its particular <i>object</i> and + <i>end</i>? + </p> + <p> + To decide the first, we may previously observe, that the + African servitude comprehends <i>banishment</i>, a + <i>deprivation</i> of <i>liberty</i>, and many + <i>corporal</i> sufferings. + </p> + <p> + On <i>banishment</i>, the following observations will + suffice. Mankind have their <i>local</i> attachments. They + have a particular regard for the spot, in which they were + born and nurtured. Here it was, that they first drew their + infant-breath: here, that they were cherished and + supported: here, that they passed those scenes of + childhood, which, free from care and anxiety, are the + happiest in the life of man; scenes, which accompany them + through life; which throw themselves frequently into their + thoughts, and produce the most agreeable sensations. These + then are weighty considerations; and how great this regard + is, may be evidenced from our own feelings; from the + testimony of some, who, when remote from their country, + and, in the hour of danger and distress, have found their + thoughts unusually directed, by some impulse or other, to + their native spot; and from the example of others, who, + having braved the storms and adversities of life, either + repair to it for the remainder of their days, or desire + even to be conveyed to it, when existence is no more. + </p> + <p> + But separately from these their <i>local</i>, they have + also their <i>personal</i> attachments; their regard for + particular men. There are ties of blood; there are ties of + friendship. In the former case, they must of necessity be + attached: the constitution of their nature demands it. In + the latter, it is impossible to be otherwise, since + friendship is founded on an harmony of temper, on a + concordance of sentiments and manners, on habits of + confidence, and a mutual exchange of favours. + </p> + <p> + We may now mention, as perfectly distinct both from their + <i>local</i> and <i>personal</i>, the <i>national</i> + attachments of mankind, their regard for the whole body of + the people, among whom they were born and educated. This + regard is particularly conspicuous in the conduct of such, + as, being thus <i>nationally</i> connected, reside in + foreign parts. How anxiously do they meet together! how + much do they enjoy the fight of others of their countrymen, + whom fortune places in their way! what an eagerness do they + show to serve them, though not born on the same particular + spot, though not connected by consanguinity or friendship, + though unknown to them before! Neither is this affection + wonderful, since they are creatures of the same education; + of the same principles; of the same manners and habits; + cast, as it were, in the same mould; and marked with the + same impression. + </p> + <p> + If men therefore are thus separately attached to the + several objects described, it is evident that a separate + exclusion from either must afford them considerable pain. + What then must be their sufferings, to be forced for ever + from their country, which includes them all? Which contains + the <i>spot</i>, in which they were born and nurtured; + which contains their <i>relations</i> and <i>friends</i>; + which contains the whole body of the <i>people</i>, among + whom they were bred and educated. In these sufferings, + which arise to men, both in bidding, and in having bid, + adieu to all that they esteem as dear and valuable, + <i>banishment</i> consists in part; and we may agree + therefore with the ancients, without adding other + melancholy circumstances to the account, that it is no + inconsiderable punishment of itself. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the <i>loss</i> of <i>liberty</i>, which is + the second consideration in the punishment, it is evident + that men bear nothing worse; that there is nothing, that + they lay more at heart; and that they have shewn, by many + and memorable instances, that even death is to be + preferred. How many could be named here, who, having + suffered the <i>loss</i> of <i>liberty</i>, have put a + period to their existence! How many, that have willingly + undergone the hazard of their lives to destroy a tyrant! + How many, that have even gloried to perish in the attempt! + How many bloody and publick wars have been undertaken (not + to mention the numerous <i>servile</i> insurrections, with + which history is stained) for the cause of <i>freedom</i>! + </p> + <p> + But if nothing is dearer than <i>liberty</i> to men, with + which, the barren rock is able to afford its joys, and + without which, the glorious fun shines upon them but in + vain, and all the sweets and delicacies of life are + tasteless and unenjoyed; what punishment can be more severe + than the loss of so great a blessing? But if to this + <i>deprivation</i> of <i>liberty</i>, we add the agonizing + pangs of <i>banishment</i>; and if to the complicated + stings of both, we add the incessant <i>stripes, + wounds</i>, and <i>miseries</i>, which are undergone by + those, who are sold into this horrid <i>servitude</i>; what + crime can we possibly imagine to be so enormous, as to be + worthy of so great a punishment? + </p> + <p> + How contrary then to reason, justice, and nature, must + those act, who apply this, the severest of human + punishments, to the most insignificant offence! yet such is + the custom with the Africans: for, from the time, in which + the Europeans first intoxicated the African princes with + their foreign draughts, no crime has been committed, no + shadow of a crime devised, that has not immediately been + punished with <i>servitude</i>. + </p> + <p> + But for what purpose is the punishment applied? Is it + applied to amend the manners of the criminal, and thus + render him a better subject? No, for if you banish him, he + can no longer be a subject, and you can no longer therefore + be solicitous for his morals. Add to this, that if you + banish him to a place, where he is to experience the + hardships of want and hunger (so powerfully does hunger + compel men to the perpetration of crimes) you force him + rather to corrupt, than amend his manners, and to be + wicked, when he might otherwise be just. + </p> + <p> + Is it applied then, that others may be deterred from the + same proceedings, and that crimes may become less frequent? + No, but that <i>avarice</i> may be gratified; that the + prince may experience the emoluments of the sale: for, + horrid and melancholy thought! the more crimes his subjects + commit, the richer is he made; the more <i>abandoned</i> + the subject, the <i>happier</i> is the prince! + </p> + <p> + Neither can we allow that the punishment thus applied, + tends in any degree to answer <i>publick happiness</i>; for + if men can be sentenced to slavery, right or wrong; if + shadows can be turned into substances, and virtues into + crimes; it is evident that none can be happy, because none + can be secure. + </p> + <p> + But if the punishment is infinitely greater than the + offence, (which has been shewn before) and if it is + inflicted, neither to amend the criminal, nor to deter + others from the same proceedings, nor to advance, in any + degree, the happiness of the publick, it is scarce + necessary to observe, that it is totally unjust, since it + is repugnant to <i>reason</i>, the dictates of + <i>nature</i>, and the very principles of + <i>government</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_207"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. VII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We come now to the fourth and last order of slaves, to + <i>prisoners of war</i>. As the <i>sellers</i> lay a + particular stress on this order of men, and infer much, + from its <i>antiquity</i>, in support of the justice of + their cause, we shall examine the principle, on which it + subsisted among the ancients. But as this principle was the + same among all nations, and as a citation from many of + their histories would not be less tedious than unnecessary, + we shall select the example of the Romans for the + consideration of the case. + </p> + <p> + The law, by which prisoners of war were said to be + sentenced to servitude, was the <i>law of nations.</i><a + name="FNanchor043"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_043"><sup>[043]</sup></a> It was so called from + the universal concurrence of nations in the custom. It had + two points in view, the <i>persons</i> of the + <i>captured</i>, and their <i>effects</i>; both of which it + immediately sentenced, without any of the usual forms of + law, to be the property of the <i>captors</i>. + </p> + <p> + The principle, on which the law was established, was the + <i>right of capture</i>. When any of the contending parties + had overcome their opponents, and were about to destroy + them, the right was considered to commence; a right, which + the victors conceived themselves to have, to recall their + swords, and, from the consideration of having saved the + lives of the vanquished, when they could have taken them by + the laws of war, to commute <i>blood</i> for + <i>service</i>. Hence the Roman lawyer, Pomponius, deduces + the etymology of <i>slave</i> in the Roman language. "They + were called <i>servi</i>,<a name="FNanchor044"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_044"><sup>[044]</sup></a>, says he from the + following circumstance. It was usual with our commanders to + take them prisoners, and sell them: now this circumstance + implies, that they must have been previously + <i>preserved</i>, and hence the name." Such then was the + <i>right of capture</i>. It was a right, which the + circumstance of <i>taking</i> the vanquished, that is, of + <i>preserving</i> them alive, gave the conquerors to their + persons. By this right, as always including the idea of a + previous preservation from death, the vanquished were said + <i>to be slaves</i>;<a name="FNanchor045"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_045"><sup>[045]</sup></a> and, "as all slaves," + says Justinian, "are themselves in the power of others, and + of course can have nothing of their own, so their effects + followed the condition of their persons, and became the + property of the captors." + </p> + <p> + To examine this right, by which the vanquished were said to + be slaves, we shall use the words of a celebrated Roman + author, and apply them to the present case.<a name= + "FNanchor046"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_046"><sup>[046]</sup></a> "If it is lawful," + says he, "to deprive a man of his life, it is certainly not + inconsistent with nature to rob him;" to rob him of his + liberty. We admit the conclusion to be just, if the + supposition be the same: we allow, if men have a right to + commit that, which is considered as a greater crime, that + they have a right, at the same instant, to commit that, + which is considered as a less. But what shall we say to the + <i>hypothesis</i>? We deny it to be true. The voice of + nature is against it. It is not lawful to kill, but on + <i>necessity</i>. Had there been a necessity, where had the + wretched captive survived to be broken with chains and + servitude? The very act of saving his life is an argument + to prove, that no such necessity existed. The + <i>conclusion</i> is therefore false. The captors had no + right to the <i>lives</i> of the captured, and of course + none to their <i>liberty</i>: they had no right to their + <i>blood</i>, and of course none to their <i>service</i>. + Their right therefore had no foundation in justice. It was + founded on a principle, contrary to the law of nature, and + of course contrary to that law, which people, under + different governments, are bound to observe to one another. + </p> + <p> + It is scarce necessary to observe, as a farther testimony + of the injustice of the measure, that the Europeans, after + the introduction of Christianity, exploded this principle + of the ancients, as frivolous and false; that they spared + the lives of the vanquished, not from the sordid motives of + <i>avarice</i>, but from a conscientiousness, that homicide + could only be justified by <i>necessity</i>; that they + introduced an <i>exchange</i> of prisoners, and, by many + and wise regulations, deprived war of many of its former + horrours. + </p> + <p> + But the advocates for slavery, unable to defend themselves + against these arguments, have fled to other resources, and, + ignorant of history, have denied that the <i>right of + capture</i> was the true principle, on which slavery + subsisted among the ancients. They reason thus. "The + learned Grotius, and others, have considered slavery as the + just consequence of a private war, (supposing the war to be + just and the opponents in a state of nature), upon the + principles of <i>reparation</i> and <i>punishment</i>. Now + as the law of nature, which is the rule of conduct to + individuals in such a situation, is applicable to members + of a different community, there is reason to presume, that + these principles were applied by the ancients to their + prisoners of war; that their <i>effects</i> were + confiscated by the right of <i>reparation</i>, and their + <i>persons</i> by the right of <i>punishment</i>."- + </p> + <p> + But, such a presumption is false. The <i>right of + capture</i> was the only argument, that the ancients + adduced in their defence. Hence Polybius; "What must they, + (the Mantinenses) suffer, to receive the punishment they + deserve? Perhaps it will be said, <i>that they must be + sold, when they are taken, with their wives and children + into slavery</i>: But this is not to be considered as a + punishment, since even those suffer it, by the laws of war, + who have done nothing that is base." The truth is, that + both the <i>offending</i> and the <i>offended</i> parties, + whenever they were victorious, inflicted slavery alike. But + if the <i>offending</i> party inflicted slavery on the + persons of the vanquished, by what right did they inflict + it? It must be answered from the presumption + before-mentioned, "by the right of <i>reparation</i>, or of + <i>punishment:</i>" an answer plainly absurd and + contradictory, as it supposes the <i>aggressor</i> to have + a <i>right</i>, which the <i>injured</i> only could + possess. + </p> + <p> + Neither is the argument less fallacious than the + presumption, in applying these principles, which in a + <i>publick</i> war could belong to the <i>publick</i> only, + to the persons of the <i>individuals</i> that were taken. + This calls us again to the history of the ancients, and, as + the rights of reparation and punishment could extend to + those only, who had been injured, to select a particular + instance for the consideration of the case. + </p> + <p> + As the Romans had been injured without a previous + provocation by the conduct of Hannibal at Saguntum, we may + take the treaty into consideration, which they made with + the Carthaginians, when the latter, defeated at Zama, sued + for peace. It consisted of three articles.<a name= + "FNanchor047"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_047"><sup>[047]</sup></a> By the first, the + Carthaginians were to be free, and to enjoy their own + constitution and laws. By the second, they were to pay a + considerable sum of money, as a reparation for the damages + and expence of war: and, by the third, they were to deliver + up their elephants and ships of war, and to be subject to + various restrictions, as a punishment. With these terms + they complied, and the war was finished. + </p> + <p> + Thus then did the Romans make that distinction between + <i>private</i> and <i>publick</i> war, which was necessary + to be made, and which the argument is fallacious in not + supposing. The treasury of the vanquished was marked as the + means of <i>reparation</i>; and as this treasury was + supplied, in a great measure, by the imposition of taxes, + and was, wholly, the property of the <i>publick</i>, so the + <i>publick</i> made the reparation that was due. The + <i>elephants</i> also, and <i>ships of war</i>, which were + marked as the means of <i>punishment</i>, were + <i>publick</i> property; and as they were considerable + instruments of security and defence to their possessors, + and of annoyance to an enemy, so their loss, added to the + restrictions of the treaty, operated as a great and + <i>publick</i> punishment. But with respect to the + Carthaginian prisoners, who had been taken in the war, they + were retained in <i>servitude:</i> not upon the principles + of <i>reparation</i> and <i>punishment</i>, because the + Romans had already received, by their own confession in the + treaty, a sufficient satisfaction: not upon these + principles, because they were inapplicable to + <i>individuals:</i> the legionary soldier in the service of + the injured, who took his prisoner, was not the person, to + whom the <i>injury had been done</i>, any more than the + soldier in the service of the aggressors, who was taken, + was the person, who had <i>committed the offence:</i> but + they were retained in servitude by the <i>right of + capture</i>; because, when both parties had sent their + military into the field to determine the dispute, it was at + the <i>private</i> choice of the legionary soldier + before-mentioned, whether he would spare the life of his + conquered opponent, when he was thought to be entitled to + take it, if he had chosen, by the laws of war. + </p> + <p> + To produce more instances, as an illustration of the + subject, or to go farther into the argument, would be to + trespass upon the patience, as well as understanding of the + reader. In <i>a state of nature</i>, where a man is + supposed to commit an injury, and to be unconnected with + the rest of the world, the act is <i>private</i>, and the + right, which the injured acquires, can extend only to + <i>himself:</i> but in <i>a state of society</i>, where any + member or members of a particular community give offence to + those of another, and they are patronized by the state, to + which they belong, the case is altered; the act becomes + immediately <i>publick</i>, and the <i>publick</i> alone + are to experience the consequences of their injustice. For + as no particular member of the community, if considered as + an individual, is guilty, except the person, by whom the + injury was done, it would be contrary to reason and + justice, to apply the principles of <i>reparation</i> and + <i>punishment</i>, which belong to the people as a + collective body, to any individual of the community, who + should happen to be taken. Now, as the principles of + <i>reparation</i> and <i>punishment</i> are thus + inapplicable to the prisoners, taken in a <i>publick</i> + war, and as the <i>right of capture</i>, as we have shewn + before, is insufficient to intitle the victors to the + <i>service</i> of the vanquished, it is evident that + <i>slavery</i> cannot justly exist at all, since there are + no other maxims, on which it can be founded, even in the + most equitable wars. + </p> + <p> + But if these things are so; if slavery cannot be defended + even in the most <i>equitable</i> wars, what arguments will + not be found against that servitude, which arises from + those, that are <i>unjust?</i> Which arises from those + African wars, that relate to the present subject? The + African princes, corrupted by the merchants of Europe, seek + every opportunity of quarrelling with one another. Every + spark is blown into a flame; and war is undertaken from no + other consideration, than that <i>of procuring slaves:</i> + while the Europeans, on the other hand, happy in the + quarrels which they have thus excited, supply them with + arms and ammunition for the accomplishment of their horrid + purpose. Thus has Africa, for the space of two hundred + years, been the scene of the most iniquitous and bloody + wars; and thus have many thousands of men, in the most + iniquitous manner, been sent into servitude. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_208"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. VIII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We shall beg leave, before we proceed to the arguments of + the <i>purchasers</i>, to add the following observations to + the substance of the three preceding chapters. + </p> + <p> + As the two orders of men, of those who are privately + kidnapped by individuals, and of those who are publickly + seized by virtue of the authority of their prince, compose + together, at least,<a name="FNanchor048"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_048"><sup>[048]</sup></a> nine tenths of the + African slaves, they cannot contain, upon a moderate + computation, less than ninety thousand men annually + transported: an immense number, but easily to be credited, + when we reflect that thousands are employed for the purpose + of stealing the unwary, and that these diabolical practices + are in force, so far has European <i>injustice</i> been + spread, at the distance of a thousand miles from the + factories on the coast. The <i>slave merchants</i>, among + whom a quantity of European goods is previously divided, + travel into the heart of the country to this amazing + distance. Some of them attend the various markets, that are + established through so large an extent of territory, to + purchase the kidnapped people, whom the + <i>slave-hunters</i> are continually bringing in; while the + rest, subdividing their merchandize among the petty + sovereigns with whom they deal, receive, by an immediate + exertion of fraud and violence, the stipulated number. + </p> + <p> + Now, will any man assert, in opposition to the arguments + before advanced, that out of this immense body of men, thus + annually collected and transported, there is even + <i>one</i>, over whom the original or subsequent seller can + have any power or right? Whoever asserts this, in the first + instance, must, contradict his own feelings, and must + consider <i>himself</i> as a just object of prey, whenever + any daring invader shall think it proper to attack + <i>him</i>. And, in the second instance, the very idea + which the African princes entertain of their villages, as + <i>parks</i> or <i>reservoirs</i>, stocked only for their + own convenience, and of their subjects, as <i>wild + beasts</i>, whom they may pursue and take at pleasure, is + so shocking, that it need only be mentioned, to be + instantly reprobated by the reader. + </p> + <p> + The order of slaves, which is next to the former in respect + to the number of people whom it contains, is that of + prisoners of war. This order, if the former statement be + true, is more inconsiderable than is generally imagined; + but whoever reflects on the prodigious slaughter that is + constantly made in every African skirmish, cannot be + otherwise than of this opinion: he will find, that where + <i>ten</i> are taken, he has every reason to presume that + an <i>hundred</i> perish. In some of these skirmishes, + though they have been begun for the express purpose of + <i>procuring slaves</i>, the conquerors have suffered but + few of the vanquished to escape the fury of the sword; and + there have not been wanting instances, where they have been + so incensed at the resistance they have found, that their + spirit of vengeance has entirely got the better of their + avarice, and they have murdered, in cool blood, every + individual, without discrimination, either of age or sex. + </p> + <p> + The following<a name="FNanchor049"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_049"><sup>[049]</sup></a> is an account of one + of these skirmishes, as described by a person, who was + witness to the scene. "I was sent, with several others, in + a small sloop up the river Niger, to purchase slaves: we + had some free negroes with us in the practice; and as the + vessels are liable to frequent attacks from the negroes on + one side of the river, or the Moors on the other, they are + all armed. As we rode at anchor a long way up the river, we + observed a large number of negroes in huts by the river's + side, and for our own safety kept a wary eye on them. Early + next morning we saw from our masthead a numerous body + approaching, with apparently but little order, but in close + array. They approached very fast, and fell furiously on the + inhabitants of the town, who seemed to be quite + <i>surprized</i>, but nevertheless, as soon as they could + get together, fought stoutly. They had some fire-arms, but + made very little use of them, as they came directly to + close fighting with their spears, lances, and sabres. Many + of the invaders were mounted on small horses; and both + parties fought for about half an hour with the fiercest + animosity, exerting much more courage and perseverance than + I had ever before been witness to amongst them. The women + and children of the town clustered together to the water's + edge, running shrieking up and down with terrour, waiting + the event of the combat, till their party gave way and took + to the water, to endeavour to swim over to the Barbary + side. They were closely pursued even into the river by the + victors, who, though they came for the purpose of + <i>getting slaves</i>, gave no quarter, <i>their cruelty + even prevailing over their avarice</i>. They made no + prisoners, but put all to the sword without mercy. Horrible + indeed was the carnage of the vanquished on this occasion, + and as we were within two or three hundred yards of them, + their cries and shrieks affected us extremely. We had got + up our anchor at the beginning of the fray, and now stood + close in to the spot, where the victors having followed the + vanquished into the water, were continually dragging out + and murdering those, whom by reason of their wounds they + easily overtook. The very children, whom they took in great + numbers, did not escape the massacre. Enraged at their + barbarity, we fired our guns loaden with grape shot, and a + volley of small arms among them, which effectually checked + their ardour, and obliged them to retire to a distance from + the shore; from whence a few round cannon shot soon removed + them into the woods. The whole river was black over with + the heads of the fugitives, who were swimming for their + lives. These poor wretches, fearing <i>us</i> as much as + their conquerors, dived when we fired, and cried most + lamentably for mercy. Having now effectually favoured their + retreat, we stood backwards and forwards, and took up + several that were wounded and tired. All whose wounds had + disabled them from swimming, were either butchered or + drowned, before we got up to them. With a justice and + generosity, <i>never I believe before heard of among + slavers</i>, we gave those their liberty whom we had taken + up, setting them on shore on the Barbary side, among the + poor residue of their companions, who had survived the + slaughter of the morning." + </p> + <p> + We shall make but two remarks on this horrid instance of + African cruelty. It adds, first, a considerable weight to + the statements that have been made; and confirms, secondly, + the conclusions that were drawn in the preceding chapter. + For if we even allow the right of capture to be just, and + the principles of reparation and punishment to be + applicable to the individuals of a community, yet would the + former be unjust, and the latter inapplicable, in the + present case. Every African war is a robbery; and we may + add, to our former expression, when we said, "that thus + have many thousands of men, in the most iniquitous manner, + been sent into servitude," that we believe there are few of + this order, who are not as much the examples of injustice, + as the people that have been kidnapped; and who do not + additionally convey, when we consider them as prisoners of + war, an idea of the most complicated scene of murder. + </p> + <p> + The order of <i>convicts</i>, as it exists almost solely + among those princes, whose dominions are contiguous to the + European factories, is from this circumstance so + inconsiderable, when compared with either of the preceding, + that we should not have mentioned it again, but that we + were unwilling to omit any additional argument that + occurred against it. + </p> + <p> + It has been shewn already, that the punishment of slavery + is inflicted from no other motive, than that of gratifying + the <i>avarice</i> of the prince, a confederation so + detestable, as to be sufficient of itself to prove it to be + unjust; and that it is so disproportionate, from its + <i>nature</i>, to the offence, as to afford an additional + proof of its injustice. We shall add now, as a second + argument, its disproportion from its <i>continuance:</i> + and we shall derive a third from the consideration, that, + in civil society, every violation of the laws of the + community is an offence against the <i>state</i>.<a name= + "FNanchor050"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_050"><sup>[050]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + Let us suppose then an African prince, disdaining for once + the idea of emolument: let us suppose him for once inflamed + with the love of his country, and resolving to punish from + this principle alone, "that by exhibiting an example of + terrour, he may preserve that <i>happiness of the + publick</i>, which he is bound to secure and defend by the + very nature of his contract; or, in other words, that he + may answer the end of government." If actuated then by this + principle, he should adjudge slavery to an offender, as a + just punishment for his offence, for whose benefit must the + convict labour? If it be answered, "for the benefit of the + state," we allow that the punishment, in whatever light it + is considered, will be found to be equitable: but if it be + answered, "for the benefit of any <i>individual whom he + pleases to appoint</i>," we deny it to be just. The state<a + name="FNanchor051"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_051"><sup>[051]</sup></a> alone is considered to + have been injured, and as <i>injuries cannot possibly be + transferred</i>, the state alone can justly receive the + advantages of his labour. But if the African prince, when + he thus condemns him to labour for the benefit of an + <i>unoffended individual</i>, should at the same time + sentence him to become his <i>property</i>; that is, if he + should make the person and life of the convict at the + absolute disposal of him, for whom he has sentenced him to + labour; it is evident that, in addition to his former + injustice, he is usurping a power, which no ruler or rulers + of a state can possess, and which the great Creator of the + universe never yet gave to any order whatever of created + beings. + </p> + <p> + That this reasoning is true, and that civilized nations + have considered it as such, will be best testified by their + practice. We may appeal here to that <i>slavery</i>, which + is now adjudged to delinquents, as a punishment, among many + of the states of Europe. These delinquents are sentenced to + labour at the <i>oar</i>, to work in <i>mines</i>, and on + <i>fortifications</i>, to cut and clear <i>rivers</i>, to + make and repair <i>roads</i>, and to perform other works of + national utility. They are employed, in short, in the + <i>publick</i> work; because, as the crimes they have + committed are considered to have been crimes against the + publick, no individual can justly receive the emoluments of + their labour; and they are neither <i>sold</i>, nor made + capable of being <i>transferred</i>, because no government + whatsoever is invested with such a power. + </p> + <p> + Thus then may that slavery, in which only the idea of + <i>labour</i> is included, be perfectly equitable, and the + delinquent will always receive his punishment as a man; + whereas in that, which additionally includes the idea of + <i>property</i>, and to undergo which, the delinquent must + previously change his nature, and become a <i>brute</i>; + there is an inconsistency, which no arguments can + reconcile, and a contradiction to every principle of + nature, which a man need only to appeal to his own feelings + immediately to evince. And we will venture to assert, from + the united observations that have been made upon the + subject, in opposition to any arguments that may be + advanced, that there is scarcely one of those, who are + called African convicts, on whom the prince has a right to + inflict a punishment at all; and that there is no one + whatever, whom he has a power of sentencing to labour for + the benefit of an unoffended individual, and much less whom + he has a right to sell. + </p> + <p> + Having now fully examined the arguments of the + <i>sellers</i>,<a name="FNanchor052"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_052"><sup>[052]</sup></a> and having made such + additional remarks as were necessary, we have only to add, + that we cannot sufficiently express our detestation at + their conduct. Were the reader coolly to reflect upon the + case of but <i>one</i> of the unfortunate men, who are + annually the victims of <i>avarice</i>, and consider his + situation in life, as a father, an husband, or a friend, we + are sure, that even on such a partial reflection, he must + experience considerable pain. What then must be his + feelings, when he is told, that, since the slave-trade + began, <i>nine millions</i> <a name="FNanchor053"></a><a + href="#Footnote_053"><sup>[053]</sup></a> of men have been + torn from their dearest connections, and sold into slavery. + If at this recital his indignation should arise, let him + consider it as the genuine production of nature; that she + recoiled at the horrid thought, and that she applied + instantly a torch to his breast to kindle his resentment; + and if, during his indignation, she should awaken the sigh + of sympathy, or seduce the tear of commiseration from his + eye, let him consider each as an additional argument + against the iniquity of the <i>sellers</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_209"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_II.">CHAP. IX.</a> + </h2> + <p> + It remains only now to examine by what arguments those, who + <i>receive</i> or <i>purchase</i> their fellow-creatures + into slavery, defend the <i>commerce</i>. Their first plea + is, "that they receive those with propriety, who are + convicted of crimes, because they are delivered into their + hands by <i>their own magistrates</i>." But what is this to + you <i>receivers</i>? Have the unfortunate <i>convicts</i> + been guilty of injury to <i>you</i>? Have they broken + <i>your</i> treaties? Have they plundered <i>your</i> + ships? Have they carried <i>your</i> wives and children + into slavery, that <i>you</i> should thus retaliate? Have + they offended <i>you</i> even by word or gesture? + </p> + <p> + But if the African convicts are innocent with respect to + you; if you have not even the shadow of a claim upon their + persons; by what right do you receive them? "By the laws of + the Africans," you will say; "by which it is positively + allowed."-But can <i>laws</i> alter the nature of vice? + They may give it a sanction perhaps: it will still be + immutably the same, and, though dressed in the outward + habiliments of <i>honour</i>, will still be + <i>intrinsically base</i>. + </p> + <p> + But alas! you do not only attempt to defend yourselves by + these arguments, but even dare to give your actions the + appearance of lenity, and assume <i>merit</i> from your + <i>baseness</i>! and how first ought you particularly to + blush, when you assert, "that prisoners of war are only + purchased from the hands of their conquerors, <i>to deliver + them from death</i>." Ridiculous defence! can the most + credulous believe it? You entice the Africans to war; you + foment their quarrels; you supply them with arms and + ammunition, and all-from the <i>motives of benevolence</i>. + Does a man set fire to an house, for the purpose of + rescuing the inhabitants from the flames? But if they are + only purchased, to <i>deliver them from death</i>; why, + when they are delivered into your hands, as protectors, do + you torture them with hunger? Why do you kill them with + fatigue? Why does the whip deform their bodies, or the + knife their limbs? Why do you sentence them to death? to a + death, infinitely more excruciating than that from which + you so kindly saved them? What answer do you make to this? + for if you had not humanely preserved them from the hands + of their conquerors, a quick death perhaps, and that in the + space of a moment, had freed them from their pain: but on + account of your <i>favour</i> and <i>benevolence</i>, it is + known, that they have lingered years in pain and agony, and + have been sentenced, at last, to a dreadful death for the + most insignificant offence. + </p> + <p> + Neither can we allow the other argument to be true, on + which you found your merit; "that you take them from their + country for their own convenience; because Africa, scorched + with incessant heat, and subject to the most violent rains + and tempests, is unwholesome, and unfit to be inhabited." + Preposterous men! do you thus judge from your own feelings? + Do you thus judge from your own constitution and frame? But + if you suppose that the Africans are incapable of enduring + their own climate, because you cannot endure it yourselves; + why do you receive them into slavery? Why do you not + measure them here by the same standard? For if you are + unable to bear hunger and thirst, chains and imprisonment, + wounds and torture, why do you not suppose them incapable + of enduring the same treatment? Thus then is your argument + turned against yourselves. But consider the answer which + the Scythians gave the Ægyptians, when they contended + about the antiquity of their original,<a name= + "FNanchor054"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_054"><sup>[054]</sup></a> "That nature, when + she first distinguished countries by different degrees of + heat and cold, tempered the bodies of animals, at the same + instant, to endure the different situations: that as the + climate of Scythia was severer than that of Ægypt, so + were the bodies of the Scythians harder, and as capable of + enduring the severity of their atmosphere, as the + Ægyptians the temperateness of their own." + </p> + <p> + But you may say perhaps, that, though they are capable of + enduring their own climate, yet their situation is + frequently uncomfortable, and even wretched: that Africa is + infested with locusts, and insects of various kinds; that + they settle in swarms upon the trees, destroy the verdure, + consume the fruit, and deprive the inhabitants of their + food. But the same answer may be applied as before; "that + the same kind Providence, who tempered the body of the + animal, tempered also the body of the tree; that he gave it + a quality to recover the bite of the locust, which he sent; + and to reassume, in a short interval of time, its former + glory." And that such is the case experience has shewn: for + the very trees that have been infested, and stripped of + their bloom and verdure, so surprizingly quick is + vegetation, appear in a few days, as if an insect had been + utterly unknown. + </p> + <p> + We may add to these observations, from the testimony of + those who have written the History of Africa from their own + inspection, that no country is more luxurious in prospects, + none more fruitful, none more rich in herds and flocks, and + none, where the comforts of life, can be gained with so + little trouble. + </p> + <p> + But you say again, as a confirmation of these your former + arguments, (by which you would have it understood, that the + Africans themselves are sensible of the goodness of your + intentions) "that they do not appear to go with you against + their will." Impudent and base assertion! Why then do you + load them with chains? Why keep you your daily and nightly + watches? But alas, as a farther, though a more melancholy + proof, of the falsehood of your assertions, how many, when + on board your ships, have put a period to their existence? + How many have leaped into the sea? How many have pined to + death, that, even at the expence of their lives, they might + fly from your <i>benevolence</i>? + </p> + <p> + Do you call them obstinate then, because they refuse your + favours? Do you call them ungrateful, because they make you + this return? How much rather ought you receivers to blush! + How much rather ought you receivers to be considered as + abandoned and execrable; who, when you usurp the dominion + over those, who are as free and independent as yourselves, + break the first law of justice, which ordains, "that no + person shall do harm to another, without a previous + provocation;" who offend against the dictates of nature, + which commands, "that no just man shall be given or + received into slavery against his own consent;" and who + violate the very laws of the empire that you assume, by + consigning your subjects to misery. + </p> + <p> + Now, as a famous Heathen philosopher observes, from whose + mouth you shall be convicted,<a name="FNanchor055"></a><a + href="#Footnote_055"><sup>[055]</sup></a> "there is a + considerable difference, whether an injury is done, during + any perturbation of mind, which is generally short and + momentary; or whether it is done with any previous + meditation and design; for, those crimes, which proceed + from any sudden commotion of the mind, are less than those, + which are studied and prepared," how great and enormous are + your crimes to be considered, who plan your African voyages + at a time, when your reason is found, and your senses are + awake; who coolly and deliberately equip your vessels; and + who spend years, and even lives, in the traffick of + <i>human liberty</i>. + </p> + <p> + But if the arguments of those, who <i>sell</i> or + <i>deliver</i> men into slavery, (as we have shewn before) + and of those, who <i>receive</i> or <i>purchase</i> them, + (as we have now shewn) are wholly false; it is evident that + this <i>commerce</i>, is not only beyond the possibility of + defence, but is justly to be accounted wicked, and justly + impious, since it is contrary to the principles of + <i>law</i> and <i>government</i>, the dictates of + <i>reason</i>, the common maxims of <i>equity</i>, the laws + of <i>nature</i>, the admonitions of <i>conscience</i>, + and, in short, the whole doctrine of <i>natural + religion</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + + <h2> + PART III. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <h2> + THE<br> + SLAVERY of the AFRICANS<br> + IN THE<br> + EUROPEAN COLONIES. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_301"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. I.</a> + </h2> + <p> + Having confined ourselves wholly, in the second part of + this Essay, to the consideration of the <i>commerce</i>, we + shall now proceed to the consideration of the + <i>slavery</i> that is founded upon it. As this slavery + will be conspicuous in the <i>treatment</i>, which the + unfortunate Africans uniformly undergo, when they are put + into the hands of the <i>receivers</i>, we shall describe + the manner in which they are accustomed to be used from + this period. + </p> + <p> + To place this in the clearest, and most conspicuous point + of view, we shall throw a considerable part of our + information on this head into the form of a narrative: we + shall suppose ourselves, in short, on the continent of + Africa, and relate a scene, which, from its agreement with + unquestionable facts, might not unreasonably be presumed to + have been presented to our view, had we been really there. + </p> + <p> + And first, let us turn our eyes to the cloud of dust that + is before us. It seems to advance rapidly, and, accompanied + with dismal shrieks and yellings, to make the very air, + that is above it, tremble as it rolls along. What can + possibly be the cause? Let us inquire of that melancholy + African, who seems to walk dejected near the shore; whose + eyes are stedfastly fixed on the approaching object, and + whose heart, if we can judge from the appearance of his + countenance, must be greatly agitated. + </p> + <p> + "Alas!" says the unhappy African, "the cloud that you see + approaching, is a train of wretched slaves. They are going + to the ships behind you. They are destined for the English + colonies, and, if you will stay here but for a little time, + you will see them pass. They were last night drawn up upon + the plain which you see before you, where they were branded + upon the breast with an <i>hot iron</i>; and when they had + undergone the whole of the treatment which is customary on + these occasions, and which I am informed that you + Englishmen at home use to the <i>cattle</i> which you buy, + they were returned to their prison. As I have some dealings + with the members of the factory which you see at a little + distance, (though thanks to the Great Spirit, I never dealt + in the <i>liberty</i> of my fellow creatures) I gained + admittance there. I learned the history of some of the + unfortunate people, whom I saw confined, and will explain + to you, if my eye should catch them as they pass, the real + causes of their servitude." + </p> + <p> + Scarcely were these words spoken, when they came distinctly + into sight. They appeared to advance in a long column, but + in a very irregular manner. There were three only in the + front, and these were chained together. The rest that + followed seemed to be chained by pairs, but by pressing + forward, to avoid the lash of the drivers, the breadth of + the column began to be greatly extended, and ten or more + were observed abreast. + </p> + <p> + While we were making these remarks, the intelligent African + thus resumed his discourse. "The first three whom you + observe, at the head of the train, to be chained together, + are prisoners of war. As soon as the ships that are behind + you arrived, the news was dispatched into the inland + country; when one of the petty kings immediately assembled + his subjects, and attacked a neighbouring tribe. The + wretched people, though they were surprized, made a + formidable resistance, as they resolved, almost all of + them, rather to lose their lives, than survive their + liberty. The person whom you see in the middle, is the + father of the two young men, who are chained to him on each + side. His wife and two of his children were killed in the + attack, and his father being wounded, and, on account of + his age, <i>incapable of servitude</i>, was left bleeding + on the spot where this transaction happened." + </p> + <p> + "With respect to those who are now passing us, and are + immediately behind the former, I can give you no other + intelligence, than that some of them, to about the number + of thirty, were taken in the same skirmish. Their tribe was + said to have been numerous before the attack; these however + are <i>all that are left alive</i>. But with respect to the + unhappy man, who is now opposite to us, and whom you may + distinguish, as he is now looking back and wringing his + hands in despair, I can inform you with more precision. He + is an unfortunate convict. He lived only about five days + journey from the factory. He went out with his king to + hunt, and was one of his train; but, through too great an + anxiety to afford his royal master diversion, he roused the + game from the covert rather sooner than was expected. The + king, exasperated at this circumstance, immediately + sentenced him to slavery. His wife and children, fearing + lest the tyrant should extend the punishment to themselves, + <i>which is not unusual</i>, fled directly to the woods, + where they were all devoured." + </p> + <p> + "The people, whom you see close behind the unhappy convict, + form a numerous body, and reach a considerable way. They + speak a language, which no person in this part of Africa + can understand, and their features, as you perceive, are so + different from those of the rest, that they almost appear a + distinct race of men. From this circumstance I recollect + them. They are the subjects of a very distant prince, who + agreed with the <i>slave merchants, for a quantity of + spirituous liquors</i>, to furnish him with a stipulated + number of slaves. He accordingly surrounded, and set fire + to one of his own villages in the night, and seized these + people, who were unfortunately the inhabitants, as they + were escaping from the flames. I first saw them as the + merchants were driving them in, about two days ago. They + came in a large body, and were tied together at the neck + with leather thongs, which permitted them to walk at the + distance of about a yard from one another. Many of them + were loaden with elephants teeth, which had been purchased + at the same time. All of them had bags, made of skin, upon + their shoulders; for as they were to travel, in their way + from the great mountains, through barren sands and + inhospitable woods for many days together, they were + obliged to carry water and provisions with them. + Notwithstanding this, many of them perished, some by + hunger, but the greatest number by fatigue, as the place + from whence they came, is at such an amazing distance from + this, and the obstacles, from the nature of the country, so + great, that the journey could scarcely be completed in + seven moons." + </p> + <p> + When this relation was finished, and we had been looking + stedfastly for some time on the croud that was going by, we + lost sight of that peculiarity of feature, which we had + before remarked. We then discovered that the inhabitants of + the depopulated village had all of them passed us, and that + the part of the train, to which we were now opposite, was a + numerous body of kidnapped people. Here we indulged our + imagination. We thought we beheld in one of them a father, + in another an husband, and in another a son, each of whom + was forced from his various and tender connections, and + without even the opportunity of bidding them adieu. While + we were engaged in these and other melancholy reflections, + the whole body of slaves had entirely passed us. We turned + almost insensibly to look at them again, when we discovered + an unhappy man at the end of the train, who could scarcely + keep pace with the rest. His feet seemed to have suffered + much from long and constant travelling, for he was limping + painfully along. + </p> + <p> + "This man," resumes the African. "has travelled a + considerable way. He lived at a great distance from hence, + and had a large family, for whom he was daily to provide. + As he went out one night to a neighbouring spring, to + procure water for his thirsty children, he was kidnapped by + two <i>slave hunters</i>, who sold him in the morning to + some country merchants for a <i>bar of iron</i>. These + drove him with other slaves, procured almost in the same + manner, to the nearest market, where the English merchants, + to whom the train that has just now passed us belongs, + purchased him and two others, by means of their travelling + agents, for a <i>pistol</i>. His wife and children have + been long waiting for his return. But he is gone for ever + from their sight: and they must be now disconsolate, as + they must be certain by his delay, that he has fallen into + the hands of the <i>Christians</i>". + </p> + <p> + "And now, as I have mentioned the name of + <i>Christians</i>, a name, by which the Europeans + distinguish themselves from us, I could wish to be informed + of the meaning which such an appellation may convey. They + consider themselves as <i>men</i>, but us unfortunate + Africans, whom they term <i>Heathens</i>, as the + <i>beasts</i> that serve us. But ah! how different is the + fact! What is <i>Christianity</i>, but a system of + <i>murder</i> and <i>oppression</i>? The cries and yells of + the unfortunate people, who are now soon to embark for the + regions of servitude, have already pierced my heart. Have + you not heard me sigh, while we have been talking? Do you + not see the tears that now trickle down my cheeks? and yet + these hardened <i>Christians</i> are unable to be moved at + all: nay, they will scourge them amidst their groans, and + even smile, while they are torturing them to death. Happy, + happy Heathenism! which can detest the vices of + Christianity, and feel for the distresses of mankind." + </p> + <p> + "But" we reply, "You are totally mistaken: + <i>Christianity</i> is the most perfect and lovely of moral + systems. It blesses even the hand of persecution itself, + and returns good for evil. But the people against whom you + so justly declaim; are not <i>Christians</i>. They are + <i>infidels</i>. They are <i>monsters</i>. They are out of + the common course of nature. Their countrymen at home are + generous and brave. They support the sick, the lame, and + the blind. They fly to the succour of the distressed. They + have noble and stately buildings for the sole purpose of + benevolence. They are in short, of all nations, the most + remarkable for humanity and justice." + </p> + <p> + "But why then," replies the honest African, "do they suffer + this? Why is Africa a scene of blood and desolation? Why + are her children wrested from her, to administer to the + luxuries and greatness of those whom they never offended? + And why are these dismal cries in vain?" + </p> + <p> + "Alas!" we reply again, "can the cries and groans, with + which the air now trembles, be heard across this extensive + continent? Can the southern winds convey them to the ear of + Britain? If they could reach the generous Englishman at + home, they would pierce his heart, as they have already + pierced your own. He would sympathize with you in your + distress. He would be enraged at the conduct of his + countrymen, and resist their tyranny."- + </p> + <p> + But here a shriek unusually loud, accompanied with a + dreadful rattling of chains, interrupted the discourse. The + wretched Africans were just about to embark: they had + turned their face to their country, as if to take a last + adieu, and, with arms uplifted to the sky, were making the + very atmosphere resound with their prayers and + imprecations. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_302"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. II.</a> + </h2> + <p> + The foregoing scene, though it may be said to be imaginary, + is strictly consistent with fact. It is a scene, to which + the reader himself may have been witness, if he has ever + visited the place, where it is supposed to lie; as no + circumstance whatever has been inserted in it, for which + the fullest and most undeniable evidence cannot be + produced. We shall proceed now to describe, in general + terms, the treatment which the wretched Africans undergo, + from the time of their embarkation. + </p> + <p> + When the African slaves, who are collected from various + quarters, for the purposes of sale, are delivered over to + the <i>receivers</i>, they are conducted in the manner + above described to the ships. Their situation on board is + beyond all description: for here they are crouded, hundreds + of them together, into such a small compass, as would + scarcely be thought sufficient to accommodate twenty, if + considered as <i>free men</i>. This confinement soon + produces an effect, that may be easily imagined. It + generates a pestilential air, which, co-operating with, bad + provisions, occasions such a sickness and mortality among + them, that not less than <i>twenty thousand</i><a name= + "FNanchor056"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_056"><sup>[056]</sup></a> are generally taken + off in every yearly transportation. + </p> + <p> + Thus confined in a pestilential prison, and almost entirely + excluded from the chearful face of day, it remains for the + sickly survivors to linger out a miserable existence, till + the voyage is finished. But are no farther evils to be + expected in the interim particularly if we add to their + already wretched situation the indignities that are daily + offered them, and the regret which they must constantly + feel, at being for ever forced from their connexions? These + evils are but too apparent. Some of them have resolved, + and, notwithstanding the threats of the <i>receivers</i>, + have carried their resolves into execution, to starve + themselves to death. Others, when they have been brought + upon deck for air, if the least opportunity has offered, + have leaped into the sea, and terminated their miseries at + once. Others, in a fit of despair, have attempted to rise, + and regain their liberty. But here what a scene of + barbarity has constantly ensued. Some of them have been + instantly killed upon the spot; some have been taken from + the hold, have been bruised and mutilated in the most + barbarous and shocking manner, and have been returned + bleeding to their companions, as a sad example of + resistance; while others, tied to the ropes of the ship, + and mangled alternately with the whip and knife, have been + left in that horrid situation, till they have expired. + </p> + <p> + But this is not the only inhuman treatment which they are + frequently obliged to undergo; for if there should be any + necessity, from tempestuous weather, for lightening the + ship; or if it should be presumed on the voyage, that the + provisions will fall short before the port can be made, + they are, many of them, thrown into the sea, without any + compunction of mind on the part of the <i>receivers</i>, + and without any other regret for their loss, than that + which <i>avarice</i> inspires. Wretched survivors! what + must be their feelings at such a sight! how must they + tremble to think of that servitude which is approaching, + when the very <i>dogs</i> of the <i>receivers</i> have been + retained on board, and preferred to their unoffending + countrymen. But indeed so lightly are these unhappy people + esteemed, that their lives have been even taken away upon + speculation: there has been an instance, within the last + five years, of <i>one hundred and thirty two</i> of them + being thrown into the sea, because it was supposed that, by + this <i>trick</i>, their value could be recovered from the + insurers.<a name="FNanchor057"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_057"><sup>[057]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + But if the ship should arrive safe at its destined port, a + circumstance which does not always happen, (for some have + been blown up, and many lost) the wretched Africans do not + find an alleviation of their sorrow. Here they are again + exposed to sale. Here they are again subjected to the + inspection of other brutal <i>receivers</i>, who examine + and treat them with an inhumanity, at which even avarice + should blush. To this mortifying circumstance is added + another, that they are picked out, as the purchaser + pleases, without any consideration whether the wife is + separated from her husband, or the mother from her son: and + if these cruel instances of separation should happen; if + relations, when they find themselves about to be parted, + should cling together; or if filial, conjugal, or parental + affection, should detain them but a moment longer in each + other's arms, than these <i>second receivers</i> should + think sufficient, the lash instantly severs them from their + embraces. + </p> + <p> + We cannot close our account of the treatment, which the + wretched Africans undergo while in the hands of the + <i>first receivers</i>, without mentioning an instance of + wanton, barbarity, which happened some time ago; + particularly as it may be inserted with propriety in the + present place, and may give the reader a better idea of the + cruelties, to which they are continually exposed, than any + that he may have yet conceived. To avoid making a mistake, + we shall take the liberty that has been allowed us, and + transcribe it from a little manuscript account, with which + we have been favoured by a person of the strictest + integrity, and who was at that time in the place where the + transaction happened.<a name="FNanchor058"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_058"><sup>[058]</sup></a> "Not long after," + says he, (continuing his account) "the perpetrator of a + cruel murder, committed in open day light, in the most + publick part of a town, which was the seat of government, + escaped every other notice than the curses of a few of the + more humane witnesses of his barbarity. An officer of a + Guinea ship, who had the care of a number of new slaves, + and was returning from the <i>sale-yard</i> to the vessel + with such as remained unsold; observed a stout fellow among + them rather slow in his motions, which he therefore + quickened with his rattan. The slave soon afterwards fell + down, and was raised by the same application. Moving + forwards a few yards, he fell down again; and this being + taken as a proof of his sullen perverse spirit, the enraged + officer furiously repeated his blows, till he expired at + his feet. The brute coolly ordered some of the surviving + slaves to carry the dead body to the water's side, where, + without any ceremony or delay, being thrown into the sea, + the tragedy was supposed to have been immediately finished + by the not more inhuman sharks, with which the harbour then + abounded. These voracious fish were supposed to have + followed the vessels from the coast of Africa, in which ten + thousand slaves were imported in that one season, being + allured by the stench, and daily fed by the dead carcasses + thrown overboard on the voyage." + </p> + <p> + If the reader should observe here, that cattle are better + protected in this country, than slaves in the colonies, his + observation will be just. The beast which is driven to + market, is defended by law from the goad of the driver; + whereas the wretched African, though an human being, and + whose feelings receive of course a double poignancy from + the power of reflection, is unnoticed in this respect in + the colonial code, and may be goaded and beaten till he + expires. + </p> + <p> + We may now take our leave of the <i>first receivers</i>. + Their crime has been already estimated; and to reason + farther upon it, would be unnecessary. For where the + conduct of men is so manifestly impious, there can be no + need, either of a single argument or a reflection; as every + reader of sensibility will anticipate them in his own + feelings. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_303"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. III.</a> + </h2> + <p> + When the wretched Africans are thus put into the hands of + the <i>second receivers</i>, they are conveyed to the + plantations, where they are totally considered as + <i>cattle</i>, or <i>beasts of labour</i>; their very + children, if any should be born to them in that situation, + being previously destined to the condition of their + parents. But here a question arises, which, will interrupt + the thread of the narration for a little time, viz. how far + their descendants, who compose the fifth order of slaves, + are justly reduced to servitude, and upon what principles + the <i>receivers</i> defend their conduct. + </p> + <p> + Authors have been at great pains to inquire, why, in the + ancient servitude, the child has uniformly followed the + condition of the mother. But we conceive that they would + have saved themselves much trouble, and have done + themselves more credit, if instead of, endeavouring to + reconcile the custom with <i>heathen</i> notions, or their + own laboured conjectures, they had shewn its inconsistency + with reason and nature, and its repugnancy to common + justice. Suffice it to say, that the whole theory of the + ancients, with respect to the descendants slaves, may be + reduced to this principle, "that as the parents, by + becoming <i>property</i>, were wholly considered as + <i>cattle</i>, their children, like <i>the progeny of + cattle</i>, inherited their parental lot." + </p> + <p> + Such also is the excuse of the tyrannical <i>receivers</i> + before-mentioned. They allege, that they have purchased the + parents, that they can sell and dispose of them as they + please, that they possess them under the same laws and + limitations as their cattle, and that their children, like + the progeny of these, become their property <i>by + birth</i>. + </p> + <p> + But the absurdity of the argument will immediately appear. + It depends wholly on the supposition, that the parents are + <i>brutes</i>. If they are <i>brutes</i>, we shall + instantly cease to contend: if they are <i>men</i>, which + we think it not difficult to prove, the argument must + immediately fall, as we have already shewn that there + cannot justly be any <i>property</i> whatever in the + <i>human species</i>. + </p> + <p> + It has appeared also, in the second part of this Essay, + that as nature made, every man's body and mind <i>his + own</i>, so no <i>just</i> person can be reduced to slavery + against his own <i>consent</i>. Do the unfortunate + offspring ever <i>consent</i> to be slaves?-They are slaves + from their birth.-Are they <i>guilty</i> of crimes, that + they lose their freedom?-They are slaves when they cannot + speak.-Are their <i>parents</i> abandoned? The crimes of + the parents cannot justly extend to the children. + </p> + <p> + Thus then must the tyrannical <i>receivers</i>, who presume + to sentence the children of slaves to servitude, if they + mean to dispute upon the justice of their cause; either + allow them to have been <i>brutes</i> from their birth, or + to have been guilty of crimes at a time, when they were + incapable of offending the very <i>King of Kings</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_304"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. IV.</a> + </h2> + <p> + But to return to the narration. When the wretched Africans + are conveyed to the plantations, they are considered as + <i>beasts of labour</i>, and are put to their respective + work. Having led, in their own country, a life of indolence + and ease, where the earth brings forth spontaneously the + comforts of life, and spares frequently the toil and + trouble of cultivation, they can hardly be expected to + endure the drudgeries of servitude. Calculations are + accordingly made upon their lives. It is conjectured, that + if three in four survive what is called the + <i>seasoning</i>, the bargain is highly favourable. This + seasoning is said to expire, when the two first years of + their servitude are completed: It is the time which an + African must take to be so accustomed to the colony, as to + be able to endure the common labour of a plantation, and to + be put into the <i>gang</i>. At the end of this period the + calculations become verified, twenty thousand<a name= + "FNanchor059"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_059"><sup>[059]</sup></a> of those, who are + annually imported, dying before the seasoning is over. This + is surely an horrid and awful consideration: and thus does + it appear, (and let it be remembered, that it is the lowest + calculation that has been ever made upon the subject) that + out of every annual supply that is shipped from the coast + of Africa, <i>forty thousand lives</i><a name= + "FNanchor060"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_060"><sup>[060]</sup></a> are regularly + expended, even before it can be said, that there is really + any additional stock for the colonies. + </p> + <p> + When the seasoning is over, and the survivors are thus + enabled to endure the usual task of slaves, they are + considered as real and substantial supplies. From this + period<a name="FNanchor061"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_061"><sup>[061]</sup></a> therefore we shall + describe their situation. + </p> + <p> + They are summoned at five in the morning to begin their + work. This work may be divided into two kinds, the culture + of the fields, and the collection of grass for cattle. The + last is the most laborious and intolerable employment; as + the grass can only be collected blade by blade, and is to + be fetched frequently twice a day at a considerable + distance from the plantation. In these two occupations they + are jointly taken up, with no other intermission than that + of taking their subsistence twice, till nine at night. They + then separate for their respective huts, when they gather + sticks, prepare their supper, and attend their families. + This employs them till midnight, when they go to rest. Such + is their daily way of life for rather more than half the + year. They are <i>sixteen</i> hours, including two + intervals at meals, in the service of their masters: they + are employed <i>three</i> afterwards in their own necessary + concerns; <i>five</i> only remain for sleep, and their day + is finished. + </p> + <p> + During the remaining portion of the year, or the time of + crop, the nature, as well as the time of their employment, + is considerably changed. The whole gang is generally + divided into two or three bodies. One of these, besides the + ordinary labour of the day, is kept in turn at the mills, + that are constantly going, during the whole of the night. + This is a dreadful encroachment upon their time of rest, + which was before too short to permit them perfectly to + refresh their wearied limbs, and actually reduces their + sleep, as long as this season lasts, to about three hours + and an half a night, upon a moderate computation.<a name= + "FNanchor062"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_062"><sup>[062]</sup></a> Those who can keep + their eyes open during their nightly labour, and are + willing to resist the drowsiness that is continually coming + upon them, are presently worn out; while some of those, who + are overcome, and who feed the mill between asleep and + awake, suffer, for thus obeying the calls of nature, by the + loss of a limb.<a name="FNanchor063"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_063"><sup>[063]</sup></a> In this manner they + go on, with little or no respite from their work, till the + crop season is over, when the year (from the time of our + first description) is completed. + </p> + <p> + To support<a name="FNanchor064"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_064"><sup>[064]</sup></a> a life of such + unparalleled drudgery, we should at least expect: to find, + that they were comfortably clothed, and plentifully fed. + But sad reverse! they have scarcely a covering to defend + themselves against the inclemency of the night. Their + provisions are frequently bad, and are always dealt out to + them with such a sparing hand, that the means of a bare + livelihood are not placed within the reach of four out of + five of these unhappy people. It is a fact, that many of + the disorders of slaves are contracted from eating the + vegetables, which their little spots produce, before they + are sufficiently ripe: a clear indication, that the calls + of hunger are frequently so pressing, as not to suffer them + to wait, till they can really enjoy them. + </p> + <p> + This, situation, of a want of the common necessaries of + life, added to that of hard and continual labour, must be + sufficiently painful of itself. How then must the pain be + sharpened, if it be accompanied with severity! if an + unfortunate slave does not come into the field exactly at + the appointed time, if, drooping with sickness or fatigue, + he appears to work unwillingly, or if the bundle of grass + that he has been collecting, appears too small in the eye + of the overseer, he is equally sure of experiencing the + whip. This instrument erases the skin, and cuts out small + portions of the flesh at almost every stroke; and is so + frequently applied, that the smack of it is all day long in + the ears of those, who are in the vicinity of the + plantations. This severity of masters, or managers, to + their slaves, which is considered only as common + discipline, is attended with bad effects. It enables them + to behold instances of cruelty without commiseration, and + to be guilty of them without remorse. Hence those many acts + of deliberate mutilation, that have taken place on the + slightest occasions: hence those many acts of inferiour, + though shocking, barbarity, that have taken place without + any occasion at all: the very slitting<a name= + "FNanchor065"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_065"><sup>[065]</sup></a> of ears has been + considered as an operation, so perfectly devoid of pain, as + to have been performed for no other reason than that for + which a brand is set upon cattle, <i>as a mark of + property</i>. + </p> + <p> + But this is not the only effect, which this severity + produces: for while it hardens their hearts, and makes them + insensible of the misery of their fellow-creatures, it + begets a turn for wanton cruelty. As a proof of this, we + shall mention one, among the many instances that occur, + where ingenuity has been exerted in contriving modes of + torture. "An iron coffin, with holes in it, was kept by a + certain colonist, as an auxiliary to the lash. In this the + poor victim of the master's resentment was inclosed, and + placed sufficiently near a fire, to occasion extreme pain, + and consequently shrieks and groans, until the revenge of + the master was satiated, without any other inconvenience on + his part, than a temporary suspension of the slave's + labour. Had he been flogged to death, or his limbs + mutilated, the interest of the brutal tyrant would have + suffered a more irreparable loss. + </p> + <p> + "In mentioning, this instance, we do not mean to insinuate, + that it is common. We know that it was reprobated by many. + All that we would infer from it is, that where men are + habituated to a system of severity, they become <i>wantonly + cruel</i>, and that the mere toleration of such an + instrument of torture, in any country, is a clear + indication, <i>that this wretched class of men do not there + enjoy the protection of any laws, that may be pretended to + have been enacted in their favour</i>." + </p> + <p> + Such then is the general situation of the unfortunate + Africans. They are beaten and tortured at discretion. They + are badly clothed. They are miserably fed. Their drudgery + is intense and incessant and their rest short. For scarcely + are their heads reclined, scarcely have their bodies a + respite from the labour of the day, or the cruel hand of + the overseer, but they are summoned to renew their sorrows. + In this manner they go on from year to year, in a state of + the lowest degradation, without a single law to protect + them, without the possibility of redress, without a hope + that their situation will be changed, unless death should + terminate the scene. + </p> + <p> + Having described the general situation of these unfortunate + people, we shall now take notice of the common consequences + that are found to attend it, and relate them separately, as + they result either from long and painful <i>labour</i>, a + <i>want</i> of the common necessaries of life, or continual + <i>severity</i>. + </p> + <p> + Oppressed by a daily task of such immoderate labour as + human nature is utterly unable to perform, many of them run + away from their masters. They fly to the recesses of the + mountains, where they choose rather to live upon any thing + that the soil affords them, nay, the very soil itself, than + return to that <i>happy situation</i>, which is represented + by the <i>receivers</i>, as the condition of a slave. + </p> + <p> + It sometimes happens, that the manager of a mountain + plantation, falls in with one of these; he immediately + seizes him, and threatens to carry him to his former + master, unless he will consent to live on the mountain and + cultivate his ground. When his plantation is put in order, + he carries the delinquent home, abandons him to all the + suggestions of despotick rage, and accepts a reward for his + <i>honesty</i>. The unhappy wretch is chained, scourged, + tortured; and all this, because he obeyed the dictates of + nature, and wanted to be free. And who is there, that would + not have done the same thing, in the same situation? Who is + there, that has once known the charms of liberty; that + would not fly from despotism? And yet, by the impious laws + of the <i>receivers</i>, the absence<a name= + "FNanchor066"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_066"><sup>[066]</sup></a> of six months from the + lash of tyranny is-<i>death</i>. + </p> + <p> + But this law is even mild, when compared with another + against the same offence, which was in force sometime ago, + and which we fear is even now in force, in some of those + colonies which this account of the treatment comprehends. + "Advertisements have frequently appeared there, offering a + reward for the apprehending of fugitive slaves either alive + or <i>dead</i>. The following instance was given us by a + person of unquestionable veracity, under whose own + observation it fell. As he was travelling in one of the + colonies alluded to, he observed some people in pursuit of + a poor wretch, who was seeking in the wilderness an asylum + from his labours. He heard the discharge of a gun, and soon + afterwards stopping at an house for refreshment, the head + of the fugitive, still reeking with blood, was brought in + and laid upon a table with exultation. The production of + such a trophy was the proof <i>required by law</i> to + entitle the heroes to their reward." Now reader determine + if you can, who were the most execrable; the rulers of the + state in authorizing murder, or the people in being bribed + to commit it. + </p> + <p> + This is one of the common consequences of that immoderate + share of labour, which is imposed upon them; nor is that, + which is the result of a scanty allowance of food, less to + be lamented. The wretched African is often so deeply + pierced by the excruciating fangs of hunger, as almost to + be driven to despair. What is he to do in such a trying + situation? Let him apply to the <i>receivers</i>. Alas! the + majesty of <i>receivership</i> is too sacred for the + appeal, and the intrusion would be fatal. Thus attacked on + the one hand, and shut out from every possibility of relief + on the other, he has only the choice of being starved, or + of relieving his necessities by taking a small portion of + the fruits of his own labour. Horrid crime! to be found + eating the cane, which probably his own hands have planted, + and to be eating it, because his necessities were pressing! + This crime however is of such a magnitude, as always to be + accompanied with the whip; and so unmercifully has it been + applied on such an occasion, as to have been the cause, in + wet weather, of the delinquent's death. But the smart of + the whip has not been the only pain that the wretched + Africans have experienced. Any thing that passion could + seize, and convert into an instrument of punishment, has + been used; and, horrid to relate! the very knife has not + been overlooked in the fit of phrenzy. Ears have been slit, + eyes have been beaten out, and bones have been broken; and + so frequently has this been the case, that it has been a + matter of constant lamentation with disinterested people, + who out of curiosity have attended the markets<a name= + "FNanchor067"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_067"><sup>[067]</sup></a> to which these unhappy + people weekly resort, that they have not been able to turn + their eyes on any group of them whatever, but they have + beheld these inhuman marks of passion, despotism, and + caprice. + </p> + <p> + But these instances of barbarity have not been able to + deter them from similar proceedings. And indeed, how can it + be expected that they should? They have still the same + appetite to be satisfied as before, and to drive them to + desperation. They creep out clandestinely by night, and go + in search of food into their master's, or some neighbouring + plantation. But here they are almost equally sure of + suffering. The watchman, who will be punished himself, if + he neglects his duty, frequently seizes them in the fact. + No excuse or intreaty will avail; he must punish them for + an example, and he must punish them, not with a stick, nor + with a whip, but with a cutlass. Thus it happens, that + these unhappy slaves, if they are taken, are either sent + away mangled in a barbarous manner, or are killed upon the + spot. + </p> + <p> + We may now mention the consequences of the severity. The + wretched Africans, daily subjected to the lash, and + unmercifully whipt and beaten on every trifling occasion, + have been found to resist their opposers. Unpardonable + crime! that they should have the feelings of nature! that + their breasts should glow with resentment on an injury! + that they should be so far overcome, as to resist those, + whom <i>they are under no obligations to obey</i>, and + whose only title to their services consists in <i>a + violation of the rights of men</i>! What has been the + consequence?-But here let us spare the feelings of the + reader, (we wish we could spare our own) and let us only + say, without a recital of the cruelty, <i>that they have + been murdered at the discretion of their masters</i>. For + let the reader observe, that the life of an African is only + valued at a price, that would scarcely purchase an horse; + that the master has a power of murdering his slave, if he + pays but a trifling fine; and that the murder must be + attended with uncommon circumstances of horrour, if it even + produces an inquiry. + </p> + <p> + Immortal Alfred! father of our invaluable constitution! + parent of the civil blessings we enjoy! how ought thy laws + to excite our love and veneration, who hast forbidden us, + thy posterity, to tremble at the frown of tyrants! how + ought they to perpetuate thy name, as venerable, to the + remotest ages, who has secured, even to the meanest + servant, a fair and impartial trial! How much does nature + approve thy laws, as consistent with her own feelings, + while she absolutely turns pale, trembles, and recoils, at + the institutions of these <i>receivers</i>! Execrable men! + you do not murder the horse, on which you only ride; you do + not mutilate the cow, which only affords you her milk; you + do not torture the dog, which is but a partial servant of + your pleasures: but these unfortunate men, from whom, you + derive your very pleasures and your fortunes, you torture, + mutilate, murder at discretion! Sleep then you + <i>receivers</i>, if you can, while you scarcely allow + these unfortunate people to rest at all! feast if you can, + and indulge your genius, while you daily apply to these + unfortunate people the stings of severity and hunger! exult + in riches, at which even avarice ought to shudder, and, + which humanity must detest! + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_305"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. V.</a> + </h2> + <p> + Some people may suppose, from the melancholy account that + has been given in the preceding chapter, that we have been + absolutely dealing in romance: that the scene exhibited is + rather a dreary picture of the imagination, than a + representation of fact. Would to heaven, for the honour of + human nature, that this were really the case! We wish we + could say, that we have no testimony to produce for any of + our assertions, and that our description of the general + treatment of slaves has been greatly exaggerated. + </p> + <p> + But the <i>receivers</i>, notwithstanding the ample and + disinterested evidence, that can be brought on the + occasion, do not admit the description to be true. They say + first, "that if the slavery were such as has been now + represented, no human being could possibly support it + long." Melancholy truth! the wretched Africans generally + perish in their prime. Let them reflect upon the prodigious + supplies that are <i>annually</i> required, and their + argument will be nothing less than a confession, that the + slavery has been justly depicted. + </p> + <p> + They appeal next to every man's own reason, and desire him + to think seriously, whether "self-interest will not always + restrain the master from acts of cruelty to the slave, and + whether such accounts therefore, as the foregoing, do not + contain within themselves, their own refutation." We + answer, "No." For if this restraining principle be as + powerful as it is imagined, why does not the general + conduct of men afford us a better picture? What is + imprudence, or what is vice, but a departure from every + man's own interest, and yet these are the characteristicks + of more than half the world?- + </p> + <p> + -But, to come more closely to the present case, + <i>self-interest</i> will be found but a weak barrier + against the sallies of <i>passion</i>: particularly where + it has been daily indulged in its greatest latitude, and + there are no laws to restrain its calamitous effects. If + the observation be true, that passion is a short madness, + then it is evident that self-interest, and every other + consideration, must be lost, so long as it continues. We + cannot have a stronger instance of this, than in a + circumstance related in the second part of this Essay, + "that though the Africans have gone to war for the express + purpose of procuring slaves, yet so great has been their + resentment at the resistance they have frequently found, + that their <i>passion</i> has entirely got the better of + their <i>interest</i>, and they have murdered all without + any discrimination, either of age or sex." Such may be + presumed to be the case with the no less savage + <i>receivers</i>. Impressed with the most haughty and + tyrannical notions, easily provoked, accustomed to indulge + their anger, and, above all, habituated to scenes of + cruelty, and unawed by the fear of laws, they will hardly + be found to be exempt from the common failings of human + nature, and to spare an unlucky slave, at a time when men + of cooler temper, and better regulated passions, are so + frequently blind to their own interest. + </p> + <p> + But if <i>passion</i> may be supposed to be generally more + than a ballance for <i>interest</i>, how must the scale be + turned in favour of the melancholy picture exhibited, when + we reflect that <i>self-preservation</i> additionally steps + in, and demands the most <i>rigorous severity</i>. For when + we consider that where there is <i>one</i> master, there + are <i>fifty</i> slaves; that the latter have been all + forcibly torn from their country, and are retained in their + present situation by violence; that they are perpetually at + war in their hearts with their oppressors, and are + continually cherishing the seeds of revenge; it is evident + that even <i>avarice</i> herself, however cool and + deliberate, however free from passion and caprice, must + sacrifice her own sordid feelings, and adopt a system of + tyranny and oppression, which it must be ruinous to pursue. + </p> + <p> + Thus then, if no picture had been drawn of the situation of + slaves, and it had been left solely to every man's sober + judgment to determine, what it might probably be, he would + conclude, that if the situation were justly described, the + page must be frequently stained with acts of uncommon + cruelty. + </p> + <p> + It remains only to make a reply to an objection, that is + usually advanced against particular instances of cruelty to + slaves, as recorded by various writers. It is said that + "some of these are so inconceivably, and beyond all example + inhuman, that their very excess above the common measure of + cruelty shews them at once exaggerated and incredible." But + their credibility shall be estimated by a supposition. Let + us suppose that the following instance had been recorded by + a writer of the highest reputation, "that the master of a + ship, bound to the western colonies with slaves, on a + presumption that many of them would die, selected an + <i>hundred and thirty two</i> of the most sickly, and + ordered them to be thrown into the sea, to recover their + value from the insurers, and, above all, that the fatal + order was put into execution." What would the reader have + thought on the occasion? Would he have believed the fact? + It would have surely staggered his faith; because he could + never have heard that any <i>one</i> man ever was, and + could never have supposed that any <i>one</i> man ever + could be, guilty of the murder of <i>such a number</i> of + his fellow creatures. But when he is informed that such a + fact as this came before a court<a name= + "FNanchor068"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_068"><sup>[068]</sup></a> of justice in this + very country; that it happened within the last five years; + that hundreds can come forwards and say, that they heard + the melancholy evidence with tears; what bounds is he to + place to his belief? The great God, who looks down upon all + his creatures with the same impartial eye, seems to have + infatuated the parties concerned, that they might bring the + horrid circumstance to light, that it might be recorded in + the annals of a publick court, as an authentick specimen of + the treatment which the unfortunate Africans undergo, and + at the same time, as an argument to shew, that there is no + species of cruelty, that is recorded to have been exercised + upon these wretched people, so enormous that it may not + <i>readily be believed</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_306"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. VI.</a> + </h2> + <p> + If the treatment then, as before described, is confirmed by + reason, and the great credit that is due to disinterested + writers on the subject; if the unfortunate Africans are + used, as if their flesh were stone, and their vitals brass; + by what arguments do you <i>receivers</i> defend your + conduct? + </p> + <p> + You say that a great part of your savage treatment consists + in punishment for real offences, and frequently for such + offences, as all civilized nations have concurred in + punishing. The first charge that you exhibit against them + is specifick, it is that of <i>theft</i>. But how much + rather ought you <i>receivers</i> to blush, who reduce them + to such a situation! who reduce them to the dreadful + alternative, that they must either <i>steal</i> or + <i>perish</i>! How much rather ought you <i>receivers</i> + to be considered as <i>robbers</i> yourselves, who cause + these unfortunate people to be <i>stolen</i>! And how much + greater is your crime, who are <i>robbers of human + liberty</i>! + </p> + <p> + The next charge which you exhibit against them, is general, + it is that of <i>rebellion</i>; a crime of such a latitude, + that you can impose it upon almost every action, and of + such a nature, that you always annex to it the most + excruciating pain. But what a contradiction is this to + common sense! Have the wretched Africans formally resigned + their freedom? Have you any other claim upon their + obedience, than that of force? If then they are your + subjects, you violate the laws of government, by making + them unhappy. But if they are not your subjects, then, even + though they should resist your proceedings, they are not + <i>rebellious</i>. + </p> + <p> + But what do you say to that long catalogue of offences, + which you punish, and of which no people but yourselves + take cognizance at all? You say that the wisdom of + legislation has inserted it in the colonial laws, and that + you punish by authority. But do you allude to that + execrable code, that <i>authorises murder</i>? that tempts + an unoffended person to kill the slave, that abhors and + flies your service? that delegates a power, which no host + of men, which not all the world, can possess?- + </p> + <p> + Or,-What do you say to that daily unmerited severity, which + you consider only as common discipline? Here you say that + the Africans are vicious, that they are all of them + ill-disposed, that you must of necessity be severe. But can + they be well-disposed to their oppressors? In their own + country they were just, generous, hospitable: qualities, + which all the African historians allow them eminently to + possess. If then they are vicious, they must have + contracted many of their vices from yourselves; and as to + their own native vices, if any have been imported with + them, are they not amiable, when compared with yours? + </p> + <p> + Thus then do the excuses, which have been hitherto made by + the <i>receivers</i>, force a relation of such + circumstances, as makes their conduct totally inexcusable, + and, instead of diminishing at all, highly aggravates their + guilt. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_307"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. VII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We come now to that other system of reasoning, which is + always applied, when the former is confuted; "that the + Africans are an inferiour link of the chain of nature, and + are made for slavery." + </p> + <p> + This assertion is proved by two arguments; the first of + which was advanced also by the ancients, and is drawn from + the <i>inferiority of their capacities</i>. + </p> + <p> + Let us allow then for a moment, that they appear to have no + parts, that they appear to be void of understanding. And is + this wonderful, when, you <i>receivers</i> depress their + senses by hunger? Is this wonderful, when by incessant + labour, the continual application of the lash, and the most + inhuman treatment that imagination can devise, you + overwhelm their genius, and hinder it from breaking + forth?-No,-You confound their abilities by the severity of + their servitude: for as a spark of fire, if crushed by too + great a weight of incumbent fuel, cannot be blown into a + flame, but suddenly expires, so the human mind, if + depressed by rigorous servitude, cannot be excited to a + display of those faculties, which might otherwise have + shone with the brightest lustre. + </p> + <p> + Neither is it wonderful in another point of view. For what + is it that awakens the abilities of men, and distinguishes + them from the common herd? Is it not often the amiable hope + of becoming serviceable to individuals, or the state? Is it + not often the hope of riches, or of power? Is it not + frequently the hope of temporary honours, or a lasting + fame? These principles have all a wonderful effect upon the + mind. They call upon it to exert its faculties, and bring + those talents to the publick view, which had otherwise been + concealed. But the unfortunate Africans have no such + incitements as these, that they should shew their genius. + They have no hope of riches, power, honours, fame. They + have no hope but this, that their miseries will be soon + terminated by death. + </p> + <p> + And here we cannot but censure and expose the murmurings of + the unthinking and the gay; who, going on in a continual + round of pleasure and prosperity, repine at the will of + Providence, as exhibited in the shortness of human + duration. But let a weak and infirm old age overtake them: + let them experience calamities: let them feel but half the + miseries which the wretched Africans undergo, and they will + praise the goodness of Providence, who hath made them + mortal; who hath prescribed certain ordinary bounds to the + life of man; and who, by such a limitation, hath given all + men this comfortable hope, that however persecuted in life, + a time will come, in the common course of nature, when + their sufferings will have an end. + </p> + <p> + Such then is the nature of this servitude, that we can + hardly expect to find in those, who undergo it, even the + glimpse of genius. For if their minds are in a continual + state of depression, and if they have no expectations in + life to awaken their abilities, and make them eminent, we + cannot be surprized if a sullen gloomy stupidity should be + the leading mark in their character; or if they should + appear inferiour to those, who do not only enjoy the + invaluable blessings of freedom, but have every prospect + before their eyes, that can allure them to exert their + faculties. Now, if to these considerations we add, that the + wretched Africans are torn from their country in a state of + nature, and that in general, as long as their slavery + continues, every obstacle is placed in the way of their + improvement, we shall have a sufficient answer to any + argument that may be drawn from the inferiority of their + capacities. + </p> + <p> + It appears then, from the circumstances that have been + mentioned, that to form a true judgment of the abilities of + these unfortunate people, we must either take a general + view of them before their slavery commences, or confine our + attention to such, as, after it has commenced, have had any + opportunity given them of shewing their genius either in + arts or letters. If, upon such a fair and impartial view, + there should be any reason to suppose, that they are at all + inferiour to others in the same situation, the argument + will then gain some of that weight and importance, which it + wants at present. + </p> + <p> + In their own country, where we are to see them first, we + must expect that the prospect will be unfavourable. They + are mostly in a savage state. Their powers of mind are + limited to few objects. Their ideas are consequently few. + It appears, however, that they follow the same mode of + life, and exercise the same arts, as the ancestors of those + very Europeans, who boast of their great superiority, are + described to have done in the same uncultivated state. This + appears from the Nubian's Geography, the writings of Leo, + the Moor, and all the subsequent histories, which those, + who have visited the African continent, have written from + their own inspection. Hence three conclusions; that their + abilities are sufficient for their situation;-that they are + as great, as those of other people have been, in the same + stage of society;-and that they are as great as those of + any civilized people whatever, when the degree of the + barbarism of the one is drawn into a comparison with that + of the civilization of the other. + </p> + <p> + Let us now follow them to the colonies. They are carried + over in the unfavourable situation described. It is + observed here, that though their abilities cannot be + estimated high from a want of cultivation, they are yet + various, and that they vary in proportion as the nation, + from which they have been brought, has advanced more or + less in the scale of social life. This observation, which + is so frequently made, is of great importance: for if their + abilities expand in proportion to the improvement of their + state, it is a clear indication, that if they were equally + improved, they would be equally ingenious. + </p> + <p> + But here, before we consider any opportunities that may be + afforded them, let it be remembered that even their most + polished situation may be called barbarous, and that this + circumstance, should they appear less docile than others, + may be considered as a sufficient answer to any objection + that may be made to their capacities. Notwithstanding this, + when they are put to the mechanical arts, they do not + discover a want of ingenuity. They attain them in as short + a time as the Europeans, and arrive at a degree of + excellence equal to that of their teachers. This is a fact, + almost universally known, and affords us this proof, that + having learned with facility such of the mechanical arts, + as they have been taught, they are capable of attaining any + other, at least, of the same class, if they should receive + but the same instruction. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the liberal arts, their proficiency is + certainly less; but not less in proportion to their time + and opportunity of study; not less, because they are less + capable of attaining them, but because they have seldom or + ever an opportunity of learning them at all. It is yet + extraordinary that their talents appear, even in some of + these sciences, in which they are totally uninstructed. + Their abilities in musick are such, as to have been + generally noticed. They play frequently upon a variety of + instruments, without any other assistance than their own + ingenuity. They have also tunes of their own composition. + Some of these have been imported among us; are now in use; + and are admired for their sprightliness and ease, though + the ungenerous and prejudiced importer has concealed their + original. + </p> + <p> + Neither are their talents in poetry less conspicuous. Every + occurrence, if their spirits are not too greatly depressed, + is turned into a song. These songs are said to be + incoherent and nonsensical. But this proceeds principally + from two causes, an improper conjunction of words, arising + from an ignorance of the language in which they compose; + and a wildness of thought, arising from the different + manner, in which the organs of rude and civilized people + will be struck by the same object. And as to their want of + harmony and rhyme, which is the last objection, the + difference of pronunciation is the cause. Upon the whole, + as they are perfectly consistent with their own ideas, and + are strictly musical as pronounced by themselves, they + afford us as high a proof of their poetical powers, as the + works of the most acknowledged poets. + </p> + <p> + But where these impediments have been removed, where they + have received an education, and have known and pronounced + the language with propriety, these defects have vanished, + and their productions have been less objectionable. For a + proof of this, we appeal to the writings of an African + girl,<a name="FNanchor069"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_069"><sup>[069]</sup></a> who made no + contemptible appearance in this species of composition. She + was kidnapped when only eight years old, and, in the year + 1761, was transported to America, where she was sold with + other slaves. She had no school education there, but + receiving some little instruction from the family, with + whom she was so fortunate as to live, she obtained such a + knowledge of the English language within sixteen months + from the time of her arrival, as to be able to speak it and + read it to the astonishment of those who heard her. She + soon afterwards learned to write, and, having a great + inclination to learn the Latin tongue, she was indulged by + her master, and made a progress. Her Poetical works were + published with his permission, in the year 1773. They + contain thirty-eight pieces on different subjects. We shall + beg leave to make a short extract from two or three of + them, for the observation of the reader. + </p> + <br> + <div class="c1"> + <blockquote> + <b>From an Hymn to the Evening</b>.<a name= + "FNanchor070"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_070"><sup>[070]</sup></a><br> + <br> + "Fill'd with the praise of him who gives the light,<br> + And draws the sable curtains of the night,<br> + Let placid slumbers sooth each weary mind,<br> + At morn to wake more heav'nly and refin'd;<br> + So shall the labours of the day begin,<br> + More pure and guarded from the snares of sin.<br> + - - &c. &c."<br> + </blockquote> + </div> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <br> + <div class="c1"> + <blockquote> + <b>From an Hymn to the Morning</b>.<br> + <br> + "Aurora hail! and all the thousand dies,<br> + That deck thy progress through the vaulted skies!<br> + The morn awakes, and wide extends her rays,<br> + On ev'ry leaf the gentle zephyr plays.<br> + Harmonious lays the feather'd race resume,<br> + Dart the bright eye, and shake the painted plume.<br> + - - &c. &c."<br> + </blockquote> + </div> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <br> + <div class="c1"> + <blockquote> + <b>From Thoughts on Imagination</b>.<br> + <br> + "Now here, now there, the roving <i>fancy</i> flies,<br> + Till some lov'd object strikes her wand'ring eyes,<br> + Whose silken fetters all the senses bind,<br> + And soft captivity involves the mind.<br> + <br> + "<i>Imagination!</i> who can sing thy force,<br> + Or who describe the swiftness of thy course?<br> + Soaring through air to find the bright abode,<br> + Th' empyreal palace of the thund'ring God,<br> + We on thy pinions can surpass the wind,<br> + And leave the rolling universe behind:<br> + From star to star the mental opticks rove,<br> + Measure the skies, and range the realms above.<br> + There in one view we grasp the mighty whole,<br> + Or with new worlds amaze th' unbounded soul.<br> + - - &c. &c."<br> + </blockquote> + </div> + <br> + <hr class="c4"> + <br> + <br> + + <p> + Such is the poetry which we produce as a proof of our + assertions. How far it has succeeded, the reader may by + this time have determined in his own mind. We shall + therefore only beg leave to accompany it with this + observation, that if the authoress <i>was designed for + slavery</i>, (as the argument must confess) the greater + part of the inhabitants of Britain must lose their claim to + freedom. + </p> + <p> + To this poetry we shall only add, as a farther proof of + their abilities, the Prose compositions of Ignatius Sancho, + who received some little education. His letters are too + well known, to make any extract, or indeed any farther + mention of him, necessary. If other examples of African + genius should be required, suffice it to say, that they can + be produced in abundance; and that if we were allowed to + enumerate instances of African gratitude, patience, + fidelity, honour, as so many instances of good sense, and a + sound understanding, we fear that thousands of the + enlightened Europeans would have occasion to blush. + </p> + <p> + But an objection will be made here, that the two persons + whom we have particularized by name, are prodigies, and + that if we were to live for many years, we should scarcely + meet with two other Africans of the same description. But + we reply, that considering their situation as before + described, two persons, above mediocrity in the literary + way, are as many as can be expected within a certain period + of years; and farther, that if these are prodigies, they + are only such prodigies as every day would produce, if they + had the same opportunities of acquiring knowledge as other + people, and the same expectations in life to excite their + genius. This has been constantly and solemnly asserted by + the pious Benezet,<a name="FNanchor071"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_071"><sup>[071]</sup></a> whom we have + mentioned before, as having devoted a considerable part of + his time to their instruction. This great man, for we + cannot but mention him with veneration, had a better + opportunity of knowing them than any person whatever, and + he always uniformly declared, that he could never find a + difference between their capacities and those of other + people; that they were as capable of reasoning as any + individual Europeans; that they were as capable of the + highest intellectual attainments; in short, that their + abilities were equal, and that they only wanted to be + equally cultivated, to afford specimens of as fine + productions. + </p> + <p> + Thus then does it appear from the testimony of this + venerable man, whose authority is sufficient of itself to + silence all objections against African capacity, and from + the instances that have been produced, and the observations + that have been made on the occasion, that if the minds of + the Africans were unbroken by slavery; if they had the same + expectations in life as other people, and the same + opportunities of improvement, they would be equal; in all + the various branches of science, to the Europeans, and that + the argument that states them "to be an inferiour link of + the chain of nature, and designed for servitude," as far as + it depends on the <i>inferiority of their capacities</i>, + is wholly malevolent and false.<a name="FNanchor072"></a><a + href="#Footnote_072"><sup>[072]</sup></a> + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_308"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. VIII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + The second argument, by which it is attempted to be proved, + "that the Africans are an inferiour link of the chain of + nature, and are designed for slavery," is drawn from + <i>colour</i>, and from those other marks, which + distinguish them from the inhabitants of Europe. + </p> + <p> + To prove this with the greater facility, the + <i>receivers</i> divide in opinion. Some of them contend + that the Africans, from these circumstances, are the + descendants of Cain:<a name="FNanchor073"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_073"><sup>[073]</sup></a> others, that they are + the posterity of Ham; and that as it was declared by divine + inspiration, that these should be servants to the rest of + the world, so they are designed for slavery; and that the + reducing of them to such a situation is only the + accomplishment of the will of heaven: while the rest, + considering them from the same circumstances as a totally + distinct species of men, conclude them to be an inferiour + link of the chain of nature, and deduce the inference + described. + </p> + <p> + To answer these arguments in the clearest and fullest + manner, we are under the necessity of making two + suppositions, first, that the scriptures are true; + secondly, that they are false. + </p> + <p> + If then the scriptures are true, it is evident that the + posterity of Cain were extinguished in the flood. Thus one + of the arguments is no more. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the curse of Ham, it appears also that it + was limited; that it did not extend to the posterity of all + his sons, but only to the descendants of him who was called + Canaan:<a name="FNanchor074"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_074"><sup>[074]</sup></a> by which it was + foretold that the Canaanites, a part of the posterity of + Ham, should serve the posterity of Shem and Japhet. Now how + does it appear that these wretched Africans are the + descendants of Canaan?-By those marks, it will be said, + which distinguish them from the rest of the world.-But + where are these marks to be found in the divine writings? + In what page is it said, that the Canaanites were to be + known by their <i>colour</i>, their <i>features</i>, their + <i>form</i>, or the very <i>hair of their heads</i>, which + is brought into the account?-But alas! so far are the + divine writings from giving any such account, that they + shew the assertion to be false. They shew that the + descendants of Cush<a name="FNanchor075"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_075"><sup>[075]</sup></a> were of the colour, to + which the advocates for slavery allude; and of course, that + there was no such limitation of colour to the posterity of + Canaan, or the inheritors of the curse. + </p> + <p> + Suppose we should now shew, upon the most undeniable + evidence,<a name="FNanchor076"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_076"><sup>[076]</sup></a> that those of the + wretched Africans, who are singled out as inheriting the + curse, are the descendants of Cush or Phut; and that we + should shew farther, that but a single remnant of Canaan, + which was afterwards ruined, was ever in Africa at + all.-Here all is consternation.- + </p> + <p> + But unfortunately again for the argument, though + wonderfully for the confirmation that the scriptures are of + divine original, the whole prophecy has been completed. A + part of the descendants of Canaan were hewers of wood and + drawers of water, and became tributary and subject to the + Israelites, or the descendants of Shem. The Greeks + afterwards, as well as the Romans, who were both the + descendants of Japhet, not only subdued those who were + settled in Syria and Palestine, but pursued and conquered + all such as were then remaining. These were the Tyrians and + Carthaginians: the former of whom were ruined by Alexander + and the Greeks, the latter by Scipio and the Romans. + </p> + <p> + It appears then that the second argument is wholly + inapplicable and false: that it is false in its + <i>application</i>, because those, who were the objects of + the curse, were a totally distinct people: that it is false + in its <i>proof</i>, because no such distinguishing marks, + as have been specified, are to be found in the divine + writings: and that, if the proof could be made out, it + would be now <i>inapplicable</i>, as the curse has been + long completed. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the third argument, we must now suppose + that the scriptures are false; that mankind did not all + spring from the same original; that there are different + species of men. Now what must we justly conclude from such + a supposition? Must we conclude that one species is + inferiour to another, and that the inferiority depends upon + their <i>colour</i>, or their <i>features</i>, or their + <i>form</i>?-No-We must now consult the analogy of nature, + and the conclusion will be this: "that as she tempered the + bodies of the different species of men in a different + degree, to enable them to endure the respective climates of + their habitation, so she gave them a variety of colour and + appearance with a like benevolent design." + </p> + <p> + To sum up the whole. If the scriptures are true, it is + evident that the posterity of <i>Cain</i> are no more; that + the curse of <i>Ham</i> has been accomplished; and that, as + all men were derived from the same stock, so this variety + of appearance in men must either have proceeded from some + interposition of the Deity; or from a co-operation of + certain causes, which have an effect upon the human frame, + and have the power of changing it more or less from its + primitive appearance, as they happen to be more or less + numerous or powerful than those, which acted upon the frame + of man in the first seat of his habitation. If from the + interposition of the Deity, then we must conclude that he, + who bringeth good out of evil, produced it for their + convenience. If, from the co-operation of the causes before + related, what argument may not be found against any society + of men, who should happen to differ, in the points alluded + to, from ourselves? + </p> + <p> + If, on the other hand, the scriptures are false, then it is + evident, that there was neither such a person as + <i>Cain</i>, nor <i>Ham</i>, nor <i>Canaan</i>; and that + nature bestowed such colour, features, and form, upon the + different species of men, as were best adapted to their + situation. + </p> + <p> + Thus, on which ever supposition it is founded, the whole + argument must fall. And indeed it is impossible that it can + stand, even in the eye of common sense. For if you admit + the <i>form</i> of men as a justification of slavery, you + may subjugate your own brother: if <i>features</i>, then + you must quarrel with all the world: if <i>colour</i>, + where are you to stop? It is evident, that if you travel + from the equator to the northern pole, you will find a + regular gradation of colour from black to white. Now if you + can justly take him for your slave, who is of the deepest + die, what hinders you from taking him also, who only + differs from the former but by a shade. Thus you may + proceed, taking each in a regular succession to the poles. + But who are you, that thus take into slavery so many + people? Where do you live yourself? Do you live in + <i>Spain</i>, or in <i>France</i>, or in <i>Britain</i>? If + in either of these countries, take care lest the <i>whiter + natives of the north</i> should have a claim upon + yourself.-But the argument is too ridiculous to be farther + noticed. + </p> + <p> + Having now silenced the whole argument, we might + immediately proceed to the discussion of other points, + without even declaring our opinion as to which of the + suppositions may be right, on which it has been refuted; + but we do not think ourselves at liberty to do this. The + present age would rejoice to find that the scriptures had + no foundation, and would anxiously catch at the writings of + him, who should mention them in a doubtful manner. We shall + therefore declare our sentiments, by asserting that they + are true, and that all mankind, however various their + appearances are derived from the same stock. + </p> + <p> + To prove this, we shall not produce those innumerable + arguments, by which the scriptures have stood the test of + ages, but advert to a single fact. It is an universal law, + observable throughout the whole creation, <i>that if two + animals of a different species propagate, their offspring + is unable to continue its own species</i>. By this + admirable law, the different species are preserved + distinct; every possibility of confusion is prevented, and + the world is forbidden to be over-run by a race of + monsters. Now, if we apply this law to those of the human + kind, who are said to be of a distinct species from each + other, it immediately fails. The <i>mulattoe</i> is as + capable of continuing his own species as his father; a + clear and irrefragable proof, that the scripture<a name= + "FNanchor077"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_077"><sup>[077]</sup></a> account of the + creation is true, and that "God, who hath made the world, + hath made of one blood<a name="FNanchor078"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_078"><sup>[078]</sup></a> all the nations of men + that dwell on all the face of the earth." + </p> + <p> + But if this be the case, it will be said that mankind were + originally of one colour; and it will be asked at the same + time, what it is probable that the colour was, and how they + came to assume so various an appearance? To, each of these + we shall make that reply, which we conceive to be the most + rational. + </p> + <p> + As mankind were originally of the same stock, so it is + evident that they were originally of the same colour. But + how shall we attempt to ascertain it? Shall we + <i>Englishmen</i> say, that it was the same as that which + we now find to be peculiar to ourselves?-No-This would be a + vain and partial consideration, and would betray our + judgment to have arisen from that false fondness, which + habituates us to suppose, that every thing belonging to + ourselves is the perfectest and the best. Add to this, that + we should always be liable to a just reproof from every + inhabitant of the globe, whose colour was different from + our own; because he would justly say, that he had as good a + right to imagine that his own was the primitive colour, as + that of any other people. + </p> + <p> + How then shall we attempt to ascertain it? Shall we look + into the various climates of the earth, see the colour that + generally prevails in the inhabitants of each, and apply + the rule? This will be certainly free from partiality, and + will afford us a better prospect of success: for as every + particular district has its particular colour, so it is + evident that the complexion of Noah and his sons, from whom + the rest of the world were descended, was the same as that, + which is peculiar to the country, which was the seat of + their habitation. This, by such a mode of decision, will be + found a dark olive; a beautiful colour, and a just medium + between white and black. That this was the primitive + colour, is highly probable from the observations that have + been made; and, if admitted, will afford a valuable lesson + to the Europeans, to be cautious how they deride those of + the opposite complexion, as there is great reason to + presume, <i>that the purest white</i><a name= + "FNanchor079"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_079"><sup>[079]</sup></a> <i>is as far removed + from the primitive colour as the deepest black</i>. + </p> + <p> + We come now to the grand question, which is, that if + mankind were originally of this or any other colour, how + came it to pass, that they should wear so various an + appearance? We reply, as we have had occasion to say + before, either <i>by the interposition of the Deity</i>; or + <i>by a co-operation of certain causes, which have an + effect upon the human frame, and have the power of changing + it more or less from its primitive appearance, as they are + more or less numerous or powerful than those, which acted + upon the frame of man in the first seat of his + habitation</i>. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the Divine interposition, two epochs have + been assigned, when this difference of colour has been + imagined to have been so produced. The first is that, which + has been related, when the curse was pronounced on a branch + of the posterity of <i>Ham</i>. But this argument has been + already refuted; for if the particular colour alluded to + were assigned at this period, it was assigned to the + descendants of <i>Canaan</i>, to distinguish them from + those of his other brothers, and was therefore + <i>limited</i> to the former. But the descendants of + <i>Cush</i>,<a name="FNanchor080"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_080"><sup>[080]</sup></a> as we have shewn + before, partook of the same colour; a clear proof, that it + was neither assigned to them on this occasion, nor at this + period. + </p> + <p> + The second epoch is that, when mankind were dispersed on + the building of <i>Babel</i>. It has been thought, that + both <i>national features and colour</i> might probably + have been given them at this time, because these would have + assisted the confusion of language, by causing them to + disperse into tribes, and would have united more firmly the + individuals of each, after the dispersion had taken place. + But this is improbable: first, because there is great + reason to presume that Moses, who has mentioned the + confusion of language, would have mentioned these + circumstances also, if they had actually contributed to + bring about so singular an event: secondly, because the + confusion of language was sufficient of itself to have + accomplished this; and we cannot suppose that the Deity + could have done any thing in vain: and thirdly, because, if + mankind had been dispersed, each tribe in its peculiar hue, + it is impossible to conceive, that they could have wandered + and settled in such a manner, as to exhibit that regular + gradation of colour from the equator to the poles, so + conspicuous at the present day. + </p> + <p> + These are the only periods, which there has been even the + shadow of a probability for assigning; and we may therefore + conclude that the preceding observations, together with + such circumstances as will appear in the present chapter, + will amount to a demonstration, that the difference of + colour was never caused by any interposition of the Deity, + and that it must have proceeded therefore from that + <i>incidental co-operation of causes</i>, which has been + before related. + </p> + <p> + What these causes are, it is out of the power of human + wisdom positively to assert: there are facts, however, + which, if properly weighed and put together, will throw + considerable light upon the subject. These we shall submit + to the perusal of the reader, and shall deduce from them + such inferences only, as almost every person must make in + his own mind, on their recital. + </p> + <p> + The first point, that occurs to be ascertained, is, "What + part of the skin is the seat of colour?" The old anatomists + usually divided the skin into two parts, or lamina; the + exteriour and thinnest, called by the Greeks + <i>Epidermis</i>, by the Romans <i>Cuticula</i>, and hence + by us <i>Cuticle</i>; and the interiour, called by the + former <i>Derma</i>, and by the latter <i>Cutis</i>, or + <i>true skin</i>. Hence they must necessarily have + supposed, that, as the <i>true skin</i> was in every + respect the same in all human subjects, however various + their external hue, so the seat of colour must have existed + in the <i>Cuticle</i>, or upper surface. + </p> + <p> + Malphigi, an eminent Italian physician, of the last + century, was the first person who discovered that the skin + was divided into three lamina, or parts; the + <i>Cuticle</i>, the <i>true skin</i>, and a certain + coagulated substance situated between both, which he + distinguished by the title of <i>Mucosum Corpus</i>; a + title retained by anatomists to the present day: which + coagulated substance adhered so firmly to the + <i>Cuticle</i>, as, in all former anatomical preparations, + to have come off with it, and, from this circumstance to + have led the ancient anatomists to believe, that there were + but two lamina, or divisible portions in the human skin. + </p> + <p> + This discovery was sufficient to ascertain the point in + question: for it appeared afterwards that the + <i>Cuticle</i>, when divided according to this discovery + from the other lamina, was semi-transparent; that the + cuticle of the blackest negroe was of the same transparency + and colour, as that of the purest white; and hence, the + <i>true skins</i> of both being invariably the same, that + the <i>mucosum corpus</i> was the seat of colour. + </p> + <p> + This has been farther confirmed by all subsequent + anatomical experiments, by which it appears, that, whatever + is the colour of this intermediate coagulated substance, + nearly the same is the apparent colour of the upper surface + of the skin. Neither can it be otherwise; for the + <i>Cuticle</i>, from its transparency, must necessarily + transmit the colour of the substance beneath it, in the + same manner, though not in the same degree, as the + <i>cornea</i> transmits the colour of the <i>iris</i> of + the eye. This transparency is a matter of ocular + demonstration in white people. It is conspicuous in every + blush; for no one can imagine, that the cuticle becomes + red, as often as this happens: nor is it less discoverable + in the veins, which are so easy to be discerned; for no one + can suppose, that the blue streaks, which he constantly + sees in the fairest complexions, are painted, as it were, + on the surface of the upper skin. From these, and a variety + of other observations,<a name="FNanchor081"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_081"><sup>[081]</sup></a> no maxim is more true + in physiology, than that <i>on the mucosum corpus depends + the colour of the human body</i>; or, in other words, that + the <i>mucosum corpus</i> being of a different colour in + different inhabitants of the globe, and appearing through + the cuticle or upper surface of the skin, gives them that + various appearance, which strikes us so forcibly in + contemplating the human race. + </p> + <p> + As this can be incontrovertibly ascertained, it is evident, + that whatever causes cooperate in producing this different + appearance, they produce it by acting upon the <i>mucosum + corpus</i>, which, from the almost incredible manner in + which the cuticle<a name="FNanchor082"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_082"><sup>[082]</sup></a> is perforated, is as + accessible as the cuticle itself. These causes are probably + those various qualities of things, which, combined with the + influence of the sun, contribute to form what we call + <i>climate</i>. For when any person considers, that the + mucous substance, before-mentioned, is found to vary in its + colour, as the <i>climates</i> vary from the equator to the + poles, his mind must be instantly struck with the + hypothesis, and he must adopt it without any hesitation, as + the genuine cause of the phænomenon. + </p> + <p> + This fact,<a name="FNanchor083"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_083"><sup>[083]</sup></a> <i>of the variation + of the mucous substance according to the situation of the + place</i>, has been clearly ascertained in the numerous + anatomical experiments that have been made; in which, + subjects of all nations have come under consideration. The + natives of many of the kingdoms and isles of <i>Asia</i>, + are found to have their <i>corpus mucosum</i> black. Those + of <i>Africa</i>, situated near the line, of the same + colour. Those of the maritime parts of the same continent, + of a dusky brown, nearly approaching to it; and the colour + becomes lighter or darker in proportion as the distance + from the equator is either greater or less. The Europeans + are the fairest inhabitants of the world. Those situated in + the most southern regions of <i>Europe</i>, have in their + <i>corpus mucosum</i> a tinge of the dark hue of their + <i>African</i> neighbours: hence the epidemick complexion, + prevalent among them, is nearly of the colour of the + pickled Spanish olive; while in this country, and those + situated nearer the north pole, it appears to be nearly, if + not absolutely, white. + </p> + <p> + These are facts,<a name="FNanchor084"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_084"><sup>[084]</sup></a> which anatomy has + established; and we acknowledge them to be such, that we + cannot divest ourselves of the idea, that <i>climate</i> + has a considerable share in producing a difference of + colour. Others, we know, have invented other hypotheses, + but all of them have been instantly refuted, as unable to + explain the difficulties for which they were advanced, and + as absolutely contrary to fact: and the inventors + themselves have been obliged, almost as soon as they have + proposed them, to acknowledge them deficient. + </p> + <p> + The only objection of any consequence, that has ever been + made to the hypothesis of <i>climate</i>, is this, <i>that + people under the same parallels are not exactly of the same + colour</i>. But this is no objection in fact: for it does + not follow that those countries, which are at an equal + distance from the equator, should have their climates the + same. Indeed nothing is more contrary to experience than + this. Climate depends upon a variety of accidents. High + mountains, in the neighbourhood of a place, make it cooler, + by chilling the air that is carried over them by the winds. + Large spreading succulent plants, if among the productions + of the soil, have the same effect: they afford agreeable + cooling shades, and a moist atmosphere from their continual + exhalations, by which the ardour of the sun is considerably + abated. While the soil, on the other hand, if of a sandy + nature, retains the heat in an uncommon degree, and makes + the summers considerably hotter than those which are found + to exist in the same latitude, where the soil is different. + To this proximity of what may be termed <i>burning + sands</i>, and to the sulphurous and metallick particles, + which are continually exhaling from the bowels of the + earth, is ascribed the different degree of blackness, by + which some <i>African</i> nations are distinguishable from + each other, though under the same parallels. To these + observations we may add, that though the inhabitants of the + same parallel are not exactly of the same hue, yet they + differ only by shades of the same colour; or, to speak with + more precision, that there are no two people, in such a + situation, one of whom is white, and the other black. To + sum up the whole-Suppose we were to take a common globe; to + begin at the equator; to paint every country along the + meridian line in succession from thence to the poles; and + to paint them with the same colour which prevails in the + respective inhabitants of each, we should see the black, + with which we had been obliged to begin, insensibly + changing to an olive, and the olive, through as many + intermediate colours, to a white: and if, on the other + hand, we should complete any one of the parallels according + to the same plan, we should see a difference perhaps in the + appearance of some of the countries through which it ran, + though the difference would consist wholly in shades of the + same colour. + </p> + <p> + The argument therefore, which is brought against the + hypothesis, is so far from being, an objection, that we + shall consider it one of the first arguments in its favour: + for if <i>climate</i> has really an influence on the + <i>mucous substance</i> of the body, it is evident, that we + must not only expect to see a gradation of colour in the + inhabitants from the equator to the poles, but also + different<a name="FNanchor085"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_085"><sup>[085]</sup></a> shades of the same + colour in the inhabitants of the same parallel. + </p> + <p> + To this argument, we shall add one that is + incontrovertible, which is, that when the <i>black</i> + inhabitants of <i>Africa</i> are transplanted to + <i>colder</i>, or the <i>white</i> inhabitants of + <i>Europe</i> to <i>hotter</i> climates, their children, + <i>born there</i>, are of a <i>different colour from + themselves</i>; that is, lighter in the first, and darker + in the second instance. + </p> + <p> + As a proof of the first, we shall give the words of the + Abbé Raynal,<a name="FNanchor086"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_086"><sup>[086]</sup></a> in his admired + publication. "The children," says he, "which they, (the + <i>Africans</i>) procreate in <i>America</i>, are not so + black as their parents were. After each generation the + difference becomes more palpable. It is possible, that + after a numerous succession of generations, the men come + from <i>Africa</i> would not be distinguished from those of + the country, into which they may have been transplanted." + </p> + <p> + This circumstance we have had the pleasure of hearing + confirmed by a variety of persons, who have been witnesses + of the fact; but particularly by many intelligent<a name= + "FNanchor087"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_087"><sup>[087]</sup></a> Africans, who have + been parents themselves in <i>America</i>, and who have + declared that the difference is so palpable in the + <i>northern provinces</i>, that not only they themselves + have constantly observed it, but that they have heard it + observed by others. + </p> + <p> + Neither is this variation in the children from the colour + of their parents improbable. <i>The children of the + blackest Africans are born white.</i><a name= + "FNanchor088"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_088"><sup>[088]</sup></a> In this state they + continue for about a month, when they change to a pale + yellow. In process of time they become brown. Their skin + still continues to increase in darkness with their age, + till it becomes of a dirty, sallow black, and at length, + after a certain period of years, glossy and shining. Now, + if climate has any influence on the <i>mucous substance</i> + of the body, this variation in the children from the colour + of their parents is an event, which must be reasonably + expected: for being born white, and not having equally + powerful causes to act upon them in colder, as their + parents had in the hotter climates which they left, it must + necessarily follow, that the same affect cannot possibly be + produced. + </p> + <p> + Hence also, if the hypothesis be admitted, may be deduced + the reason, why even those children, who have been brought + from their country at an early age into colder regions, + have been observed<a name="FNanchor089"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_089"><sup>[089]</sup></a> to be of a lighter + colour than those who have remained at home till they + arrived at a state of manhood. For having undergone some of + the changes which we mentioned to have attended their + countrymen from infancy to a certain age, and having been + taken away before the rest could be completed, these + farther changes, which would have taken place had they + remained at home, seem either to have been checked in their + progress, or weakened in their degree, by a colder climate. + </p> + <p> + We come now to the second and opposite case; for a proof of + which we shall appeal to the words of Dr. Mitchell,<a name= + "FNanchor090"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_090"><sup>[090]</sup></a> in the Philosophical + Transactions. "The <i>Spaniards</i> who have inhabited + <i>America</i> under the torrid zone for any time, are + become as dark coloured as our native <i>Indians</i> of + <i>Virginia</i>, of which, <i>I myself have been a + witness</i>; and were they not to intermarry with the + <i>Europeans</i>, but lead the same rude and barbarous + lives with the <i>Indians</i>, it is very probable that, in + a succession of many generations, they would become as dark + in complexion." + </p> + <p> + To this instance we shall add one, which is mentioned by a + late writer,<a name="FNanchor091"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_091"><sup>[091]</sup></a> who describing the + <i>African</i> coast, and the <i>European</i> settlements + there, has the following passage. "There are several other + small <i>Portuguese</i> settlements, and one of some note + at <i>Mitomba</i>, a river in <i>Sierra Leon</i>. The + people here called <i>Portuguese</i>, are principally + persons bred from a mixture of the first <i>Portuguese + discoverers</i> with the natives, and now become, in their + <i>complexion</i> and <i>woolly quality</i> of their hair, + <i>perfect negroes</i>, retaining however a smattering of + the <i>Portuguese</i> language." + </p> + <p> + These facts, with respect to the colonists of the + <i>Europeans</i>, are of the highest importance in the + present case, and deserve a serious attention. For when we + know to a certainty from whom they are descended; when we + know that they were, at the time of their transplantation, + of the same colour as those from whom they severally + sprung; and when, on the other hand, we are credibly + informed, that they have changed it for the native colour + of the place which they now inhabit; the evidence in + support of these facts is as great, as if a person, on the + removal of two or three families into another climate, had + determined to ascertain the circumstance; as if he had gone + with them and watched their children; as if he had + communicated his observations at his death to a successor; + as if his successor had prosecuted the plan, and thus an + uninterrupted chain of evidence had been kept up from their + first removal to any determined period of succeeding time. + </p> + <p> + But though these facts seem sufficient of themselves to + confirm our opinion, they are not the only facts which can + be adduced in its support. It can be shewn, that the + members of the <i>very same family</i>, when divided from + each other, and removed into different countries, have not + only changed their family complexion, but that they have + changed it to <i>as many different colours</i> as they have + gone into <i>different regions of the world</i>. We cannot + have, perhaps, a more striking instance of this, than in + the <i>Jews</i>. These people, are scattered over the face + of the whole earth. They have preserved themselves distinct + from the rest of the world by their religion; and, as they + never intermarry with any but those of their own sect, so + they have no mixture of blood in their veins, that they + should differ from each other: and yet nothing is more + true, than that the <i>English Jew</i><a name= + "FNanchor092"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_092"><sup>[092]</sup></a> is white, the + <i>Portuguese</i> swarthy, the <i>Armenian</i> olive, and + the <i>Arabian</i> copper; in short, that there appear to + be as many different species of <i>Jews</i>, as there are + countries in which they reside. + </p> + <p> + To these facts we shall add the following observation, that + if we can give credit to the ancient historians in general, + a change from the darkest black to the purest white must + have actually been accomplished. One instance, perhaps, may + be thought sufficient. <i>Herodotus</i><a name= + "FNanchor093"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_093"><sup>[093]</sup></a> relates, that the + <i>Colchi were black</i>, and that they had <i>crisped + hair</i>. These people were a detachment of the + <i>Æthiopian</i> army under <i>Sesostris</i>, who + followed him in his expedition, and settled in that part of + the world, where <i>Colchis</i> is usually represented to + have been situated. Had not the same author informed us of + this circumstance, we should have thought it strange<a name= + "FNanchor094">, </a><a href="#Footnote_094"><sup>[094]</sup></a> + that a people of this + description should have been found in such a latitude. Now + as they were undoubtedly settled there, and as they were + neither so totally destroyed, nor made any such rapid + conquests, as that history should notice the event, there + is great reason to presume, that their descendants + continued in the same, or settled in the adjacent country; + from whence it will follow, that they must have changed + their complexion to that, which is observable in the + inhabitants of this particular region at the present day; + or, in other words, that the <i>black inhabitant of + Colchis</i> must have been changed into the <i>fair + Circassian</i>.<a name="FNanchor095"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_095"><sup>[095]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + As we have now shewn it to be highly probable, from the + facts which have been advanced, that climate is the cause + of the difference of colour which prevails in the different + inhabitants of the globe, we shall now shew its probability + from so similar an effect produced on the <i>mucous + substance</i> before-mentioned by so similar a cause, that + though the fact does not absolutely prove our conjecture to + be right, yet it will give us a very lively conception of + the manner, in which the phænomenon may be caused. + </p> + <p> + This probability may be shewn in the case of + <i>freckles</i>, which are to be seen in the face of + children, but of such only, as have the thinnest and most + transparent skins, and are occasioned by the rays of the + sun, striking forcibly on the <i>mucous substance</i> of + the face, and drying the accumulating fluid. This + accumulating fluid, or perspirable matter, is at first + colourless; but being exposed to violent heat, or dried, + becomes brown. Hence, the <i>mucosum corpus</i> being + tinged in various parts by this brown coagulated fluid, and + the parts so tinged appearing through the <i>cuticle</i>, + or upper surface of the skin, arises that spotted + appearance, observable in the case recited. + </p> + <p> + Now, if we were to conceive a black skin to be an + <i>universal freckle</i>, or the rays of the sun to act so + universally on the <i>mucous substance</i> of a person's + face, as to produce these spots so contiguous to each other + that they should unite, we should then see, in imagination, + a face similar to those, which are daily to be seen among + black people: and if we were to conceive his body to be + exposed or acted upon in the same manner, we should then + see his body assuming a similar appearance; and thus we + should see the whole man of a perfect black, or resembling + one of the naked inhabitants of the torrid zone. Now as the + feat of freckles and of blackness is the same; as their + appearance is similar; and as the cause of the first is the + ardour of the sun, it is therefore probable that the cause + of the second is the same: hence, if we substitute for the + word "<i>sun</i>," what is analogous to it, the word + <i>climate</i>, the same effect may be supposed to be + produced, and the conjecture to receive a sanction. + </p> + <p> + Nor is it unlikely that the hypothesis, which considers the + cause of freckles and of blackness as the same, may be + right. For if blackness is occasioned by the rays of the + sun striking forcibly and universally on the <i>mucous + substance</i> of the body, and drying the accumulating + fluid, we can account for the different degrees of it to be + found in the different inhabitants of the globe. For as the + quantity of perspirable fluid, and the force of the solar + rays is successively increased, as the climates are + successively warmer, from any given parallel to the line, + it follows that the fluid, with which the <i>mucous + substance</i> will be stained, will be successively thicker + and deeper coloured; and hence, as it appears through the + cuticle, the complexion successively darker; or, what + amounts to the same thing, there will be a difference of + colour in the inhabitants of every successive parallel. + </p> + <p> + From these, and the whole of the preceding observations on + the subject, we may conclude, that as all the inhabitants + of the earth cannot be otherwise than the children of the + same parents, and as the difference of their appearance + must have of course proceeded from incidental causes, these + causes are a combination of those qualities, which we call + <i>climate</i>; that the blackness of the <i>Africans</i> + is so far ingrafted in their constitution, in a course of + many generations, that their children wholly inherit it, if + brought up in the same spot, but that it is not so + absolutely interwoven in their nature, that it cannot be + removed, if they are born and settled in another; that + <i>Noah</i> and his sons were probably of an <i>olive</i> + complexion; that those of their descendants, who went + farther to the south, became of a deeper olive or + <i>copper</i>; while those, who went still farther, became + of a deeper copper or <i>black</i>; that those, on the + other hand, who travelled farther to the north, became less + olive or <i>brown</i>, while those who went still farther + than the former, became less brown or <i>white</i>; and + that if any man were to point out any one of the colours + which prevails in the human complexion, as likely to + furnish an argument, that the people of such a complexion + were of a different species from the rest, it is probable + that his own descendants, if removed to the climate to + which this complexion is peculiar, would, in the course of + a few generations, degenerate into the same colour. + </p> + <p> + Having now replied to the argument, "that the Africans are + an inferiour link of the chain of nature," as far as it + depended on their <i>capacity</i> and <i>colour</i>, we + shall now only take notice of an expression, which the + <i>receivers</i> before-mentioned are pleased to make use + of, "that they are made for slavery." + </p> + <p> + Had the Africans been <i>made for slavery</i>, or to become + the property of any society of men, it is clear, from the + observations that have been made in the second part of this + Essay, that they must have been created <i>devoid of + reason</i>: but this is contrary to fact. It is clear also, + that there must have been, many and evident signs of the + <i>inferiority of their nature</i>, and that this society + of men must have had a <i>natural right</i> to their + dominion: but this is equally false. No such signs of + <i>inferiority</i> are to be found in the one, and the + right to dominion in the other is <i>incidental</i>: for in + what volume of nature or religion is it written, that one + society of men should <i>breed slaves</i> for the benefit, + of another? Nor is it less evident that they would have + wanted many of those qualities which they have, and which + brutes have not: they would have wanted that <i>spirit of + liberty</i>, that <i>sense of ignominy and shame,</i><a + name="FNanchor096"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_096"><sup>[096]</sup></a> which so frequently + drives them to the horrid extremity of finishing their own + existence. Nor would they have been endowed with a + <i>contemplative power</i>; for such a power would have + been unnecessary to people in such a situation; or rather, + its only use could have been to increase their pain. We + cannot suppose therefore that God has made an order of + beings, with such mental qualities and powers, for the sole + purpose of being used as <i>beasts</i>, or + <i>instruments</i> of labour. And here, what a dreadful + argument presents itself against you <i>receivers</i>? For + if they have no understandings as you confess, then is your + conduct impious, because, as they cannot perceive the + intention of your punishment, your severities cannot make + them better. But if, on the other hand, they have had + understandings, (which has evidently appeared) then is your + conduct equally impious, who, by destroying their faculties + by the severity of your discipline, have reduced men; who + had once the power of reason, to an equality with the brute + creation. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_309"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. IX.</a> + </h2> + <p> + The reader may perhaps think, that the <i>receivers</i> + have by this time expended all their arguments, but their + store is not so easily exhausted. They are well aware that + justice, nature, and religion, will continue, as they have + ever uniformly done, to oppose their conduct. This has + driven them to exert their ingenuity, and has occasioned + that multiplicity of arguments to be found in the present + question. + </p> + <p> + These arguments are of a different complexion from the + former. They consist in comparing the state of + <i>slaves</i> with that of some of the classes of + <i>free</i> men, and in certain scenes of felicity, which + the former are said to enjoy. + </p> + <p> + It is affirmed that the punishments which the Africans + undergo, are less severe than the military; that their life + is happier than that of the English peasant; that they have + the advantages of manumission; that they have their little + spots of ground, their holy-days, their dances; in short, + that their life is a scene of festivity and mirth, and that + they are much happier in the colonies than in their own + country. + </p> + <p> + These representations, which have been made out with much + ingenuity and art, may have had their weight with the + unwary; but they will never pass with men of consideration + and sense, who are accustomed to estimate the probability + of things, before they admit them to be true. Indeed the + bare assertion, that their situation is even comfortable, + contains its own refutation, or at least leads us to + suspect that the person, who asserted it, has omitted some + important considerations in the account. Such we shall shew + to have been actually the case, and that the + representations of the <i>receivers</i>, when stripped of + their glossy ornaments, are but empty declamation. + </p> + <p> + It is said, first, of <i>military punishments</i>, that + they are more severe than those which the <i>Africans</i> + undergo. But this is a bare assertion without a proof. It + is not shewn even by those, who assert it, how the fact can + be made out. We are left therefore to draw the comparison + ourselves, and to fill up those important considerations, + which we have just said that the <i>receivers</i> had + omitted. + </p> + <p> + That military punishments are severe we confess, but we + deny that they are severer than those with which they are + compared. Where is the military man, whose ears have been + slit, whose limbs have been mutilated, or whose eyes have + been beaten out? But let us even allow, that their + punishments are equal in the degree of their severity: + still they must lose by comparison. The soldier is never + punished but after a fair and equitable trial, and the + decision of a military court; the unhappy African, at the + discretion of his Lord. The one knows what particular + conduct will constitute an offence;<a name= + "FNanchor097"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_097"><sup>[097]</sup></a> the other has no such + information, as he is wholly at the disposal of passion and + caprice, which may impose upon any action, however + laudable, the appellation of a crime. The former has it of + course in his power to avoid a punishment; the latter is + never safe. The former is punished for a real, the latter, + often, for an imaginary fault. + </p> + <p> + Now will any person assert, on comparing the whole of those + circumstances together, which relate to their respective + punishments, that there can be any doubt, which of the two + are in the worst situation, as to their penal systems? + </p> + <p> + With respect to the declaration, that the life of an + <i>African</i> in the colonies is happier than that of an + <i>English</i> peasant, it is equally false. Indeed we can + scarcely withhold our indignation, when we consider, how + shamefully the situation of this latter class of men has + been misrepresented, to elevate the former to a state of + fictitious happiness. If the representations of the + <i>receivers</i> be true, it is evident that those of the + most approved writers, who have placed a considerable share + of happiness in the <i>cottage</i>, have been mistaken in + their opinion; and that those of the rich, who have been + heard to sigh, and envy the felicity of the <i>peasant</i>, + have been treacherous to their own sensations. + </p> + <p> + But which are we to believe on the occasion? Those, who + endeavour to dress <i>vice</i> in the habit of + <i>virtue</i>, or those, who derive their opinion from + their own feelings? The latter are surely to be believed; + and we may conclude therefore, that the horrid picture + which is given of the life of the <i>peasant</i>, has not + so just a foundation as the <i>receivers</i> would, lead us + to suppose. For has he no pleasure in the thought, that he + lives in his <i>own country</i>, and among his relations + and friends? That he is actually <i>free</i>, and that his + children will be the same? That he can never be <i>sold</i> + as a beast? That he can speak his mind <i>without the fear + of the lash</i>? That he cannot even be struck <i>with + impunity</i>? And that he partakes, equally with his + superiours, of the <i>protection of the law</i>?-Now, there + is no one of these advantages which the <i>African</i> + possesses, and no one, which the defenders of slavery take + into their account. + </p> + <p> + Of the other comparisons that are usually made, we may + observe in general, that, as they consist in comparing the + iniquitous practice of slavery with other iniquitous + practices in force among other nations, they can neither + raise it to the appearance of virtue, nor extenuate its + guilt. The things compared are in these instances both of + them evils alike. They call equally for redress,<a name= + "FNanchor098"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_098"><sup>[098]</sup></a> and are equally + disgraceful to the governments which suffer them, if not + encourage them, to exist. To attempt therefore to justify + one species of iniquity by comparing it with another, is no + justification at all; and is so far from answering the + purpose, for which the comparison is intended, as to give + us reason to suspect, that the <i>comparer</i> has but + little notion either of equity or honour. + </p> + <p> + We come now to those scenes of felicity, which slaves are + said to enjoy. The first advantage which they are said to + experience, is that of <i>manumission</i>. But here the + advocates for slavery conceal an important circumstance. + They expatiate indeed on the charms of freedom, and contend + that it must be a blessing in the eyes of those, upon whom + it is conferred. We perfectly agree with them in this + particular. But they do not tell us that these advantages + are <i>confined</i>; that they are confined to some + <i>favourite domestick</i>; that not <i>one in an + hundred</i> enjoy them; and that they are <i>never</i> + extended to those, who are employed in the <i>cultivation + of the field</i>, as long as they can work. These are they, + who are most to be pitied, who are destined to + <i>perpetual</i> drudgery; and of whom <i>no one + whatever</i> has a chance of being freed from his + situation, till death either releases him at once, or age + renders him incapable of continuing his former labour. And + here let it be remarked, <i>to the disgrace of the + receivers</i>, that he is then made free, not-<i>as a + reward for his past services</i>, but, as his labour is + then of little or no value,-<i>to save the tax.</i><a name= + "FNanchor099"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_099"><sup>[099]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + With the same artifice is mention also made of the little + spots, or <i>gardens</i>, as they are called, which slaves + are said to possess from the <i>liberality</i> of <i>the + receivers</i>. But people must not be led away by agreeable + and pleasant sounds. They must not suppose that these + gardens are made for <i>flowers</i>; or that they are + places of <i>amusement</i>, in which they can spend their + time in botanical researches and delights. Alas, they do + not furnish them with a theme for such pleasing pursuits + and speculations! They must be cultivated in those hours, + which ought to be appropriated to rest;<a name= + "FNanchor100"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_100"><sup>[100]</sup></a> and they must be + cultivated, not for an amusement, but to make up, <i>if it + be possible</i>, the great deficiency in their weekly + allowance of provisions. Hence it appears, that the + <i>receivers</i> have no merit whatever in such an + appropriation of land to their unfortunate slaves: for they + are either under the necessity of doing this, or of + <i>losing</i> them by the jaws of famine. And it is a + notorious fact, that, with their weekly allowance, and the + produce of their spots together, it is often with the + greatest difficulty that they preserve a wretched + existence. + </p> + <p> + The third advantage which they are said to experience, is + that of <i>holy-days</i>, or days of respite from their + usual discipline and fatigue. This is certainly a great + indulgence, and ought to be recorded to the immortal honour + of the <i>receivers</i>. We wish we could express their + liberality in those handsome terms, in which it deserves to + be represented, or applaud them sufficiently for deviating + for once from the rigours of servile discipline. But we + confess, that we are unequal to the task, and must + therefore content ourselves with observing, that while the + horse has <i>one</i> day in <i>seven</i> to refresh his + limbs, the happy <i>African</i><a name="FNanchor101"></a><a + href="#Footnote_101"><sup>[101]</sup></a> has but + <i>one</i> in <i>fifty-two</i>, as a relaxation from his + labours. + </p> + <p> + With respect to their <i>dances</i>, on which such a + particular stress has been generally laid, we fear that + people may have been as shamefully deceived, as in the + former instances. For from the manner in which these are + generally mentioned, we should almost be led to imagine, + that they had certain hours allowed them for the purpose of + joining in the dance, and that they had every comfort and + convenience, that people are generally supposed to enjoy on + such convivial occasions. But this is far from the case. + Reason informs us, that it can never be. If they wish for + such innocent recreations, they must enjoy them in the time + that is allotted them for sleep; and so far are these + dances from proceeding from any uncommon degree of + happiness, which excites them to convivial society, that + they proceed rather from an uncommon depression of spirits, + which makes them even sacrifice their rest,<a name= + "FNanchor102"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_102"><sup>[102]</sup></a> for the sake of + experiencing for a moment a more joyful oblivion of their + cares. For suppose any one of the <i>receivers</i>, in the + middle of a dance, were to address his slaves in the + following manner: "<i>Africans!</i> I begin at last to feel + for your situation; and my conscience is severely hurt, + whenever I reflect that I have been reducing those to a + state of misery and pain, who have never given me offence. + You seem to be fond of these exercises, but yet you are + obliged to take them at such unseasonable hours, that they + impair your health, which is sufficiently broken by the + intolerable share of labour which I have hitherto imposed + upon you. I will therefore make you a proposal. Will you be + content to live in the colonies, and you shall have the + half of every week entirely to yourselves? or will you + choose to return to your miserable, wretched country?"-But + what is that which strikes their ears? Which makes them + motionless in an instant? Which interrupts the festive + scene?-their country?-transporting sound!-Behold! they are + now flying from the dance: you may see them running to the + shore, and, frantick as it were with joy, demanding with + open arms an instantaneous passage to their beloved native + plains. + </p> + <p> + Such are the <i>colonial delights</i>, by the + representation of which the <i>receivers</i> would persuade + us, that the <i>Africans</i> are taken from their country + to a region of conviviality and mirth; and that like those, + who leave their usual places of residence for a summer's + amusement, they are conveyed to the colonies-<i>to + bathe</i>,-<i>to dance</i>,-<i>to keep holy-day</i>,-<i>to + be jovial</i>.-But there is something so truly ridiculous + in the attempt to impose these scenes of felicity on the + publick, as scenes which fall to the lot of slaves, that + the <i>receivers</i> must have been driven to great + extremities, to hazard them to the eye of censure. + </p> + <p> + The last point that remains to be considered, is the + shameful assertion, that the <i>Africans</i> are much + <i>happier in the colonies, than in their own country</i>. + But in what does this superiour happiness consist? In those + real scenes, it must be replied, which have been just + mentioned; for these, by the confession of the receivers, + constitute the happiness they enjoy.-But it has been shewn + that these have been unfairly represented; and, were they + realized in the most extensive latitude, they would not + confirm the fact. For if, upon a recapitulation, it + consists in the pleasure of <i>manumission</i>, they surely + must have passed their lives in a much more comfortable + manner, who, like the <i>Africans at home</i>, have had no + occasion for such a benefit at all. But the + <i>receivers</i>, we presume, reason upon this principle, + that we never know the value of a blessing but by its loss. + This is generally true: but would any one of them make + himself a <i>slave</i> for years, that he might run the + chance of the pleasures of <i>manumission</i>? Or that he + might taste the charms of liberty with <i>a greater + relish</i>? Nor is the assertion less false in every other + consideration. For if their happiness consists in the few + <i>holy-days</i>, which <i>in the colonies</i> they are + permitted to enjoy, what must be their situation <i>in + their own country</i>, where the whole year is but one + continued holy-day, or cessation from discipline and + fatigue?-If in the possession of <i>a mean and contracted + spot</i>, what must be their situation, where a whole + region is their own, producing almost spontaneously the + comforts of life, and requiring for its cultivation none of + those hours, which should be appropriated to + <i>sleep</i>?-If in the pleasures of the <i>colonial + dance</i>, what must it be in <i>their own country</i>, + where they may dance for ever; where there is no stated + hour to interrupt their felicity, no intolerable labour + immediately to succeed their recreations, and no overseer + to receive them under the discipline of the lash?-If these + therefore are the only circumstances, by which the + assertion can be proved, we may venture to say, without + fear of opposition, that it can never be proved at all. + </p> + <p> + But these are not the only circumstances. It is said that + they are barbarous at home.-But do you <i>receivers</i> + civilize them?-Your unwillingness to convert them to + Christianity, because you suppose you must use them more + kindly when converted, is but a bad argument in favour of + the fact. + </p> + <p> + It is affirmed again, that their manner of life, and their + situation is such in their own country, that to say they + are happy is a jest. "But who are you, who pretend to + judge<a name="FNanchor103"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_103"><sup>[103]</sup></a> of another man's + happiness? That state which each man, under the guidance of + his maker, forms for himself, and not one man for another? + To know what constitutes mine or your happiness, is the + sole prerogative of him who created us, and cast us in so + various and different moulds. Did your slaves ever complain + to you of their unhappiness, amidst their native woods and + desarts? Or, rather, let me ask, did they ever cease + complaining of their condition under you their lordly + masters? Where they see, indeed, the accommodations of + civil life, but see them all pass to others, themselves + unbenefited by them. Be so gracious then, ye petty tyrants + over human freedom, to let your slaves judge for + themselves, what it is which makes their own happiness, and + then see whether they do not place it <i>in the return to + their own country</i>, rather than in the contemplation of + your grandeur, of which their misery makes so large a + part." + </p> + <p> + But since you speak with so much confidence on the subject, + let us ask you <i>receivers</i> again, if you have ever + been informed by your unfortunate slaves, that they had no + connexions in the country from which they have forcibly + been torn away: or, if you will take upon you to assert, + that they never sigh, when they are alone; or that they + never relate to each other their tales of misery and woe. + But you judge of them, perhaps, in an happy moment, when + you are dealing out to them their provisions for the week; + and are but little aware, that, though the countenance may + be cheered with a momentary smile, the heart may be + exquisitely tortured. Were you to shew us, indeed, that + there are laws, subject to no evasion, by which you are + obliged to clothe and feed them in a comfortable manner; + were you to shew us that they are protected<a name= + "FNanchor104"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_104"><sup>[104]</sup></a> at all; or that even + <i>one</i> in a <i>thousand</i> of those masters have + suffered death,<a name="FNanchor105"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_105"><sup>[105]</sup></a> who have been guilty + of <i>premeditated</i> murder to their slaves, you would + have a better claim to our belief: but you can neither + produce the instances nor the laws. The people, of whom you + speak, are <i>slaves</i>, are your own <i>property</i>, are + wholly <i>at your own disposal</i>; and this idea is + sufficient to overturn your assertions of their happiness. + </p> + <p> + But we shall now mention a circumstance, which, in the + present case, will have more weight than all the arguments + which have hitherto been advanced. It is an opinion, which + the <i>Africans</i> universally entertain, that, as soon as + death shall release them from the hands of their + oppressors, they shall immediately be wafted back to their + native plains, there to exist again, to enjoy the sight of + their beloved countrymen, and to spend the whole of their + new existence in scenes of tranquillity and delight; and so + powerfully does this notion operate upon them, as to drive + them frequently to the horrid extremity of putting a period + to their lives. Now if these suicides are frequent, (which + no person can deny) what are they but a proof, that the + situation of those who destroy themselves must have been + insupportably wretched: and if the thought of returning to + their country after death, <i>when they have experienced + the colonial joys</i>, constitutes their supreme felicity, + what are they but a proof, that they think there is as much + difference between the two situations, as there is between + misery and delight? + </p> + <p> + Nor is the assertion of the <i>receivers</i> less liable to + a refutation in the instance of those, who terminate their + own existence, than of those, whom nature releases from + their persecutions. They die with a smile upon their face, + and their funerals are attended by a vast concourse of + their countrymen, with every possible demonstration of + joy.<a name="FNanchor106"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_106"><sup>[106]</sup></a> But why this unusual + mirth, if their departed brother has left an happy place? + Or if he has been taken from the care of an indulgent + master, who consulted his pleasures, and administered to + his wants? But alas, it arises from hence, that <i>he is + gone to his happy country</i>: a circumstance, sufficient + of itself, to silence a myriad of those specious arguments, + which the imagination has been racked, and will always be + racked to produce, in favour of a system of tyranny and + oppression. + </p> + <p> + It remains only, that we should now conclude the chapter + with a fact, which will shew that the account, which we + have given of the situation of slaves, is strictly true, + and will refute at the same time all the arguments which + have hitherto been, and may yet be brought by the + <i>receivers</i>, to prove that their treatment is humane. + In one of the western colonies of the Europeans, <a name= + "FNanchor107"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_107"><sup>[107]</sup></a>six hundred and fifty + thousand slaves were imported within an hundred years; at + the expiration of which time, their whole posterity were + found to amount to one hundred and forty thousand. This + fact will ascertain the treatment of itself. For how + shamefully must these unfortunate people have been + oppressed? What a dreadful havock must famine, fatigue, and + cruelty, have made among them, when we consider, that the + descendants of <i>six hundred and fifty thousand</i> people + in the prime of life, gradually imported within a century, + are less numerous than those, which only <i>ten + thousand</i><a name="FNanchor108"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_108"><sup>[108]</sup></a> would have produced in + the same period, under common advantages, and in a country + congenial to their constitutions? + </p> + <p> + But the <i>receivers</i> have probably great merit on the + occasion. Let us therefore set it down to their humanity. + Let us suppose for once, that this incredible waste of the + human species proceeds from a benevolent design; that, + sensible of the miseries of a servile state, they resolve + to wear out, as fast as they possibly can, their + unfortunate slaves, that their miseries may the sooner end, + and that a wretched posterity may be prevented from sharing + their parental condition. Now, whether this is the plan of + reasoning which the <i>receivers</i> adopt, we cannot take + upon us to decide; but true it is, that the effect produced + is exactly the same, as if they had reasoned wholly on this + <i>benevolent</i> principle. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_310"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. X.</a> + </h2> + <p> + We have now taken a survey of the treatment which the + unfortunate <i>Africans</i> undergo, when they are put into + the hands of the <i>receivers</i>. This treatment, by the + four first chapters of the present part of this Essay, + appears to be wholly insupportable, and to be such as no + human being can apply to another, without the imputation of + such crimes, as should make him tremble. But as many + arguments are usually advanced by those who have any + interest in the practice, by which they would either + exculpate the treatment, or diminish its severity, we + allotted the remaining chapters for their discussion. In + these we considered the probability of such a treatment + against the motives of interest; the credit that was to be + given to those disinterested writers on the subject, who + have recorded particular instances of barbarity; the + inferiority of the <i>Africans</i> to the human species; + the comparisons that are generally made with respect to + their situation; the positive scenes of felicity which they + are said to enjoy, and every other argument, in short, that + we have found to have ever been advanced in the defence of + slavery. These have been all considered, and we may venture + to pronounce, that, instead of answering the purpose for + which they were intended, they serve only to bring such + circumstances to light, as clearly shew, that if ingenuity + were racked to invent a situation, that would be the most + distressing and insupportable to the human race; it could + never invent one, that would suit the description better, + than the-<i>colonial slavery</i>. + </p> + <p> + If this then be the case, and if slaves, notwithstanding + all the arguments to the contrary, are exquisitely + miserable, we ask you <i>receivers, by what right</i> you + reduce them to so wretched a situation? + </p> + <p> + You reply, that you <i>buy them</i>; that your <i>money</i> + constitutes your <i>right</i>, and that, like all other + things which you purchase, they are wholly at your own + disposal. + </p> + <p> + Upon this principle alone it was, that we professed to view + your treatment, or examine your right, when we said, that + "the question<a name="FNanchor109"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_109"><sup>[109]</sup></a> resolved itself into + two separate parts for discussion; into the <i>African</i> + commerce, as explained in the history of slavery, and the + subsequent slavery in the colonies, <i>as founded on the + equity of the commerce</i>." Now, since it appears that + this commerce, upon the fullest investigation, is contrary + to "<i>the principles<a name="FNanchor110"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_110"><sup>[110]</sup></a> of law and government, + the dictates of reason, the common maxims of equity, the + laws of nature, the admonitions of conscience, and, in + short, the whole doctrine of natural religion</i>," it is + evident that the <i>right</i>, which is founded upon it, + must be the same; and that if those things only are lawful + in the sight of God, which are either virtuous in + themselves, or proceed from virtuous principles, you + <i>have no right over them at all</i>. + </p> + <p> + You yourselves also confess this. For when we ask you, + whether any human being has a right to sell you, you + immediately answer, No; as if nature revolted at the + thought, and as if it was so contradictory to your own + feelings, as not to require consideration. But who are you, + that have this exclusive charter of trading in the + liberties of mankind? When did nature, or rather the Author + of nature, make so partial a distinction between you and + them? When did He say, that you should have the privilege + of selling others, and that others should not have the + privilege of selling you? + </p> + <p> + Now since you confess, that no person whatever has a right + to dispose of you in this manner, you must confess also, + that those things are unlawful to be done to you, which are + usually done in consequence of the sale. Let us suppose + then, that in consequence of the <i>commerce</i> you were + forced into a ship; that you were conveyed to another + country; that you were sold there; that you were confined + to incessant labour; that you were pinched by continual + hunger and thirst; and subject to be whipped, cut, and + mangled at discretion, and all this at the hands of those, + whom you had never offended; would you not think that you + had a right to resist their treatment? Would you not resist + it with a safe conscience? And would you not be surprized, + if your resistance should be termed rebellion?-By the + former premises you must answer, yes.-Such then is the case + with the wretched <i>Africans</i>. They have a right to + resist your proceedings. They can resist them, and yet they + cannot justly be considered as rebellious. For though we + suppose them to have been guilty of crimes to one another; + though we suppose them to have been the most abandoned and + execrable of men, yet are they perfectly innocent with + respect to you <i>receivers</i>. You have no right to touch + even the hair of their heads without their own consent. It + is not your money, that can invest you with a right. Human + liberty can neither be bought nor sold. Every lash that you + give them is unjust. It is a lash against nature and + religion, and will surely stand recorded against you, since + they are all, with respect to your <i>impious</i> selves, + in a state of nature; in a state of original dissociation; + perfectly free. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Part_311"></a> + <h2> + <a href="#PART_III.">CHAP. XI.</a> + </h2> + <p> + Having now considered both the <i>commerce</i> and + <i>slavery</i>, it remains only to collect such arguments + as are scattered in different parts of the work, and to + make such additional remarks, as present themselves on the + subject. + </p> + <p> + And first, let us ask you, who have studied the law of + nature, and you, who are learned in the law of the land, if + all property must not be inferiour in its nature to its + possessor, or, in other words, (for it is a case, which + every person must bring home to his own breast) if you + suppose that any human being can have <i>a property in + yourselves</i>? Let us ask you appraisers, who + scientifically know the value of things, if any human + creature is equivalent only to any of the trinkets that you + wear, or at most, to any of the horses that you ride: or in + other words, if you have ever considered the most costly + things that you have valued, as <i>equivalent to + yourselves?</i> Let us ask you rationalists, if man, as a + reasonable being, is not <i>accountable</i> for his + actions, and let us put the same question to you, who have + studied the divine writings? Let us ask you parents, if + ever you thought that you possessed an <i>authority</i> as + such, or if ever you expected a <i>duty</i> from your sons; + and let us ask you sons, if ever you felt an impulse in + your own breasts to <i>obey</i> your parents. Now, if you + should all answer as we could wish, if you should all + answer consistently with reason, nature, and the revealed + voice of God, what a dreadful argument will present itself + against the commerce and slavery of the human species, when + we reflect, that no man whatever can be bought or reduced + to the situation of a slave, <i>but he must instantly + become a brute, he must instantly be reduced to the value + of those things, which were made for his own use and + convenience; he must instantly cease to be accountable for + his actions, and his authority as a parent, and his duty as + a son, must be instantly no more</i>. + </p> + <p> + Neither does it escape our notice, when we are speaking of + the fatal wound which every social duty must receive, how + considerably Christianity suffers by the conduct of you + <i>receivers</i>. For by prosecuting this impious commerce, + you keep the <i>Africans</i> in a state of perpetual + ferocity and barbarism; and by prosecuting it in such a + manner, as must represent your religion, as a system of + robbery and oppression, you not only oppose the propagation + of the gospel, as far as you are able yourselves, but throw + the most certain impediments in the way of others, who + might attempt the glorious and important task. + </p> + <p> + Such also is the effect, which the subsequent slavery in + the colonies must produce. For by your inhuman treatment of + the unfortunate <i>Africans</i> there, you create the same + insuperable impediments to a conversion. For how must they + detest the very name of <i>Christians</i>, when you + <i>Christians</i> are deformed by so many and dreadful + vices? How must they detest that system of religion, which + appears to resist the natural rights of men, and to give a + sanction to brutality and murder? + </p> + <p> + But, as we are now mentioning Christianity, we must pause + for a little time, to make a few remarks on the arguments + which are usually deduced from thence by the + <i>receivers</i>, in defence of their system of oppression. + For the reader may readily suppose, that, if they did not + hesitate to bring the <i>Old</i> Testament in support of + their barbarities, they would hardly let the <i>New</i> + escape them. + </p> + <p> + <i>St. Paul</i>, having converted <i>Onesimus</i> to the + Christian faith, who was a fugitive slave of + <i>Philemon</i>, sent him back to his master. This + circumstance has furnished the <i>receivers</i> with a + plea, that Christianity encourages slavery. But they have + not only strained the passages which they produce in + support of their assertions, but are ignorant of historical + facts. The benevolent apostle, in the letter which he wrote + to <i>Philemon</i>, the master of <i>Onesimus</i>, + addresses him to the following effect: "I send him back to + you, but not in his former capacity,<a name= + "FNanchor111"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_111"><sup>[111]</sup></a> <i>not now as a + servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved</i>. In + this manner I beseech you to receive him, for though I + could <i>enjoin</i> you to do it, yet I had rather it + should be a matter of your <i>own will</i>, than of + <i>necessity</i>." + </p> + <p> + It appears that the same <i>Onesimus</i>, when he was sent + back, was no longer <i>a slave</i>, that he was a minister + of the gospel, that he was joined with <i>Tychicus</i> in + an ecclesiastical commission to the church of the + <i>Colossians</i>, and was afterwards bishop of + <i>Ephesus</i>. If language therefore has any meaning, and + if history has recorded a fact which may be believed, there + is no case more opposite to the doctrine of the + <i>receivers</i>, than this which they produce in its + support. + </p> + <p> + It is said again, that Christianity, among the many + important precepts which it contains, does not furnish us + with one for the abolition of slavery. But the reason is + obvious. Slavery at the time of the introduction of the + gospel was universally prevalent, and if Christianity had + abruptly declared, that the millions of slaves should have + been made free, who were then in the world, it would have + been universally rejected, as containing doctrines that + were dangerous, if not destructive, to society. In order + therefore that it might be universally received, it never + meddled, by any positive precept, with the civil + institutions of the times; but though it does not expressly + say, that "you shall neither buy, nor sell, nor possess a + slave," it is evident that, in its general tenour, it + sufficiently militates against the custom. + </p> + <p> + The first doctrine which it inculcates, is that of + <i>brotherly love</i>. It commands good will towards men. + It enjoins us to love our neighbours as ourselves, and to + do unto all men, as we would that they should do unto us. + And how can any man fulfil this scheme of universal + benevolence, who reduces an unfortunate person <i>against + his will</i>, to the <i>most insupportable</i> of all human + conditions; who considers him as his <i>private + property</i>, and treats him, not as a brother, nor as one + of the same parentage with himself, but as an <i>animal of + the brute creation?</i> + </p> + <p> + But the most important doctrine is that, by which we are + assured that mankind are to exist in a future state, and to + give an account of those actions, which they have severally + done in the flesh. This strikes at the very root of + slavery. For how can any man be justly called to an account + for his actions, whose actions are not <i>at his own + disposal?</i> This is the case with the <i>proper</i><a + name="FNanchor112"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_112"><sup>[112]</sup></a> slave. His liberty is + absolutely bought and <i>appropriated</i>; and if the + purchase is <i>just and equitable</i>, he is <i>under the + necessity</i> of perpetrating any crime, which the + purchaser may order him to commit, or, in other words, of + ceasing to be <i>accountable for his actions</i>. + </p> + <p> + These doctrines therefore are sufficient to shew, that + slavery is incompatible, with the Christian system. The + <i>Europeans</i> considered them as such, when, at the + close of the twelfth century, they resisted, their + hereditary prejudices, and occasioned its abolition. Hence + one, among many other proofs, that Christianity was the + production of infinite wisdom; that though it did not take + such express cognizance of the wicked national institutions + of the times, as should hinder its reception, it should yet + contain such doctrines, as, when it should be fully + established, would be sufficient for the abolition of them + all. + </p> + <p> + Thus then is the argument of you <i>receivers</i> + ineffectual, and your conduct impious. For, by the + prosecution of this wicked slavery and commerce, you not + only oppose the propagation of that gospel which was + ordered to be preached unto every creature, and bring it + into contempt, but you oppose its tenets also: first, + because you violate that law of <i>universal + benevolence</i>, which was to take away those hateful + distinctions of <i>Jew</i> and <i>Gentile</i>, <i>Greek</i> + and <i>Barbarian, bond</i> and <i>free</i>, which prevailed + when the gospel was introduced; and secondly, because, as + every man is to give an account of his actions hereafter, + it is necessary that he should be <i>free</i>. + </p> + <p> + Another argument yet remains, which, though nature will + absolutely turn pale at the recital, cannot possibly be + omitted. In those wars, which are made for the sake of + procuring slaves, it is evident that the contest must be + generally obstinate, and that great numbers must be slain + on both sides, before the event can be determined. This we + may reasonably apprehend to be the case: and we have + shewn,<a name="FNanchor113"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_113"><sup>[113]</sup></a> that there have not + been wanting instances, where the conquerors have been so + incensed at the resistance they have found, that their + spirit of vengeance has entirely got the better of their + avarice, and they have murdered, in cool blood, every + individual, without discrimination, either of age or sex. + From these and other circumstances, we thought we had + sufficient reason to conclude, that, where <i>ten</i> were + supposed to be taken, an <i>hundred</i>, including the + victors and vanquished, might be supposed to perish. Now, + as the annual exportation from <i>Africa</i> consists of an + hundred thousand men, and as the two orders, of those who + are privately kidnapped by individuals, and of those, who + are publickly seized by virtue of the authority of their + prince, compose together, at least, nine-tenths of the + <i>African</i> slaves, it follows, that about ten thousand + consist of convicts and prisoners of war. The last order is + the most numerous. Let us suppose then that only six + thousand of this order are annually sent into servitude, + and it will immediately appear that no less than + <i>sixty-thousand</i> people annually perish in those wars, + which are made only for the purpose of procuring slaves. + But that this number, which we believe to be by no means + exaggerated, may be free from all objection, we will + include those in the estimate, who die as they are + travelling to the ships. Many of these unfortunate people + have a journey of one thousand miles to perform on foot, + and are driven like sheep through inhospitable woods and + deserts, where they frequently die in great numbers, from + fatigue and want. Now if to those, who thus perish on the + <i>African</i> continent, by war and travelling, we subjoin + those,<a name="FNanchor114"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_114"><sup>[114]</sup></a> who afterwards perish + on the voyage, and in the seasoning together, it will + appear that, in every yearly attempt to supply the + colonies, an <i>hundred thousand</i> must perish, even + before <i>one</i> useful individual can be obtained. + </p> + <p> + Gracious God! how wicked, how beyond all example impious, + must be that servitude, which cannot be carried on without + the continual murder of so many and innocent persons! What + punishment is not to be expected for such monstrous and + unparalleled barbarities! For if the blood of one man, + unjustly shed, cries with so loud a voice for the divine + vengeance, how shall the cries and groans of an <i>hundred + thousand</i> men, <i>annually murdered</i>, ascend the + celestial mansions, and bring down that punishment, which + such enormities deserve! But do we mention punishment? Do + we allude to that punishment, which shall be inflicted on + men as individuals, in a future life? Do we allude to that + awful day, which shall surely come, when the master shall + behold his murdered negroe face to face? When a train of + mutilated slaves shall be brought against him? When he + shall stand confounded and abashed? Or, do we allude to + that punishment, which may be inflicted on them here, as + members of a wicked community? For as a body politick, if + its members are ever so numerous, may be considered as an + whole, acting of itself, and by itself, in all affairs in + which it is concerned, so it is accountable, as such, for + its conduct; and as these kinds of polities have only their + existence here, so it is only in this world, that, as such, + they can be punished. + </p> + <p> + "Now, whether we consider the crime, with respect to the + individuals immediately concerned in this most barbarous + and cruel traffick, or whether we consider it as + patronized<a name="FNanchor115"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_115"><sup>[115]</sup></a> and encouraged by the + laws of the land, it presents to our view an equal degree + of enormity. A crime, founded on a dreadful pre-eminence in + wickedness,-a crime, which being both of individuals and + the nation, must sometime draw down upon us the heaviest + judgment of Almighty God, who made of one blood all the + sons of men, and who gave to all equally a natural right to + liberty; and who, ruling all the kingdoms of the earth with + equal providential justice, cannot suffer such deliberate, + such monstrous iniquity, to pass long unpunished."<a name= + "FNanchor116"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_116"><sup>[116]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + But alas! he seems already to have interfered on the + occasion! The violent<a name="FNanchor117"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_117"><sup>[117]</sup></a> and supernatural + agitations of all the elements, which, for a series of + years, have prevailed in those European settlements, where + the unfortunate <i>Africans</i> are retained in a state of + slavery, and which have brought unspeakable calamities on + the inhabitants, and publick losses on the states to which + they severally belong, are so many awful visitations of God + for this inhuman violation of his laws. And it is not + perhaps unworthy of remark, that as the subjects of + Great-Britain have two thirds of this impious commerce in + their own hands, so they have suffered<a name= + "FNanchor118"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_118"><sup>[118]</sup></a> in the same + proportion, or more severely than the rest. + </p> + <p> + How far these misfortunes may appear to be acts of + providence, and to create an alarm to those who have been + accustomed to refer every effect to its apparent cause; who + have been habituated to stop there, and to overlook the + finger of God; because it is slightly covered under the + veil of secondary laws, we will not pretend to determine? + but this we will assert with confidence, that the + <i>Europeans</i> have richly deserved them all; that the + fear of sympathy, which can hardly be restrained on other + melancholy occasions, seems to forget to flow at the + relation of these; and that we can never, with any shadow + of justice, with prosperity to the undertakers of those, + whose success must be at the expence of the happiness of + millions of their fellow-creatures. + </p> + <p> + But this is sufficient. For if liberty is only an + adventitious right; if men are by no means superiour to + brutes; if every social duty is a curse; if cruelty is + highly to be esteemed; if murder is strictly honourable, + and Christianity is a lye; then it is evident, that the + <i>African</i> slavery may be pursued, without either the + remorse of conscience, or the imputation of a crime. But if + the contrary of this is true, which reason must immediately + evince, it is evident that no custom established among men + was ever more impious; since it is contrary to <i>reason, + justice, nature, the principles of law and government, the + whole doctrine, in short, of natural religion, and the + revealed voice of God</i>. + </p> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <h2> + FINIS. + </h2> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + + <h2> + Footnotes: + </h2> + <br> + <a name="Footnote_001"></a><a href="#FNanchor001">[001]</a> + <blockquote> + A Description of Guinea, with an Inquiry into the Rise and + Progress of the Slave Trade, &c.-A Caution to Great + Britain and her Colonies, in a short Representation of the + calamitous State of the enslaved Negroes in the British + Dominions. Besides several smaller pieces. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_002"></a><a href="#FNanchor002">[002]</a> + <blockquote> + They had censured the <i>African Trade</i> in the year + 1727, but had taken no publick notice of the + <i>colonial</i> slavery till this time. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_003"></a><a href="#FNanchor003">[003]</a> + <blockquote> + The instance of the <i>Dutch</i> colonists at the Cape, in + the first part of the Essay; the description of an African + battle, in the second; and the poetry of a negroe girl in + the third, are the only considerable additions that have + been made. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_004"></a><a href="#FNanchor004">[004]</a> + <blockquote> + Genesis, Ch. 47. Leviticus XXV. v. 39, 40. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_005"></a><a href="#FNanchor005">[005]</a> + <blockquote> + The <i>Thetes</i> appear very early in the Grecian + History.--kai tines auto kouroi epont'Ithakes exairetoi; he + eoi autou thentes te Dmoes(?) te; Od. Homer. D. 642. They + were afterwards so much in use that, "Murioi depou + apedidonto eautous ose douleuein kata sungraphen," till + Solon suppressed the custom in Athens. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_006"></a><a href="#FNanchor006">[006]</a> + <blockquote> + The mention of these is frequent among the classics; they + were called in general <i>mercenarii</i>, from the + circumstances of their <i>hire</i>, as "quibus, non + malè præcipiunt, qui ita jubent uti, ut + <i>mercenariis</i>, operam exigendam, justa proebenda. + Cicero de off." But they are sometimes mentioned in the law + books by the name of <i>liberi</i>, from the circumstances + of their <i>birth</i>, to distinguish them from the + <i>alieni</i>, or foreigners, as Justinian. D. 7. 8. 4.-Id. + 21. 1. 25. &c. &c. &c. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_007"></a><a href="#FNanchor007">[007]</a> + <blockquote> + "Nomos en pasin anthropois aidios esin, otan polemounton + polis alo, ton elonton einai kai ta somata ton en te + poleis, kai ta chremata." Xenoph. Kyrou Paid. L. 7. fin. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_008"></a><a href="#FNanchor008">[008]</a> + <blockquote> + "Proud Nimrod first the bloody chace began,<br> + A mighty hunter, and his prey was man."<br> + -POPE. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_009"></a><a href="#FNanchor009">[009]</a> + <blockquote> + Thucydides. L. 1. sub initio. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_010"></a><a href="#FNanchor010">[010]</a> + <blockquote> + Idem.-"the strongest," says he, "engaging in these + adventures, Kerdous tou spheterou auton eneka kai tois + asthenesi trophes." + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_011"></a><a href="#FNanchor011">[011]</a> + <blockquote> + Homer. Odyss. L. 15. 385. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_012"></a><a href="#FNanchor012">[012]</a> + <blockquote> + Xenoph. Kyrou Anab. L. 6. sub initio. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_013"></a><a href="#FNanchor013">[013]</a> + <blockquote> + ouk echontos po Aischynen toutou tou ergou pherontos de ti + kai Doxes mallon. Thucydides, L. 1. sub initio.<br> + kai euklees touto oi Kilikes enomizon. Sextus + Empiricus.<br> + ouk adoxon all'endoxon touto. Schol. &c. &c. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_014"></a><a href="#FNanchor014">[014]</a> + <blockquote> + Aristoph. Plut. Act. 2. Scene 5. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_015"></a><a href="#FNanchor015">[015]</a> + <blockquote> + Zenoph. Apomnemon, L. 1. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_016"></a><a href="#FNanchor016">[016]</a> + <blockquote> + Herodotus. L. 2. 113. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_017"></a><a href="#FNanchor017">[017]</a> + <blockquote> + "Apud Ægyptios, si quis servum sponte occiderat, + eum<br> + morte damnari æque ac si liberum occidisset, jubebant + leges &c."<br> + Diodorus Sic. L. 1. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_018"></a><a href="#FNanchor018">[018]</a> + <blockquote> + "Atq id ne vos miremini, Homines servulos<br> + Potare, amare, atq ad coenam condicere.<br> + Licet hoc Athenis.<br> + Plautus. Sticho." + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_019"></a><a href="#FNanchor019">[019]</a> + <blockquote> + "Be me kratison esin eis to Theseion<br> + Dramein, ekei d'eos an eurombou prasin<br> + menein" Aristoph. Horæ.<br> + <br> + Kaka toiade paskousin oude prasin<br> + Aitousin. Eupolis. poleis. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_020"></a><a href="#FNanchor020">[020]</a> + <blockquote> + To this privilege Plautus alludes in his <i>Casina</i>, + where he introduces a slave, speaking in the following + manner. "Quid tu me verò libertate territas?<br> + Quod si tu nolis, siliusque etiam tuus<br> + Vobis <i>invitis</i>, atq amborum <i>ingratiis</i>,<br> + <i>Una libella liber possum fieri</i>." + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_021"></a><a href="#FNanchor021">[021]</a> + <blockquote> + Homer. Odys. P. 322. In the latest edition of Homer, the + word, which we have translated <i>senses</i>, is + <i>Aretae</i>, or <i>virtue</i>, but the old and proper + reading is <i>Noos</i>, as appears from Plato de Legibus, + ch. 6, where he quotes it on a similar occasion. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_022"></a><a href="#FNanchor022">[022]</a> + <blockquote> + Aristotle. Polit. Ch. 2. et inseq. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_023"></a><a href="#FNanchor023">[023]</a> + <blockquote> + Ellesin hegemonikos, tois de Barbarois despotikos krasthar + kai ton men os philon kai oikeion epimeleisthai, tois de os + zoois he phytois prospheresthai. Plutarch. de Fortun. + Alexand. Orat. 1. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_024"></a><a href="#FNanchor024">[024]</a> + <blockquote> + Omne tulit punctum, qui miscuit utile dulci. Horace. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_025"></a><a href="#FNanchor025">[025]</a> + <blockquote> + me tacha pikren Aigypton kai Kypron idnai. Hom. Odyss. L. + 17. 448. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_026"></a><a href="#FNanchor026">[026]</a> + <blockquote> + L. 26. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_027"></a><a href="#FNanchor027">[027]</a> + <blockquote> + Exodus. Ch. 1. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_028"></a><a href="#FNanchor028">[028]</a> + <blockquote> + Vide note 1st. (Here shown as footnote 025). + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_029"></a><a href="#FNanchor029">[029]</a> + <blockquote> + This strikes us the more forcibly, as it is stiled + <i>eurreiten</i> and <i>perikallea</i>, "<i>beautiful and + well watered</i>," in all other passages where it is + mentioned, but this. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_030"></a><a href="#FNanchor030">[030]</a> + <blockquote> + The following short history of the African servitude, is + taken from Astley's Collection of Voyages, and from the + united testimonies of Smyth, Adanson, Bosman, Moore, and + others, who were agents to the different factories + established there; who resided many years in the country; + and published their respective histories at their return. + These writers, if they are partial at all, may be + considered as favourable rather to their own countrymen, + than the unfortunate Africans. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_031"></a><a href="#FNanchor031">[031]</a> + <blockquote> + We would not wish to be understood, that slavery was + unknown in Africa before the <i>piratical</i> expeditions + of the <i>Portuguese</i>, as it appears from the + <i>Nubian's Geography</i>, that both the slavery and + commerce had been established among the natives with one + another. We mean only to assert, that the <i>Portuguese</i> + were the first of the <i>Europeans</i>, who made their + <i>piratical</i> expeditions, and shewed the way to that + <i>slavery</i>, which now makes so disgraceful a figure in + the western colonies of the <i>Europeans</i>. In the term + "Europeans," wherever it shall occur in the remaining part + of this first dissertation, we include the + <i>Portuguese</i>, and <i>those nations only</i>, who + followed their example. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_032"></a><a href="#FNanchor032">[032]</a> + <blockquote> + The <i>Portuguese</i> erected their first fort at + <i>D'Elmina</i>, in the year 1481, about forty years after + Alonzo Gonzales had pointed the Southern Africans out to + his countrymen as articles of commerce. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_033"></a><a href="#FNanchor033">[033]</a> + <blockquote> + In the ancient servitude, we reckoned <i>convicts</i> among + the <i>voluntary</i> slaves, because they had it in their + power, by a virtuous conduct, to have avoided so melancholy + a situation; in the <i>African</i>, we include them in the + <i>involuntary</i>, because, as virtues are frequently + construed into crimes, from the venal motives of the + traffick, no person whatever possesses such a <i>power</i> + or <i>choice</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_034"></a><a href="#FNanchor034">[034]</a> + <blockquote> + Andrew Sparrman, M.D. professor of Physick at Stockholm, + fellow of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Sweden, and + inspector of its cabinet of natural history, whose voyage + was translated into English, and published in 1785. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_035"></a><a href="#FNanchor035">[035]</a> + <blockquote> + Boshies-man, or <i>wild Hottentot</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_036"></a><a href="#FNanchor036">[036]</a> + <blockquote> + This conclusion concerning the dissociated state of + mankind, is confirmed by all the early writers, with whose + descriptions of primitive times no other conclusion is + reconcileable. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_037"></a><a href="#FNanchor037">[037]</a> + <blockquote> + Justin. L. 2. C. 2. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_038"></a><a href="#FNanchor038">[038]</a> + <blockquote> + Sallust. Bell. Jug. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_039"></a><a href="#FNanchor039">[039]</a> + <blockquote> + Sallust. Bell. Catil. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_040"></a><a href="#FNanchor040">[040]</a> + <blockquote> + Ammianus Marcellinus. L. 31. C. 2. et. inseq. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_041"></a><a href="#FNanchor041">[041]</a> + <blockquote> + Agri pro Numero Cultorum ab universis per vicos occupantur, + quos mox inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur. Tacitus. + C. 26. de Mor. Germ. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_042"></a><a href="#FNanchor042">[042]</a> + <blockquote> + The author has lately read a work, intitled Paley's Moral + and Political Philosophy, which, in this one respect, + favours those which have been hinted at, as it denies that + government was a contract. "No social compact was ever made + in fact,"-"it is to suppose it possible to call savages out + of caves and deserts, to deliberate upon topicks, which the + experience and studies, and the refinements of civil life + alone suggest. Therefore no government in the universe + begun from this original." But there are no grounds for so + absurd a supposition; for government, and of course the + social compact, does not appear to have been introduced at + the time, when families coming out of their caves and + deserts, or, in other words, quitting their former + <i>dissociated</i> state, joined themselves together. They + had lived a considerable time in <i>society</i>, like the + Lybians and Gætulians before-mentioned, and had felt + many of the disadvantages of a want of discipline and laws, + before government was introduced at all. The author of this + Essay, before he took into consideration the origin of + government, was determined, in a matter of such importance, + to be biassed by no opinion whatever, and much less to + indulge himself in speculation. He was determined solely to + adhere to fact, and, by looking into the accounts left us + of those governments which were in their infancy, and, of + course in the least complicated state, to attempt to + discover their foundation: he cannot say therefore, that + upon a very minute perusal of the excellent work before + quoted, he has been so far convinced, as to retract in the + least from his sentiments on this head, and to give up + maxims, which are drawn from historical facts, for those, + which are the result of speculation. He may observe here, + that whether government was a <i>contract</i> or not, it + will not affect the reasoning of the present Essay; since + where ever the contract is afterwards mentioned, it is + inferred only that its object was "the <i>happiness of the + people</i>," which is confessedly the end of government. + Notwithstanding this, he is under the necessity of + inserting this little note, though he almost feels himself + ungrateful in contradicting a work, which has afforded him + so much entertainment. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_043"></a><a href="#FNanchor043">[043]</a> + <blockquote> + <i>Jure Gentium</i> servi nostri sunt, qui ab hostibus + capiuntur. Justinian, L. 1. 5. 5. 1. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_044"></a><a href="#FNanchor044">[044]</a> + <blockquote> + <i>Serverum</i> appellatio ex eo fluxit, quod imperatores + nostri captivos vendere, ac per hoc <i>servare</i>, nec + occidere solent. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_045"></a><a href="#FNanchor045">[045]</a> + <blockquote> + Nam sive victoribus <i>jure captivitatis</i> servissent, + &c. Justin, L. 4. 3. et passim apud scriptores + antiquos. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_046"></a><a href="#FNanchor046">[046]</a> + <blockquote> + Neque est contra naturam spoliare eum, si possis, quem + honestum est necare. Cicero de officiis. L. 3. 6. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_047"></a><a href="#FNanchor047">[047]</a> + <blockquote> + 1. Ut liberi suis legibus viverent. Livy, L. 30. 37.<br> + 2. Decem millia talentum argenti descripta pensionibus + æquis in annos quinquaginta solverent. Ibid.<br> + 3. Et naves rostratas, præter decem triremes, + traderent, elephantosque, quos haberent domitos; neque + domarent alios; Bellum neve in Africa, neve extra Africam, + injussu P. R. gererent, &c. Ibid. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_048"></a><a href="#FNanchor048">[048]</a> + <blockquote> + The total annual exportation from Africa, is estimated here + at 100,000 men, two thirds of whom are exported by the + British merchants alone. This estimate is less than that + which is usually made, and has been published. The author + has been informed by disinterested people, who were in most + of the West India islands during the late war, and who + conversed with many of the most intelligent of the negroes, + for the purpose of inquiring by what methods they had + originally been reduced to slavery, that they did not find + even two in twenty, who had been reduced to that situation, + by any other means than those mentioned above. The author, + desirous of a farther confirmation of this circumstance, + stopped the press till he had written to another friend, + who had resided twenty years in the West-Indies, and whose + opinion he had not yet asked. The following is an extract + from the answer. "I do not among many hundreds recollect to + have seen but one or two slaves, of those imported from + Africa, who had any scars to shew, that they had been in + war. They are generally such as are kidnapped, or sold by + their tyrants, after the destruction of a village. In + short, I am firmly of opinion, that crimes and war together + do not furnish one slave in an hundred of the numbers + introduced into the European colonies. Of consequence the + trade itself, were it possible to suppose convicts or + prisoners of war to be justly sentenced to servitude, is + accountable for ninety-nine in every hundred slaves, whom + it supplies. It an insult to the publick, to attempt to + palliate the method of procuring them." + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_049"></a><a href="#FNanchor049">[049]</a> + <blockquote> + The writer of the letter of which this is a faithful + extract, and who was known to the author of the present + Essay, was a long time on the African coast. He had once + the misfortune to be shipwrecked there, and to be taken by + the natives, who conveyed him and his companions a + considerable way up into the country. The hardships which + he underwent in the march, his treatment during his + captivity, the scenes to which he was witness, while he + resided among the inland Africans, as well as while in the + African trade, gave occasion to a series of very + interesting letters. These letters were sent to the author + of the present Essay, with liberty to make what use of them + he chose, by the gentleman to whom they were written. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_050"></a><a href="#FNanchor050">[050]</a> + <blockquote> + Were this not the case, the government of a country could + have no right to take cognizance of crimes, and punish + them, but every individual, if injured, would have a right + to punish the aggressor with his own hand, which is + contrary to the notions of all civilized men, whether among + the ancients or the moderns. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_051"></a><a href="#FNanchor051">[051]</a> + <blockquote> + This same notion is entertained even by the African + princes, who do not permit the person injured to revenge + his injury, or to receive the convict as his slave. But if + the very person who has been <i>injured</i>, does not + possess him, much less ought any other person whatsoever. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_052"></a><a href="#FNanchor052">[052]</a> + <blockquote> + There are instances on the African continent, of + <i>parents</i> selling their <i>children</i>. As the slaves + of this description are so few, and are so irregularly + obtained, we did not think it worth our while to consider + them as forming an order; and, as God never gave the parent + a power over his child to make him <i>miserable</i>, we + trust that any farther mention of them will be unnecessary. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_053"></a><a href="#FNanchor053">[053]</a> + <blockquote> + Abbè Raynal, Hist. Phil. vol. 4. P. 154. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_054"></a><a href="#FNanchor054">[054]</a> + <blockquote> + Justin, L. 2. C. 1. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_055"></a><a href="#FNanchor055">[055]</a> + <blockquote> + Cicero de Officiis. L. 1. C. 8. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_056"></a><a href="#FNanchor056">[056]</a> + <blockquote> + It is universally allowed, that at least one fifth of the + exported negroes perish in the passage. This estimate is + made from the time in which they are put on board, to the + time when they are disposed of in the colonies. The French + are supposed to lose the greatest number in the voyage, but + particularly from this circumstance, because their slave + ships are in general so very large, that many of the slaves + that have been put on board sickly, die before the cargo + can be completed. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_057"></a><a href="#FNanchor057">[057]</a> + <blockquote> + This instance happened in a ship, commanded by one + Collingwood. On the 29th of November, 1781, fifty-four of + them were thrown into the sea alive; on the 30th forty-two + more; and in about three days afterwards, twenty-six. Ten + others, who were brought upon the deck for the same + purpose, did not wait to be hand-cuffed, but bravely leaped + into the sea, and shared the fate of their companions. It + is a fact, that the people on board this ship had not been + put upon short allowance. The excuse which this execrable + wretch made on board for his conduct, was the following, + "<i>that if the slaves, who were then sickly, had died a + natural death, the loss would have been the owners; but as + they were thrown alive into the sea, it would fall upon the + underwriters</i>." + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_058"></a><a href="#FNanchor058">[058]</a> + <blockquote> + This gentleman is at present resident in England. The + author of this Essay applied to him for some information on + the treatment of slaves, so far as his own knowledge was + concerned. He was so obliging as to furnish him with the + written account alluded to, interspersed only with such + instances, as he himself could undertake to answer for. The + author, as he has never met with these instances before, + and as they are of such high authority, intends to + transcribe two or three of them, and insert them in the + fourth chapter. They will be found in inverted commas. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_059"></a><a href="#FNanchor059">[059]</a> + <blockquote> + One third of the whole number imported, is often computed + to be lost in the seasoning, which, in round numbers, will + be 27000. The loss in the seasoning depends, in a great + measure, on two circumstances, viz. on the number of what + are called refuse slaves that are imported, and on the + quantity of new land in the colony. In the French windward + islands of Martinico, and Guadaloupe, which are cleared and + highly cultivated, and in our old small islands, one + fourth, including refuse slaves, is considered as a general + proportion. But in St. Domingo, where there is a great deal + of new land annually taken into culture, and in other + colonies in the same situation, the general proportion, + including refuse slaves, is found to be one third. This + therefore is a lower estimate than the former, and reduces + the number to about 23000. We may observe, that this is the + common estimate, but we have reduced it to 20000 to make it + free from all objection. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_060"></a><a href="#FNanchor060">[060]</a> + <blockquote> + Including the number that perish on the voyage, and in the + seasoning. It is generally thought that not half the number + purchased can be considered as an additional stock, and of + course that 50,000 are consumed within the first two years + from their embarkation. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_061"></a><a href="#FNanchor061">[061]</a> + <blockquote> + That part of the account, that has been hitherto given, + extends to all the Europeans and their colonists, who are + concerned in this horrid practice. But we are sorry that we + must now make a distinction, and confine the remaining + part, of it to the colonists of the British West India + islands, and to those of the southern provinces of North + America. As the employment of slaves is different in the + two parts of the world last mentioned, we shall content + ourselves with describing it, as it exists in one of them, + and we shall afterwards annex such treatment and such + consequences as are applicable to both. We have only to + add, that the reader must not consider our account as + <i>universally</i>, but only generally, true. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_062"></a><a href="#FNanchor062">[062]</a> + <blockquote> + This computation is made on a supposition, that the gang is + divided into three bodies; we call it therefore moderate, + because the gang is frequently divided into two bodies, + which must therefore set up alternately <i>every other + night</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_063"></a><a href="#FNanchor063">[063]</a> + <blockquote> + An hand or arm being frequently ground off. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_064"></a><a href="#FNanchor064">[064]</a> + <blockquote> + The reader will scarcely believe it, but it is a fact, that + a slave's annual allowance from his master, for provisions, + clothing, medicines when sick, &c. is limited, upon an + average, to thirty shillings. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_065"></a><a href="#FNanchor065">[065]</a> + <blockquote> + "A boy having received six slaves as a present from his + father, immediately slit their ears, and for the following + reason, that as his father was a whimsical man, he might + claim them again, unless they were marked." We do not + mention this instance as a confirmation of the passage to + which it is annexed, but only to shew, how cautious we + ought to be in giving credit to what may be advanced in any + work written in defence of slavery, by any native of the + colonies: for being trained up to scenes of cruelty from + his cradle, he may, consistently with his own feelings, + represent that treatment as mild, at which we, who have + never been used to see them, should absolutely shudder. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_066"></a><a href="#FNanchor066">[066]</a> + <blockquote> + In this case he is considered as a criminal against the + state. The <i>marshal</i>, an officer answering to our + sheriff, superintends his execution, and the master + receives the value of the slave from the publick treasury. + We may observe here, that in all cases where the delinquent + is a criminal of the state, he is executed, and his value + is received in the same manner; He is tried and condemned + by two or three justices of the peace, and without any + intervention of a <i>jury</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_067"></a><a href="#FNanchor067">[067]</a> + <blockquote> + Particularly in Jamaica. These observations were made by + disinterested people, who were there for three or four + years during the late war. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_068"></a><a href="#FNanchor068">[068]</a> + <blockquote> + The action was brought by the owners against the + underwriters, to recover the value of the <i>murdered</i> + slaves. It was tried at Guildhall. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_069"></a><a href="#FNanchor069">[069]</a> + <blockquote> + Phillis Wheatley, negro slave to Mr. John Wheatley, of + Boston, in New-England. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_070"></a><a href="#FNanchor070">[070]</a> + <blockquote> + Lest it should be doubted whether these Poems are genuine, + we shall transcribe the names of those, who signed a + certificate of their authenticity.<br> + <br> + His Excellency Thomas Hutchinson, Governor.<br> + The Honourable Andrew Oliver, Lieutenant Governor.<br> + <br> + <br> + <br> + The Hon. Thomas Hubbard<br> + The Hon. John Erving<br> + The Hon. James Pitts<br> + The Hon. Harrison Gray<br> + The Hon. James Bowdoin<br> + John Hancock, Esq.<br> + Joseph Green, Esq.<br> + Richard Carey, Esq.<br> + The Rev. Cha. Chauncy, D.D.<br> + The Rev. Mather Byles, D.D.<br> + The Rev. Ed. Pemberton, D.D.<br> + The Rev. Andrew Elliot, D.D.<br> + The Rev. Sam. Cooper, D.D.<br> + The Rev. Samuel Mather<br> + The Rev. John Moorhead<br> + Mr. John Wheatley, her Master.<br> + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_071"></a><a href="#FNanchor071">[071]</a> + <blockquote> + In the Preface. + </blockquote> + <br> + <br> + <a name="Footnote_072"></a><a href="#FNanchor072">[072]</a> + <blockquote> + As to Mr. Hume's assertions with respect to African + capacity, we have passed them over in silence, as they have + been so admirably refuted by the learned Dr. Beattie, in + his Essay on Truth, to which we refer the reader. The whole + of this admirable refutation extends from p. 458. to 464. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_073"></a><a href="#FNanchor073">[073]</a> + <blockquote> + Genesis, ch. iv. 15. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_074"></a><a href="#FNanchor074">[074]</a> + <blockquote> + Genesis, ch. ix. 25, 26, 27. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_075"></a><a href="#FNanchor075">[075]</a> + <blockquote> + Jeremiah says, ch. xiii. 23, "Can the Æthiopian + change his colour, or the leopard his spots?" Now the word, + which is here translated <i>Æthiopian</i>, is in the + original Hebrew "<i>the descendant of Cush</i>," which + shews that this colour was not confined to the descendants + of <i>Canaan</i>, as the advocates for slavery assert. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_076"></a><a href="#FNanchor076">[076]</a> + <blockquote> + It is very extraordinary that the advocates for slavery + should consider those Africans, whom they call negroes, as + the descendants of <i>Canaan</i>, when few historical facts + can be so well ascertained, as that out of the descendants + of the four sons of Ham, the descendants of Canaan were the + only people, (if we except the Carthaginians, who were a + colony of Canaan, and were afterwards ruined) who did not + settle in that quarter of the globe. Africa was + incontrovertibly peopled by the posterity of the three + other sons. We cannot shew this in a clearer manner, than + in the words of the learned Mr. Bryant, in his letter to + Mr. Granville Sharp on this subject.<br> + <br> + "We learn from scripture, that Ham had four sons, <i>Chus, + Mizraim, Phut</i>, and <i>Canaan</i>, Gen. x. 5, 6. + <i>Canaan</i> occupied <i>Palestine</i>, and the country + called by his name: <i>Mizraim, Egypt</i>: but <i>Phut</i> + passed deep into <i>Africa</i>, and, I believe, most of the + nations in that part of the world are descended from him; + at least more than from any other person." <i>Josephus</i> + says, "<i>that Phut was the founder of the nations in + Libya, and the people were from him called (phoutoi) + Phuti</i>." Antiq. L. 1. c. 7. "By <i>Lybia</i> he + understands, as the <i>Greeks</i> did, <i>Africa</i> in + general: for the particular country called <i>Lybia + Proper</i>, was peopled by the <i>Lubim</i>, or + <i>Lehabim</i>, one of the branches from <i>Mizraim</i>, + (Labieim ex ou Libnes) Chron. Paschale, p. 29.<br> + <br> + "The sons of <i>Phut</i> settled in <i>Mauritania</i>, + where was a country called <i>Phutia</i>, and a river of + the like denomination. Mauritaniæ Fluvius usque ad + præsens Tempus <i>Phut</i> dicitur, omnisq; circa eum + Regio <i>Phutensis</i>. Hieron. Tradit. + Hebroeæ.-Amnem, quem vocant <i>Fut</i>." Pliny, L. 5. + c. 1. Some of this family settled above Ægypt, near + Æthiopia, and were styled Troglodytæ. (phoud ex + ou troglodotai.) Syncellus, p. 47. Many of them passed + inland, and peopled the Mediterranean country."<br> + <br> + "In process of time the sons of <i>Chus</i> also, (after + their expulsion from Egypt) made settlements upon the sea + coast of <i>Africa</i>, and came into <i>Mauritania</i>. + Hence we find traces of them also in the names of places, + such as <i>Churis, Chusares</i>, upon the coast: and a + river <i>Chusa</i>, and a city <i>Cotta</i>, together with + a promontory, <i>Cotis</i>, in <i>Mauritania</i>, all + denominated from <i>Chus</i>; who at different times, and + by different people, was called <i>Chus, Cuth, Cosh</i>, + and <i>Cotis</i>. The river <i>Cusa</i> is mentioned by + <i>Pliny</i>, Lib. 5. c. 1. and by <i>Ptolomy</i>."<br> + <br> + "Many ages after these settlements, there was another + eruption of the <i>Cushites</i> into these parts, under the + name of <i>Saracens</i> and <i>Moors</i>, who over-ran + <i>Africa</i>, to the very extremity of Mount Atlas. They + passed over and conquered <i>Spain</i> to the north, and + they extended themselves southward, as I said in my + treatise, to the rivers <i>Senegal</i> and <i>Gambia</i>, + and as low as the <i>Gold Coast</i>. I mentioned this, + because I do not think that they proceeded much farther: + most of the nations to the <i>south</i> being, as I + imagine, of the race of <i>Phut</i>. The very country upon + the river <i>Gambia</i> on one side, is at this day called + <i>Phuta</i>, of which <i>Bluet</i>, in his history of + <i>Juba Ben Solomon</i>, gives an account." + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_077"></a><a href="#FNanchor077">[077]</a> + <blockquote> + When America was first discovered, it was thought by some, + that the scripture account of the creation was false, and + that there were different species of men, because they + could never suppose that people, in so rude a state as the + Americans, could have transported themselves to that + continent from any parts of the known world. This opinion + however was refuted by the celebrated Captain Cooke, who + shewed that the traject between the continents of Asia and + America, was as short as some, which people in as rude a + state have been actually known to pass. This affords an + excellent caution against an ill-judged and hasty censure + of the divine writings, because every difficulty which may + be started, cannot be instantly cleared up. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_078"></a><a href="#FNanchor078">[078]</a> + <blockquote> + The divine writings, which assert that all men were derived + from the <i>same stock</i>, shew also, in the same instance + of <i>Cush</i>, (Footnote 075), that some of them had + changed their original complexion. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_079"></a><a href="#FNanchor079">[079]</a> + <blockquote> + The following are the grand colours discernible in mankind, + between which there are many shades;<br> + <br> + <tt>White } { Copper<br> + } -Olive- {<br> + Brown } { Black<br> + </tt> + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_080"></a><a href="#FNanchor080">[080]</a> + <blockquote> + See note, (Footnote 075). To this we may add, that the rest + of the descendants of <i>Ham</i>, as far as they can be + traced, are now also black, at well as many of the + descendants of <i>Shem</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_081"></a><a href="#FNanchor081">[081]</a> + <blockquote> + Diseases have a great effect upon the <i>mucosum + corpus</i>, but particularly the jaundice, which turns it + yellow. Hence, being transmitted through the cuticle, the + yellow appearance of the whole body. But this, even as a + matter of ocular demonstration, is not confined solely to + white people; negroes themselves, while affected with these + or other disorders, changing their black colour for that + which the disease has conveyed to the <i>mucous</i> + substance. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_082"></a><a href="#FNanchor082">[082]</a> + <blockquote> + The cutaneous pores are so excessively small, that one + grain of sand, (according to Dr. Lewenhoeck's calculations) + would cover many hundreds of them. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_083"></a><a href="#FNanchor083">[083]</a> + <blockquote> + We do not mean to insinuate that the same people have their + <i>corpus mucosum</i> sensibly vary, as often as they go + into another latitude, but that the fact is true only of + different people, who have been long established in + different latitudes. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_084"></a><a href="#FNanchor084">[084]</a> + <blockquote> + We beg leave to return our thanks here to a gentleman, + eminent in the medical line, who furnished us with the + above-mentioned facts. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_085"></a><a href="#FNanchor085">[085]</a> + <blockquote> + Suppose we were to see two nations, contiguous to each + other, of black and white inhabitants in the same parallel, + even this would be no objection, for many circumstances are + to be considered. A black people may have wandered into a + white, and a white people into a black latitude, and they + may not have been settled there a sufficient length of time + for such a change to have been accomplished in their + complexion, as that they should be like the old established + inhabitants of the parallel, into which they have lately + come. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_086"></a><a href="#FNanchor086">[086]</a> + <blockquote> + Justamond's Abbe Raynal, v. 5. p. 193. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_087"></a><a href="#FNanchor087">[087]</a> + <blockquote> + The author of this Essay made it his business to inquire of + the most intelligent of those, whom he could meet with in + London, as to the authenticity of the fact. All those from + <i>America</i> assured him that it was strictly true; those + from the West-Indies, that they had never observed it + there; but that they had found a sensible difference in + themselves since they came to England. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_088"></a><a href="#FNanchor088">[088]</a> + <blockquote> + This circumstance, which always happens, shews that they + are descended from the same parents as ourselves; for had + they been a distinct species of men, and the blackness + entirely ingrafted in their constitution and frame, there + is great reason to presume, that their children would have + been born <i>black</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_089"></a><a href="#FNanchor089">[089]</a> + <blockquote> + This observation was communicated to us by the gentleman in + the medical line, to whom we returned our thanks for + certain anatomical facts. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_090"></a><a href="#FNanchor090">[090]</a> + <blockquote> + Philos. Trans. No. 476. sect. 4. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_091"></a><a href="#FNanchor091">[091]</a> + <blockquote> + Treatise upon the Trade from Great Britain to Africa, by an + African merchant. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_092"></a><a href="#FNanchor092">[092]</a> + <blockquote> + We mean such only as are <i>natives</i> of the countries + which we mention, and whose ancestors have been settled + there for a certain period of time. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_093"></a><a href="#FNanchor093">[093]</a> + <blockquote> + Herodotus. Euterpe. p. 80. Editio Stephani, printed 1570. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_094"></a><a href="#FNanchor094">[094]</a> + <blockquote> + This circumstance confirms what we said in a former note, + (Footnote 085), that even if two nations were to be found + in the same parallel, one of whom was black, and the other + white, it would form no objection against the hypothesis of + climate, as one of them might have been new settlers from a + distant country. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_095"></a><a href="#FNanchor095">[095]</a> + <blockquote> + Suppose, without the knowledge of any historian, they had + made such considerable conquests, as to have settled + themselves at the distance of 1000 miles in any one + direction from <i>Colchis</i>, still they must have changed + their colour. For had they gone in an Eastern or Western + direction, they must have been of the same colour as the + <i>Circassians</i>; if to the north, whiter; if to the + south, of a copper. There are no people within that + distance of <i>Colchis</i>, who are black. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_096"></a><a href="#FNanchor096">[096]</a> + <blockquote> + There are a particular people among those transported from + Africa to the colonies, who immediately on receiving + punishment, destroy themselves. This is a fact which the + <i>receivers</i> are unable to contradict. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_097"></a><a href="#FNanchor097">[097]</a> + <blockquote> + The articles of war are frequently read at the head of + every regiment in the service, stating those particular + actions which are to be considered as crimes. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_098"></a><a href="#FNanchor098">[098]</a> + <blockquote> + We cannot omit here to mention one of the customs, which + has been often brought as a palliation of slavery, and + which prevailed but a little time ago, and we are doubtful + whether it does not prevail now, in the metropolis of this + country, of kidnapping men for the service of the + East-India Company. Every subject, as long as he behaves + well, has a right to the protection of government; and the + tacit permission of such a scene of iniquity, when it + becomes known, is as much a breach of duty in government, + as the conduct of those subjects, who, on other occasions, + would be termed, and punished as, rebellious. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_099"></a><a href="#FNanchor099">[099]</a> + <blockquote> + The expences of every parish are defrayed by a poll-tax on + negroes, to save which they pretend to liberate those who + are past labour; but they still keep them employed in + repairing fences, or in doing some trifling work on a + scanty allowance. For to free a <i>field-negroe</i>, so + long as he can work, is a maxim, which, notwithstanding the + numerous boasted manumissions, no master <i>ever thinks of + adopting</i> in the colonies. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor100">[100]</a> + <blockquote> + They must be cultivated always on a <i>Sunday</i>, and + frequently in those hours which should be appropriated to + <i>sleep</i>, or the wretched possessors must be inevitably + <i>starved</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor101">[101]</a> + <blockquote> + They are allowed in general three holy-days at Christmas, + but in Jamaica they have two also at Easter, and two at + Whitsuntide: so that on the largest scale, they have only + seven days in a year, or one day in fifty-two. But this is + on a supposition, that the receivers do not break in upon + the afternoons, which they are frequently too apt to do. If + it should be said that Sunday is an holy-day, it is not + true; it is so far an holy-day, that they do not work for + their masters; but such an holy-day, that if they do not + employ it in the cultivation of their little spots, they + must <i>starved</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor102">[102]</a> + <blockquote> + These dances are usually in the middle of the night; and so + desirous are these unfortunate people of obtaining but a + joyful hour, that they not only often give up their sleep, + but add to the labours of the day, by going several miles + to obtain it. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor103">[103]</a> + <blockquote> + Bishop of Glocester's sermon, preached before the society + for the propagation of the gospel, at the anniversary + meeting, on the 21st of February, 1766. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor104">[104]</a> + <blockquote> + There is a law, (but let the reader remark, that it + prevails but in <i>one</i> of the colonies), against + mutilation. It took its rise from the frequency of the + inhuman practice. But though a master cannot there chop off + the limb of a slave with an axe, he may yet work, starve, + and beat him to death with impunity. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor105">[105]</a> + <blockquote> + <i>Two</i> instances are recorded by the <i>receivers</i>, + out of about <i>fifty-thousand</i>, where a white man has + suffered death for the murder of a negroe; but the + receivers do not tell us, that these suffered more because + they were the pests of society, than because the <i>murder + of slaves was a crime</i>. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor106">[106]</a> + <blockquote> + A negroe-funeral is considered as a curious sight, and is + attended with singing, dancing, musick, and every + circumstance that can shew the attendants to be happy on + the occasion. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor107">[107]</a> + <blockquote> + In 96 years, ending in 1774, 800,000 slaves had been + imported into the French part of St. Domingo, of which + there remained only 290,000 in 1774. Of this last number + only 140,000 were creoles, or natives of the island, i. e. + of 650,000 slaves, the whole posterity were 140,000. + <i>Considerations sur la Colonie de St. Dominique</i>,(See + errata-should be read as "<i>St. Domingue</i>") published + by authority in 1777. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor108">[108]</a> + <blockquote> + Ten thousand people under fair advantages, and in a soil + congenial to their constitutions, and where the means of + subsistence are easy, should produce in a century 160,000. + This is the proportion in which the Americans increased; + and the Africans in their own country increase in the same, + if not in a greater proportion. Now as the climate of the + colonies is as favourable to their health as that of their + own country, the causes of the prodigious decrease in the + one, and increase in the other, will be more conspicuous. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor109">[109]</a> + <blockquote> + See Part II Chapter I second paragraph. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor110">[110]</a> + <blockquote> + See Part II Chapter IX last paragraph. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor111">[111]</a> + <blockquote> + Epist. to Philemon. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor112">[112]</a> + <blockquote> + The <i>African</i> slave is of this description; and we + could wish, in all our arguments on the present subject, to + be understood as having spoken only of <i>proper + slaves</i>. The slave who is condemned to the oar, to the + fortifications, and other publick works, is in a different + predicament. His liberty is not <i>appropriated</i>, and + therefore none of those consequences can be justly drawn, + which have been deduced in the present case. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor113">[113]</a> + <blockquote> + See the description of an African battle (Footnote 049). + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor114">[114]</a> + <blockquote> + The lowest computation is 40,000, (Footnote 060). + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor115">[115]</a> + <blockquote> + The legislature has squandered away more money in the + prosecution of the slave trade, within twenty years, than + in any other trade whatever, having granted from the year + 1750, to the year 1770, the sum of 300,000 pounds. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor116">[116]</a> + <blockquote> + Sermon preached before the University of Cambridge, by the + Rev. Peter Peckard. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor117">[117]</a> + <blockquote> + The first noted earthquake at Jamaica, happened June the + 7th 1692, when Port Royal was totally sunk. This was + succeeded by one in the year 1697, and by another in the + year 1722, from which time to the present, these regions of + the globe seem to have been severely visited, but + particularly during the last six or seven years. See a + general account of the calamities, occasioned by the late + tremendous hurricanes and earthquakes in the West-Indian + islands, by Mr. Fowler. + </blockquote> + <a name="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor118">[118]</a> + <blockquote> + The many ships of war belonging to the British navy, which + were lost with all their crews in these dreadful + hurricanes, will sufficiently prove the fact. + </blockquote> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + <h3> + Publisher's Commendations + </h3> + <a name="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor119">[119]</a> + <blockquote> + <p> + <br> + Books Printed and Sold by J. PHILLIPS,<br> + <br> + ESSAY on the TREATMENT and CONVERSION of<br> + AFRICAN SLAVES in the BRITISH Sugar Colonies.<br> + By the Rev. J. RAMSAY, Vicar of Teston in<br> + Kent, who resided many Years in the West-Indies.<br> + In One Volume, Octavo. Price 5s bound,<br> + or 4s in Boards.<br> + <br> + An INQUIRY into the Effects of putting a Stop<br> + to the African Slave Trade, and of granting Liberty<br> + to the Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies.<br> + By J. RAMSAY. Price 6d.<br> + <br> + A REPLY to the Personal Invectives and Objections<br> + contained in two Answers, published by<br> + certain anonymous Persons, to an Essay on the<br> + Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves, in<br> + the British Colonies. By JAMES RAMSAY. Price 2s.<br> + <br> + A LETTER from Capt. J.S. SMITH, to the<br> + Rev. Mr. HILL, on the State of the Negroe Slaves;<br> + to which are added an Introduction, and Remarks<br> + on Free Negroes, &c. by J. RAMSAY. Price 6d.<br> + <br> + THOUGHTS on the Slavery of the Negroes.<br> + Price 4d.<br> + <br> + The CASE of our Fellow-Creatures, the Oppressed<br> + Africans, respectfully recommended to the serious<br> + Consideration of the Legislature of Great-Britain,<br> + by the People called Quakers. Price 2d.<br> + <br> + A SERIOUS ADDRESS to the Rulers of America,<br> + on the Inconsistency of their Conduct respecting<br> + Slavery. Price 3d.<br> + <br> + A CAUTION to GREAT BRITAIN and her<br> + Colonies, in a short Representation of the calamitous<br> + State of the enslaved Negroes in the British<br> + Dominions. By ANTHONY BENEZET. Price 6d.<br> + <br> + A Description of Guinea, its Situation, Produce,<br> + and the general Disposition of its Inhabitants; with<br> + an Inquiry into the Rise and Progress of the Slave<br> + Trade, &c. By ANTHONY BENEZET. Bound 2s. 6d.<br> + </p> + </blockquote> + <br> + <br> + <hr class="c3"> + <br> + <br> + </td></tr> +</table> +</center> + + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10611 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |