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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+by William Wallace Blancke
+
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+Title: The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+
+Author: William Wallace Blancke
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9970]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on November 5, 2003]
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+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DRAMATIC VALUES IN PLAUTUS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+i"?University of Pennsylvania
+
+The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+
+By
+
+Wilton Wallace BlanckA(C), A.M., Ph.D.
+Professor of Latin in the Central High School of Philadelphia
+
+A Thesis
+
+Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School in partial fulfillment
+of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+Foreword
+
+
+
+This dissertation was written in 1916, before the entrance of the United
+States into The War, and was presented to the Faculty of the University of
+Pennsylvania as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Its
+publication at this time needs no apology, for it will find its only
+public in the circumscribed circle of professional scholars. They at least
+will understand that scholarship knows no nationality. But in the fear
+that this may fall under the eye of that larger public, whose interests
+are, properly enough, not scholastic, a word of explanation may prove a
+safeguard.
+
+The Germans have long been recognized as the hewers of wood and drawers of
+water of the intellectual world. For the results of the drudgery of minute
+research and laborious compilation, the scholar must perforce seek German
+sources. The copious citation of German authorities in this work is, then,
+the outcome of that necessity. I have, however, given due credit to German
+criticism, when it is sound. The French are, generically, vastly superior
+in the art of finely balanced critical estimation.
+
+My sincere thanks are due in particular to the Harrison Foundation of the
+University for the many advantages I have received therefrom, to
+Professors John C. Rolfe and Walton B. McDaniel, who have been both
+teachers and friends to me, and to my good comrades and colleagues,
+Francis H. Lee and Horace T. Boileau, for their aid in editing this essay.
+
+Wilton Wallace BlanckA(C).
+1918.
+
+
+
+
+Part 1
+
+A RA(C)sumA(C) of the Criticism and of the Evidence Relating to the Acting
+of Plautus
+
+
+
+
+Introduction
+
+
+
+This investigation was prompted by the abiding conviction that Plautus as
+a dramatic artist has been from time immemorial misunderstood. In his
+progress through the ages he has been like a merry clown rollicking
+amongst people with a hearty invitation to laughter, and has been rewarded
+by commendation for his services to morality and condemnation for his
+buffoonery. The majority of Plautine critics have evinced too serious an
+attitude of mind in dealing with a comic poet. However portentous and
+profound his scholarship, no one deficient in a sense of humor should
+venture to approach a comic poet in a spirit of criticism. For criticism
+means appreciation.
+
+Furthermore, the various estimates of our poet's worth have been as
+diversified as they have been in the main unfair. Alternately lauded as a
+master dramatic craftsman and vilified as a scurrilous purveyor of
+unsavory humor, he has been buffeted from the top to the bottom of the
+dramatic scale. More recent writers have been approaching a saner
+evaluation of his true worth, but never, we believe, has his real position
+in that dramatic scale been definitely and finally fixed; because
+heretofore no attempt has been made at a complete analysis of his
+dramatic, particularly his comic, methods. It is the aim of the present
+dissertation to accomplish this.
+
+I doubt not that from the inception of our acquaintance with the pages of
+Plautus we have all passed through a similar experience. In the beginning
+we have been vastly diverted by the quips and cranks and merry wiles of
+the knavish slave, the plaints of love-lorn youth, the impotent rage of
+the baffled pander, the fruitless growlings of the hungry parasite's
+belly. We have been amused, perhaps astonished, on further reading, at
+meeting our new-found friends in other plays, clothed in different names
+to be sure and supplied in part with a fresh stock of jests, but still
+engaged in the frustration of villainous panders, the cheating of harsh
+fathers, until all ends with virtue triumphant in the establishment of the
+undoubted respectability of a hitherto somewhat dubious female
+character.[1]
+
+Our astonishment waxes as we observe further the close correspondence of
+dialogue, situation and dramatic machinery. We are bewildered by the
+innumerable asides of hidden eavesdroppers, the inevitable recurrence of
+soliloquy and speech familiarly directed at the audience, while every once
+in so often a slave, desperately bent on finding someone actually under
+his nose, careens wildly cross the stage or rouses the echoes by
+unmerciful battering of doors, meanwhile unburdening himself of lengthy
+solo tirades with great gusto;[2] and all this dished up with a sauce of
+humor often too racy and piquant for our delicate twentieth-century
+palate, which has acquired a refined taste for suggestive innuendo, but
+never relishes calling a spade by its own name.
+
+If we have sought an explanation of our poet's gentle foibles in the
+commentaries to our college texts, we have assuredly been disappointed.
+Even to the seminarian in Plautus little satisfaction has been vouchsafed.
+We are often greeted by the enthusiastic comments of German critics, which
+run riot in elaborate analyses of plot and character and inform us that we
+are reading _Meisterwerke_ of comic drama.[3] Our perplexity has perhaps
+become focused upon two leading questions; first: "What manner of drama is
+this after all? Is it comedy, farce, opera bouffe or mere extravaganza?"
+Second: "How was it done? What was the technique of acting employed to
+represent in particular the peculiarly extravagant scenes?"[4]
+
+There is an interesting contrast between the published editions of Plautus
+and Bernard Shaw. Shaw's plays we find interlaced with an elaborate
+network of stage direction that enables us to visualize the movements of
+the characters even to extreme minutiae. In the text of Plautus we find
+nothing but the dialogue, and in the college editions only such
+editorially-inserted "stage-business" as is fairly evident from the spoken
+lines. The answer then to our second question: "How was it done?", at
+least does not lie on the surface of the text.
+
+For an adequate answer to both our questions the following elements are
+necessary; first: a digest of Plautine criticism; second: a rA(C)sumA(C) of the
+evidence as to original performances of the plays, including a
+consideration of the audience, the actors and of the gestures and
+stage-business employed by the latter; third: a critical analysis of the
+plays themselves, with a view to cataloguing Plautus' dramatic methods. We
+hope by these means to obtain a conclusive reply to both our leading
+questions.
+
+
+
+ASec.1. Critics of Plautus
+
+
+Plautine criticism has displayed many different angles. As in most things,
+time helps resolve the discrepancies. The general impression gleaned from
+a survey of the field is that in earlier times over-appreciation was the
+rule, which has gradually simmered down, with occasional outpourings of
+denunciation, to a healthier norm of estimation.
+
+Even in antiquity the wiseacres took our royal buffoon too seriously.
+Stylistically he was translated to the skies. [Sidenote: Cicero] Cicero[5]
+imputes to him "iocandi genus, ... elegans, urbanum, ingeniosum, facetum."
+[Sidenote: Aelius Stilo] Quintilian[6] quotes: "Licet Varro Musas Aelii
+Stilonis sententia Plautino dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si latine
+loqui vellent." [Sidenote: Gellius] The paean is further swelled by
+Gellius, who variously refers to our hero as "homo linguae atque
+elegantiae in verbis Latinae princeps,"[7] and "verborum Latinorum
+elegantissimus,"[8] and "linguae Latinae decus."[9] [Sidenote: Horace] If
+our poet is scored by Horace[10] it is probably due rather to Horace's
+affectation of contempt for the early poets than to his true convictions;
+or we may ascribe it to the sophisticated metricist's failure to realize
+the existence of a "Metrica Musa Pedestris." As Duff says (_A Literary
+History of Rome_, p. 197), "The scansion of Plautus was less understood in
+Cicero's day than that of Chaucer was in Johnson's." (Cf. Cic. _Or._ 55.
+184.)
+
+[Sidenote: Euanthius] We have somewhat of a reaction, too, against the
+earlier chorus of praise in the commentary of Euanthius,[11] who condemns
+Plautus' persistent use of direct address of the audience. If it is true,
+as Donatus[12] says later: "Comoediam esse Cicero ait imitationem vitae,
+speculum consuetudinis, imaginem veritatis," we find it hard to understand
+Cicero's enthusiatic praise of Plautus, as we hope to show that he is very
+far from measuring up to any such comic ideal as that laid down by Cicero
+himself.
+
+But of course these ancient critiques have no appreciable bearing on our
+argument and we cite them rather for historical interest and
+retrospect.[13] [Sidenote: Festus] [Sidenote: Brix] While Festus[14] makes
+a painful effort to explain the location of the mythical "Portus Persicus"
+mentioned in the _Amph._,[15] Brix[16] in modern times shows that there is
+no historical ground for the elaborate mythical genealogy in _Men._ 409
+ff. We contend that "Portus Persicus" is pure fiction, as our novelists
+refer fondly to "Zenda" or "Graustark," while the _Men._ passage is a
+patent burlesque of the tragic style.[17]
+
+[Sidenote: Becker] On the threshold of what we may term modern criticism
+of Plautus we find W.A. Becker, in 1837, writing a book: "De Comicis
+Romanorum Fabulis Maxime Plautinis Quaestiones." Herein, after deploring
+the neglect of Plautine criticism among his immediate predecessors and
+contemporaries, he attempts to prove that Plautus was a great "original"
+poet and dramatic artist. Surely no one today can be in sympathy with such
+a sentiment as the following (Becker, p. 95): "Et Trinummum, quae ita
+amabilibus lepidisque personis optimisque exemplis abundat, ut quoties eam
+lego, non comici me poetae, sed philosophi Socratici opus legere mihi
+videar." I believe we may safely call the _Trinummus_ the least Plautine
+of Plautine plays, except the _Captivi_, and it is by no means so good a
+work. The _Trinummus_ is crowded with interminable padded dialogue,
+tiresome moral preachments, and possesses a weakly motivated plot; a
+veritable "Sunday-school play."
+
+But Becker continues: "Sive enim <Plautus> seria agit et praecepta pleno
+effundit penu, ad quae componere vitarn oporteat; in sententiis quanta
+gravitas, orationis quanta vis, quam probe et meditate cum hominum ingenia
+moresque novisse omnia testantur." We feel sure that our Umbrian fun-maker
+would strut in public and laugh in private, could he hear such an encomium
+of his lofty moral aims. For it is our ultimate purpose to prove that
+fun-maker Plautus was primarily and well-nigh exclusively a fun-maker.
+
+[Sidenote: Weise] K. H. Weise, in "Die Komodien des Plautus, kritisch nach
+Inhalt und Form beleuchtet, zur Bestimmung des Echten und Unechten in den
+einzelnen Dichtungen" (Quedlinburg, 1866), follows hard on Becker's heels
+and places Plautus on a pinnacle of poetic achievement in which we
+scarcely recognize our apotheosized laugh-maker. Every passage in the
+plays that is not artistically immaculate, that does not conform to the
+uttermost canons of dramatic art, is unequivocally damned as "unecht." In
+his Introduction (p. 4) Weise is truly eloquent in painting the times and
+significance of our poet. With momentary insight he says: "Man hat an ihm
+eine immer frische und nie versiegende Fundgrabe des Achten Volkswitzes."
+But this is soon marred by utterances such as (p. 14): "FAnde sich also in
+der Zahl der Plautinischen Komodien eine Partie, die mit einer andern in
+diesen Hinsichten in bedeutendem Grade contrastirte, so konnte man sicher
+schliessen, dass beide nicht von demselben Verfasser sein kAnnten." He
+demands from Plautus, as _ein wahrer Poet_, "Congruenz, und richtige
+innere Logik <und> harmonische Construction" (p. 12), and finally declares
+(p. 22): "Interesse, Character, logischer Bau in der Zusammensetzung,
+Naturlichkeit der Sprache und des Witzes, Rythmus und antikes Idiom des
+Ausdrucks werden die Kriterien sein mussen, nach dem wir uber die
+Vortrefflichkeit und PlautinitAt plautinischer StA1/4cke zu entscheiden
+haben."
+
+On this basis he ruthlessly carves out and discards as "unecht" every
+passage that fails to conform to his amazing and extravagant ideals, in
+the belief that "der Achte Meister Plautus konnte nur Harmonisches, nur
+Vernunftiges, nur Logisches, nur relativ Richtiges dichten" (p. 79),
+though even Homer nods. The _Mercator_ is banned _in toto_. To be sure,
+Weise somewhat redeems himself by the statement (p. 29 f.): "Plautus
+bezweckte ... lediglich nur die eigentliche und wirksamste Belustigung des
+Publicums." But how he reconciles this with his previously quoted
+convictions and with the declaration (p. 16): "Plautus ist ein sehr
+religioser, sehr moralischer Schriftsteller," it is impossible to grasp,
+until we recall that the author is a German.
+
+[Sidenote: Langen] Such criticism stultifies itself and needs no
+refutation; certainly not here, as P. Langen in his _Plautinische Studien_
+(_Berliner Studien_, 1886; pp. 90-91) has conclusively proved that the
+inconsistent is a feature absolutely germane to Plautine style, and has
+collected an overwhelming mass of "Widerspruche, Inkonsequenzen und
+psychologische Unwahrscheinlichkeiten" that would question the
+"Plautinity" of every other line, were we to follow Weise's precepts.
+Langen too uses the knife, but with a certain judicious restraint.
+
+We insist that the attempt to explain away every inconsistency as spurious
+is a sorry refuge.
+
+[Sidenote: Langrehr] Langrehr in _Miscellanea Philologica_ (Gottingen,
+1876), under the caption _Plautina_[18] gives vent to further solemn
+Teutonic carpings at the plot of the _Epidicus_ and argues the play a
+_contaminatio_ on the basis of the double intrigue. He is much exercised
+too over the mysterious episode of 'the disappearing flute-girl.'
+
+Langen, who is in the main remarkably sane, refutes these conclusions
+neatly.[19] How Weise and his confrA"res argue Plautus such a super-poet,
+in view of the life and education of the public to whom he catered, let
+alone the evidence of the plays themselves, and their author's status as
+mere translator and adapter, must remain an insoluble mystery. The simple
+truth is that a playwright such as Plautus, having undertaken to feed a
+populace hungry for amusement, ground out plays (doubtless for a
+living),[20] with a wholesome disregard for niceties of composition,
+provided only he obtained his _sine qua non_--the laugh.[21]
+
+[Sidenote: Lessing] In our citation of opinions we must not overlook that
+impressive mile-stone in the history of criticism, the discredited but
+still great Lessing. In his "Abhandlung von dem Leben und den Werken des
+M. Accius Plautus" Lessing deprecates the harsh judgment of Horace and
+later detractors of our poet in modern times. Lessing idealizes him as the
+matchless comic poet. That the _Captivi_ is "das vortrefflichste StA1/4ck,
+welches jemals auf den Schauplatz gekommen ist," as Lessing declares in
+the Preface to his translation of the play, is an utterance that leaves us
+gasping.
+
+[Sidenote: Dacier] But Lessing's idea of the purpose of comedy is a
+combination of Aristotelian and mid-Victorian ideals: "die Sitten der
+Zuschauer zu bilden und zu bessern, ... wenn sie nAmlich das Laster
+allezeit unglA1/4cklich und die Tugend am Ende glA1/4cklich sein lAsst."[22] It
+is on the basis of this premise that he awards the comic crown to the
+_Cap._[23] His extravagant encomium called forth from a contemporary a
+long controversial letter which Lessing published in the second edition
+with a reply so feeble that he distinctly leaves his adversary the honors
+of the field. How much better the diagnosis of Madame Dacier, who is
+quoted by Lessing! In the introduction to her translations of the
+_Amphitruo_, _Rudens_ and _Epidicus_ (issued in 1683), she apologizes for
+Plautus on the ground that he had to win approval for his comedies from an
+audience used to the ribaldry of the _Saturae_.
+
+[Sidenote: Lorenz] Lorenz in his introductions to editions of the _Most._
+and _Pseud._ is another who seems to be carried away by the unrestrained
+enthusiasm that often affects scholars oversteeped in the lore of their
+author. Faults are dismissed as merely "Kleine Unwahrscheinlichkeiten"
+(Introd. _Ps._, p. 26, N. 25.) "Jeder Leser," says he, "<wird gewiss>
+darin beistimmen, dass ... der erste Act <des _Pseudolus_> eine so
+gelungene Exposition darbietet, wie sie die dramatische Poesie nur
+aufweisen kann." Such a statement must fall, by weight of exaggeration. In
+appreciation of the portrayal of the name-part he continues: "Mit welch'
+A1/4berwAltigender Herrschaft tritt hier gleich die meisterhaft geschilderte
+Hauptperson hervor! Welche packende Kraft, welche hinreissende _verve_
+liegt in dem reichen Dialoge, der wie beseelt von der feurigen Energie des
+begabten Menschen, der ihn lenkt, frAhlich rauschend dahin eilt,
+A1/4bersprudelnd von einer Fulle erheiternder Scherze und schillernder
+Spielereien!"
+
+In curious contrast to this fulsome outpouring stands the expressed belief
+of Lamarre[24] that the character of Ballio overshadows that of Pseudolus.
+In support of this view he cites Cicero (_Pro Ros. Com._ 7.20), who
+mentions that Roscius chose to play Ballio.
+
+Lorenz in his enthusiasm exalts the _Epid._ to an ideal of comic
+excellence (Introd. _Ps._ p. 27). He even goes so far as to contend that
+Plautus lives up to the following characterization:[25] "Nicht blos durch
+naturgetreue and lebhafte Charakterschilderungen und durch eine komisch
+gehaltene, aber die Grenzen des Wahrscheinlichen und des GraziAsen nicht
+A1/4berschreitende Zeichnung des tAglichen Lebens soll der Dichter des
+Lustspiels seine Zuschauer interessiren und ihr heiteres GelAchter
+hervorrufen, sondern auch so reiche Anwendung zu geben, durch die es in
+den Dienst einer sittlichen Idee tritt, und so gleichsam die moralische
+AtmosphAre ... zu reinigen."
+
+Such emotional superlatives merely create in the reader a cachinnatory
+revulsion. Yes, Plautus was great, but he was great in a far different
+way. He approached the Rabelaisian. It is doubtful if "die Grenzen des
+GraziAsen" lay within his purview at all.
+
+[Sidenote: Lamarre] The treatment of Lamarre cited above contains[26] a
+highly meritorious analysis of the Plautine characters, discussed largely
+as a reflection of the times and people, both of New Comedy and of
+Plautus, without imputing to our poet too serious motives of subtle
+portrayal. But he too ascribes to Plautus a latent moral purpose: "En
+faisant rire, il veut corriger"![27]
+
+[Sidenote: Naudet] This sounds ominously like an echo from Naudet[28] who,
+in the course of lauding Plautus' infinite invention and variety of
+embroidery, would translate him into a zealous social reformer by saying:
+"L'auteur se proposait de faire beaucoup rire les spectateurs, mais il
+voulait aussi qu'ils se corrigeassent en riant." All this is
+disappointing. We should have expected Gallic esprit to rise superior to
+such banality.
+
+[Sidenote: LeGrand] The celebrity of French criticism is somewhat redeemed
+by LeGrand in his monumental work entitled _Daos Tableau de la comedie
+grecque pendant la periode dite nouvelle_ (Annales de l'UniversitA(C) de
+Lyon, 1910), in the conclusion to the chapter on 'Intentions didactiques
+et valeur morale' (Part III, Chap. I, page 583): "Tout compte fait, au
+point de vue moral, la I1/2I-I+- dut Atre inoffensive (en son temps)." This is
+the culmination of a calm, dispassionate discussion and analysis of the
+extant remains of New Comedy and _Palliatae_.
+
+Even Ritschl fails to escape the taint of degrading Plautus to the status
+of a petty moralizer[29]. In particular, he lauds the _Aul_ unreservedly
+as a _chef d'oeuvre_ of character delineation and pronounces it
+immeasurably superior to MoliA"re's imitation, "L'Avare."[30] This whole
+critique, while interesting, falls into the prevailing trend of imputing
+to Plautus far too high a plane of dramatic artistry.[31]
+
+[Sidenote: Langen] Indeed, Langen has already scored Ritschl on this very
+point in remarking[32] that Ritschl's condemnation of an alleged defect in
+the _Cas_[33] implies much too favorable an estimate of Plautus' artistic
+worth, as the defects cited are represented as something isolated and
+remarkable, whereas they are characteristic of Plautine comedy. Langen
+still displays clear-headed judgment when he says of the _Miles_[34]:
+"Wenn die Farben so stark aufgetragen werden, hort jede Feinhet der
+Charakterzeichnung auf und bereinem Dichter, der sich dies gestattet, darf
+man bezuglich der Charakterschilderungen nicht zu viele Anspruche machen.
+Es ist sehr wahrscheinlich dass Plautus mit Rucksicht auf den Geschmack
+_eines_ Publikums die Zuge des Originals sehr vergrobert hat."
+
+But Langen fails to follow this splendid lead. Without taking advantage of
+the license that he himself offers the poet, he severely condemns[35], the
+scene in which Periplecomenus shouts out to Philocomasium so loudly that
+the soldier's household could not conceivably help hearing, whereas he is
+supposed to be conveying secret information.[36] If carried out in a
+broadly farcical spirit, the scene becomes potentially amusing.
+
+[Sidenote: Mommsen] Mommsen in his _History_[37], in the course of an
+interesting discussion on _palliatae_ and their Greek originals, has a far
+saner point of view. He says of the authors of New Comedy, "They wrote not
+like Eupolis and Aristophanes for a great nation; but rather for a
+cultivated society which spent its time ... in guessing riddles and
+playing at charades.... Even in the dim Latin copy, through which we
+chiefly know it, the grace of the original is not wholly obliterated. <In
+_palliatae_> persons and incidents seem capriciously or carelessly
+shuffled as in a game of cards; in the original a picture from life, it
+became in the reproduction a caricature."
+
+Naturally we are not concerned with any consideration of the value of his
+estimate of New Comedy. Assuredly he rates it too highly, as later
+investigations have indicated.[38] But here for the first time we are able
+to quote a well-balanced appreciation of some essential features of
+Plautine drama: a "capricious shuffling of incidents" and "caricature." In
+fact it will be our endeavor to show that the _palliata_ was not a true
+art form, but merely an outer shell or mold into which Plautus poured his
+stock of witticisms.
+
+[Sidenote: Korting] Still more trenchant is the conclusion of Korting in
+his _Geschichte des griechischen und rAmischen Theaters_ (P. 218 ff.):
+"Die neue attische KomAdie und folglich auch ihr Abklatsch, die romische
+Palliata, war nicht ein Lustspiel im hAchsten, im sittlichen Sinne des
+Wortes, sondern ein blosses Unterhaltungsdrama. AmA1/4sieren wollten die
+KomAdiendichter, nichts weiter. Jedes hAhere Streben lag ihnen fern. Wohl
+spickten sie ihre Lustspiele mit moralischen Sentenzen.... Aber die
+schAnen Sentenzen sind eben nur Zierat, sind nur Verbramung einer in ihrem
+Kerne und Wesen durch und durch unsittlichen Dichtung ... Mit der
+Wahrscheinlichkeit der Handlung wird es sehr leicht genommen: die
+seltsamsten ZufAlle werden als so ziemlich selbstverstAndliche
+MAglichkeiten hingestellt ... Es ginge das noch an, wenn wir in eine
+phantastische MArchenwelt gefA1/4hrt werden, in welcher am Ende auch das
+Wunderbarste mAglich ist, aber nein! es wird uns zugemutet, A1/4berzeugt zu
+sein, dass alles mit natA1/4rlichen Dingen zugehe.
+
+"Alles in allem genommen, ist an dieser KomAdie, abgesehen von ihrer
+formal musterhaften Technik, herzlich wenig zu bewundern.... An
+Zweideutigkeiten, ObscAnitAten, Schimpfscenen ist Aoeberfluss vorhanden."
+
+With admirable clarity of vision, Korting has spied the vital spot and
+illuminated it with the word "Unterhaltungsdrama." That amusement was the
+sole aim of the comic poets we firmly believe. But if this was so, why
+arraign them on the charge of trying to convince us that everything is
+happening in a perfectly natural manner? The outer form to be sure is that
+of everyday life, but this is no proof that the poets demanded of their
+audiences a belief in the verisimilitude of the events depicted. Can we
+have no fantastic fairyland without some outlandish accompaniment such as
+a chorus garbed as birds or frogs? But we reserve fuller discussion of
+this point until later. We might suggest an interesting comparison to the
+nonsense verse of W. S. Gilbert, which represents the most shocking ideas
+in a style even nonchalantly matter-of-fact. Does Gilbert by any chance
+actually wish us to believe that "Gentle Alice Brown," in the poem of the
+same name, really assisted in "cutting up a little lad"?
+
+Korting regains his usual clear-headedness in pronouncing 'that there is
+little in the technique of _palliatae_ to excite our admiration.' Again we
+insist (to borrow the jargon of the modern dramatic critic) it was but a
+"vehicle" for popular amusement.
+
+[Sidenote: Schlegel] Wilhelm Schlegel, in his _History of the Drama_[39]
+has the point of view of the dramatic critic, rather than the professional
+scholar; while expressing a measure of admiration for the significance of
+Plautus in literature, he is impelled to say: "The bold, coarse style of
+Plautus and his famous jokes, savour of his familiarity with the vulgar
+... <He> mostly inclines to the farcical, to overwrought and often
+disgusting drollery." This is doubtless true, but, by making the
+incidental a criterion for the whole, it gives a gross misconception to
+one that has not read Plautus.
+
+[Sidenote: Donaldson] J. W. Donaldson, in his lectures on the Greek
+theatre[40], has plagiarized Schlegel practically _verbatim_, while giving
+the scantest credit to his source. His work thus loses value, as being a
+mere echo, or compilation of second-hand material.
+
+We learn from Schlegel that Goethe was so enamored of ancient comedy that
+he enthusiastically superintended the translation and production of plays
+of Plautus and Terence. Says Schlegel[41]: "I once witnessed at Weimar a
+representation of the _Adelphi_ of Terence, entirely in ancient costume,
+which, under the direction of Goethe, furnished us a truly Attic evening."
+
+[Sidenote: Scott] In this connection the opinion of Sir Walter Scott may
+be interesting. He too, not being a classical scholar _par excellence_,
+may be better equipped for sound judgment. In the introduction to Dryden's
+_Amphitryon_ he says: "Plautus ... left us a play on the subject of
+Amphitryon which has _had the honour_ to be deemed worthy of imitation by
+MoliA"re and Dryden. It cannot be expected that the plain, blunt and
+inartificial style of so rude an age should bear any comparison with that
+of the authors who enjoyed the highest advantages of the polished times to
+which they were an ornament." There speaks the sophisticated and conscious
+literary technician![42]
+
+[Sidenote: LeGrand] The most comprehensive and judicious estimate of all
+is certainly attained by LeGrand in _Daos_.[43] He appreciates clearly
+that "la nouvelle comA(C)die n'a pas A(C)tA(C), en toute circonstance stance, une
+comA(C)die distinguA(C)e. Elle n'a pas dA(C)daignA(C) constamment la farce et le gros
+rire."[44] How much more then would this apply to _palliatae_!
+
+We now believe that we have on hand a sufficiently large volume of
+criticism to appreciate practically every phase of judgment to which
+Plautus has been subjected.[45] The ancients overrated him stylistically,
+but he was a man of their own people. Men such as Becker, Weise, Lorenz
+and Langrehr have proceeded upon a distinctly exaggerated ideal of
+Plautus' eminence as a master dramatic craftsman and literary artist and
+therefore have amputated with the cry of "Spurious!" everything that
+offends their ideal. Lessing is obsessed with too high an estimate of the
+_Captivi_. Lamarre, Naudet and Ritschl commit the error of imputing to our
+poet a moral purpose. Schlegel and Scott deprecate the crudity of his wit
+without an adequate appreciation of its sturdy and primeval robustness.
+Langen, Mommsen, Korting and LeGrand approach a keen estimate of his
+inconsistencies and his single-minded purpose of entertainment, but
+Korting accuses him of attempting to create an illusion of life while
+aiming solely at provoking laughter.
+
+From this heterogeneous mass of diversified criticism we glean the
+prevailing idea that Plautus is lauded or condemned according to his
+conformity or non-conformity to some preconceived standard of comedy
+situate in the critic's mind, without a consideration of the poet's
+original purpose. We must seriously propound the question as to how far a
+grave injustice has been done him almost universally in criticising him
+for what he does not pretend to be. Did Plautus himself suffer from any
+illusion that his plays were constructed with cogent and consummate
+technique? Did he for a single instant imagine himself the inspired
+reformer of public morality? Did he believe that his style was elegant and
+polished? Indeed, he must have effected an appreciable refinement of the
+vernacular of his age to produce his lively verse, but without losing the
+robust vitality of "Volkswitz." Or is it true that nothing further than
+amusement lay within his scope?
+
+If so, we may at least posit that almost unbounded license must be allowed
+the pen which aims simply to raise a laugh. We do not fulminate against a
+treatise on Quaternions because it lacks humor. If the drawings of
+cartoonists are anatomically incorrect, we are smilingly indulgent. Do we
+condemn a vaudeville skit for not conforming to the Aristotelian code of
+dramatic technique? Assuredly we do not rise in disgust from a musical
+comedy because "in real life" a bevy of shapely maidens in scant attire
+never goes tripping and singing blithely though the streets. If then we
+can establish that Plautus regarded his adapted dramas merely as a rack on
+which to hang witticisms, merely as a medium for laugh-provoking sallies
+and situations, we have at once Plautus as he pretended to be, and in
+large measure the answer to the original question: "What manner of drama
+is this?"
+
+We say only "in large measure," because it is part of our endeavor to
+settle accurately the position of our author in the dramatic scale,
+considered of necessity from the modern viewpoint. We cannot believe that
+he had any pretensions to refined art in play building, or rather
+rebuilding, or to any superficial elegance of style, or to any moralizing
+pose. We believe him an entertainer pure and simple, who never restricted
+himself in his means except by the outer conventions and form of the Greek
+New Comedy and the Roman stage, provided his single aim, that of affording
+amusement, was attained. To establish this belief, and at the same time to
+interpret accurately the nature of his plays and the means and effect of
+their production, is our thesis.
+
+If then we run the gamut of the dramatic scale, we observe that as we
+descend from the higher forms, such as tragedy, psychological drama and
+"straight comedy," to the lower, such as musical comedy and burlesque, the
+license allowed playwright and actor increases so radically that we have a
+difference of kind rather than of degree. Certain conventions of course
+are common to all types. The "missing fourth side" of the room is a
+commonplace recognized by all. If we ourselves are never in the habit of
+communicating the contents of our letters, as we write, to a doubtless
+appreciative atmosphere, we never cavil at such an act on the stage. The
+stage whisper and aside, too, we accept with benevolent indulgence; but it
+is worth noting that in the attempted verisimilitude of the modern
+"legitimate" drama, the aside has well nigh vanished. As we go down the
+scale through light comedy and broad farce these conventions multiply
+rapidly.
+
+With the introduction of music come further absurdities. Melodious voicing
+of our thoughts is in itself essentially unnatural, to say the least.
+Grand opera, great art form as it may be, is hopelessly artificial.
+Indeed, so far is it removed from the plane of every day existence that we
+are rudely jolted by the introduction of too commonplace a thought, as
+when Sharpless in the English version of "Madame Butterfly" warbles
+mellifluously: "Highball or straight?" And when we reach musical comedy
+and vaudeville, all thought of drama, technically speaking, is abandoned
+in watching the capers of the "merry-merry" or the outrageous "Dutch"
+comedian wielding his deadly newspaper.
+
+It is important for our immediate purposes to note: first, (as aforesaid),
+that the amount of license allowed author and actor increases immeasurably
+as we go down the scale; second, that the degree of familiarity with the
+audience and cognizance of the spectator's existence varies inversely as
+the degree of dramatic value. Thus, at one end of the scale we have, for
+instance, Mrs. Fiske, whose fondness for playing to the centre of the
+stage and ignoring the audience is commented upon as a mannerism; at the
+other, the low comedian who says his say or sings his song directly at the
+audience and converses gaily with them as his boon companions. Now it will
+be shown that familiar address of the audience and the singing of monodies
+to musical accompaniment are essential features of Plautus' style, and
+many other implements of the lower types of modern drama are among his
+favorite devices. If then we can place Plautus toward the bottom of the
+scale, we relieve him vastly of responsibility as a dramatist and of the
+necessity of adherence to verisimilitude. Where does he actually belong?
+The answer must be sought in a detailed consideration of his methods of
+producing his effects and in an endeavor to ascertain how far the audience
+and the acting contributed to them.
+
+
+
+ASec.2. The Performance
+
+
+[Sidenote: The Audience] As it is perfectly patent that every practical
+playwright must cater to his public, the audience is an essential feature
+in our discussion. The audience of Plautus was not of a high class.
+Terence, even in later times, when education had materially progressed,
+often failed to reach them by over-finesse. Plautus with his bold brush
+pleased them. Surely a turbulent and motley throng they were, with the
+native violence of the sun-warmed Italic temperament and the abundant
+animal spirits of a crude civilization, tumbling into the theatre in the
+full enjoyment of holiday, scrambling for vantage points on the sloping
+ground, if such were handy, or a good spot for their camp-stools. In view
+of the uncertainty as to the actual site of the original performances,
+this portraiture is "atmospheric" rather than "photographic." (See
+Saunders in TAPA. XLIV, 1913). At any rate, we have ample evidence of the
+turbulence of the early Roman audience. (Ter. Prol. _Hec._ 39-42, and
+citations immediately following). Note the description of Mommsen:[46]
+"The audience was anything but genteel.... The body of spectators cannot
+have differed much from what one sees in the present day at public
+fireworks and gratis exhibitions. Naturally, therefore, the proceedings
+were not too orderly; children cried,[47] women talked and shrieked, now
+and then a wench prepared to push her way to the stage; the ushers had on
+these festivals anything but a holiday, and found frequent occasion to
+confiscate a mantle or to ply the rod."[48]
+
+Impatient if the play be delayed, and voicing their disapproval by lusty
+clapping, stamping, whistling and cat-calls, they are equally ready with
+noisy approval if the dramatic fare tickle their palate.[49] The
+_tibicen_, as he steps forth to render the overture, is greeted
+uproariously as an old favorite. The manager perhaps appears and announces
+the names of those taking part, each one of whom is doubtless applauded or
+hissed in proportion to his measure of popularity. Differences of opinion
+as to the merits of an individual actor may culminate in the partisans'
+coming to blows.[50] Horace (_Ep._ II. I. 200 ff.) comments on the
+turbulence of the audiences of his day too; while under the Empire
+factions for and against particular actors grew up, as in the circus.[51]
+Late-comers of course often disturbed the Prologus in his lines. The
+continual reiteration that we find in such prologues as the _Amph._,
+_Cap._ and _Poen._ was naturally designed as a safeguard against such
+disturbance. Yet these prologues were undoubtedly composed, as Ritschl has
+shown (_Par._ 232 ff.), shortly after 146 B.C., and the turbulence of the
+original audience must have been far greater.
+
+To win the favor of such a crowd, which would groan if instead of the
+expected comedy a tragedy should be announced,[52] what methods were
+necessary? Slap-sticks, horse-play, broad slashing swashbuckling humor,
+thick colors daubed on with lavish brush!
+
+By Cicero's time the public had attained to such a degree of
+sophistication that the slightest slip on the part of the wretched actor
+was greeted by a storm of popular disapproval. "Histrio si paulum se movit
+extra numerum, aut si versus pronuntiatus est syllaba una brevior aut
+longior, exsibilatur, exploditur," says Cicero.[53] The actor dare not
+even have a cold, for on the slightest manifestation of hoarseness, he was
+hooted off, though favorites such as Roscius might be excused on the plea
+of indisposition.[54] The Scholiast Cruquius to Hor. _Ser._ I. 10.37 ff.
+notes: "Poemata ... in theatris exhibita imperitae multitudinis applausum
+captare."
+
+It is evident from all this that, while the Roman public had made
+considerable advances in education, their demonstrative temperament had
+not cooled. It seems eminently fair to deduce that the far ruder and less
+cultivated audiences of Plautus' day were even more violent in their
+manifestations of pleasure and displeasure, but that their criterion of
+taste was solely the amount of amusement derived from the performance and
+that they bothered themselves little about niceties of rhythm. To the
+Roman, the scenic and histrionic were the vital features of a production.
+Again we reiterate, only the bold brush could have pleased them.
+
+That the plays of Plautus attained a permanent position in ihe theatrical
+repertoire of Rome is of course well known; but he wrote primarily for his
+own age, and in a difficult environment. Not only did he have to please a
+highly volatile and inflammable public, but he must have been forced to
+exercise tact to avoid offending the patrician powers, as the imprisonment
+of Naevius indicates. Mommsen has an apt summary:[55] "Under such
+circumstances, where art worked for daily wages and the artist instead of
+receiving due honour was subjected to disgrace, the new national theatre
+of the Romans could not present any development either original or even at
+all artistic."
+
+[Sidenote: The Actor] This brief discussion of the relation between public
+and playwright will suffice for our purposes. In the course of it we have
+insensibly encroached upon the next topic: the relation of public and
+actor. Who after all is the chief factor in the success or failure of a
+drama, in spite of the oft misquoted adage, "The play's the thing?" The
+actor! The actor, who can mouth and tear a passion to tatters, or swing a
+piece of trumpery into popular favor by the brute force of his dash and
+personality. That this was true in Plautus' day, no less than in our own,
+is plainly indicated by the personal allusion inserted in the _Bac._
+(214-5):
+
+  Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,
+  Nullam aeque invitus specto, _si agit Pellio_.
+
+The servile status of the ancient actor is an index to the energy of his
+performance, if to nothing else. Failure meant a beating, success a drink
+at least.[56] Augustus humanely abrogated the whipping of actors, but an
+attempt was made in Tiberius' time to renew the practice.[57] On the other
+hand, there seem to have been prizes awarded to successful actors,[58] as
+well as to the poet;[59] but this practice surely arose after Plautus'
+lifetime. At any rate, whatever was the nature of the reward, in his day
+the large emoluments won by Roscius and other popular favorites were
+impossible.[60] The effort demanded by the elaborate education of the
+actor,[61] in which naturally gesticulation was the most vital element,
+was out of all proportion to the precarious reward. A rigid course of
+training was prescribed and strenuous exercises were required, for both
+actor and orator to keep the voice in proper form.[62] Indeed, Quintilian
+advises the budding orator to take instruction in voice production and
+gesticulation from the comic actor.[63] For the comic actor was at all
+times recognized as livelier and more vivid in his performance than the
+tragedian.[64] The two were usually sharply differentiated.[65]
+Specialization arose, too, and we hear of actors who confined their
+efforts to feminine roles,[66] though naturally every performer was cast
+for parts to which his physique was best suited.[67]
+
+It is doubtful whether such an elaborate system had been developed in
+Plautus' time, but this much is certain: the comedian was on the stage
+lively, energetic and constantly spurred on by the fear of punishment from
+the _dominus gregis_ and the violent disapproval of a fickle, tempestuous
+and withal exacting public. Polybius[68] relates that the visit of a
+troupe of Greek actors to Rome was a failure because of their over-staid
+deportment, until, learning the desires of the volatile Italians, they
+improvised a vastly more vivid pantomime depicting a mock battle, with
+huge success. Assuredly the early Roman comedian must have acted with
+greater abandon and clownish drollery, if not with the elaborate
+histrionic technique of the later actor.[69] We have heard Dr. Charles
+Knapp relate that the performance of the _Ajax_ of Sophocles by a troupe
+of modern Greek players went with amazing and incredible rapidity and
+vivacity. It is all of a piece. We must inevitably associate vivid
+temperament with the sons of the Mediterranean in all ages. Yet we have
+just seen that the Greeks of old were too self-contained for their Italian
+brethren.
+
+[Sidenote: The Histrionism] With this brief discussion of the condition,
+incentive and motive of the Plautine actor, let us pass on to a more
+detailed consideration of his methods and technique. Naturally by far the
+most important part of this was gesture. Here again, while some of our
+evidence is somewhat unreliable, practically every shred of extant
+testimony indicates an extreme liveliness and vivacity. In the
+rhetoricians frequent warning is issued to the forensic neophyte to avoid
+the unrestraint of theatrical gesticulation. Cicero says (_De Or._ I. 59.
+251): "Nemo suaserit studiosis dicendi adulescentibus in gestu discendo
+histrionum more elaborare." Quintilian echoes (I. 11. 3): "Ne gestus quidem
+omnis ac motus a comediis petendus est.... Orator plurimum ... aberit a
+scaenico, nec vultu nec manu nec excursionibus nimius." And in the _Auctor
+ad Herennium_ we find (III. 15. 26): "Convenit igitur in vultu et pudorem
+nec acrimoniam esse, in gestu et venustatem nec turpitudinem, ne aut
+histriones aut operarii videamur esse."[70] That the nature and liveliness
+of gesture on the stage was determined by the character portrayed, it is
+almost needless to say.[71]
+
+Cicero's analysis (_de Or._ III. 59. 220) of the difference between
+theatrical and forensic gesture implies that the former illustrates
+individual words and ideas, while the latter comprehends more broadly the
+general thought and sentiment.[72] It is most unfortunate that we have
+lost Cicero's treatise _De Gestu Histrionis_.[73]
+
+By Cicero's time a more restrained mode of acting was evidently considered
+good taste; witness _de Off._ (I. 36. 130): "Histrionum non nulli gestus
+ineptus non vacant,    et quae sunt recta et simplicia laudantur."[74] But
+the passages cited above bear ample testimony to the vigor of histrionic
+gesticulation even at this later and far more cultivated epoch. Again we
+repeat, what must have been the energy and abandon of the original
+Plautine actor?[75]
+
+Apart from the rhetoricians, the most fruitful literary source of our
+information on gesture is Donatus' commentary on Terence. The
+trustworthiness of this has been the subject of much argument. Sittl[76]
+accuses him of speaking merely from the standpoint of a professor of
+rhetoric, as comedies of Terence were no longer given in the time of
+Donatus. Weinberger in his "Beitrage zu den Buhnenaltherthumern aus Donats
+Terenz-commentar,"[77] admonishes us to be very careful not to put too
+high a value on the commentary. Van Wageningen[78] is of the opinion that
+much of the work was inspired by Donatus' having seen in his own time
+unmasked actors play. To this view color is lent by Donatus' note to
+_And._ 716: "Sive haec <Mysis> personatis viris agitur, ut apud veteres,
+sive per mulierem, ut nunc videmus."
+
+If this is true, it makes Donatus' work of more significance to us, as it
+would imply a harking back to the play of feature of the unmasked
+performances of Plautus' day. But while it is certain that Donatus had
+other sources than the Terentian text for his annotations,[79] it is
+equally certain that practically everything he has to say relative to
+gesture and stage business is readily to be deduced from the text and is
+in the main interesting only as a compilation.[80] However, everything he
+says continues to point persistently to lively gesture and action; and
+this too in Terentian comedy, where the text makes far less rigorous
+demands on the actor's muscles than in Plautus' works.
+
+Donatus remarks occasionally that certain words must have been accompanied
+by especially expressive gesture and byplay, evidently of feature, as
+_vultuose, cum gestu_ and similar phrases are used to indicate this.[81]
+His note to _And._ 722 is: "Haec scaena actuosa est: magis enim in gestu
+quam in oratione est constituta." Of gestures emphatic and yet not foreign
+to everyday life Quintilian notes (XI. 3. 123): "Femur ferire--et usitatum
+et indignantis decet"; a movement plainly employed in _Mil._ 204 and
+_Truc._ 601. But, says Quintilian further (ib.): "Complodere manus
+scaenicum est et pectus caedere."[82]
+
+One of the notable "hits" of the ancient stage is recorded by Donatus ad
+_Phor._ 315: Ambivius (as Phormio) entered "oscitans temulenter atque
+aurem minimo scalpens digitulo ... et labia lingens ut ebrius et ructans."
+But Ambivius' potations resulted in an extremely spirited and lifelike
+imitation of the parasite character and he was forthwith forgiven his
+drunkenness.
+
+Passing mention must be made of the Terentian Mss. illustrations, though
+they add but little weight to the foregoing. For a complete list of their
+sources and editions see Sittl, "GebArden der Griechen und RAmer," Chap.
+XI, p. 203 ff.[83] But whatever be the exact date of the original, in our
+extant copies the old traditional gestures are lost and the gesture of
+everyday life supplied. In fact, in the analyses appended by Leo, van
+Wageningen and Warnecke, in the works cited above, we arrive at little but
+that the gestures natural to any Italian-born person in a like situation
+are reproduced, such as "gestus abeuntis, cogitantis, parasiti," etc. It
+is almost too much to make any of this a basis for argument as to
+classical and pre-classical stage-craft. It is at least significant that
+every character with hands free is gesticulating and the scene from _Eun._
+IV. 6-7 is evidently full of vigorous action.
+
+An old and discursive article[84] by T. Baden, containing a description
+and analysis of the gestures and posture of a number of familiar figures
+from comedy exemplified in some collections of statuettes (chiefly those
+in Borgia's Museum of Baden's time), is open to the same objection as the
+above. The gestures of slave, pander, parasite, etc., described in the
+article are lively and expressive to be sure, but contain little to
+differentiate them from those of daily life.
+
+While much of our evidence is still to come, we believe that we are
+already justified in the deduction that the actor contemporary with
+Plautus must have indulged in the extravagances of the players in the
+Atellan farces and the mimes. The _mimus_ of the Empire, we know,
+specialized in ridiculous facial contortions.[85]
+
+We must not forget too the vivacity indicated by the comic scenes among
+the Pompeian and Herculanean wall-paintings,[86] which have a close
+kinship with the Terentian MSS. pictures. Nor must we lose sight of the
+fact that all our pictorial _reliquiae_ portray the later masked
+characters, and hence play of feature, which must have been a notable
+concomitant of the original Plautine performance, is entirely obscured.
+
+As our intention is fundamentally to get at the original intent of our
+poet and his actors, a discussion of the mask is not in order. Whether we
+agree with Donatus' statement that masks were first introduced for comedy
+and tragedy by Cincius Faliscus and Minucius Prothymus respectively,[87]
+or with Diomedes' explanation[88] that Roscius adopted them to disguise
+his pronounced squint, it is certain that they were not worn in Plautus'
+time, when wigs and make-up were employed for characterization.[89] In
+fact, the early performances of Plautus, unless we except the original
+Terentian productions, stand almost alone in the history of Graeco-Roman
+comedy as unmasked plays. This would give opportunity for the practice of
+lively grimace and facial play.
+
+The text itself contains not infrequent descriptions of the outward
+appearance of the characters, often pointing to grotesqueries of make-up
+that rival those of the Old Comedy. From _As._ 400-1 we learn that Saurea
+was:
+
+  Macilentis malis, rufulus, aliquantum ventriosus,
+  Truculentis oculis, commoda statura, tristi fronte.
+
+In the _Mer._ Lysimachus is described as a veritable _thensaurus
+mali_ (639-40):
+
+  Canum, varum, ventriosum, buculentum, breviculum,
+  Subnigris oculis, oblongis malis, pansam aliquantulum.
+
+Curculio was one-eyed: "Unocule, salve" (Cur. 392). Pseudolus must have
+been a joy to the groundlings _(Ps._ 1218 ff.):
+
+  Rufus quidam, ventriosus, crassis suris, subniger,
+  Magno capite, acutis oculis, ore rubicundo, admodum
+  Magnis pedibus. BA. Perdidisti, ut nominavisti pedes.
+  Pseudolus fuit ipsus.
+
+His red slave's wig is thus made a feature in the characterization.
+(Cf. Ter. _Phor._ 51). When Trachalio is looking for the procurer,
+he inquires (_Rud._ 316 ff.):
+
+                                           Ecquem
+  Recalvom ad Silanum senem, statutum, ventriosum,
+  Tortis superciliis, contracta fronte...?[90]
+
+The precise details of the histrionic technique and "stage business" in
+vogue must remain more or less a mystery to us. Our limitations in this
+respect are admirably enunciated by Saunders (TAPA. XLIV, p. 97): "One
+must conclude then, that it is dangerous to dogmatize on this subject, as
+on most others connected with the early Roman stage. Our evidence is too
+slight and the period of time involved is too long...." We can, therefore,
+deal in little but generalities. The Romans must have imitated and
+developed their Greek and Etruscan models.[91] When Livius Andronicus
+first fathered _palliatae_, he must have chosen the New Comedy not only as
+the type of drama most available to him, but as wholly adaptable to his
+audiences. When Plautus wrote, he had the machinery already built for him,
+and he doubtless seized upon the _palliata_ form as the natural medium for
+the exploitation of his talents. By Cicero's time considerable technical
+equipment was required; the actor must be an adept in gesticulation,
+gymnastic and dancing.[92] Appreciable refinement had been reached in
+Quintilian's age, for he scores the comic actor who departs too far from
+reality and pronounces the ideal player him who declaims with a measured
+artistic heightening of everyday discourse.[93] It is noteworthy that this
+practically coincides with the accepted standard of modern realistic
+acting. But the Plautine actor could never have felt himself trammeled by
+any such narrow and sophisticated restrictions, as we believe the evidence
+accumulated above amply proves. At any rate, the delineation of different
+roles must have been at all times strictly in character. The need of
+feminine vocal tones, unless another jest is intended is indicated by
+_Rud._ 233:
+
+  Certe vox muliebris auris tetigit meas.
+
+And Quintilian admonishes the youth who is taking lessons from a comic
+actor in voice-production not to carry his precepts so far as to imitate
+the female falsetto, the senile tremolo, the obsequiousness of the slave,
+the stuttering accents of intoxication or the intonations of love, greed,
+fear.[94]
+
+Where Donatus gives instructions as to the vocal expression with which
+certain lines are to be delivered, as in the case of his comments on
+gesture, they are almost painfully evident from the context. He cites for
+instance irony[95], anger[96], exhaustion [97], amazement [98],
+sympathy[99], pity[100]. He appears as the lineal ancestor of the modern
+"coach" of amateur theatricals in somewhat naively remarking[101] that
+upon leaving Thais for two days, Phaedria must pronounce "two days" as if
+"two years" were written.
+
+Another phase of the delivery of the dialogue that deserves passing
+mention is song and musical accompaniment. Livy's anecdote[102] of the
+employment by Livius Andronicus of a boy to sing for him while he
+gesticulated is almost universally accepted as an exceptional instance,
+prompted by the failing of Livius' voice through age[103]. We are now
+fairly well informed of the tripartite diversion of the dialogue into
+_canticum_ or song proper, recitative, and _diverbium_ or spoken
+utterance[104], with the incidental accompaniment of the _tibia_. Though
+there may be some dispute as to the apportionment of the various classes,
+the general truth is established.[105] The important feature of this for
+our purpose is that, if the ancient tragedy with its music and dancing was
+rather comparable to modern grand opera than to drama proper, the song and
+musical accompaniment of comedy lend it a strong flavor of the opera
+bouffe and even of the musical comedy of to-day. In Part II we shall draw
+numerous other parallels between this style of composition and the plays
+of Plautus. West, in A.J.P. VIII. 33, notes one of the few comparisons to
+"comic opera" that we have seen. Fay, in the Introduction to his ed. of
+the _Most._ (ASec. 11), likens Plautine drama to "an opera of the early
+schools."
+
+One feature of the performance still remains to be discussed--the
+"stage-business," that is, the movements of the actors apart from mere
+gesticulation and dialogue. Much of this too will find a place in Part II,
+in the treatment of special peculiarities, but in general we note here
+that the text itself contains many indications that are as plain as
+printed stage directions regarding the movements being made or about to be
+made by the characters. Examples of the more significant follow: _Amph._
+308: Cingitur: Certe expedit se; 312: Perii, pugnos ponderat. (Sosia
+speaks aside of Mercury and similarly during the succeeding scene); 903:
+Potin ut abstineas manum?; 955: Aperiuntur aedis. This motif is
+commonplace and frequent; 958: Vos tranquillos video; 1130: quam valide
+tonuit; _As._ 39: Age, age, usque excrea; _Bac._ 668: quod sic terram
+optuere?; _Cap._ 557: Viden tu hunc, quam inimico voltu intuitur?; 594:
+Ardent oculi;[106] 793: Hic homo pugilatum incipit; _Ep._ 609: illi
+caperrat frons severitudine; _Mer._ 138: iam dudum spato sanguinem; _Mil._
+1324: Nefle; _Most._ 1030: vocis non habeo satis. (He must have been
+shouting); _Ps._ 458: Statum vide hominis, Callipho, quam basilicum; 955:
+transvorsus ... cedit, quasi cancer solet: _Trin._ 623 f.: celeri
+graducunt uterque: ille rcprehendit hunc priorem pallio.[107]
+
+This practice of indicating business in the lines, of making the
+play act, is common to all the older types of drama, Elizabethan as
+well as classic. A single striking example from Shakespeare will
+furnish a parallel, in the well-known lines from _Macbeth_:
+
+  The devil damn thee black, thou cream-faced loon,
+  Where gott'st thou that goose look? (V. 3).
+
+The modern playwright robs his lines of their vividness and
+throws the onus on the actor through the medium of his interpolated
+direction, a custom which reaches its most exaggerated form
+in the plays of Bernard Shaw, as mentioned above.
+
+[Sidenote: Thesis] We have now made a perceptible advance towards getting
+an answer to our original questions: "What manner of drama is this?" and
+"How was it done?" The comments of the most eminent critics on the former
+question have left us rather bewildered by their diversity. Almost to a
+man they have taken Plautus too seriously or else have arraigned him for
+not conforming to their preconceived code of comedy, without questioning
+whether it were Plautus' own or not. This has really nullified their
+efforts to explain away the peculiarities and absurdities of his style.
+Some _solvent_ of these difficulties is needed.
+
+As to the second question, we have examined briefly the extant evidence
+regarding the actor's employment of gesture and business, his delivery of
+the dialogue, make-up and character delineation, and found a disappointing
+paucity, but a general and irresistible trend towards liveliness, vivacity
+and broad undiluted comedy that must have been the sort of dramatic fare
+demanded by the primeval appetite of the Plautine audience. But again we
+find ourselves falling short of a satisfying answer to our question.
+Again, some _solvent_ is needed. As the last resort, we turn to the
+evidence of the plays themselves and the unbounded realm of subjective
+criticism.
+
+From the earliest times gesture and business in Aristophanes and the Old
+Comedy were marked by the riotous license of all the media of that notable
+epoch[108] of comedy. From the broad spirit of its frank and vivid
+burlesque not even the most stolidly Teutonic of humorless critics ever
+thought of demanding a "picture of life." But with the abandonment of the
+purpose of political propaganda, the consequent disappearance of the
+chorus with its burlesque trappings (largely through motives of state
+economy), and the establishment in the New Comedy of a type of dramatic
+machinery that had a specious outer shell of reflection of characters and
+events in daily life, the critics instantly seem to demand the standard of
+dramatic technique of Aristotle and Freytag and condemn all departures
+from this standard. In reality, we believe that the kinship of Plautus
+with Aristophanes is much closer than has usually been realized.
+
+Is, then, the change from Old to New Comedy as great as has been
+represented? Does not the change consist rather in the outer form and in
+the ideas expounded than in the spirit of the histrionism and mimicry? And
+must not the vigor, from what we have seen, have been intensified in
+Plautus? LeGrand alone seems to have caught the essence of this:[109] "Que
+dire de la mimique? D'aprA"s les indications contenues dans le texte mAme
+des comA(C)dies, d'aprA"s les commentaires--notamment ceux de Donat, d'aprA"s
+les monuments figurA(C)s--en particulier les images des manuscrits, elle
+devait Atre en general trA"s vive, souvent trop vive pour le goA"t des
+modernes.... Et puis, ils s'addressaient a des spectateurs mA(C)ridionaux,
+coutumiers dans la vie quotidienne d'une gesticulation plus animA(C)e que la
+nAtre." And this is said as a combined estimate of New Comedy and
+_palliatae_.
+
+We are now prepared to advance a definite thesis, that shall gather up the
+random threads of argument and suggestion scattered through the foregoing
+pages and shall, we hope, provide a conclusive and final answer to both of
+our original questions. If we can establish: that our author's sole aim
+was to feed the popular hunger for amusement; that, while after leaving
+much of his Greek originals practically untouched, he considered them in
+effect but a medium for the provocation of laughter, but a vessel into
+which to pour a highly seasoned brew of fun; that to this end his actors
+went before the public, potentially speaking slap-stick in hand, equipped
+by nature with liveliness of grimace and gesture and prepared to act with
+verve, unction and an abandon of dash and vigor that would produce a riot
+of merriment; that his dramatic machinery is hopelessly crippled and that
+his evident intentions and effects are hopelessly lost unless interpreted
+in this spirit: then we relegate Plautine drama to a low plane of broad
+farce, where verisimilitude to life becomes wholly unnecessary because
+undesirable; where the canons of dramatic art become inoperative; where,
+contrary to what KArting says, we are not asked to believe that
+"everything is happening in a perfectly natural manner"; where the poet
+may stick at nothing provided the laugh be forthcoming; where all the
+apparently absurd conventions of _palliatae_ cease to be absurd, vanish
+into thin air and become unamenable to literary criticism, inasmuch as
+they are all only part of the laugh-compelling scheme. This is the
+_solvent_ that we propose. To establish this, let us proceed to an
+examination of the internal mechanism of the plays.
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+An Analysis of the Dramatic Values in Plautus
+
+
+
+The salient features that characterize the plays of Plautus include both
+his consciously employed means of producing his comic effects, and the
+peculiarities and abnormalities that evidence his attitude of mind in
+writing them. We should make bold to catalogue them as follows:
+
+I. Machinery characteristic of the lower types of modern drama--farce, low
+   comedy, musical comedy, burlesque shows, vaudeville, and the like.
+
+  A. Devices self-evident from the text.
+    1. Bombast and mock-heroics.
+    2. Horse-play and slap-sticks.
+    3. Burlesque, farce and extravagance of situation and dialogue.
+      a. True burlesque.
+      b. True farce.
+      c. Extravagances obviously unnatural and merely for the sake of fun.
+
+  B. Devices absurd and inexplicable unless interpreted in a broad
+     farcical spirit.
+    1. The running slave.
+    2. Wilful blindness.
+    3. Adventitious entrance.
+
+II. Evidences of loose composition which prove a disregard of
+    technique and hence indicate that entertainment was the sole aim.
+
+  A. Solo speeches and passages.
+    1. Asides and soliloquies.
+    2. Lengthy monodies, monologues and episodical specialties.
+    3. Direct address of the audience.
+
+  B. Inconsistencies and carelessness of composition.
+    1. Pointless badinage and padded scenes.
+    2. Inconsistencies of character and situation.
+    3. Looseness of dramatic construction.
+    4. Roman admixture and topical allusions.
+    5. Jokes on the dramatic machinery.
+    6. Use of stock plots and characters.
+
+Let us illustrate these points by typical passages and endeavor to insert
+such stage-directions as would indicate how the most telling effects could
+be produced and hence aid the reader in visualizing the actual
+performance.
+
+
+I. Machinery Characteristic of the Lower Types of Modern Drama
+
+A. _Devices self-evident from the text._
+
+1. Bombast and mock-heroics.
+
+It is a little difficult to sublimate this entirely from burlesque, but
+its true nature is instanced by the opening lines of the _Miles_, where
+the vainglorious Pyrgopolinices, with many a sweep and strut, addresses
+his attendants, who are probably staggering under the weight of an
+enormous shield:
+
+"Have a care that the effulgence of my shield be brighter than e'er the
+sun's rays in a cloudless sky: when the time for action comes and the
+battle's on, I intend it shall dazzle the eyesight o' m' foes. (_Patting
+his sword_). Verily I would condole with this m' sword, lest he lament and
+be cast down in spirit, forasmuch as now full long hath he hung idle by m'
+side, thirsting, poor lad, to meet his fellow 'mongst the foe," and so on.
+
+In line with this, a simulation of the military is a favorite device. So
+we find Pseudolus addressing the audience in ringing blustering tones and
+with grandiose gesture (_Ps._ 584 ff.):
+
+"It now becomes my aim today to lay siege to this town and capture it."
+(Ballio the procurer is the town). "I shall hurl all my legions against
+it. If I take it, ... good luck to you, my citizens, for part of the booty
+shall be yours."
+
+This finds a close counterpart in the _Mil._ 219 ff., a passage which
+West[110] thinks was deliberately inserted to rouse the populace into
+demanding that Scipio be at once despatched to Africa.
+
+Periplecomenus is urging Palaestrio to find a stratagem. Actually he
+probably addresses the pit:
+
+"Don't you see that the enemy are upon you and investing your rear? Call a
+council of war, reach out for stores and reinforcements in this crisis:
+haste, haste, no time to waste! Make a detour through some pass, forestall
+your foes, beleaguer them, protect our troops! Cut off the enemy's base of
+supplies!" etc.
+
+Whether this passage had an ulterior purpose or not, the motif is
+frequent.[111] So we find Chrysalus in _Bac._ 925 ff. holding the stage
+for an entire scene with an elaborate comparison of himself to Ulysses,
+the brains of the Greek host, overcoming his master Nicobulus who
+represents Priam.
+
+In general the mocking assumption of an heroic attitude recurs with
+sufficient frequency to stamp it as a staple of comic effect. Many
+passages would become tiresome and meaningless instead of amusing unless
+so interpreted. The soliloquy of Mnesilochus in _Bac._ 500 ff. could be
+made interesting only by turgid ranting. Similarly in _Bac._ 530 ff. and
+612 ff.[112]
+
+
+2. Horse-play and slap-sticks.
+
+By this we mean what can in nowise be so clearly defined as by
+"rough-house." For instance, the turbulent Euclio in _Aul._ delivers
+bastings impartially to various _dramatis personae_ and as a climax drives
+the cooks and music-girl pell-mell out of the house, doubtless accompanied
+by deafening howling and clatter (415 ff.). Similarly in the _Cas._ (875
+ff.) Chalinus routs Olympio and the lecherous Lysidamus. We may well
+imagine that such scenes were preceded as well as accompanied by a fearful
+racket within (a familiar device of our low comedy and extravaganza), the
+effect probably heightened by tempestuous _melodrama_ on the _tibiae_, as
+both the scenes cited are in _canticum_.
+
+In the _Men._ we are treated to a free fight, in which the valiant
+Messenio routs the _lorarii_ by vigorous punches, while Menaechmus plants
+his fist in one antagonist's eye (_Men._ 1011 ff.):
+
+(Menaechmus of Epidamnus is seized by _lorarii_; as he struggles,
+Messenio, slave of Menaechmus Sosicles, rushes into the fray to his
+rescue). "MES. I say! Gouge out that fellow's eye, the one that's got you
+by the shoulder, master. Now as for these rotters, I'll plant a crop of
+fists on their faces. (_Lays about._) By Heaven, you'll be everlastingly
+sorry for the day you tried to carry my master off. Let go!
+
+MEN. (_Joining in with a will._) I've got this fellow by the eye!
+
+MES. Bore it out! A hole's good enough for his face! You villians, you
+thieves, you robbers! (_General melA(C)e. Lorarii weaken._)
+
+LOR. We're done for! Oh Lord, please!
+
+MES. Let go then!
+
+MEN. What right had you to lay hands on me? Give them a good beating up!
+(_Lorarii break and scatter wildly under the ferocious onslaught._)
+
+MES. Come, clear out! To the devil with you all! That for _you_!
+(_Strikes._) You're the last; here's _your_ reward! (_Strikes again._)"
+
+The lines themselves are sufficiently graphic and need but little
+annotation. Other pugilistic activities crop up at not infrequent
+intervals in the text,[113] and in _Ps._ 135 ff. Ballio generously plies
+the whip. In the lacuna of the _Amph._ after line 1034, Mercury probably
+bestows a drenching on Amphitruo.[114] In _As._ III. 3, especially 697
+ff., Libanus makes his master Argyrippus "play horsey" with him, doubtless
+with indelicate buffonery. With invariable energy, even so simple a matter
+as knocking on doors is made the excuse for raising a violent disturbance,
+as in _Amph._ 1019 f. and 1025: Paene effregisti, fatue, foribus
+cardines.[115] And this idea is actually parodied in _As._ 384 ff. No,
+Plautus did not allow his public to languish for want of noise.
+
+
+3. Burlesque, farce and extravagance of situation and dialogue.
+
+Under this head we include such conscious strivings for comic as are
+frankly and plainly exaggerated and hyper-natural.
+
+
+a. True burlesque.
+
+This is in effect pure parody, cartooning. Patent burlesque of tragedy
+appears in _Trin._ 820 ff. (_Charmides returns from abroad._)
+
+"CHAR. To Neptune, ruler of the deep, and puissant brother unto Jove and
+Nereus, do I in joy and gladness cry my praises and gratefully proclaim my
+gratitude; and to the briny waves, who held me in their power, yea, even
+my chattels and my very life, and from their realms restored me to the
+city of my birth," etc., etc.
+
+To tickle the ears of the groundlings, this must have been delivered in
+grandiloquent mimicry with all the paraphernalia of the tragic style.
+Horace notes a kindred manifestation of this tendency (to which he himself
+is pleasingly addicted), in _Ep._ II. 3.93 f.:
+
+  Interdum tamen et vocem comoedia tollit
+  Iratusque Chremes tumido delitigat ore.
+
+Tragic burlesque is again beautifully exemplified in _Ps._ 702 ff. The
+versatile Pseudolus after a significant aside: "I'll address the fellow in
+high-sounding words," says to his master Calidorus:
+
+"Hail! Hail! Thee, thee, O mighty ruler, thee do I beseech who art lord
+over Pseudolus. Thee do I seek that thou mayst obtain thrice three times
+triple delights in three various ways, joys earned by three tricks and
+three tricksters, cunningly won by treachery, fraud and villainy, which in
+this little sealed missive have I but erstwhile brought to thee....
+
+CHAR. The rascal's spouting like a tragedian."
+
+When Sosia, in the first scene of _Amph._ (203 ff.), turgidly describes
+the battle between the Thebans and Teleboans, he is parodying the
+Messenger of tragedy. Another echo from tragedy is heard at the end of the
+play, when Jupiter appears in the role of deus ex machina.[116]
+
+Burlesque of character and calling puts in an occasional appearance. The
+recreant Sosia in _Amph._ 958 ff. mimics the dutiful slave. _As._ 259 ff.
+contains an ironical treatment of augury, while in 751 ff. the poet has
+his satirical fling at the legal profession.
+
+
+b. True farce.
+
+This is of course the comedy of situation and finds its mainstay in
+mistaken identity. The _Men._ and _Amph._ with their doubles are
+farce-comedies proper, but the element of farce forms the motive power of
+nearly all the plots; for example, the shuffling-up of Acropolistis,
+Telestis and the _fidicina_ in _Ep._, the quarrel between Mnesilochus and
+Pistoclerus in _Bac._ resulting from the former's belief that his friend
+had stolen his sweetheart, the exchange of names between Tyndarus and
+Philocrates in _Cap._, the entrapping of Demaenetus with the _meretrix_ at
+the dA(C)nouement of _As._, etc., etc. It is understood, we presume, that the
+modern farce occupies no exalted position in the comic scale, is
+distinguished by the grotesquerie of its characters, incidents and
+dialogue, and is indulgently permitted to stray far from the paths of
+realism. Even in Shakespearian farce, note the exaggerated antics of the
+two Dromios in "The Comedy of Errors." It is significant then that farce
+is a staple of our plays.
+
+The farcical element is strikingly exemplified in _Amph._ 365-462, where
+Mercury persuades Sosia that he is not himself. Impersonation and
+assumption of a role is another noteworthy and frequent medium of plot
+motivation. In _As._ 407 ff. Leonida tries to palm himself off as the
+_atriensis_. Note the violent efforts of the two slaves to wheedle the
+cunning ass-dealer (449 ff.). In _Cas._ 815 ff. Chalinus enters disguised
+as the blushing bride. In _Men._ 828 ff. Menaechmus Sosicles pretends
+madness in a clever scene of uproarious humor. In the _Mil._ (411 ff.)
+Philocomasium needs only to change clothing to appear in the role of her
+own hypothetical twin sister, and in 874 ff. and 1216 ff. the _meretrix_
+plays _matrona_. Sagaristio and the daughter of the _leno_ impersonate
+Persians (_Per._ 549 ff.), Collabiscus becomes a Spartan (_Poen._ 578
+ff.), Simia as Harpax gets Ballio's money (_Ps._ 905 ff.), the sycophant
+is garbed as messenger (_Trin._ 843 ff.), Phronesium elaborately pretends
+to be a mother (_Truc._ 499 ff.). A swindle is almost invariably the
+object in view. But we have said enough on this score: no one who knows
+the plays at all can fail to recognize the predominance of farce. Compare
+on the modern stage the sudden appearance of "the long-lost cousin from
+Chicago."
+
+
+c. Extravagances obviously unnatural and merely for the sake of fun.
+
+This group of course often contains marked features of burlesque and
+farce, and hence shows a close kinship with the foregoing.
+
+The extravagance of the love-sick swain is a fruitful source of this
+species of caricature. The ridiculous Calidorus, always wearing his heart
+on his sleeve, rolls his eyes, brushes away a tear and says (_Ps._ 38
+ff.): "But for a short space have I been e'en as a lily of the field.
+Suddenly sprang I up, as suddenly I withered." The irreverent Pseudolus
+replies: "Oh, shut up while I read the letter over." Calidorus finds his
+counterpart in Phaedromus of the _Cur._, who, accompanied by his slave,
+approaches milady's abode (_Cur._ 10 ff.):
+
+"PH. (_In languishing accents, with eyes cast upward_): Shall I not take
+sweets to the sweet: what is culled by the toil of the busy bees to my own
+little honey?... (_They advance to milady's doorway which he sprinkles
+with wine_, 88 ff.): Come, drink, ye portals of pleasure, quaff and deign
+to be propitious unto me.
+
+PALINURUS SER. (_Addressing the door with mimicry of Phaedromus' airs._)
+Do you want some olives or sweetmeats or capers?
+
+PH. (_Continuing._) Arouse your portress; hither send her unto me.
+(_Lavishes the wine._)
+
+PAL. (_In great alarm, grasping his arm._) You're spilling the wine!
+What's got hold of you?
+
+PH. Unhand me! (_Gently shakes himself loose._) Lo! The temple of joys
+untold is opening. Did not the hinge creak? 'Tis charming!
+
+PAL. (_Turning aside in disgust._) Why don't you give it a kiss?"
+
+In each case the impertinent slave provides the foil. When the lovers
+succeed in meeting, they are interlocked in embrace from 172 to 192,
+probably invested with no small amount of suggestive "business." This
+would doubtless hardly be tolerated by the "censor" today. Another variety
+of lover's extravagance is the lavishing of terms of endearment, as we
+find in _Cas._ 134 ff.[117]
+
+When this feature of "extravagance" enters the situation instead of the
+dialogue, we have episodes such as the final scene of the _Ps._, where the
+name character is irrelevantly introduced (1246) in a state of
+intoxication which, with copious belching in Simo's face, culminates in a
+rebellion of the overloaded stomach (1294). We can scarcely doubt that
+such business was carried out in ultra-graphic detail and rewarded by
+copious guffaws from the populace. In sharp contrast to this, the
+drunkenness of Callidamates in _Most._ 313 ff. is depicted with unusual
+artistry, but still from the very nature of such a scene it may be labeled
+"extravagant."
+
+Manifestation of violent anger is another source of exaggerated stage
+business. _Ep._ 512 ff. should be interpreted somewhat as follows:
+
+"(_The deluded Periphanes has just discovered that the fidicina is an
+impostor and not his daughter._) FID. (_Sweetly._) Do you want me for
+anything else?
+
+PER. (_Stamping foot and shaking fists in a passion._) The foul fiend take
+you to utter perdition! Clear out, and quickly too!
+
+FID. (_In alarm._) Won't you give me back my harp?
+
+PER. Nor harp nor pipes! So hurry up and get out of here, if you know
+what's good for you!
+
+FID. (_Stamping her foot in tearful rage._) I'll go, but you'll have to
+give them back later just the same and it will be all the worse for you.
+
+PER. (_Striding up and down in wildest anger._) What!... shall I let her
+go unpunished? Nay, even if I have to lose as much again, I'll lose it
+rather than let myself be mocked and despoiled with impunity!" and so
+on.[118]
+
+Other random scenes that may be classed as "extravagant" are found in
+Strobilus' cartoon of Euclio (_Aul._ 300 ff.), Demipho's discovery in the
+distance of a mythical bidder for the girl (_Mer._ 434 ff.), Charinus'
+playing "horsey" and taking a trip in his imaginary car (_Mer._ 930 ff.),
+and the loud "boo-hoo" to which Philocomasium gives vent (_Mil._ 1321
+ff.). These all might be classed under either "farce" or "burlesque," but
+they seem to come more exactly under the kindred head of "extravagance."
+
+A familiar figure in modern farce-comedy is the comic conspirator with
+finger on lip, tiptoeing round in fear of listeners. He finds his
+prototype in _Trin._ (146 ff.):
+
+"(_Callicles and Megaronides converse._)
+
+CAL. (_In a mysterious whisper._) Look around a bit and make sure there's
+nobody spying on us--and please look around every few seconds. (_They
+pause and peer in every direction, perhaps creeping round on tiptoe._)
+
+MEG. Now, I am all ears.
+
+CAL. When you're through, I'll talk. (_Pauses and nods._) Just before
+Charmides went abroad, he showed me a treasure, (_stops and looks over his
+shoulders_) in his house here, in one of the rooms. (_Starts, as if at a
+noise._) Look around! (_They repeat the search and return again._)
+
+MEG. There's nobody."[119]
+
+Another old stage friend is the detected plotter trying to lie out of an
+embarrassing situation. He is lineally descended from Tranio in the
+_Most._ Tranio has just induced his master Theopropides to pay forty minae
+to the money-lender on the pretext that Theopropides' son Philolaches has
+bought a house (659 ff.):
+
+"TH. In what neighborhood did my son buy this house?
+
+TR. (_Aside to audience in comic despair, with appropriate gesture._) See
+there now! I'm a goner!
+
+TH. (_Impatiently._) Will you answer my question?
+
+TR. Oh yes, but (_Stammering and displaying symptoms of acute
+embarrassment_) I--I'm trying to think of the owner's name. (_Groans._)
+
+TH. Well, hurry up and remember it!
+
+TR. (_Rapidly, aside._) I can't see anything better to do than tell him
+his son bought the house of our next-door neighbor here. (_With a shrug._)
+Thunder, I've heard that a _steaming_ lie is the best kind.
+(_Mock-heroically._) 'Tis the will of the gods, my mind's made up.
+
+TH. (_Who has been frowning and stamping in impatience._) Well, well,
+well! Haven't you thought of it yet?
+
+TR. (_Aside._) Curses on him!... (_Finally turning and bursting out
+suddenly._) It's our next-door neighbor here--your son bought the house
+from him. (_He sees that the lie goes and sighs with relief._)"[120]
+
+Another variation on this theme is the futile effort of the plotter to get
+rid of a character armed with incriminating evidence. Again we quote
+_Most._ (573 ff.), where Tranio is conversing with Theopropides. The
+money-lender from whom young Philolaches has borrowed appears on the other
+side of the stage. Tranio espies him. He must keep him away from the old
+man. With a hurried excuse he flies across to meet Misargyrides.
+
+"TR. (_Taking Misargyrides' arm and attempting to steer him off-stage._) I
+was never so glad to see a man in my life.
+
+MIS. (_Suspiciously, holding back._) What's the matter?
+
+TR. (_Confidentially._) Just step this way. (_Looks back apprehensively at
+Theopropides, who is regarding them suspiciously._)
+
+MIS. (_In a loud and offensive voice._) Won't my interest be paid?
+
+TR. I know you have a good voice; don't shout so loud.
+
+MIS. (_Louder._) Hang it, but I _will_ shout!
+
+TR. (_Groans and glances over shoulder again._) Run along home, there's a
+good fellow. (_Urges him toward exit._)", etc.
+
+Tranio has a chance for very lively business: a sickly smile for the
+usurer, lightning glances of apprehension towards Theopropides, with an
+occasional intimate groan aside to the audience. Other farcical scenes of
+the many that may be cited as calling for particularly vivacious business
+and gesture are, e.g., _Cas._ 621 ff., where Pardalisca befools Lysidamus
+by timely fainting, _Rud._ 414 ff., where Sceparnio flirts with Ampelisca,
+and the quarrel scene, _Rud._ 485 ff.[121]
+
+The last four passages quoted in translation are by no means lacking in
+artistic humor and a measure of reality, but they imply a pronounced
+heightening of the actions and emotions of everyday life and lose their
+humor unless presented in the broad spirit that stamps them as belonging
+to the plane of farce. We now pass on to motives where the dialogue aims
+at effects manifestly unnatural and where verisimilitude is sacrificed to
+the joke, as we have seen it is in the employment of "bombast," "true
+burlesque," etc.
+
+The first of these motives is a stream of copious abuse, as in _Per._ 406
+ff., where Toxilus _servos_ and Dordalus _leno_ exchange Rabelaisian
+compliments.
+
+"TOX. (_Hopping about with rabid gestures._) You filthy pimp, you
+mud-heap, you common dung-hill, you besmirched, corrupt, law-breaking
+decoy, you public sewer, ... robber, mobber, jobber, ...!
+
+DOR. (_Who has been dancing around in fury, shaking his fist until
+exhausted by his paroxysms._) Wait--till--(_Puffing_)--I--get--my
+breath--I'll--answer you! You dregs of the rabble, you slave-brothel, you
+'white-slave' freer, you sweat-of-the-lash, you chain gang, you king of
+the treadmill, ... you eat-away, steal-away run-away....!" etc.[122]
+
+Perhaps we have here the forerunner of the shrewish wife in modern
+vaudeville, who administers to her shrinking consort a rapid-fire
+tongue-lashing. Another phase of this profuse riot of words appears in the
+formidable Persian name that Sagaristio, disguised as a Persian, adopts in
+the _Per._ (700 ff.):
+
+"DORDALUS. What's your name?
+
+SAG. Listen then, and you shall hear: False-speaker-us Girl-seller-son
+Much-o'-nothing-talk-son Money-gouge-out-son Talk-up-to you-son
+Coin-wheedle-out-son What-I-once-get-son Never-give-up-son: there you are!
+
+DOR. (_With staring eyes and gasping breath._) Ye Gods! That's a
+variegated name of yours!
+
+SAG. (_With a superior wave of the hand._) It's the Persian fashion."
+
+The second point in this category is own cousin to the above. We should
+label it persistent interruption and repetition. An excellent instance is
+_Trin._ 582 ff., when Stasimus, Lesbonicus and Philto have just hatched a
+plot. Philto departs.
+
+"LES. (_To Stasimus._) You attend to my instructions. I'll be there
+presently. Tell Callicles to meet me.
+
+ST. Now you just clear out! (_Pushes him after Philto._)
+
+LES. (_Calls out as he is being shoved away._) Tell him to see what has to
+be done about the dowry.
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES. (_Raising his voice._) For I'm determined not to marry her off
+without a dowry.
+
+ST. Won't you clear out?
+
+LES. (_Still louder._) And I won't let her suffer harm by reason.----
+
+ST. Get out, I say!
+
+LES. (_Shouts._)--of my carelessness.
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES. It seems right that my own sins--
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES.--should affect me alone.
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES. (_Mock heroically._) Oh father, shall I ever behold you again?
+
+ST. Out, out, out! (_With a final shove._) (_Exit Lesbonicus._) At last, I
+'ve got him away! (_Breathes hard._)"
+
+The fun, if fun there be, lies in the hammer-like repetition of "I modo,"
+a sort of verbal buffoonery. A clever actor could din this with telling
+effect. The device is employed several times. In _Most._ 974 ff. the word
+is _aio_, in _Per._ 482 ff. _credo_, in _Poen._ 731 ff. _quippini_, in
+_Ps._ 484 ff. I1/2I+-I I cubedII, in _Rud._ 1212 ff. _licet_ and 1269 ff.
+_censeo_. The last two examples are the lengthiest.[123]
+
+The third of these motives is the introduction of clearly unnatural
+dialogue, wholly incidental and foreign to the action, for the sake of
+lugging in a joke. The _As._ (38 ff.) yields the following conversation
+between Demaenetus _senex_ and his slave Libanus:
+
+"LI. By all that's holy, as a favor to me, spit out the words you have
+uttered.
+
+DE. All right, I'll be glad to oblige you. (_Coughs._)
+
+LI. Now, now, get it right up! (_Pats him on the back._)
+
+DE. More? (_Coughs._)
+
+LI. Gad, yes, please! Right from the bottom of your throat: more still!
+(_Pats._)
+
+DE. Well, how far down then?
+
+LI. (_Unguardedly._) Down to Hades is my wish!
+
+DE. I say, look out for trouble!
+
+LI. (_Diplomatically._) For your wife, I mean, not for you.
+
+DE. For that speech I bestow upon you freedom from punishment."[124]
+
+The childish bandying of words in _Truc._ 858 ff. is egregiously tiresome
+in the reading, but in action could have been made to produce a modicum of
+amusement if presented in the broad burlesque spirit that we believe was
+almost invariably employed. This gives us a clue to the next topic.
+
+
+
+B. _Devices absurd and inexplicable unless interpreted in a broad farcical
+spirit._
+
+
+This includes peculiarities that have usually been commented on as
+weaknesses or conventions, or else been given up as hopeless
+incongruities, but which we hope to prove also yield their quota of
+amusement if clownishly performed. The foremost of these is the famous
+
+
+1. Running Slave or Parasite.
+
+We all know him: rushing madly cross stage at top-speed (if we take the
+literal word of the text for it), with girded loins, in search of somebody
+right under his nose, the while unburdening himself of exhaustive periods
+that, however great the breadth of the Roman stage, would carry him
+several times across and back: as Curculio in 279 ff.:
+
+"Make way for me, friends and strangers, while I carry out my duty here.
+Run, all of you, scatter and clear the road! I'm in a hurry and I don't
+want to butt into anybody with my head, or elbow, or chest, or knee....
+And there's none so rich as can stand in my way, ... none so famous but
+down he goes off the sidewalk and stands on his head in the street," and
+so on for ten lines or more. After he has found his patron Phaedromus, he
+is apparently so exhausted that he cries: "Hold me up, please, hold me up!
+(_Wobbles and falls panting into Phaedromus' arms._)
+
+PH.... Get him a chair ... quick!"
+
+When Leonida enters (_As._ 267 ff.) as the running slave, he is still out
+of breath at 326-7! Stasimus in _Trin._ 1008 ff., though his mission is
+also proclaimed as desperately urgent, pauses to declaim on public morals!
+
+Considerable light has been thrown upon this subject recently by the
+dissertation of Weissman, _De servi currentis persona apud comicos
+Romanes_ (Giessen, 1911), though his explanation of the _modus operandi_
+is inconclusive. Langen has commented on it at some length,[125] but
+offers no solution. Weise frankly admits:[126] "Wie sie gelaufen sind, ist
+ein RAtsel fur uns." LeGrand[127] follows Weise's conclusion that it is an
+imitation from the Greek and in support of this instances Curculio's use,
+while running, of the presumed translations from the Greek: _agoranomus_,
+_demarchus_, etc. He also cites as parallels some unconvincing phrases from
+fragments of New Comedy, while developing an ingenious theory that the
+device is a heritage from the Greek orchestra, where it could have been
+performed with a hippodrome effect. Terence berates the practice,[128] but
+makes use of it himself.[129]
+
+Weissman's conclusions are worth a summary. He notes the following as the
+usual essential concomitants: 1. It is mentioned in the text that the
+slave is on the run. 2. He is the bearer of news of the moment; 3. He
+fails to recognize other characters on stage; 4. He is halted by the very
+man he is so violently seeking. He cites as the genuine occurrences of the
+_servus_ or _parasitus currens_, besides the passages mentioned above,
+_Cap._ 781 ff., _Ep._ 1 ff., 192 ff., _Mer._ 111 ff., _Per._ 272 ff.,
+_St._ 274 ff. Furthermore, he argues convincingly that this was an
+independent Roman development without a prototype on the Greek stage and
+neatly refutes Weise and LeGrand by proving that there are no extant Greek
+fragments sufficient to furnish a ground for any but the most tenuous
+argument. Above all, he correctly interprets the poet's aim with the
+dictum: "Praeterquam quod hac persona optime utitur ad actionem bene
+continuandam id maxime spectat ut per eam _spectatorum risum_ captet." And
+this from a German youth of twenty-two!
+
+It is in his attempt to explain the mechanism that we believe Weissman
+fails. He essays an exegesis of each passage, though the separate
+explanations are naturally similar. It will suffice to quote one, that to
+_As._ 267 ff.: "Hoc nullo modo aliter mihi declarari posse videtur nisi
+sic: Oratio Leonidae currentis maior est quam ut arbitrari possimus
+currentem semper eum habuisse eam. Ex versu 290 Leonidam de celeritate sua
+remisisse plane apparet. Quod semel solum eum fecisse cum non satis mihi
+esse videatur, saepius--bis vel ter--per breve tempus eum cursum suum
+interrupisse, circumspexisse, Libanum autem non spectavisse (hoc consilium
+poetae erat, licentia poetica est) et hoc modo per totam scaenam cursum
+suum direxisse arbitror."
+
+It will be observed that for lack of any tangible evidence he very
+properly makes use of subjective reasoning. Now it has long been the
+opinion of the writer that the maximum of comic effect (and that this was
+the purpose of the _servus currens_ there can surely be no doubt) could
+best be obtained by the actor's making a violent and frenzied pretense of
+running while scarcely moving from the spot. Consider the ludicrous
+spectacle of the rapidly moving legs and the flailing arms, with the
+actor's face turned toward the audience, as he declaims sonorously of his
+haste to perform his vital errand, while making but a snail's progress.
+Truly then his plea of exhaustion would not be without excuse! This is an
+explanation at once simpler, more potentially comic, more in accord with
+what we predicate as the spirit of Plautus, and furthermore we have seen
+roars of laughter created by the similar device of a low comedian in a
+modern extravaganza. Taking advantage of the same subjective license, we
+see nothing in Weissman's theory to offset our opinion. But, what is more,
+our subjective reconstruction is given color by a shred of tangible
+evidence. Suetonius (_Tib._ 38) refers to a popular quip on the emperor
+that compares him to an actor on the classic Greek stage: "Biennio
+continuo post ademptum imperium pedem porta non extulit; ... ut vulgo iam
+per iocum Callip(p)ides vocaretur, quem cursitare ac ne cubiti quidem
+mensuram progredi proverbio Graeco notatum est." That this Callipides was
+the a1/2'IEuroI?I--III"I(R)I, mentioned by Xenophon (_Sym._ III. 11), Plutarch
+(_Ages._ 21 and _Apophth. Lacon._: s. v. _Ages._), Cicyero (_Ad. Att._
+XIII. 12) and possibly by Aristotle (_Poet._ 26.), seems highly plausible.
+Compare the _saltus fullonius_ (Sen. _Ep._ 15.4).
+
+Most amusing of all is Plautus' introduction of a parody on the parody,
+when Mercury rushes in post-haste crying (_Amph._ 984 ff.):
+
+"Make way, give way, everybody, clear the way! I tell you all: don't you
+get so bold as to stand in my road. For, egad! I'd like to know why I, a
+god, shouldn't have as much right to threaten the rabble as a mere slave
+in the comedies!"
+
+And perhaps _St._ 307 is a joke on the running slave: Sed spatium hoc
+occidit: brevest curriculo: quam me paenitet? That violent haste was
+considered a slavish trait is evidenced by _Poen._ 523-3.
+
+
+2. Wilful blindness.
+
+In the scene recently quoted (_Cur._ 279 ff.), Curculio, after his violent
+exertions in search of his patron, is for a time apparently unable to
+discover him, though he is on the stage all the time. This species of
+blindness must be wilfully designed as a burlesque effect and again finds
+its echo in low comedy types of today. The breadth and depth of the Roman
+stage alone will not account for this either; indeed, its very size could
+be utilized to heighten the humor, as the actor peers hither and yon in
+every direction but the right one. So Curculio (front) may pass directly
+by Phaedromus (rear) without seeing him, to the huge delight of the
+audience, and turn back again, while saying (301 ff.):
+
+"Is there anybody who can point out Phaedromus, my guardian angel, to me?
+The matter's very urgent: I must find this chap at once.
+
+PALINURUS. (_To Phaedromus._) It's you he's looking for.
+
+PH. What do you say we speak to him? Hello, Curculio, I want you!
+
+CUR. (_Stopping and again looking vainly round._) Who's calling? Who says
+"Curculio"?
+
+PH. Somebody that wants to see you.
+
+CUR. (_At last recognizing him when almost on top of him._) Ah! You don't
+want to see me any more than I want to see you."
+
+Acanthio in _Mer._ 130 ff. is still more blind to the presence of Charinus
+and raises a deal more fuss, as he enters in the wildest haste looking for
+Charinus, who is of course in plain sight. Acanthio, with labored
+breathing and the remark that he would never make a piper, probably passes
+by Charinus and goes to the house.
+
+"AC. What am I standing here for, anyway? I'll make splinters of these
+doors without a single qualm. (_Hammers violently. Charinus approaches,
+vainly trying to attract his attention._) Open up, somebody! Where's my
+master Charinus, at home or out? (_Still hammering._) Isn't anybody
+supposed to have the job of tending door?
+
+CH. (_Shouting._) Here I am, Acanthio! You're looking for me, aren't you?
+
+AC. (_Still punishing the door._) I never saw such slovenly management.
+
+CH. (_Finally grabbing and shaking him._) What the deuce has got hold of
+you?"[130] And so in the case of practically all the _servi currentes_.
+
+The opening scene of the _Per._ (13 ff.) between two slaves apparently
+unable to distinguish each other's features from opposite sides of the
+stage affords an opportunity for a similar species of farcical by-play.
+Toxilus and Sagaristio stroll slowly in from the different side-entrances,
+alternately soliloquizing. Suddenly, when probably fairly close, both look
+up and peer curiously at each other:
+
+"TOX. (_Shading his eyes with his hand._) Who's that standing over there?
+
+SAG. Who's this standing over here?
+
+TOX. Looks like Sagaristio.
+
+SAG. I bet it's my friend Toxilus.
+
+TOX. He's the fellow, all right.
+
+SAG. That's the chap, I'm sure.
+
+TOX. I'll go over to him.
+
+SAG. I'll go up and speak to him. (_They draw closer._)
+
+TOX. Sagaristio, I hope the gods are good to you.
+
+SAG. Toxilus, I hope the gods give you everything you want. How are you?
+
+TOX. So so."[131]
+
+Note that this is _canticum_ and the effect of the two "sing-songing"
+slaves on the audience must have been much the same as, upon us, the
+spectacle of a vaudeville "duo," entering from opposite wings and singing
+perchance a burlesque of grand opera at each other.
+
+
+3. Adventitious entrance.
+
+This is of a piece with the above, but is usually due to a weakness of
+composition, to the goddess IIII., who is the presiding deity of
+the plots of New Comedy.[132] However, there are times when appreciable
+fun can be extracted from this, if the actor speak in a bland jocular
+tone, taking the audience into his confidence, as _Trin._ 400 f.:
+
+"PHILTO. But the door of the house to which I was going is opening. Isn't
+that nice? Lesbonicus, the very man I'm looking for, is coming out with
+his slave."
+
+And _Aul._ 176 f.:
+
+"MEGADORUS. I'd like to see Euclio, if he's at home. Ah, here he comes!
+He's on his way home from some place or other."[133]
+
+We believe that enough has been said to prove that the favorite devices of
+the lower types of modern stage-production form the back-bone of Plautus'
+methods of securing his comic effects. Let us pass on without more ado to
+a discussion of points that establish equally well that he was careless of
+every other consideration but the eliciting of laughter.
+
+
+
+
+II. Evidences of Loose Composition Which Prove a Disregard of Technique
+and Hence Indicate that Entertainment Was the Sole Aim
+
+
+A. _Solo speeches and passages_.
+
+
+1. Asides and soliloquies.
+
+As it is often important for the audience to know the thoughts of stage
+characters, the aside and the soliloquy in all species of dramatic
+composition have always been recognized as the only feasible conventional
+mode of conveying them. According to the strictest canons of dramatic art,
+the ideally constructed play should be entirely free from this weakness.
+Mr. Gillette is credited with having written in "Secret Service" the first
+aside-less play. But this is abnormal and rather an affectation of
+technical skill. The aside is an accepted convention. But in the plays of
+Plautus we
+
+have a profuse riot of solo speeches and passages that transcends the
+conventional and becomes a gross weakness of composition, pointing plainly
+to a poverty of technique and hence further strengthening the conception
+of entertainment as the author's sole purpose. And often too, as we shall
+point out, this very form can be used for amusement. To attempt a complete
+collection of these passages would mean a citation of hundreds of lines,
+comprising a formidable percentage of all the verses.
+
+And furthermore, the Plautine character is not so tame and spiritless as
+merely to think aloud. He has a fondness for actual conversation with
+himself that shows a noble regard for the value of his own society. This
+is attested by many passages, such as _Amph._ 381: Etiam muttis?; _Aul._
+52: At ut scelesta sola secum murmurat; _Aul._ 190: Quid tu solus tecum
+loquere?; _Bac._ 773: Quis loquitur prope?; _Cap._ 133: Quis hic
+loquitur?[134]
+
+One character standing aside and commenting on the main action is a
+familiar situation and often productive of good fun. An excellent example
+is _Most._ 166 ff., where Philematium is performing her conventionally
+out-door toilet with the aid of her duenna Scapha. Philolaches stands on
+the other side of the stage and interjects remarks:
+
+"PHILEM. Look at me please, Scapha dear; is this gown becoming? I want to
+please Philolaches, the apple of my eye....
+
+SC. Why deck yourself out, when your charm lies in your charming manners?
+It isn't gowns that lovers love, but what bellies out the gowns.
+
+PHILO. (_Aside._) God bless me, but Scapha's clever; the hussy has
+horse-sense....
+
+PHILEM. (_Pettishly._) Well, then?
+
+SC. What is it?
+
+PHILEM. Look me over anyhow and see how this becomes me.
+
+SC. The grace of your figure makes everything you wear becoming.
+
+PHILO. (_Aside._) Now for that speech, Scapha, I'll give you some present
+before the day is out--and so on for a whole long scene.
+
+The quips are amusing in an evident burlesque spirit. Such a scene was
+easily done on the broad Roman stage, whether it was a heritage from the
+use of the orchestra in Greek comedy, as LeGrand thinks,[135] or not. In
+similar vein, clever by-play on the part of the cunning Palaestrio would
+make a capital scene out of _Mil. 1037 ff._[136] A perfectly unnatural but
+utterly amusing scene of the same type is _Amph. 153-262_, where Mercury
+apostrophizes his fists, and the quaking Sosia (cross-stage) is frightened
+to a jelly at the prospect of his early demise. In Cap. 966, Ilegio, staid
+gentleman that he is, introduces an exceeding "rough" remark in the middle
+of a serious scene. The aside of Pseudolus in _Ps. 636 f._ could be
+rendered as a good-natured burlesque as follows:
+
+"HARPAX. What's your name?
+
+PS. (_Hopping forward and addressing audience with hand over mouth._) The
+pander has a slave named Surus. I'll say I'm he. (_Hopping back and
+addressing Harpax._) I'm Surus." Many other scenes were doubtless rendered
+by one character's thus stepping aside and confiding his ideas to the
+spectators, as for example _Aul. 194 ff._ and _Trin. 895 ff._ Often our
+characters blurt out their inmost thoughts to the public, as in _Cas. 937
+ff._, with eavesdroppers conveniently placed, else what would become of
+the plot?
+
+The soliloquy is constantly used to keep the audience acquainted with the
+advance of the plot[137], or to paint in narrative intervening events that
+connect the loose joints of the action. This is of course wholly
+inartistic, but may often find its true office in keeping a noisy,
+turbulent and uneducated audience aware of "what is going on." In many
+cases the soliloquy is in the nature of a reflection on the action and
+seems to bear all the ear-marks of a heritage from the original function
+of the tragic chorus[138]. It devolved upon the actor by sprightly mimicry
+to relieve, in these scenes, the tedium that appeals to the reader. So in
+_Cap._ 909 ff. the _canticum_ of the _puer_ becomes more than a mere
+stopgap, if he acts out vividly the violence of Ergasilus; and in _Bac._
+1067 ff. the soliloquy would acquire humor, if confidentially directed at
+the audience. In _As._ 127 ff., as Argyrippus berates the _lena_ within,
+it must be delivered with an abundance of pantomime.
+
+
+2. Lengthy monodies, monologues and episodical specialties.
+
+Frequently the soliloquy takes the form of a long solo passage directed at
+the audience, while the action halts for a whole scene to allow the actor
+to regale his public with the poet's views on the sins of society,
+economic topics of the day, or topics of the by-gone days in Athens, and
+the like. The resemblance to the interpolated song and dance of musical
+comedy is most striking. The comparison is the more apt, as about
+two-thirds of the illustrative scenes referred to in the next paragraph
+are in _canticum_. It is a pity that the comic chorus had disappeared, or
+the picture were complete. That it is often on the actor's initial
+appearance that he sings his song or speaks his piece, strengthens the
+resemblance. But this is a natural growth under the influence of two
+publics, the Greek and the Roman, notably fond of declamation and oratory.
+LeGrand believes this a characteristic directly derived from a narrative
+form of Middle Comedy embodied in certain extant fragments.[139]
+
+The slave class is the topic of many of these monodies: either the virtues
+of the loyal slave are extolled[140], or the knavery of the cunning
+slave[141]. The parasite is "featured" too, when Ergasilus bewails the
+decline of his profession[142], or Peniculus and Gelasimus indulge in
+haunting threnody on their perpetual lack of food[143]. Bankers, lawyers
+and panders come in for their share of satire[144]. Our favorite topic
+today, the frills and furbelows of woman's dress and its reform, held the
+boards of ancient Athens and Rome[145]. In _Mil._ 637 ff, Periplecomenus
+descants on the joys of the old bon vivant and the expense of a wife. The
+delights or pains of love[146], the ruminations of old age[147], marriage
+reform[148] and divorce[149], the views of _meretrices_ and their victims
+on the arts of their profession[150], the habits of cooks[151], the pride
+of valor and heroic deeds[152] are fruitful subjects. In _Cur._ 462 ff.
+the _choragus_ interpolates a recital composed of topical allusions to the
+manners of different neighborhoods of Rome. We have two descriptions of
+dreams[153], and a clever bit which paints a likeness between a man and a
+house[154]. In foreign vein is the lament of Palaestra in _Rud._ 185 ff.,
+which sounds like an echo from tragedy. The appearance of the Fishermen's
+Chorus (_Rud._ 290 ff.) is wholly adventitious and seems designed to
+intensify the atmosphere of the seacoast, if indeed it has any purpose at
+all. In this category also belong the revels of the drunken Pseudolus with
+his song and dance[155], and the final scene of the _St._[156], where, the
+action of the slender plot over, the comedy slaves royster and dance with
+the harlot. When Ballio drives his herd before him, as he berates them
+merrily to the tune of a whip, we have an energetic and effective
+scene[157].
+
+
+3. Direct address of the audience.
+
+It is a well-established principle that the most intimate cognizance of
+the spectator's existence is a characteristic of the lowest types of
+dramatic production (v. Part I, ASec. 1, fin.). The use of soliloquy, aside
+and monologue all indicate the effort of the lines to put the player on
+terms of intimacy with his public. But even this is transcended by the
+frequent recurrence in jocular vein of deliberate, conscious and direct
+address of the audience, when they are called by name. In _Truc._ 482
+Stratophanes says: Ne expectetis, spectatores, meas pugnas dum
+praedicem.... In _Poen Truc._ 597 we are told: Aurumst profecto hic,
+spectatores, sed comicum; i. e., "stage-money." During a halt in the
+action of the _Ps._ (573) we are graciously informed: Tibicen vos interibi
+hic delectaverit. Mercury's comments (_Amph._ 449-550 passim), probably
+with copious buffoonery, on the leave-taking of Jove and Alemena contain
+the remark (507): Observatote, quam blande mulieri palpabitur. At the
+close of the _Men._ (1157 ff.) Messenio announces an auction and invites
+the spectators to attend.
+
+When Euclio discovers the loss of his hoard, he rushes forth in wild
+lament. In his extremity he turns to the audience (_Aul._ 715 ff.):
+
+"EUC. I beg, I beseech, I implore you, help me and show me the man that
+stole it. (_Picking out one of the spectators, probably a tough looking
+"bruiser", and stretching out his hand to him._) What do _you_ say? I know
+I can trust _you_. I can tell by your face you're honest. (_To the whole
+audience, in response to the laughter sure to ensue._) What's the matter?
+What are you laughing at?" etc.
+
+MoilA"re has imitated this scene very closely in _L'Avare_ (IV. 7), with a
+super-Plautine profusion of verbiage.
+
+In _Mil._ 200 ff. Periplecomenus obligingly acts as guide and personal
+conductor to the manoeuvers of Palaestrio's mind, while it is in the
+throes of evolving a stratagem. Palaestrio of course indulges in vivid,
+pointed pantomime:
+
+"PER. I'll step aside here awhile. (_To audience, pointing to
+Palaestrio._) Look yonder, please, how he stands with serried brow in
+anxious contemplation. His fingers smite his breast; I trow, he fain would
+summon forth his heart. Presto, change! His left hand he rests upon his
+left thigh. With the fingers of his right he reckons out his scheme. Ha!
+He whacks his right thigh!" etc.
+
+It is very amusing too, when Jupiter in _Amph._ 861 ff. strolls in and
+speaks his little piece to the pit:
+
+"JUP. I am the renowned Amphitruo, whose slave is Sosia; you know, the
+fellow that turns into Mercury at will. I dwell in my sky-parlor and
+become Jupiter the while, ad libitum."[158]
+
+Even in olden times Euanthius censured this practice (_de Com._ III.
+6)[159]: <Terentius> nihil ad populum facit actorem velut extra comoediam
+loqui, quod vitium Plauti frequentissimum.
+
+Naturally we shall hardly consider under this head the speech of the whole
+_grex_, or the "Nunc plaudite" of an actor that closes a number of the
+plays. It is no more than the bowing or curtain-calls of today[160],
+unless it was an emphatic announcement to the audience that the play was
+over.
+
+
+
+B. _Inconsistencies and carelessness of composition_.
+
+
+We have referred above to the voluminous mass of inconsistencies,
+contradictions and psychological improbabilities collected by Langen in
+his _Plautinische Studien_. He really succeeds in finding the crux of the
+situation in recognizing that these features are inherent in Plautus'
+style and are frequently employed solely for comic effect, though he is
+often overcome by a natural Teutonic stolidity. He aptly points out that
+Plautus in his selection of originals has in the main chosen plots with
+more vigorous action than Terence. We shall have occasion to quote him at
+intervals, but desire to develop this topic quite independently.
+
+
+1. Pointless badinage and padded scenes.
+
+Strong evidence of loose construction and lack of a technical dramatic
+ideal is contained in the large number of scenes padded out with pointless
+badinage, often tiresome, often wholly episodical in nature, as the
+monodies, and putting for a time a complete check on the plot. The most
+striking of these is _Aul._ 631 ff., when Euclio, suspecting Strobilus of
+the theft of his gold, pounces upon him and belabors him:
+
+"STR. (_Howling and dancing and making violent efforts to free himself._)
+What the plague has got hold of you? What have you to do with me, you
+dotard? Why pick on me? Why are you grabbing me? Don't beat me! (_Succeeds
+in breaking loose._)
+
+EUC. (_Shaking stick at him._) You first-class jailbird, do you dare ask
+me again? You're not a thief, but three thieves rolled into one!
+
+STR. (_Whining and nursing bruises_) What did I steal from you?
+
+EUC. (_Still threatening._) Give it back here, I say?
+
+STR. (_Trembling and edging off._) What is it you want me to give back?
+
+EUC. (_Watching him narrowly._) You ask?
+
+STR. I tell you, I didn't take a thing from you.
+
+EUC. (_Impatiently._) All right, but hand over what you did take!
+(_Pause._) Well, well!
+
+STR. Well, what?
+
+EUC. You can't get away with it.
+
+STR. (_Bolder._) Look here, what do you want?...
+
+EUC. (_Angrier and angrier._) Hand it over, I say! Stop quibbling! I'm not
+trifling now!
+
+STR. Now what shall I hand over? Speak out! Why don't you give the thing a
+name? I swear I never touched or handled anything of yours.
+
+EUC. Put out your hands.
+
+STR. There you are! I've done so. See them?
+
+EUC. (_Scrutinizing his hands closely._) All right. Now put out the third
+too.
+
+STR. (_Aside, growing angry._) The foul fiends of madness have possessed
+this doddering idiot. (_Majestically._) Confess you wrong me?
+
+EUC. (_Dancing in frenzy._) To the utmost, since I don't have you strung
+up! And that's what'll happen too, if you don't confess.
+
+STR. (_Shouting._) Confess what?
+
+EUC. What did you steal from here? (_Pointing to his house._)
+
+STR. Strike me if I stole anything of yours, (_Aside to audience_) and if
+I don't wish I'd made off with it.
+
+EUC. Come now, shake out your cloak.
+
+STR. (_Doing so._) As you please.
+
+EUC. (_Stooping to see if anything falls out._) Haven't got it under your
+shirt? (_Pounces upon him and ransacks clothing._)
+
+STR. (_Resignedly._) Search me, if you like;" and so on with "Give it
+back," What is it? "Put out your right hand," etc., etc.
+
+MoliA"re again imitated almost slavishly (_L'Avare_, V. 3). Longwinded as
+the thing is, it is clear that the liveliness of the action not only
+relieves it, but could make it immensely amusing. At least it is superior
+to the average vaudeville skit of the present day. It must not be
+forgotten too that, as Plautus was in close touch with his players, he
+could have done much of the stage-directing himself and might even have
+worked up some parts to fit the peculiar talents of certain actors, as is
+regularly done in the modern "tailormade drama."
+
+There are numbers of scenes of the sort quoted above, where the apparent
+monotony and verbal padding could be converted into coin for laughter by
+the clever comedian. _Amph._ 551-632 could be worked up poco a poco
+crescendo e animato; in _Poen._ 504 ff., Agorastocles and the _Advocati_
+bandy extensive rhetoric; in _Trin._ 276 ff., the action is suspended
+while Philto proves himself Polonius' ancestor in his long-winded
+sermonizing to Lysiteles and his insistent _laudatio temporis acti_; in
+_St._ 326 ff., as Pinacium, the _servus currens_, finally succeeds in
+"arriving" out of breath (he has been running since 274), bursting with
+the vast importance of his news, he postpones the delivery of his tidings
+till 371 while he indulges in irrelevant badinage. This is pure
+buffoonery. And we can instance scene upon scene where the self-evident
+padding can either furnish an excuse for agile histrionism, or become
+merely tiresome in its iteration[161]. The danger of the latter was even
+recognized by our poet, when, at the end of much word-fencing, Acanthio
+asks Charinus if his desire to talk quietly is prompted by fear of waking
+"the sleeping spectators" (_Mer._ 160). This was probably no exaggeration.
+
+When the padding takes the form of mutual "spoofing," the scene assumes an
+uncanny likeness to the usual lines of a modern "high-class vaudeville
+duo." Note Leonida and Libanus, the merry slaves of the _As._ in 297 ff.,
+Toxilus and Sagaristio in the _Per._, Milphio and Syncerastus in the
+_Poen._ (esp. 851 ff.), Pseudolus and Simia in _Ps._ 905 ff., Trachalio
+and Gripus in _Rud._ 938 ff., Stichus and Sagarinus in the final scene of
+the _St._, and in _Ps._ 1167 ff. Harpax is unmercifully "chaffed" by Simo
+and Ballio. Or, in view of the surrounding drama, we might better compare
+these roysterers to the "team" of low comedians often grafted on a musical
+comedy, where their antics effectually prevent the tenuous plot from
+becoming vulgarly prominent.
+
+
+2. Inconsistencies of character and situation.
+
+The Plautine character is never a consistent human character. He is rather
+a personified trait, a broad caricature on magnified foibles of some type
+of mankind. There is never any character development, no chastening. We
+leave our friends as we found them. They may exhibit the outward
+manifestation of grief, joy, love, anger, but their marionette nature
+cannot be affected thereby. That we should find inconsistencies in
+character portrayal under these circumstances, is not only to be expected,
+but is a mathematical certainty. The poet cares not; they must only dance,
+dance, dance!
+
+Persistent moralizers, such as Megaronides in the _Trin._, who serve but
+as a foil from whom the revelry "sticks fiery off," descend themselves at
+moments to bandying the merriest quips (Scene I.). In _Ep._ 382 ff., the
+moralizing of Periphanes is counterfeit coinage. Gilded youths such as
+Calidorus of the _Ps._ begin by asking (290 f.): "Could I by any chance
+trip up father, who is such a wide-awake old boy?", and end by rolling
+their eyes upward with: "And besides, if I could, filial piety prevents."
+The Menaechmi twins are eminently respectable, but they cheerfully purloin
+mantles, bracelets and purses. Hanno of the _Poen._ should according to
+specifications be a staid _pater familias_, but Plautus imputes to him a
+layer of the _Punica fides_ that he knew his public would take delight in
+"booing." And the old gentleman enters into a plot (1090) to chaff
+elaborately his newly-found long-lost daughters, whom he has spent a
+lifetime in seeking, before disclosing his identity to them (1211 ff.).
+Saturio's daughter in the _Per._ is at one time the very model of maidenly
+modesty and wisdom (336 ff.), at others an accomplished intriguante and
+demi-mondaine (549 ff., esp. 607 ff.). When the plot of the _Ep._ is
+getting hopelessly tangled, of a sudden it is magically resolved as by a
+deus ex machina and everybody decides to "shake and make up."
+
+Slaves ever fearful of the mills or quarries are yet prone to the most
+abominable "freshness" towards their masters. The irrepressible Pseudolus
+in reading a letter from Calidorus' mistress says (27 ff.):
+
+"What letters! Humph! I'm afraid the Sibyl is the only person capable of
+interpreting these.
+
+"CAL. Oh why do you speak so rudely of those lovely letters written on a
+lovely tablet with a lovely hand?
+
+"PS. Well, would you mind telling me if hens have hands? For these look to
+me very like hen-scratches.
+
+"CAL. You insulting beast! Read, or return the tablet!
+
+"PS. Oh, I'll read all right, all right. Just focus your mind on this.
+
+"CAL. _(Pointing vacantly to his head._) Mind? It's not here.
+
+"PS. What! Go get one quick then![162]."
+
+In order that the machinations of these cunning slaves may mature, it is
+usually necessary to portray their victims as the veriest fools. Witness
+the cock-and-bull story by which Stasimus, in _Trin._ 515 ff., convinces
+Philto that his master's land is an undesirable real estate prospect.
+Dordalus in _Per._ (esp. 493 ff.) exhibits a certain amount of caution in
+face of Toxilus' "confidence game," but that he should be victimized at
+all stamps him as a caricature.
+
+LeGrand is certainly right in pronouncing the cunning slave a pure
+convention, adapted from the Greek and so unsuitable to Roman society that
+even Plautus found it necessary to apologize for their unrestrained
+gambols, on the ground that 'that was the way they did in Athens!'[163]
+
+Certain of the characters are caricatures _par excellence_, embodiments of
+a single attribute. Leaena of the _Cur._ is the perpetually thirsty
+_lena_: "Wine, wine, wine!"[164] Cleaerata of the _As._ is a plain
+caricature, but is exceptionally cleverly drawn as the _lena_ with the
+mordant tongue. Phronesium's thirst in the _Truc._, is gold, gold, gold!
+The _danista_ of the _Most._ finds the whole expression of his nature in
+the cry of "Faenus!"[165] Assuredly, he is the progenitor of the modern
+low-comedy Jew: "I vant my inderesd!" Calidorus of the _Ps._ and
+Phaedromus of the _Cur._ are but bleeding hearts dressed up in clothes.
+The _milites gloriosi_ are all cartoons;[166] and the perpetually
+moralizing pedagogue Lydus of the _Bac._ becomes funny, instead of
+egregiously tedious, if acted as a broad burlesque.
+
+The panders[167] are all manifest caricatures, too, especially the famous
+Ballio of the _Ps._, whom even Lorenz properly describes as "der
+Einbegriff aller Schlechtigkeit," though he deprecates the part as "eine
+etwas zu grell and zu breit angefuhrte Schilderung."[168] "Ego scelestus,"
+says Ballio himself.[169] He calmly and unctuously pleads guilty to every
+charge of "liar, thief, perjurer," etc., and can never be induced to lend
+an ear until the cabalistic charm "Lucrum!" is pronounced (264).
+
+The famous miser Euclio has given rise to an inordinate amount of
+unnecessary comment. Lamarre[170] is at great pains to defend Plautus from
+"le reproche d'avoir introduit dans la peinture de son principal
+personnage <Euclio> des traits outres et hors de nature." Indeed, he
+possesses few traits in accord with normal human nature. But curiously
+enough, as we learn from the _argumenta_ (in view of the loss of the
+genuine end of the _Aul._), Euclio at the _denouement_ professes himself
+amply content to bid an everlasting farewell to his stolen hoard, and
+bestows his health and blessing on "the happy pair." This apparent
+conversion, with absolutely nothing dramatic to furnish an introduction or
+pretext for it, has caused Langen to depart from his usual judicious
+scholarship. After much hair-splitting he solemnly pronounces it
+"psychologically possible."[171] LeGrand points out[172] that his change
+of heart is not a conversion, but merely a professed reconciliation to the
+loss. But there is no need for all this pother. The simple truth is that
+Plautus was through with his humorous complication and was ready to top it
+off with a happy ending. It is the forerunner of modern musical comedy,
+where the grouchy millionaire papa is propitiated at the last moment
+(perhaps by the pleadings of the handsome widow), and similarly consents
+to his daughter's marriage with the handsome, if impecunious, ensign.
+
+
+3. Looseness of dramatic construction.
+
+Lorenz with commendable insight has pointed out[173] that IIII., the
+goddess of Chance, is the motive power of the Plautine plot, as
+distinguished from the I1/4I?a?-II+- of tragedy. A student of Plautus readily
+recognizes this point. The entire development of the _Rud._ and _Poen._
+exemplifies it in the highest degree. Hanno in the _Poen._, in particular,
+meets first of all, in the strange city of Calydon, the very man he is
+looking for! When Pseudolus is racking his wits for a stratagem, Harpax
+obligingly drops in with all the requisites. The ass-dealer in the _As._
+is so ridiculously fortuitous that it savors of childlike naivetA(C).
+
+Characters are perpetually entering just when wanted. We hear "Optume
+advenis" and "Eccum ipsum video" so frequently that they become as
+meaningless as "How d'ye do!"[174]; though, as shown above[175], even this
+very weakness could at moments be made the pretext for a mild laugh.
+
+For a complete catalogue of the formidable mass of inconsistencies and
+contradictions that throng the plays, the reader is referred to the
+_Plautinische Studien_ of Langen, as aforesaid. It will be of passing
+interest to recall one or two. In _Cas._ 530 Lysidamus goes to the "forum"
+and returns _32 verses later_ complaining that he has wasted the whole day
+standing "advocate" for a kinsman. But this difficulty is resolved, if we
+accept the theory of Prof. Kent (TAPA. XXXVII), that the change of acts
+which occurs in between, is a conventional excuse for any lapse of time,
+in Roman comedy as well as in Greek tragedy. But it is extremely doubtful
+that Prof. Kent succeeds in establishing the truth of this view in the
+case of Roman comedy. We see no convincing reason for departing from the
+accepted theory, as expressed by Duff (_A Literary History of Rome_, pp.
+196-7): "In Plautus' time a play proceeded continuously from the lowering
+of the curtain at the beginning to its rise at the end, save for short
+breaks filled generally by simple music from the _tibicen_ (_Ps._ 573). The
+division into scenes is ancient and regularly indicated in manuscripts of
+Plautus and Terence."
+
+Langen seems surprised[176] when Menaechmus Sosicles, on beholding his
+twin for the first time (_Men._ 1062), though he was the object of a six
+years' search, wades through some twenty lines of amazed argument before
+Messenio (with marvelous cunning!) hits on the true explanation. It is of
+course conceived in a burlesque spirit. What would become of the comic
+action if Menaechmus II simply walked up to Menaechmus I and remarked:
+"Hello, brother, don't you remember me?"
+
+That the seven months of _Most._ 470 miraculously change into six months
+in 954 is the sort of mistake possible to any writer. In the _Amph._ 1053
+ff., Alcmena is in labor apparently a few minutes after consorting with
+Jupiter; but the change of acts _may_ account for the lapse of time, here
+as in _Cas._ 530 ff.
+
+But after the exhaustive work of Langen, we need linger no longer in this
+well-ploughed field. We repeat, the evidence all points irresistibly to
+the conclusion that Plautus is wholly careless of his dramatic machinery
+so long as it moves. The laugh's the thing!
+
+The _St._ is an apt illustration of the probable workings of Plautus'
+mind. The virtue of the Penelope-like Pamphila and Panegyris proves too
+great a strain and unproductive of merriment. The topic gradually vanishes
+as the drolleries of the parasite Gelasimus usurp the boards. He in turn
+gives way to the hilarious buffoonery of the two slaves. The result is a
+succession of loose-jointed scenes[177]. The _Aul._ too is fragmentary and
+episodical. The _Trin._ is insufferably long-winded, with insufficient
+comic accompaniment. The _Cis._ is a wretched piece of vacuous
+inanity[178].
+
+
+4. Roman admixture and topical allusions.
+
+Plautus' frequent forgetfulness of his Greek environment and the
+interjection of Roman references--what De Quincey calls "anatopism"--is
+another item of careless composition too well known to need more than
+passing mention. The repeated appearance of the _Velabrum,_[179] or
+_Capitolium,_[180] or _circus,_[181] or _senatus_, or _dictator_,[182] or
+_centuriata comitio,_[183] or _plebiscitum,_[184] and a host of others in
+the Greek investiture, becomes after a while a matter of course to us. We
+see however no need to quarrel with _forum_; it was Plautus' natural
+translation for a1/4EuroI cubedI?II. But it all adds inevitably and relentlessly to
+our argument--Plautus was heedless of the petty demands of technique and
+realism. His attention was too much occupied in devising means of
+amusement.
+
+The occasional topical allusions belong in the same category as above; for
+example, the allusion to the Punic war (_Cis._ 202),[185] the _lex
+Platoria_ (_Ps._ 303, _Rud._ 1381-2), Naevius' imprisonment (_Mil. _
+211-2), Attalus of Pergamum (_Per._ 339, _Poen._ 664), Antiochus the Great
+(_Poen._ 693-4). Again we have a modern parallel: the topics of the day
+are a favorite resort of the lower types of present-day stage production.
+
+
+5. Jokes on the dramatic machinery.
+
+But the most extreme stage of intimate jocularity is reached when the last
+sorry pretense of drama is discarded and the dramatic machinery itself
+becomes the subject of jest. So in the _Cas._ 1006 the cast is warned:
+Hanc ex longa longiorem ne faciamus fabulam. In _Per._ 159-60 Saturio
+wants to know where to get his daughter's projected disguise:
+
+"SAT. IEuroIOEII muI1/2 ornamenta?
+
+TOX. Abs chorago sumito. Dare debet: praebenda aediles locaverunt." (Cf.
+_Trin._ 858.)
+
+Even the _Ps._, heralded as dramatically one of the best of the plays,
+yields the following: Horum caussa haec agitur spectatorum fabula (720);
+hanc fabulam dum transigam (562) and following speech; verba quae in
+comoediis solent lenoni dici (1081-2); quam in aliis comoediis fit (1240);
+quin vocas spectatores simul? (1332). In _St._ 715 ff., the action of the
+play is interrupted while the boisterous slaves give the musician a drink.
+From the _Poen._ comes a gem that will bear quoting at length (550 ff.):
+
+  Omnia istaec scimus iam nos, si hi spectatores sciant.
+  Horunc hic nunc causa haec agitur spectatorum fabula:
+  Hos te satius est docere ut, quando agas, quid agas sciant.
+  Nos tu ne curassis: scimus rem omnem, quippe omnes simul.
+  Didicimus tecum una, ut respondere possimus tibi.[186]
+
+This is the final degeneration into the realm of pure foolery. It is a
+patent declaration: "This is only a play; laugh and we are content." Once
+more we venture to point a parallel on the modern stage, in the vaudeville
+comedian who interlards his dancing with comments such as: "I hate to do
+this, but it's the only way I can earn a living."
+
+
+6. Use of stock plots and characters.
+
+We must touch finally, but very lightly, on the commonplaces of stock
+plots and characters. The whole array of puppets is familiar to us all:
+the cunning slave, the fond or licentious papa, the spendthrift son and
+their inevitable confrA"res appear in play after play with relentless
+regularity. The close correspondence of many plots is also too familiar to
+need discussion.[187] The glimmering of originality in the plot of the
+_Cap._ called for special advertisement.[188] In the light of the
+foregoing evidence, the pertinence of these facts for us, we reiterate, is
+that Plautus merely adopted the New Comedy form as his comic medium, and,
+while leaving his originals in the main untouched, took what liberties he
+desired with them, with the single-minded purpose of making his public
+laugh.[189]
+
+
+
+
+In Conclusion
+
+
+
+In contrast to these grotesqueries certain individual scenes and plays
+stand out with startling distinctness as possessed of wit and humor of
+high order. The description by Cleaereta of the relations of lover,
+mistress and _lena_ is replete with biting satire (_As._ 177 ff., 215
+ff.). The finale of the same play is irresistibly comic. In _Aul. _ 731
+ff. real sparks issue from the verbal cross-purposes of Euclio and
+Lyconides over the words "pot" and "daughter." The _Bac._ is an excellent
+play, marred by padding. When the sisters chaff the old men as "sheep"
+(1120 ff.), the humor is naturalistic and human. The _Cas._, uproarious
+and lewd as it is, becomes excruciatingly amusing if the mind is open to
+appreciating humor in the broadest spirit. The discourse of Periplecomenus
+(_Mil._ 637 ff.) is marked by homely satirical wisdom. In the _Ps._ the
+badinage of the name-character is appreciably superior to most of the
+incidental quips. Pseudolus generously compliments Charinus on beating him
+at his own game of repartee (743). When Weise (_Die Komodien des Plautus_,
+p. 181) describes _Ps._ IV. 7 as "eine der ausgezeichnetsten Scenen, die
+es irgend giebt," his superlative finds a better justification than usual.
+
+When Menaechmus Sosicles sees fit "to put an antic disposition on," we
+have a scene which, while eminently farcical, is signally clever and
+dramatically effective. Witness the imitation by Shakespeare in _The
+Comedy of Errors_, IV. 4, and in spirit by modern farce; for instance, in
+_A Night Off_, when the staid old Professor feels the recrudescence of his
+youthful aspirations to attend a prize-fight, he simulates madness as a
+prelude to dashing wildly away.
+
+The following from _Rud._ (160 ff.) is theatrical but tremendously
+effective and worthy of the highest type of drama. Sceparnio, looking
+off-stage, spies Ampelisca and Palaestra tossed about in a boat. He
+addresses Daemones:
+
+"SC. But O Palaemon! Hallowed comrade of Neptune ... what scene meets my
+eye?
+
+DAE. What do you see?
+
+SC. I see two poor lone women sitting in a bit of a boat. How the poor
+creatures are being tossed about! Hoorah! Hoorah! Fine! The waves are
+whirling their boat past the rocks into the shallows. A pilot couldn't
+have steered straighter. I swear I never saw waves more high. They're safe
+if they escape those breakers. Now, now, danger! One is overboard! Ah, the
+water's not deep: she'll swim out in a minute. Hooray! See the other one,
+how the wave tossed her out! She is up, she's on her way shoreward; she's
+safe!"
+
+Sceparnio clasps his hands, jumps up and down, grasps the shaking Daemones
+convulsively and communicates his excitement to the audience. It is a
+piece of thrilling theatrical declamation and must have wrought the
+spectators up to a high pitch. In general, the _Rud._ is a superior play.
+
+In _Cas._ 229 ff. there is developed a piece of faithful and entertaining
+character-drawing, as the old rouA(C) Lysidamus fawns upon his militant
+spouse Cleostrata, with the following as its climax:
+
+"CLE. (_Sniffling._) Ha! Whence that odor of perfumes, eh?
+
+LYS. The jig's up."
+
+In the whole panorama of Plautine personae the portrayal of Alcmena in the
+_Amph._ is unique, for she is drawn with absolute sincerity and speaks
+nothing out of character. Certainly no parody can be made out of the nobly
+spoken lines 633-52, which lend a genuine air of tragedy to the professed
+_tragi(co)comoedia_ (59, 63); unless we think of the lady's unwitting
+compromising condition (surely too subtle a thought for the original
+audience). Note also the exalted tone of 831-4, 839-42. But all through
+this scene Sosia is prancing around, prating nonsense, and playing the
+buffoon, so that perchance even here the nobility becomes but a foil for
+the revelry. And in 882-955 his royal godship Jove clowns it to the lady's
+truly minted sentiments.
+
+No, we are far from attempting to deny to Plautus all dramatic technique,
+skill in character painting and cleverness of situation, but he was never
+hide-bound by any technical considerations. He felt free to break through
+the formal bonds of his selected medium at will. He had wit, esprit and
+above all a knowledge of his audience; and of human nature generally, or
+else he could not have had such a trenchant effect on the literature of
+all time.
+
+At any rate, the above lonely landmarks cannot affect our comprehensive
+estimate of the mise-en-scA"ne. Enough has been said, we believe, in our
+discussion of the criticism and acting and in our analysis of his dramatic
+values, to show that the aberrations of Plautus' commentators have been
+due to their failure to reach the crucial point: the absolute license with
+which his plays were acted and intended to be acted is at once the
+explanation of their absurdities and deficiencies. This was true in a far
+less degree of Terence, who dealt in plots more _stataria_ and less
+_motoria_.[190] Though using the same store of models, he endeavored to
+produce an artistically constructed play, which should make some honest
+effort to "hold the mirror up to nature." We are convinced that even his
+extensive use of _contaminatio_ was designed to evolve a better plot. The
+extravagance of Plautus is toned down in Terence to a reasonable
+verisimilitude and a far more "gentlemanly" mode of fun-making that was
+appropriate to one in the confidence of the aristocratic Scipionic circle.
+But when all is said and done, Terence lacks the vivid primeval
+"Volkswitz" of Plautus. We dare only skirt the edges of this extensive
+subject.[191]
+
+Above all, our noble jester _succeeds_ in his mission of laugh-producing.
+But his methods are not possessed in the main of dramatic respectability.
+And it must be apparent that our analysis and citations have covered the
+bulk of the plays.
+
+We conclude then that the prevalence of inherent defects of composition
+and the lack of serious motive, coupled with the author's constant and
+conscious employment of the implements of broad farce and extravagant
+burlesque, impel us inevitably to the conclusion that we have before us a
+species of composition which, while following a dramatic form, is not
+inherently drama, but a variety of entertainment that may be described as
+a compound of comedy, farce and burlesque; while the accompanying music,
+which would lend dignity to tragedy or grand opera, merely heightens the
+humorous effect and lends the color of musical comedy or opera
+bouffe.[192] KArting is right in calling it mere entertainment, Mommsen is
+right in calling it caricature, but we maintain that it is professedly
+mere entertainment, that it is consciously caricature and if it fulfills
+these functions we have no right to criticise it on other grounds. If we
+attempt a serious critique of it as drama, we have at once on our hands a
+capricious mass of dramatic unrealities and absurdities: bombast,
+burlesque, extravagance, horse-play, soliloquies, asides, direct address
+of the audience, pointless quips, and so on. The minute we accept it as a
+consciously conceived medium for amusement only, we have a highly
+effective theatrical mechanism for the unlimited production of laughter.
+And, in fact, every shred of evidence, however scant, goes to show that
+the histrionism must have been conceived in a spirit of extreme
+liveliness, abandon and extravagance in gesture and declamation, that
+would not confine the actor to faithful portrayal in character, but would
+allow him scope and license to resort to any means whatsoever to bestir
+laughter amongst a not over-stolid audience.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+[1]: E.g., Casina in the _Cas._, Silenium in the _Cis._,
+Planesium in the _Cur._, Adelphasium and Anterastylis in the
+_Poen._, Palaestra in the _Rud._
+
+[2]: V. infra, part II, sec. I. B. I.
+
+[3]: E.g., Lorcnz's Introd. to _Most._ and _Pseud._ V. infra,
+part I, ASec. i.
+
+[4]: We are not concerned in this question with technical discussion as to
+the position of the banquet table on the stage, the nature of the dog of
+the _Most._ and the like, but with the delivery and movements of the
+actors themselves.
+
+[5]: De Off. I. 29.104.
+
+[6]: X. 1.99. Cf. Ritschl's citations of Varro: _Parerga_, p. 71 ff.
+Cf. Epig. quoted by Varro and attributed to Plautus himself, ap. Gel.
+N.A., I. 24.1-3. But that this was a patent literary forgery is proved by
+Gudeman in TAPA. XXV, p. 160.
+
+[7]: N.A., VI. 17.4.
+
+[8]: I.7.17.
+
+[9]: XIX. 8.6.
+
+[10]: _A.P._, 270 ff. Cf. _Ep._ II. I.170 ff. and Fay, ed.
+_Most._, Intro. ASec. 2.
+
+[11]: _De Com._ III. 6, Donatus ed. Wessner. For full quotation, v.
+infra, Part II, Sec. II. A. 3, Note 50.
+
+[12]: _Excerpta de Com._ V. 1.
+
+[13]: For a complete list, see _Testimonia_ prefixed to Goetz and
+Schoell's ed. of Plautus.
+
+[14]: P. 217 M.
+
+[15]: 404, 412, 823.
+
+[16]: Ed. _Men._ (Leipzig, 1891), ad 410.
+
+[17]: Cf. opening lines of Eurip. _Iph. in Taur._
+
+[18]: Pp. 13--19. V. Langen, _Plautinische Studien_, pp. 139-142. Cf.
+also comments of Brix to _Menaechmi_ passim.
+
+[19]: Op. cit., p. 146.
+
+[20]: Cf. Gel. N. A., III. 3-14 ff.
+
+[21]: V. infra, Part II, under 'Careless Composition'.
+
+[22]: _Beschluss der Critik iiber die Gefangenen des Plaulus_.
+
+[23]: 23: Op. cit., fin.
+
+[24]: _La Litterature latine depuis la fondation de Rome_ (Paris,
+1899), Bk. II. chap. 3. sec. 15, p. 362.
+
+[25]: Introd. to ed. _Mosl._, p. 37.
+
+[26]: Bk. II, Ch. 4.
+
+[27]: Lamarre, op. cit., Bk. II, Ch. 4, Sec. 12, p. 475.
+
+[28]: _ThA(C)Actre de Plaute_ (Paris, 1845), Introd. p. 18.
+
+[29]: _Opuscula Philologica_, Vol. II p. 743.
+
+[30]: _Opusc._ II. 733 ff.
+
+[31]: In _Opusc._ III. 455, Ritschl relates that Varro wrote six books
+on drama, with Plautus as the especial object of his interest: _de
+originibus scaenicis, de scaenicis actionibus, de actibus scaenicis, de
+personis, de descriptionibus, quaestiones Plautinae_.
+
+[32]: Langen, op. cit., p. 127.
+
+[33]: _Opusc._ II. 746.
+
+[34]: Op. cit., p. 165.
+
+[35]: Op. cit., p. 167.
+
+[36]: _Mil._ 522 ff. (All citations from Plautus are based on the text
+and numbering of the lines in the text of Goetz and Schoell).
+
+[37]: _History of Rome_, (Transl. Dickson, Scribner, N.Y., 1900), Vol.
+III, p. 143.
+
+[38]: E.g., LeGrand, _Daos_, V. supra. Cf. also N. 80, Part II.
+
+[39]: P. 190, trans. John Black (London, 1846), Lecture XIV.
+
+[40]: _Theatre of the Greeks_, p. 443.
+
+[41]: P. 197.
+
+[42]: Cf. Ritschl's opinion, Note 30.
+
+[43]: V. supra.
+
+[44]: P. 620. But cf. Note 37.
+
+[45]: Cf. further Plessis, _La poA(C)sie latine_ (Paris, 1909), p. 54
+ff.; Patin, _A%tudes sur la poA(C)sie latine_ (Paris, 1869), Vol. II, p.
+224 ff.; Ribbeck, _Geschichte der rAmischen Dichtung_ (Stuttgart,
+1894), Vol. I, p. 57 ff.; Tyrrell, _Early Latin Poetry_, p. 44 ff. A
+very excellent discussion is contained in Duff, _A Literary History of
+Rome_ (N.Y., 1909), p. 183 ff.
+
+[46]: _History of Rome_, Vol. III, p. 139. Cf. note 37.
+
+[47]: Cf. Prol. _Poen._ 28-9.
+
+[48]: Prol. _Poen._, II ff.
+
+[49]: _Plaudere_, IEuroII"II1/2, _sibilare_ or _exsibilare, explodere,
+eicere_ were expressions used to indicate approval or disapproval.
+Cf. the discussion of Oehmichen, article _BA1/4hnenwesen_ in Von MA1/4ller's
+_Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, 5ter Band, 3te
+Abteilung, ASec. 73. 2, p. 271.
+
+[50]: Cf. Prol. _Poen._ 36 ff.
+
+[51]: Cf. Tac. _Ann._ I. 77. V. Oehmichen, op. cit., ASec. 39.3, p. 220.
+
+[52]: V. Prol. _Amph._ 52-3:
+
+  Quid contraxistis frontem?
+  Quia tragoediam Dixi futuram hanc?
+
+[53]: _Parad._ III. 2.26. Cf. _Or._ 51.173, _de Or._ III.
+50.196: _"theatra tota reclamant_"; Hor. _Ep._ II. 1.200 ff.;
+Suet. _Nero_, 24.1.
+
+[54]: Cic. _de Or._ I.61.259, I.27.124.
+
+[55]: _Hist. Rome_, ed. cit., Vol. III, p. 140.
+
+[56]: _Cist._ 785: Qui deliquit vapulabit, qui non deliquit bibet. Cf.
+_Trin._ 990. _Amph._ 83-4, (if this is not merely an imitation
+of the Greek original).
+
+[57]: Tac. _Ann._ 1.77.
+
+[58]: _Amph._ 65 ff., _Poen._ 36 ff., Ter. _Phor._ 16 ff.,
+Cic. _ad Att._ IV. 15.6, Hor. _Ep._ II. 1.181.
+
+[59]: _Cas._ 17 ff., _Trin._ 706 ff. But others argue that these
+passages are only translations from the Greek. V. Leo in _Hermes_,
+1883, p. 561, F. Ostermayer, _De hist. fab. in com. Pl._ (Greifswald,
+1884), p. 7. Ritschl (_Parerga_, p. 229) argues that the passages
+refer to cases of extraordinary public approval, not to formal contests.
+Cf. Var. _L.L._ V. 178.
+
+[60]: Cic. _pro. Ros. Com._ 10.28-9, Plin. _N. H._ 7.39.128, Dio
+77.21. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 80.7.
+
+[61]: KArting, op. cit., p. 244 ff.
+
+[62]: Cic. _de Or._ I.59.251, Suet. _Nero_ 20, Quint. XI. 3.19.
+
+[63]: I.ii.i-2, I.ii.12.
+
+[64]: Quint. XI.3.iii.
+
+[65]: Cic. _Or._ 31.109.
+
+[66]: Quint. XI.3.178, Juv. III. 98-9.
+
+[67]: Cic. _de Off._ I.31.114, _ad Att._ IV.15.6.
+
+[68]: Ap. Athen. XIV. 615 A.
+
+[69]: For a full discussion of the ancient actor v. Pauly-Wissowa,
+_Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, s. v.
+_histrio_; Friedlander in Marquardt-Mommsen _Handbuch der romischen
+Altertumer_, VI. p. 508 ff.; J. van Wageningen, _Scaenica Romana_;
+Warnecke, _Die Vortragskunst der romischen Schauspieler_, in _Neue
+Jahrbucher_, 1908, p. 704 ff.
+
+[70]: Cf. _de Or._ III.56.214, III.22.83, Quint. XI. 3.125, 181-2.
+
+[71]: Quint. XI.3.112.
+
+[72]: Cf. Quint. XI.3.89.
+
+[73]: Cic. _ad Att._ VI.1.8.
+
+[74]: Cf. _de Or._ III.26.102, Quint. XI.3.71, 89.
+
+[75]: For further treatment of the gestures of orators see Pauly-Wissowa,
+_Real-Encyclopadie_, s. v. _histrio_; Warnecke in _Neue
+Jahrbucher_, 1910, p. 593; Sittl, _Die Gebarden der Griechen und
+Romer_, Chap. XI; Mart. Cap. 43. In the other rhetoricians of the later
+Empire there is much copying of Cicero and Quintilian, but nothing of
+significance for our purpose, unless it be the comparison of the rigid
+training recommended to the embryo orator. For further citations, v.
+Pauly-Wissowa, op. cit.
+
+[76]: 0p. cit., p. 203.
+
+[77]: _Wiener Studien_, Vol. XIV, p. 120.
+
+[78]: _Scaen. Rom._, p. 52. Cf. Karsten in _Mnem._ XXXII, (1904),
+pp. 209-251, 287-322, who concludes that at least four hands aided in the
+commentaries.
+
+[79]: E.g., Donat. ad _And._ 88, _Eun._ 187, 986, _Phor._
+315.
+
+[80]: A11 the passages in Donatus dealing with gesture have been collected
+by Leo, _Rheinisches Museum_ XXXVIII, p. 331 ff.
+
+[81]: E.g., Donat. ad _And._ 180, 363, 380-1, _Eun._ 209, 559,
+974, _Ad._ 84, 499, 661, 795, 951, _Hec._ 612, 689, _Phor._
+49, 315. Cf. _Ad._ 285: superbe ac magnifice. Cf. Schol. ad
+_And._ 332: Vultuose hoc dicitur, hoc est cum gestu. Cf. also
+Warnecke in _Neue JahrbA1/4cher_, 1910, note 75.
+
+[82]: Cf. XI.3.103, _Auct. ad Her._ III.15.27.
+
+[83]: Their precise age and antiquity have been disputed with some
+acrimony. With Sittl cf. Bethe, _Praef. Cod. Ambros._ p. 64; van
+Wageningen, op. cit., p. 50 ff.; Leo in _Rhein. Mus._ XXXVIII, p. 342
+ff. V. reproductions in Wieseler, _TheatergebAude und DenkmAler des
+BA1/4hnenwesens bei den Griechen und RAmern,_ Tafel X; and Bethe, ed. of
+Codex Ambrosianus.
+
+[84]: _Neue Jahr._, Sup. Band I (1832), p. 447 ff.
+
+[85]: Quint. VI.3.29, Mart. Cap., Chap. 43, p. 543 ed. Kopp.
+
+[86]: V. reproductions in Baumeister, _DenkmAler des klassischen
+Altertums_, s. v. "Lustspiel" and Wieseler, op. cit., note 83.
+
+[87]: Donat. _de Com._ VI. 3. There is some suspicion that the names
+have been interchanged.
+
+[88]: _Ars Gram._ III, p. 489, 10 K; Festus, s.v. _personata_,
+p. 217. Cf. Cic. _de Nat. Deo._ I. 28.79. Ribbock, _Romische
+Tragodie_ p. 661, and Dziatzko in _Rhein. Mus._ XXI. 68, have made a
+violent effort to reconcile the conflicting statements by arguing
+that Roscius belonged to the troupe of Minucius. This is denied by
+Weinberger, _Wien. Stud._ XIV. 126. For further discussion v. van
+Wageningen, _Scaen. Rom._ p. 34 ff.; Leo in _Rhein. Mus._ XXXVIII.
+342; Oehmichen, op. cit. p. 250; B. Arnold, _Ueber Antike
+Theatermasken_; Teuffel, _Romische Litteraturgeschichte_ ASec.16.
+Sec. 13; Pauly-Wissowa, op. cit., s.v. _histrio_, pp. 2120-21. A
+recent article by Saunders (A.J.P., XXXII, p. 58) gives an admirable
+summing-up of the whole controversy, with substantial proof that at
+any rate the performers of Plautus' day were unmasked.
+
+[89]: Diom. III. p. 489.10 K. Cf. Saunders, _Costume in Roman
+Comedy_; Marquardt-Mommsen, _Handbuch der romischen Altertumer_,
+VI. p. 525; Pauly-Wissowa, l.c. Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ VII. 6.
+
+[90]: Cf. _Mil._ 629 ff., 923, _Ps._ 967, _Rud._ 125 f., 313
+f., 1303, _Trin._ 861 f., _Truc._ 286 ff.; Ter., _Phor._
+51.
+
+[91]: V. van Wageningen, op. cit. pp. 40 f.
+
+[92]: _De Or._ III. 22.83.
+
+[93]: II. 10.13. Cf. XI. 3.91.
+
+[94]: I. II. 1-2
+
+[95]: Donat. ad _And._ 505, _Eun._ 224, 288, 403, _Ad._ 187,
+395.
+
+[96]: Ad _And._ 194, 301, _Eun._ 467, 986, _Hec._ 98, 439,
+640, _Ad._ 101. Cf. _Ad._ 96.; cum admiratone indignantis; 97;
+intento digito et infestis in Micionem oculis.
+
+[97]: Ad _Eun._ 1055.
+
+[98]: Ad _And._ 633, _Eun._ 233, 451, _Hec._ 63, _Ad._
+259.
+
+[99]: Ad _Phor._ 145.
+
+[100]: Ad _Ad._ 200.
+
+[101]: Ad _Eun._ 187.
+
+[102]: VII. 2.8-10.
+
+[103]: Cf. Diom. 291, 23 ff., K; Ribbeck, _Rom. Trag._ p. 634,
+believes that this was the rule, but he is apparently alone in the
+opinion. Cf. Budensteiner in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_ CVI, p. 162
+ff., who agrees with the proof of van Eck, _Quaest. Sten. Rom._
+(Amsterdam 1892), that it was an isolated intance.
+
+[104]: We are not even remotely concerned with metrical analysis. For that
+phase, with a discussion as to the effect of the various metrical systems,
+see Klotz, _Grundzuge der altromischen Metrik_, esp. p. 370 ff. Cf.
+Duff, _A Lit. Hist. of Rome_, p. 196. Note Donat, _de Com._
+VIII. 9 and Diom. 491, 23K.
+
+[105]: For arguments as to the divisions of the three classes, v., besides
+Klotz, Ritschl, _Parerga_, p. 40; Conradt, _Die metrische
+Komposition der Komodien des Terenz_ (Berlin 1876); Bucheler in _Neue
+Jahr. fur Phil._ CXLI (1871), p. 273 ff.; Dziatzko in _Rhein.
+Mus._ XXVI (1871), pp. 97-100: G. Hermann, _de Canticis in Romanorum
+Fabulis, Opusc._ I. 290; which have all been landmarks in the
+discussion. Cf. also Teuffel, _Rom. Lit._, ASec. 16. Sec. 5, etc.
+
+[106]: Cf. Cic. _de Or._ II.46.193.
+
+[107]: Cf. _As._ 265, 587, 640, 403, _Bac._ 611, _Cap._ 637,
+_Cas._ 845 ff., _Cis._ 53 ff., _Cur._ 278, 309, 311,
+_Ep._ 623 ff., _Men._ 828 f., 910, _Mer._ 599 f.,
+_Mil._ 200 ff. (quoted infra, Part II), 798-9 (Palaestrio must shout
+at Periplecomenus to provoke such a reply), _Most._ 265 ff., 594,
+_Per._ 307 f., _Ps._ 911, 1287, _St._ 271, 288 f.,
+_Trin._ 1099, _Truc._ 276, 476 ff., 549, 593 f., 599 ff., 822.
+Cf. also Ter. _Phor._ 210-11 and Moliere's imitation in _Les
+Fourberies de Scapin_, l. 4.
+
+[108]: Cf. Sittl, _Gebarden_, p. 201 and Warnecke's citations from the
+Scholiast to Aristophanes in _Neue Jahr._ 1910, p. 592.
+
+[109]: _Daos_, p. 617.
+
+[110]: A.J.P. VIII. 15 ff.
+
+[111]: Cf. _As._ 554 ff., _Bac._ 710 ff., _Cap._ 159 ff.
+_Cur._ 572 ff., _Ep._ 437 ff., _Men._ 1342., _Per._
+753 ff., _Ps._ 761 ff., _Trin._ 718 ff., etc.
+
+[112]: For further examples of bombast and mock-heroics v. _As._
+405-6, _Bac._ 792 f., 842 ff., _Cis._ 640 ff., _Cur._ 96
+ff. 439 ff., _Ep._ 181 ff. (in similar vein most of the soliloquies
+of the name part), _Her._ 469 ff., 601 ff., 830 ff., _Mil._ 459
+ff., 486 ff., 947 ff., _Per._ 251 ff., _Poen._ 470 ff., 1294
+ff., _Ps._ 1063 f., _Truce._ 482 ff., 602 ff.
+
+[113]: V. _Amph._ 370 ff., _As._ 431, _Cas._ 404 ff.,
+_Cur._ 192 ff., 624 ff., _Mil._ 1394 ff., _Mos._ i ff.,
+_Per._ 809 ff., _Poen._ 382 ff., _Rud._ 706 ff.
+
+[114]: V. Frag. IV, G. & S., ap. Non. p. 543.
+
+[115]: Cf. _Bac._ 581 ff., 1119, _Cap._ 830 ff., _Most._ 898
+ff., _Rud._ 414, _St._ 308 ff., _Truc._ 254 ff.
+
+[116]: Cf. also _Bac._ 925 ff., _Per._ 251 ff., _Men._ 409
+ff. (v. supra, Part I, ASec. I, s.v. _Festus, Brix_). On _Bac._ 933,
+v. Ribbeck, _Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta_, on Enn., frag.
+_Androm._ 81; Kiessling, _Analecta Plautina_, I. 14 f.;
+Ostermayer, _De historia fabulari in comoediis Plautinis_, p. 9. On
+_Men._ 808 ff., v. Kiessling, II. 9.
+
+[117]: Cf. further _As._ 606 ff., _Cur._ 147 ff., _Most._
+233 ff., _Poen._ 275 ff. and passim, _Truc._ 434 ff.
+
+[118]: Cf. _Ep._ 580 ff. Cf. also "bombast," supra A. 1, and "copious
+abuse" infra, A. 3. c. Cf. also wall-painting labeled "Der erzurnte
+Hausherr," in Baumeister, _Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_, s.
+v. _Lustspiel_.
+
+[119]: Cf. _Mil._ 596 ff., _Most._ 454 ff., _Trin._ 517 ff.
+
+[120]: Cf. _Mer._ 748 ff., _Men._ 607 ff.
+
+[121]: Cf. further _Most._ 265 ff., 456 ff. and note Donat. ad
+_Phor._ 210-11: hic locus magis actoris quam lectoris est.
+
+[122]: Cf. _Most._ 38 ff., _Poen._ 1309 ff. Cf. also "Lavishing
+of terms of endearment," supra, A. 3. c.
+
+[123]: Cf. also _Poen._ 426 ff., _Rud._ 938 ff.
+
+[124]: Cf. similarly _Cap._ 121 ff., 177 ff., _Cas._ 725 ff.,
+_Most._ 909, 999 f. Cf. infra II. B.5.
+
+[125]: _Plaut. Stud._ pp. 121 f. Cf. pp. 101, 137 f., 158 f., 217, 229
+f.
+
+[126]: _Die Kom. des Pl._, pp. 70-71.
+
+[127]: _Daos_, p. 430-1.
+
+[128]: Prol. _Haut._ 32-40, Prol. _Eun._ 35-40. Cf. Eugraphius ad
+_Haut._ 31: quid tale hic est, cum servus currit, cum populus
+discedit, quod domino insano oboediat servus? Cf. also ad _Haut._ 37;
+Donatus ad _Phor._ 1.4.
+
+[129]: _And._ 338 ff., _Phor._ 179 ff., 841 ff., _Ad._ 299
+ff. Weissman agrees with Donat. that in the last passage humor is not the
+object. Cf. _ancilla currens_ in _Eun._ 643 ff.
+
+[130]: Cf. _servi currentes_ supra. Cf. also _Aul._ 811 ff.,
+_Ep._ 195 ff., _Mer._ 865 ff., _Ps._ 243 ff., _St._
+330 ff., _Trin._ 1068 ff., _Truc._ 115 ff.
+
+[131]: For other passages containing the comedy of "peering," v.
+_Bac._ 534, _Ep._ 526 ff., _Rud._ 331 ff., et al. Cf.
+Weise, op. cit., p. 72 f.
+
+[132]: Further comments infra II. B. 3.
+
+[133]: Cf. _As._ 403, and passim.
+
+[134]: Cf. _As._ 447, _Cur._ 111, _Men._ 125, 478 f., 909,
+_Mer._ 364, 379, _Mil._ 275, _Most._ 548, _Per._ 99,
+_Poen._ 840, _Ps._ 445, 615, 908, _Rud._ 97, _St._ 88,
+_Trin._ 45, 567, _Truc._ 499, etc.
+
+[135]: _Daos, p. 431 ff._ See Dieterich, _Pulcinella, PI. II_.
+Note esp. _As. 851 ff._
+
+[136]: Cf. _Per. 81 ff., 599 ff., Poen. 210 ff., et al._
+
+[137]: V. _Amph._ 952-3, _As._ 118 ff., 243 ff., _Aul._ 67
+ff., 667 ff., 701 ff., _Bac._ 170 ff., 349 ff., 573 ff., 761 ff.,
+_Cas._ 504 ff., _Cis._ 120 ff., _Cur._ 216 ff., 591 ff.,
+_Mer._ 544 ff., 588 ff., _Mil._ 464 ff., _Most._ 931 ff.,
+1041 ff., _Rud._ 1191 ff., _St._ 674 ff., et al.
+
+[138]: V. Cas. 424 ff., 759 ff., _Ep._ 81 ff., _Men._ 1039 ff.,
+_Ps._ 1017 ff., 1052 ff., 1102 ff., _Rud._ 892 ff., 1281 ff.,
+_St._ 641 ff., _Trin._ 199 ff., 1115 ff., _Truc._ 322 ff.,
+335 ff., 645 ff., 699 ff.
+
+Cf. the treatment of Le Grand, _Daos_, p. 412 ff., where he has an
+analysis from a different point of view. The soliloquy and aside are
+evidently not so frequent in New Comedy.
+
+[139]: _Daos_ p. 379. Cf. p. 550.
+
+[140]: _Aul._ 587 ff., _Men._ 966 ff. Cf. _Most._ 858 ff.
+and _As._ 545 ff., a duologue in _canticum_.
+
+[141]: _Bac._ 640 ff. Cf. _Ps._ 767 ff.
+
+[142]: _Cap._ 461 ff., Cf. _Per._ 53 ff.
+
+[143]: _Men._ 77 ff., 446 ff., _St._ 155 ff.
+
+[144]: _Cur._ 371 ff., (Cf. 494 ff.), _Men._ 571 ff.,
+_Poen._ 823 ff.
+
+[145]: _Ep._ 225 ff.
+
+[146]: _Cas._ 217 ff., _Trin._ 223 ff. (Cf. 660 ff.)
+
+[147]: _Men._ 753 ff.
+
+[148]: _Aul._ 475 ff. (496-536 branded as spurious by Weise, op. cit.,
+pp. 42-44).
+
+[149]: _Mer._ 817 ff.
+
+[150]: _Poen._ 210 ff. (though not a solo), _Truc._ 22 ff., 210
+ff., 551 ff.
+
+[151]: _Ps._ 790 ff.
+
+[152]: _Truc._ 482 ff.
+
+[153]: _Mer._ 825 ff., _Rud._ 593 ff.
+
+[154]: _Mosl._ 85 ff.
+
+[155]: _Ps._ 1246 ff.
+
+[156]: _St._ 683 to end.
+
+[157]: _Ps._ 133 ff. For further passages of the episodical type, cf.
+_Bac._ 925 ff. (v. supra under "bombast," I. A. 1), _Poen._ 449
+ff., _Rud._ 906 ff., _Trin._ 820 ff. (v. supra under
+"burlesque," I. A. 3).
+
+[158]: Cf. further _Amph._ 463, 998, _Bac._ 1072, _Cap._ 69
+ff., _Cas._ 879, _Cis._ 146, 678, _Men._ 880, _Mer._
+313, _Mil._ 862, _Most._ 280, 354, 708 ff., _Poen._ 921 f.,
+_Ps._ 124, _St._ 224,446, 674 ff., _Truc._ 109 ff., 463
+ff., 965 ff. Cf. infra II. B. 5.
+
+[159]: In Donat. ed. Wessner.
+
+[160]: V. _As., Bac., Cap., Cis., Cur., Ep., Men., Mer., Most., Per.,
+Rod., St._ Cf. _Cas._ 1013 ff., _Poen._ 1370 f.
+
+[161]: V. _Bac._ 235-367, _Cap._ 835-99, _Cis._ 203 ff.,
+540-630, 705 ff., _Cur._ 251-73 and passim (this play is full of
+bandying of quips), _Ep._ 1 ff., _Men._ 137-81, 602-67,
+_Mer._ 474 ff., 708 ff., 866 ff., _Most._ 633 ff., 717 ff., 885
+ff., _Per._ 1 ff., 201 ff., _Poen._ 210 ff., _Ps._ 653 ff.
+and passim, _Rud._ 485 ff. (the jokes here are unusually good), 780
+ff., _St._ 579 ff., _Trin._ 39 ff., 843 ff., _Truc._ 95 ff.
+
+[162]: Cf. Sosia im _Amph._ (esp. 659 ff.), Libanus in _As._ 1
+ff., Palinurus in _Cur._, Acanthio in _Mer._ (esp. 137 ff.),
+Milphio in _Poen._, Sceparnio in _Rud._ (esp. 104 ff.) and
+Trachalio, Pinacium in _St._ (esp. 331 ff.), Stasimus in _Trin._
+
+[163]: _St._ 446 ff., Prol. _Cas._ 67 ff. For an exhaustive
+discussion of the 'truth to life' of the characters, v. LeGrand,
+_Daos_, Part I, Chap. V.
+
+[164]: V. esp. 96 ff.
+
+[165]: 603 ff.
+
+[166]: Pyrgopolinices in _Mil._, Therapontigonus in _Cur._, the
+_miles_ in _Ep._, Anthemonides in _Poen._ Stratophanes in
+_Truc_, is not so violent.
+
+[167]: Cappadox in _Cur._, Dordalus in _Per._, Lycus in
+_Poen._, Labrax in _Rud._ Similarly the _lenae_.
+
+[168]: Introd. to ed. of _Ps._
+
+[169]: 355. Cf. 360 ff., 974 ff.
+
+[170]: _Hist. de la lit. lat._ Bk. II, Ch. III., Sec. 4. p. 307.
+
+[171]: _Plaut. Stud._, p. 105.
+
+[172]: _Daos_, pp. 557 f. Cf. 218 f.
+
+[173]: Introd. to _Ps._ Cf. _Daos_, p. 452 ff.
+
+[174]: E.g., _Amph._ 957, _Bac._ 844, _Cas._ 308,
+_Men._ 898, _Mil._ 1137, 1188, _Per._ 301, 543,
+_Poen._ 576, _Rud._ 1209, _St._ 400-1, _Trin._ 482.
+
+[175]: Part II, Sec. I. B. 2.
+
+[176]: P. 157.
+
+[177]: Cf. _Daos_, p. 60.
+
+[178]: Cf. in general the conclusions of LeGrand, _Daos_, p. 550, and
+his admirable analysis (Part II) of "La structure des comedies." He has
+recognized the existence of a number of the characteristics treated above,
+but his discussion is in different vein and with a different object in
+view.
+
+[179]: _Cap._ 489, _Cur._ 483.
+
+[180]: _Cur._ 269, et al.
+
+[181]: _Mil._ 991.
+
+[182]: _Ps._ 416, et al.
+
+[183]: _Ps._ 1232.
+
+[184]: _Ps._ 748. For a fairly complete collection, v. LeGrand,
+_Daos_, p. 44 ff. Cf. Middleton and Mills, _Students' Companion to
+Latin Authors_, p. 20 ff.
+
+[185]: Cf. West in A.J.P. VIII. 15. Cf. note 1, Part II, supra.
+
+[186]: Cf. _Amph._ 861 ff., _As._ 174 f., _Cap._ 778,
+_Cur._ 464, _Her._ 160, _Poen._ 1224.
+
+[187]: Cf. _Daos_, Part I, Chap. III: Les personnages, and p. 303 ff.;
+Mommsen, _Hist._ pp. 141 ff.
+
+[188]: Prol, 53 ff.
+
+[189]: For a discussion of the relation of Plautus to his originals, v.
+Schuster, _Quomodo Plautus Attica exemplaria transtulerit_; LeGrand,
+_Daos_, passim; Ostermayer, _de hist. fab. in com. Pl._;
+Ritschl, _Par._ 271, etc. The efforts to distinguish Plautus from his
+models have so far been fragmentary and abortive and will not advance
+appreciably until a complete play that he adapted has been found. At any
+rate, the discussion has no real bearing on our subject, since we can
+consider only the plays as actually transmitted; their sources cannot
+affect our argument. The comparisons in _Daos_ seem to indicate that
+Plautus did not debase his originals so much as Mommsen, KArting, Schlegel
+and others had thought. Even in 1881, Kiessling (_Anal. Plaut._ II.
+9) boldly expresses the opinion: "Atque omnino Plautus multo pressius
+Atticorum exemplarium vestigia secutus est quam hodie vulgo arbitrantur".
+Cf. Kellogg in PAPA. XLIV (1913).
+
+[190]: Euanthius, _de Com._ IV. 4.
+
+[191]: For an interesting comparison of Plautus and Terence, v. Spengel,
+_Aoeber die lateinische KomAdie_, (Munich 1878).
+
+[192]: The importance of the music is indicated by the transmission of the
+composer's name in all extant _didascaliae_, esp. those of Terence.
+V. Klotz, _AltrAm. Met._ p. 384 ff.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+by William Wallace Blancke
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+by William Wallace Blancke
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+Title: The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+
+Author: William Wallace Blancke
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9970]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on November 5, 2003]
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DRAMATIC VALUES IN PLAUTUS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+University of Pennsylvania
+
+The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+
+By
+
+Wilton Wallace Blancké, A.M., Ph.D.
+Professor of Latin in the Central High School of Philadelphia
+
+A Thesis
+
+Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School in partial fulfillment
+of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+Foreword
+
+
+
+This dissertation was written in 1916, before the entrance of the United
+States into The War, and was presented to the Faculty of the University of
+Pennsylvania as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Its
+publication at this time needs no apology, for it will find its only
+public in the circumscribed circle of professional scholars. They at least
+will understand that scholarship knows no nationality. But in the fear
+that this may fall under the eye of that larger public, whose interests
+are, properly enough, not scholastic, a word of explanation may prove a
+safeguard.
+
+The Germans have long been recognized as the hewers of wood and drawers of
+water of the intellectual world. For the results of the drudgery of minute
+research and laborious compilation, the scholar must perforce seek German
+sources. The copious citation of German authorities in this work is, then,
+the outcome of that necessity. I have, however, given due credit to German
+criticism, when it is sound. The French are, generically, vastly superior
+in the art of finely balanced critical estimation.
+
+My sincere thanks are due in particular to the Harrison Foundation of the
+University for the many advantages I have received therefrom, to
+Professors John C. Rolfe and Walton B. McDaniel, who have been both
+teachers and friends to me, and to my good comrades and colleagues,
+Francis H. Lee and Horace T. Boileau, for their aid in editing this essay.
+
+Wilton Wallace Blancké.
+1918.
+
+
+
+
+Part 1
+
+A Résumé of the Criticism and of the Evidence Relating to the Acting
+of Plautus
+
+
+
+
+Introduction
+
+
+
+This investigation was prompted by the abiding conviction that Plautus as
+a dramatic artist has been from time immemorial misunderstood. In his
+progress through the ages he has been like a merry clown rollicking
+amongst people with a hearty invitation to laughter, and has been rewarded
+by commendation for his services to morality and condemnation for his
+buffoonery. The majority of Plautine critics have evinced too serious an
+attitude of mind in dealing with a comic poet. However portentous and
+profound his scholarship, no one deficient in a sense of humor should
+venture to approach a comic poet in a spirit of criticism. For criticism
+means appreciation.
+
+Furthermore, the various estimates of our poet's worth have been as
+diversified as they have been in the main unfair. Alternately lauded as a
+master dramatic craftsman and vilified as a scurrilous purveyor of
+unsavory humor, he has been buffeted from the top to the bottom of the
+dramatic scale. More recent writers have been approaching a saner
+evaluation of his true worth, but never, we believe, has his real position
+in that dramatic scale been definitely and finally fixed; because
+heretofore no attempt has been made at a complete analysis of his
+dramatic, particularly his comic, methods. It is the aim of the present
+dissertation to accomplish this.
+
+I doubt not that from the inception of our acquaintance with the pages of
+Plautus we have all passed through a similar experience. In the beginning
+we have been vastly diverted by the quips and cranks and merry wiles of
+the knavish slave, the plaints of love-lorn youth, the impotent rage of
+the baffled pander, the fruitless growlings of the hungry parasite's
+belly. We have been amused, perhaps astonished, on further reading, at
+meeting our new-found friends in other plays, clothed in different names
+to be sure and supplied in part with a fresh stock of jests, but still
+engaged in the frustration of villainous panders, the cheating of harsh
+fathers, until all ends with virtue triumphant in the establishment of the
+undoubted respectability of a hitherto somewhat dubious female
+character.[1]
+
+Our astonishment waxes as we observe further the close correspondence of
+dialogue, situation and dramatic machinery. We are bewildered by the
+innumerable asides of hidden eavesdroppers, the inevitable recurrence of
+soliloquy and speech familiarly directed at the audience, while every once
+in so often a slave, desperately bent on finding someone actually under
+his nose, careens wildly cross the stage or rouses the echoes by
+unmerciful battering of doors, meanwhile unburdening himself of lengthy
+solo tirades with great gusto;[2] and all this dished up with a sauce of
+humor often too racy and piquant for our delicate twentieth-century
+palate, which has acquired a refined taste for suggestive innuendo, but
+never relishes calling a spade by its own name.
+
+If we have sought an explanation of our poet's gentle foibles in the
+commentaries to our college texts, we have assuredly been disappointed.
+Even to the seminarian in Plautus little satisfaction has been vouchsafed.
+We are often greeted by the enthusiastic comments of German critics, which
+run riot in elaborate analyses of plot and character and inform us that we
+are reading _Meisterwerke_ of comic drama.[3] Our perplexity has perhaps
+become focused upon two leading questions; first: "What manner of drama is
+this after all? Is it comedy, farce, opera bouffe or mere extravaganza?"
+Second: "How was it done? What was the technique of acting employed to
+represent in particular the peculiarly extravagant scenes?"[4]
+
+There is an interesting contrast between the published editions of Plautus
+and Bernard Shaw. Shaw's plays we find interlaced with an elaborate
+network of stage direction that enables us to visualize the movements of
+the characters even to extreme minutiae. In the text of Plautus we find
+nothing but the dialogue, and in the college editions only such
+editorially-inserted "stage-business" as is fairly evident from the spoken
+lines. The answer then to our second question: "How was it done?", at
+least does not lie on the surface of the text.
+
+For an adequate answer to both our questions the following elements are
+necessary; first: a digest of Plautine criticism; second: a résumé of the
+evidence as to original performances of the plays, including a
+consideration of the audience, the actors and of the gestures and
+stage-business employed by the latter; third: a critical analysis of the
+plays themselves, with a view to cataloguing Plautus' dramatic methods. We
+hope by these means to obtain a conclusive reply to both our leading
+questions.
+
+
+
+§1. Critics of Plautus
+
+
+Plautine criticism has displayed many different angles. As in most things,
+time helps resolve the discrepancies. The general impression gleaned from
+a survey of the field is that in earlier times over-appreciation was the
+rule, which has gradually simmered down, with occasional outpourings of
+denunciation, to a healthier norm of estimation.
+
+Even in antiquity the wiseacres took our royal buffoon too seriously.
+Stylistically he was translated to the skies. [Sidenote: Cicero] Cicero[5]
+imputes to him "iocandi genus, ... elegans, urbanum, ingeniosum, facetum."
+[Sidenote: Aelius Stilo] Quintilian[6] quotes: "Licet Varro Musas Aelii
+Stilonis sententia Plautino dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si latine
+loqui vellent." [Sidenote: Gellius] The paean is further swelled by
+Gellius, who variously refers to our hero as "homo linguae atque
+elegantiae in verbis Latinae princeps,"[7] and "verborum Latinorum
+elegantissimus,"[8] and "linguae Latinae decus."[9] [Sidenote: Horace] If
+our poet is scored by Horace[10] it is probably due rather to Horace's
+affectation of contempt for the early poets than to his true convictions;
+or we may ascribe it to the sophisticated metricist's failure to realize
+the existence of a "Metrica Musa Pedestris." As Duff says (_A Literary
+History of Rome_, p. 197), "The scansion of Plautus was less understood in
+Cicero's day than that of Chaucer was in Johnson's." (Cf. Cic. _Or._ 55.
+184.)
+
+[Sidenote: Euanthius] We have somewhat of a reaction, too, against the
+earlier chorus of praise in the commentary of Euanthius,[11] who condemns
+Plautus' persistent use of direct address of the audience. If it is true,
+as Donatus[12] says later: "Comoediam esse Cicero ait imitationem vitae,
+speculum consuetudinis, imaginem veritatis," we find it hard to understand
+Cicero's enthusiatic praise of Plautus, as we hope to show that he is very
+far from measuring up to any such comic ideal as that laid down by Cicero
+himself.
+
+But of course these ancient critiques have no appreciable bearing on our
+argument and we cite them rather for historical interest and
+retrospect.[13] [Sidenote: Festus] [Sidenote: Brix] While Festus[14] makes
+a painful effort to explain the location of the mythical "Portus Persicus"
+mentioned in the _Amph._,[15] Brix[16] in modern times shows that there is
+no historical ground for the elaborate mythical genealogy in _Men._ 409
+ff. We contend that "Portus Persicus" is pure fiction, as our novelists
+refer fondly to "Zenda" or "Graustark," while the _Men._ passage is a
+patent burlesque of the tragic style.[17]
+
+[Sidenote: Becker] On the threshold of what we may term modern criticism
+of Plautus we find W.A. Becker, in 1837, writing a book: "De Comicis
+Romanorum Fabulis Maxime Plautinis Quaestiones." Herein, after deploring
+the neglect of Plautine criticism among his immediate predecessors and
+contemporaries, he attempts to prove that Plautus was a great "original"
+poet and dramatic artist. Surely no one today can be in sympathy with such
+a sentiment as the following (Becker, p. 95): "Et Trinummum, quae ita
+amabilibus lepidisque personis optimisque exemplis abundat, ut quoties eam
+lego, non comici me poetae, sed philosophi Socratici opus legere mihi
+videar." I believe we may safely call the _Trinummus_ the least Plautine
+of Plautine plays, except the _Captivi_, and it is by no means so good a
+work. The _Trinummus_ is crowded with interminable padded dialogue,
+tiresome moral preachments, and possesses a weakly motivated plot; a
+veritable "Sunday-school play."
+
+But Becker continues: "Sive enim <Plautus> seria agit et praecepta pleno
+effundit penu, ad quae componere vitarn oporteat; in sententiis quanta
+gravitas, orationis quanta vis, quam probe et meditate cum hominum ingenia
+moresque novisse omnia testantur." We feel sure that our Umbrian fun-maker
+would strut in public and laugh in private, could he hear such an encomium
+of his lofty moral aims. For it is our ultimate purpose to prove that
+fun-maker Plautus was primarily and well-nigh exclusively a fun-maker.
+
+[Sidenote: Weise] K. H. Weise, in "Die Komodien des Plautus, kritisch nach
+Inhalt und Form beleuchtet, zur Bestimmung des Echten und Unechten in den
+einzelnen Dichtungen" (Quedlinburg, 1866), follows hard on Becker's heels
+and places Plautus on a pinnacle of poetic achievement in which we
+scarcely recognize our apotheosized laugh-maker. Every passage in the
+plays that is not artistically immaculate, that does not conform to the
+uttermost canons of dramatic art, is unequivocally damned as "unecht." In
+his Introduction (p. 4) Weise is truly eloquent in painting the times and
+significance of our poet. With momentary insight he says: "Man hat an ihm
+eine immer frische und nie versiegende Fundgrabe des ächten Volkswitzes."
+But this is soon marred by utterances such as (p. 14): "Fände sich also in
+der Zahl der Plautinischen Komodien eine Partie, die mit einer andern in
+diesen Hinsichten in bedeutendem Grade contrastirte, so konnte man sicher
+schliessen, dass beide nicht von demselben Verfasser sein könnten." He
+demands from Plautus, as _ein wahrer Poet_, "Congruenz, und richtige
+innere Logik <und> harmonische Construction" (p. 12), and finally declares
+(p. 22): "Interesse, Character, logischer Bau in der Zusammensetzung,
+Naturlichkeit der Sprache und des Witzes, Rythmus und antikes Idiom des
+Ausdrucks werden die Kriterien sein mussen, nach dem wir uber die
+Vortrefflichkeit und Plautinität plautinischer Stücke zu entscheiden
+haben."
+
+On this basis he ruthlessly carves out and discards as "unecht" every
+passage that fails to conform to his amazing and extravagant ideals, in
+the belief that "der ächte Meister Plautus konnte nur Harmonisches, nur
+Vernunftiges, nur Logisches, nur relativ Richtiges dichten" (p. 79),
+though even Homer nods. The _Mercator_ is banned _in toto_. To be sure,
+Weise somewhat redeems himself by the statement (p. 29 f.): "Plautus
+bezweckte ... lediglich nur die eigentliche und wirksamste Belustigung des
+Publicums." But how he reconciles this with his previously quoted
+convictions and with the declaration (p. 16): "Plautus ist ein sehr
+religioser, sehr moralischer Schriftsteller," it is impossible to grasp,
+until we recall that the author is a German.
+
+[Sidenote: Langen] Such criticism stultifies itself and needs no
+refutation; certainly not here, as P. Langen in his _Plautinische Studien_
+(_Berliner Studien_, 1886; pp. 90-91) has conclusively proved that the
+inconsistent is a feature absolutely germane to Plautine style, and has
+collected an overwhelming mass of "Widerspruche, Inkonsequenzen und
+psychologische Unwahrscheinlichkeiten" that would question the
+"Plautinity" of every other line, were we to follow Weise's precepts.
+Langen too uses the knife, but with a certain judicious restraint.
+
+We insist that the attempt to explain away every inconsistency as spurious
+is a sorry refuge.
+
+[Sidenote: Langrehr] Langrehr in _Miscellanea Philologica_ (Gottingen,
+1876), under the caption _Plautina_[18] gives vent to further solemn
+Teutonic carpings at the plot of the _Epidicus_ and argues the play a
+_contaminatio_ on the basis of the double intrigue. He is much exercised
+too over the mysterious episode of 'the disappearing flute-girl.'
+
+Langen, who is in the main remarkably sane, refutes these conclusions
+neatly.[19] How Weise and his confrères argue Plautus such a super-poet,
+in view of the life and education of the public to whom he catered, let
+alone the evidence of the plays themselves, and their author's status as
+mere translator and adapter, must remain an insoluble mystery. The simple
+truth is that a playwright such as Plautus, having undertaken to feed a
+populace hungry for amusement, ground out plays (doubtless for a
+living),[20] with a wholesome disregard for niceties of composition,
+provided only he obtained his _sine qua non_--the laugh.[21]
+
+[Sidenote: Lessing] In our citation of opinions we must not overlook that
+impressive mile-stone in the history of criticism, the discredited but
+still great Lessing. In his "Abhandlung von dem Leben und den Werken des
+M. Accius Plautus" Lessing deprecates the harsh judgment of Horace and
+later detractors of our poet in modern times. Lessing idealizes him as the
+matchless comic poet. That the _Captivi_ is "das vortrefflichste Stück,
+welches jemals auf den Schauplatz gekommen ist," as Lessing declares in
+the Preface to his translation of the play, is an utterance that leaves us
+gasping.
+
+[Sidenote: Dacier] But Lessing's idea of the purpose of comedy is a
+combination of Aristotelian and mid-Victorian ideals: "die Sitten der
+Zuschauer zu bilden und zu bessern, ... wenn sie nämlich das Laster
+allezeit unglücklich und die Tugend am Ende glücklich sein lässt."[22] It
+is on the basis of this premise that he awards the comic crown to the
+_Cap._[23] His extravagant encomium called forth from a contemporary a
+long controversial letter which Lessing published in the second edition
+with a reply so feeble that he distinctly leaves his adversary the honors
+of the field. How much better the diagnosis of Madame Dacier, who is
+quoted by Lessing! In the introduction to her translations of the
+_Amphitruo_, _Rudens_ and _Epidicus_ (issued in 1683), she apologizes for
+Plautus on the ground that he had to win approval for his comedies from an
+audience used to the ribaldry of the _Saturae_.
+
+[Sidenote: Lorenz] Lorenz in his introductions to editions of the _Most._
+and _Pseud._ is another who seems to be carried away by the unrestrained
+enthusiasm that often affects scholars oversteeped in the lore of their
+author. Faults are dismissed as merely "Kleine Unwahrscheinlichkeiten"
+(Introd. _Ps._, p. 26, N. 25.) "Jeder Leser," says he, "<wird gewiss>
+darin beistimmen, dass ... der erste Act <des _Pseudolus_> eine so
+gelungene Exposition darbietet, wie sie die dramatische Poesie nur
+aufweisen kann." Such a statement must fall, by weight of exaggeration. In
+appreciation of the portrayal of the name-part he continues: "Mit welch'
+überwältigender Herrschaft tritt hier gleich die meisterhaft geschilderte
+Hauptperson hervor! Welche packende Kraft, welche hinreissende _verve_
+liegt in dem reichen Dialoge, der wie beseelt von der feurigen Energie des
+begabten Menschen, der ihn lenkt, fröhlich rauschend dahin eilt,
+übersprudelnd von einer Fulle erheiternder Scherze und schillernder
+Spielereien!"
+
+In curious contrast to this fulsome outpouring stands the expressed belief
+of Lamarre[24] that the character of Ballio overshadows that of Pseudolus.
+In support of this view he cites Cicero (_Pro Ros. Com._ 7.20), who
+mentions that Roscius chose to play Ballio.
+
+Lorenz in his enthusiasm exalts the _Epid._ to an ideal of comic
+excellence (Introd. _Ps._ p. 27). He even goes so far as to contend that
+Plautus lives up to the following characterization:[25] "Nicht blos durch
+naturgetreue and lebhafte Charakterschilderungen und durch eine komisch
+gehaltene, aber die Grenzen des Wahrscheinlichen und des Graziösen nicht
+überschreitende Zeichnung des täglichen Lebens soll der Dichter des
+Lustspiels seine Zuschauer interessiren und ihr heiteres Gelächter
+hervorrufen, sondern auch so reiche Anwendung zu geben, durch die es in
+den Dienst einer sittlichen Idee tritt, und so gleichsam die moralische
+Atmosphäre ... zu reinigen."
+
+Such emotional superlatives merely create in the reader a cachinnatory
+revulsion. Yes, Plautus was great, but he was great in a far different
+way. He approached the Rabelaisian. It is doubtful if "die Grenzen des
+Graziösen" lay within his purview at all.
+
+[Sidenote: Lamarre] The treatment of Lamarre cited above contains[26] a
+highly meritorious analysis of the Plautine characters, discussed largely
+as a reflection of the times and people, both of New Comedy and of
+Plautus, without imputing to our poet too serious motives of subtle
+portrayal. But he too ascribes to Plautus a latent moral purpose: "En
+faisant rire, il veut corriger"![27]
+
+[Sidenote: Naudet] This sounds ominously like an echo from Naudet[28] who,
+in the course of lauding Plautus' infinite invention and variety of
+embroidery, would translate him into a zealous social reformer by saying:
+"L'auteur se proposait de faire beaucoup rire les spectateurs, mais il
+voulait aussi qu'ils se corrigeassent en riant." All this is
+disappointing. We should have expected Gallic esprit to rise superior to
+such banality.
+
+[Sidenote: LeGrand] The celebrity of French criticism is somewhat redeemed
+by LeGrand in his monumental work entitled _Daos Tableau de la comedie
+grecque pendant la periode dite nouvelle_ (Annales de l'Université de
+Lyon, 1910), in the conclusion to the chapter on 'Intentions didactiques
+et valeur morale' (Part III, Chap. I, page 583): "Tout compte fait, au
+point de vue moral, la νέα dut être inoffensive (en son temps)." This is
+the culmination of a calm, dispassionate discussion and analysis of the
+extant remains of New Comedy and _Palliatae_.
+
+Even Ritschl fails to escape the taint of degrading Plautus to the status
+of a petty moralizer[29]. In particular, he lauds the _Aul_ unreservedly
+as a _chef d'oeuvre_ of character delineation and pronounces it
+immeasurably superior to Molière's imitation, "L'Avare."[30] This whole
+critique, while interesting, falls into the prevailing trend of imputing
+to Plautus far too high a plane of dramatic artistry.[31]
+
+[Sidenote: Langen] Indeed, Langen has already scored Ritschl on this very
+point in remarking[32] that Ritschl's condemnation of an alleged defect in
+the _Cas_[33] implies much too favorable an estimate of Plautus' artistic
+worth, as the defects cited are represented as something isolated and
+remarkable, whereas they are characteristic of Plautine comedy. Langen
+still displays clear-headed judgment when he says of the _Miles_[34]:
+"Wenn die Farben so stark aufgetragen werden, hort jede Feinhet der
+Charakterzeichnung auf und bereinem Dichter, der sich dies gestattet, darf
+man bezuglich der Charakterschilderungen nicht zu viele Anspruche machen.
+Es ist sehr wahrscheinlich dass Plautus mit Rucksicht auf den Geschmack
+_eines_ Publikums die Zuge des Originals sehr vergrobert hat."
+
+But Langen fails to follow this splendid lead. Without taking advantage of
+the license that he himself offers the poet, he severely condemns[35], the
+scene in which Periplecomenus shouts out to Philocomasium so loudly that
+the soldier's household could not conceivably help hearing, whereas he is
+supposed to be conveying secret information.[36] If carried out in a
+broadly farcical spirit, the scene becomes potentially amusing.
+
+[Sidenote: Mommsen] Mommsen in his _History_[37], in the course of an
+interesting discussion on _palliatae_ and their Greek originals, has a far
+saner point of view. He says of the authors of New Comedy, "They wrote not
+like Eupolis and Aristophanes for a great nation; but rather for a
+cultivated society which spent its time ... in guessing riddles and
+playing at charades.... Even in the dim Latin copy, through which we
+chiefly know it, the grace of the original is not wholly obliterated. <In
+_palliatae_> persons and incidents seem capriciously or carelessly
+shuffled as in a game of cards; in the original a picture from life, it
+became in the reproduction a caricature."
+
+Naturally we are not concerned with any consideration of the value of his
+estimate of New Comedy. Assuredly he rates it too highly, as later
+investigations have indicated.[38] But here for the first time we are able
+to quote a well-balanced appreciation of some essential features of
+Plautine drama: a "capricious shuffling of incidents" and "caricature." In
+fact it will be our endeavor to show that the _palliata_ was not a true
+art form, but merely an outer shell or mold into which Plautus poured his
+stock of witticisms.
+
+[Sidenote: Korting] Still more trenchant is the conclusion of Korting in
+his _Geschichte des griechischen und römischen Theaters_ (P. 218 ff.):
+"Die neue attische Komödie und folglich auch ihr Abklatsch, die romische
+Palliata, war nicht ein Lustspiel im höchsten, im sittlichen Sinne des
+Wortes, sondern ein blosses Unterhaltungsdrama. Amüsieren wollten die
+Komödiendichter, nichts weiter. Jedes höhere Streben lag ihnen fern. Wohl
+spickten sie ihre Lustspiele mit moralischen Sentenzen.... Aber die
+schönen Sentenzen sind eben nur Zierat, sind nur Verbramung einer in ihrem
+Kerne und Wesen durch und durch unsittlichen Dichtung ... Mit der
+Wahrscheinlichkeit der Handlung wird es sehr leicht genommen: die
+seltsamsten Zufälle werden als so ziemlich selbstverständliche
+Möglichkeiten hingestellt ... Es ginge das noch an, wenn wir in eine
+phantastische Märchenwelt geführt werden, in welcher am Ende auch das
+Wunderbarste möglich ist, aber nein! es wird uns zugemutet, überzeugt zu
+sein, dass alles mit natürlichen Dingen zugehe.
+
+"Alles in allem genommen, ist an dieser Komödie, abgesehen von ihrer
+formal musterhaften Technik, herzlich wenig zu bewundern.... An
+Zweideutigkeiten, Obscönitäten, Schimpfscenen ist Überfluss vorhanden."
+
+With admirable clarity of vision, Korting has spied the vital spot and
+illuminated it with the word "Unterhaltungsdrama." That amusement was the
+sole aim of the comic poets we firmly believe. But if this was so, why
+arraign them on the charge of trying to convince us that everything is
+happening in a perfectly natural manner? The outer form to be sure is that
+of everyday life, but this is no proof that the poets demanded of their
+audiences a belief in the verisimilitude of the events depicted. Can we
+have no fantastic fairyland without some outlandish accompaniment such as
+a chorus garbed as birds or frogs? But we reserve fuller discussion of
+this point until later. We might suggest an interesting comparison to the
+nonsense verse of W. S. Gilbert, which represents the most shocking ideas
+in a style even nonchalantly matter-of-fact. Does Gilbert by any chance
+actually wish us to believe that "Gentle Alice Brown," in the poem of the
+same name, really assisted in "cutting up a little lad"?
+
+Korting regains his usual clear-headedness in pronouncing 'that there is
+little in the technique of _palliatae_ to excite our admiration.' Again we
+insist (to borrow the jargon of the modern dramatic critic) it was but a
+"vehicle" for popular amusement.
+
+[Sidenote: Schlegel] Wilhelm Schlegel, in his _History of the Drama_[39]
+has the point of view of the dramatic critic, rather than the professional
+scholar; while expressing a measure of admiration for the significance of
+Plautus in literature, he is impelled to say: "The bold, coarse style of
+Plautus and his famous jokes, savour of his familiarity with the vulgar
+... <He> mostly inclines to the farcical, to overwrought and often
+disgusting drollery." This is doubtless true, but, by making the
+incidental a criterion for the whole, it gives a gross misconception to
+one that has not read Plautus.
+
+[Sidenote: Donaldson] J. W. Donaldson, in his lectures on the Greek
+theatre[40], has plagiarized Schlegel practically _verbatim_, while giving
+the scantest credit to his source. His work thus loses value, as being a
+mere echo, or compilation of second-hand material.
+
+We learn from Schlegel that Goethe was so enamored of ancient comedy that
+he enthusiastically superintended the translation and production of plays
+of Plautus and Terence. Says Schlegel[41]: "I once witnessed at Weimar a
+representation of the _Adelphi_ of Terence, entirely in ancient costume,
+which, under the direction of Goethe, furnished us a truly Attic evening."
+
+[Sidenote: Scott] In this connection the opinion of Sir Walter Scott may
+be interesting. He too, not being a classical scholar _par excellence_,
+may be better equipped for sound judgment. In the introduction to Dryden's
+_Amphitryon_ he says: "Plautus ... left us a play on the subject of
+Amphitryon which has _had the honour_ to be deemed worthy of imitation by
+Molière and Dryden. It cannot be expected that the plain, blunt and
+inartificial style of so rude an age should bear any comparison with that
+of the authors who enjoyed the highest advantages of the polished times to
+which they were an ornament." There speaks the sophisticated and conscious
+literary technician![42]
+
+[Sidenote: LeGrand] The most comprehensive and judicious estimate of all
+is certainly attained by LeGrand in _Daos_.[43] He appreciates clearly
+that "la nouvelle comédie n'a pas été, en toute circonstance stance, une
+comédie distinguée. Elle n'a pas dédaigné constamment la farce et le gros
+rire."[44] How much more then would this apply to _palliatae_!
+
+We now believe that we have on hand a sufficiently large volume of
+criticism to appreciate practically every phase of judgment to which
+Plautus has been subjected.[45] The ancients overrated him stylistically,
+but he was a man of their own people. Men such as Becker, Weise, Lorenz
+and Langrehr have proceeded upon a distinctly exaggerated ideal of
+Plautus' eminence as a master dramatic craftsman and literary artist and
+therefore have amputated with the cry of "Spurious!" everything that
+offends their ideal. Lessing is obsessed with too high an estimate of the
+_Captivi_. Lamarre, Naudet and Ritschl commit the error of imputing to our
+poet a moral purpose. Schlegel and Scott deprecate the crudity of his wit
+without an adequate appreciation of its sturdy and primeval robustness.
+Langen, Mommsen, Korting and LeGrand approach a keen estimate of his
+inconsistencies and his single-minded purpose of entertainment, but
+Korting accuses him of attempting to create an illusion of life while
+aiming solely at provoking laughter.
+
+From this heterogeneous mass of diversified criticism we glean the
+prevailing idea that Plautus is lauded or condemned according to his
+conformity or non-conformity to some preconceived standard of comedy
+situate in the critic's mind, without a consideration of the poet's
+original purpose. We must seriously propound the question as to how far a
+grave injustice has been done him almost universally in criticising him
+for what he does not pretend to be. Did Plautus himself suffer from any
+illusion that his plays were constructed with cogent and consummate
+technique? Did he for a single instant imagine himself the inspired
+reformer of public morality? Did he believe that his style was elegant and
+polished? Indeed, he must have effected an appreciable refinement of the
+vernacular of his age to produce his lively verse, but without losing the
+robust vitality of "Volkswitz." Or is it true that nothing further than
+amusement lay within his scope?
+
+If so, we may at least posit that almost unbounded license must be allowed
+the pen which aims simply to raise a laugh. We do not fulminate against a
+treatise on Quaternions because it lacks humor. If the drawings of
+cartoonists are anatomically incorrect, we are smilingly indulgent. Do we
+condemn a vaudeville skit for not conforming to the Aristotelian code of
+dramatic technique? Assuredly we do not rise in disgust from a musical
+comedy because "in real life" a bevy of shapely maidens in scant attire
+never goes tripping and singing blithely though the streets. If then we
+can establish that Plautus regarded his adapted dramas merely as a rack on
+which to hang witticisms, merely as a medium for laugh-provoking sallies
+and situations, we have at once Plautus as he pretended to be, and in
+large measure the answer to the original question: "What manner of drama
+is this?"
+
+We say only "in large measure," because it is part of our endeavor to
+settle accurately the position of our author in the dramatic scale,
+considered of necessity from the modern viewpoint. We cannot believe that
+he had any pretensions to refined art in play building, or rather
+rebuilding, or to any superficial elegance of style, or to any moralizing
+pose. We believe him an entertainer pure and simple, who never restricted
+himself in his means except by the outer conventions and form of the Greek
+New Comedy and the Roman stage, provided his single aim, that of affording
+amusement, was attained. To establish this belief, and at the same time to
+interpret accurately the nature of his plays and the means and effect of
+their production, is our thesis.
+
+If then we run the gamut of the dramatic scale, we observe that as we
+descend from the higher forms, such as tragedy, psychological drama and
+"straight comedy," to the lower, such as musical comedy and burlesque, the
+license allowed playwright and actor increases so radically that we have a
+difference of kind rather than of degree. Certain conventions of course
+are common to all types. The "missing fourth side" of the room is a
+commonplace recognized by all. If we ourselves are never in the habit of
+communicating the contents of our letters, as we write, to a doubtless
+appreciative atmosphere, we never cavil at such an act on the stage. The
+stage whisper and aside, too, we accept with benevolent indulgence; but it
+is worth noting that in the attempted verisimilitude of the modern
+"legitimate" drama, the aside has well nigh vanished. As we go down the
+scale through light comedy and broad farce these conventions multiply
+rapidly.
+
+With the introduction of music come further absurdities. Melodious voicing
+of our thoughts is in itself essentially unnatural, to say the least.
+Grand opera, great art form as it may be, is hopelessly artificial.
+Indeed, so far is it removed from the plane of every day existence that we
+are rudely jolted by the introduction of too commonplace a thought, as
+when Sharpless in the English version of "Madame Butterfly" warbles
+mellifluously: "Highball or straight?" And when we reach musical comedy
+and vaudeville, all thought of drama, technically speaking, is abandoned
+in watching the capers of the "merry-merry" or the outrageous "Dutch"
+comedian wielding his deadly newspaper.
+
+It is important for our immediate purposes to note: first, (as aforesaid),
+that the amount of license allowed author and actor increases immeasurably
+as we go down the scale; second, that the degree of familiarity with the
+audience and cognizance of the spectator's existence varies inversely as
+the degree of dramatic value. Thus, at one end of the scale we have, for
+instance, Mrs. Fiske, whose fondness for playing to the centre of the
+stage and ignoring the audience is commented upon as a mannerism; at the
+other, the low comedian who says his say or sings his song directly at the
+audience and converses gaily with them as his boon companions. Now it will
+be shown that familiar address of the audience and the singing of monodies
+to musical accompaniment are essential features of Plautus' style, and
+many other implements of the lower types of modern drama are among his
+favorite devices. If then we can place Plautus toward the bottom of the
+scale, we relieve him vastly of responsibility as a dramatist and of the
+necessity of adherence to verisimilitude. Where does he actually belong?
+The answer must be sought in a detailed consideration of his methods of
+producing his effects and in an endeavor to ascertain how far the audience
+and the acting contributed to them.
+
+
+
+§2. The Performance
+
+
+[Sidenote: The Audience] As it is perfectly patent that every practical
+playwright must cater to his public, the audience is an essential feature
+in our discussion. The audience of Plautus was not of a high class.
+Terence, even in later times, when education had materially progressed,
+often failed to reach them by over-finesse. Plautus with his bold brush
+pleased them. Surely a turbulent and motley throng they were, with the
+native violence of the sun-warmed Italic temperament and the abundant
+animal spirits of a crude civilization, tumbling into the theatre in the
+full enjoyment of holiday, scrambling for vantage points on the sloping
+ground, if such were handy, or a good spot for their camp-stools. In view
+of the uncertainty as to the actual site of the original performances,
+this portraiture is "atmospheric" rather than "photographic." (See
+Saunders in TAPA. XLIV, 1913). At any rate, we have ample evidence of the
+turbulence of the early Roman audience. (Ter. Prol. _Hec._ 39-42, and
+citations immediately following). Note the description of Mommsen:[46]
+"The audience was anything but genteel.... The body of spectators cannot
+have differed much from what one sees in the present day at public
+fireworks and gratis exhibitions. Naturally, therefore, the proceedings
+were not too orderly; children cried,[47] women talked and shrieked, now
+and then a wench prepared to push her way to the stage; the ushers had on
+these festivals anything but a holiday, and found frequent occasion to
+confiscate a mantle or to ply the rod."[48]
+
+Impatient if the play be delayed, and voicing their disapproval by lusty
+clapping, stamping, whistling and cat-calls, they are equally ready with
+noisy approval if the dramatic fare tickle their palate.[49] The
+_tibicen_, as he steps forth to render the overture, is greeted
+uproariously as an old favorite. The manager perhaps appears and announces
+the names of those taking part, each one of whom is doubtless applauded or
+hissed in proportion to his measure of popularity. Differences of opinion
+as to the merits of an individual actor may culminate in the partisans'
+coming to blows.[50] Horace (_Ep._ II. I. 200 ff.) comments on the
+turbulence of the audiences of his day too; while under the Empire
+factions for and against particular actors grew up, as in the circus.[51]
+Late-comers of course often disturbed the Prologus in his lines. The
+continual reiteration that we find in such prologues as the _Amph._,
+_Cap._ and _Poen._ was naturally designed as a safeguard against such
+disturbance. Yet these prologues were undoubtedly composed, as Ritschl has
+shown (_Par._ 232 ff.), shortly after 146 B.C., and the turbulence of the
+original audience must have been far greater.
+
+To win the favor of such a crowd, which would groan if instead of the
+expected comedy a tragedy should be announced,[52] what methods were
+necessary? Slap-sticks, horse-play, broad slashing swashbuckling humor,
+thick colors daubed on with lavish brush!
+
+By Cicero's time the public had attained to such a degree of
+sophistication that the slightest slip on the part of the wretched actor
+was greeted by a storm of popular disapproval. "Histrio si paulum se movit
+extra numerum, aut si versus pronuntiatus est syllaba una brevior aut
+longior, exsibilatur, exploditur," says Cicero.[53] The actor dare not
+even have a cold, for on the slightest manifestation of hoarseness, he was
+hooted off, though favorites such as Roscius might be excused on the plea
+of indisposition.[54] The Scholiast Cruquius to Hor. _Ser._ I. 10.37 ff.
+notes: "Poemata ... in theatris exhibita imperitae multitudinis applausum
+captare."
+
+It is evident from all this that, while the Roman public had made
+considerable advances in education, their demonstrative temperament had
+not cooled. It seems eminently fair to deduce that the far ruder and less
+cultivated audiences of Plautus' day were even more violent in their
+manifestations of pleasure and displeasure, but that their criterion of
+taste was solely the amount of amusement derived from the performance and
+that they bothered themselves little about niceties of rhythm. To the
+Roman, the scenic and histrionic were the vital features of a production.
+Again we reiterate, only the bold brush could have pleased them.
+
+That the plays of Plautus attained a permanent position in ihe theatrical
+repertoire of Rome is of course well known; but he wrote primarily for his
+own age, and in a difficult environment. Not only did he have to please a
+highly volatile and inflammable public, but he must have been forced to
+exercise tact to avoid offending the patrician powers, as the imprisonment
+of Naevius indicates. Mommsen has an apt summary:[55] "Under such
+circumstances, where art worked for daily wages and the artist instead of
+receiving due honour was subjected to disgrace, the new national theatre
+of the Romans could not present any development either original or even at
+all artistic."
+
+[Sidenote: The Actor] This brief discussion of the relation between public
+and playwright will suffice for our purposes. In the course of it we have
+insensibly encroached upon the next topic: the relation of public and
+actor. Who after all is the chief factor in the success or failure of a
+drama, in spite of the oft misquoted adage, "The play's the thing?" The
+actor! The actor, who can mouth and tear a passion to tatters, or swing a
+piece of trumpery into popular favor by the brute force of his dash and
+personality. That this was true in Plautus' day, no less than in our own,
+is plainly indicated by the personal allusion inserted in the _Bac._
+(214-5):
+
+  Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,
+  Nullam aeque invitus specto, _si agit Pellio_.
+
+The servile status of the ancient actor is an index to the energy of his
+performance, if to nothing else. Failure meant a beating, success a drink
+at least.[56] Augustus humanely abrogated the whipping of actors, but an
+attempt was made in Tiberius' time to renew the practice.[57] On the other
+hand, there seem to have been prizes awarded to successful actors,[58] as
+well as to the poet;[59] but this practice surely arose after Plautus'
+lifetime. At any rate, whatever was the nature of the reward, in his day
+the large emoluments won by Roscius and other popular favorites were
+impossible.[60] The effort demanded by the elaborate education of the
+actor,[61] in which naturally gesticulation was the most vital element,
+was out of all proportion to the precarious reward. A rigid course of
+training was prescribed and strenuous exercises were required, for both
+actor and orator to keep the voice in proper form.[62] Indeed, Quintilian
+advises the budding orator to take instruction in voice production and
+gesticulation from the comic actor.[63] For the comic actor was at all
+times recognized as livelier and more vivid in his performance than the
+tragedian.[64] The two were usually sharply differentiated.[65]
+Specialization arose, too, and we hear of actors who confined their
+efforts to feminine roles,[66] though naturally every performer was cast
+for parts to which his physique was best suited.[67]
+
+It is doubtful whether such an elaborate system had been developed in
+Plautus' time, but this much is certain: the comedian was on the stage
+lively, energetic and constantly spurred on by the fear of punishment from
+the _dominus gregis_ and the violent disapproval of a fickle, tempestuous
+and withal exacting public. Polybius[68] relates that the visit of a
+troupe of Greek actors to Rome was a failure because of their over-staid
+deportment, until, learning the desires of the volatile Italians, they
+improvised a vastly more vivid pantomime depicting a mock battle, with
+huge success. Assuredly the early Roman comedian must have acted with
+greater abandon and clownish drollery, if not with the elaborate
+histrionic technique of the later actor.[69] We have heard Dr. Charles
+Knapp relate that the performance of the _Ajax_ of Sophocles by a troupe
+of modern Greek players went with amazing and incredible rapidity and
+vivacity. It is all of a piece. We must inevitably associate vivid
+temperament with the sons of the Mediterranean in all ages. Yet we have
+just seen that the Greeks of old were too self-contained for their Italian
+brethren.
+
+[Sidenote: The Histrionism] With this brief discussion of the condition,
+incentive and motive of the Plautine actor, let us pass on to a more
+detailed consideration of his methods and technique. Naturally by far the
+most important part of this was gesture. Here again, while some of our
+evidence is somewhat unreliable, practically every shred of extant
+testimony indicates an extreme liveliness and vivacity. In the
+rhetoricians frequent warning is issued to the forensic neophyte to avoid
+the unrestraint of theatrical gesticulation. Cicero says (_De Or._ I. 59.
+251): "Nemo suaserit studiosis dicendi adulescentibus in gestu discendo
+histrionum more elaborare." Quintilian echoes (I. 11. 3): "Ne gestus quidem
+omnis ac motus a comediis petendus est.... Orator plurimum ... aberit a
+scaenico, nec vultu nec manu nec excursionibus nimius." And in the _Auctor
+ad Herennium_ we find (III. 15. 26): "Convenit igitur in vultu et pudorem
+nec acrimoniam esse, in gestu et venustatem nec turpitudinem, ne aut
+histriones aut operarii videamur esse."[70] That the nature and liveliness
+of gesture on the stage was determined by the character portrayed, it is
+almost needless to say.[71]
+
+Cicero's analysis (_de Or._ III. 59. 220) of the difference between
+theatrical and forensic gesture implies that the former illustrates
+individual words and ideas, while the latter comprehends more broadly the
+general thought and sentiment.[72] It is most unfortunate that we have
+lost Cicero's treatise _De Gestu Histrionis_.[73]
+
+By Cicero's time a more restrained mode of acting was evidently considered
+good taste; witness _de Off._ (I. 36. 130): "Histrionum non nulli gestus
+ineptus non vacant,    et quae sunt recta et simplicia laudantur."[74] But
+the passages cited above bear ample testimony to the vigor of histrionic
+gesticulation even at this later and far more cultivated epoch. Again we
+repeat, what must have been the energy and abandon of the original
+Plautine actor?[75]
+
+Apart from the rhetoricians, the most fruitful literary source of our
+information on gesture is Donatus' commentary on Terence. The
+trustworthiness of this has been the subject of much argument. Sittl[76]
+accuses him of speaking merely from the standpoint of a professor of
+rhetoric, as comedies of Terence were no longer given in the time of
+Donatus. Weinberger in his "Beitrage zu den Buhnenaltherthumern aus Donats
+Terenz-commentar,"[77] admonishes us to be very careful not to put too
+high a value on the commentary. Van Wageningen[78] is of the opinion that
+much of the work was inspired by Donatus' having seen in his own time
+unmasked actors play. To this view color is lent by Donatus' note to
+_And._ 716: "Sive haec <Mysis> personatis viris agitur, ut apud veteres,
+sive per mulierem, ut nunc videmus."
+
+If this is true, it makes Donatus' work of more significance to us, as it
+would imply a harking back to the play of feature of the unmasked
+performances of Plautus' day. But while it is certain that Donatus had
+other sources than the Terentian text for his annotations,[79] it is
+equally certain that practically everything he has to say relative to
+gesture and stage business is readily to be deduced from the text and is
+in the main interesting only as a compilation.[80] However, everything he
+says continues to point persistently to lively gesture and action; and
+this too in Terentian comedy, where the text makes far less rigorous
+demands on the actor's muscles than in Plautus' works.
+
+Donatus remarks occasionally that certain words must have been accompanied
+by especially expressive gesture and byplay, evidently of feature, as
+_vultuose, cum gestu_ and similar phrases are used to indicate this.[81]
+His note to _And._ 722 is: "Haec scaena actuosa est: magis enim in gestu
+quam in oratione est constituta." Of gestures emphatic and yet not foreign
+to everyday life Quintilian notes (XI. 3. 123): "Femur ferire--et usitatum
+et indignantis decet"; a movement plainly employed in _Mil._ 204 and
+_Truc._ 601. But, says Quintilian further (ib.): "Complodere manus
+scaenicum est et pectus caedere."[82]
+
+One of the notable "hits" of the ancient stage is recorded by Donatus ad
+_Phor._ 315: Ambivius (as Phormio) entered "oscitans temulenter atque
+aurem minimo scalpens digitulo ... et labia lingens ut ebrius et ructans."
+But Ambivius' potations resulted in an extremely spirited and lifelike
+imitation of the parasite character and he was forthwith forgiven his
+drunkenness.
+
+Passing mention must be made of the Terentian Mss. illustrations, though
+they add but little weight to the foregoing. For a complete list of their
+sources and editions see Sittl, "Gebärden der Griechen und Römer," Chap.
+XI, p. 203 ff.[83] But whatever be the exact date of the original, in our
+extant copies the old traditional gestures are lost and the gesture of
+everyday life supplied. In fact, in the analyses appended by Leo, van
+Wageningen and Warnecke, in the works cited above, we arrive at little but
+that the gestures natural to any Italian-born person in a like situation
+are reproduced, such as "gestus abeuntis, cogitantis, parasiti," etc. It
+is almost too much to make any of this a basis for argument as to
+classical and pre-classical stage-craft. It is at least significant that
+every character with hands free is gesticulating and the scene from _Eun._
+IV. 6-7 is evidently full of vigorous action.
+
+An old and discursive article[84] by T. Baden, containing a description
+and analysis of the gestures and posture of a number of familiar figures
+from comedy exemplified in some collections of statuettes (chiefly those
+in Borgia's Museum of Baden's time), is open to the same objection as the
+above. The gestures of slave, pander, parasite, etc., described in the
+article are lively and expressive to be sure, but contain little to
+differentiate them from those of daily life.
+
+While much of our evidence is still to come, we believe that we are
+already justified in the deduction that the actor contemporary with
+Plautus must have indulged in the extravagances of the players in the
+Atellan farces and the mimes. The _mimus_ of the Empire, we know,
+specialized in ridiculous facial contortions.[85]
+
+We must not forget too the vivacity indicated by the comic scenes among
+the Pompeian and Herculanean wall-paintings,[86] which have a close
+kinship with the Terentian MSS. pictures. Nor must we lose sight of the
+fact that all our pictorial _reliquiae_ portray the later masked
+characters, and hence play of feature, which must have been a notable
+concomitant of the original Plautine performance, is entirely obscured.
+
+As our intention is fundamentally to get at the original intent of our
+poet and his actors, a discussion of the mask is not in order. Whether we
+agree with Donatus' statement that masks were first introduced for comedy
+and tragedy by Cincius Faliscus and Minucius Prothymus respectively,[87]
+or with Diomedes' explanation[88] that Roscius adopted them to disguise
+his pronounced squint, it is certain that they were not worn in Plautus'
+time, when wigs and make-up were employed for characterization.[89] In
+fact, the early performances of Plautus, unless we except the original
+Terentian productions, stand almost alone in the history of Graeco-Roman
+comedy as unmasked plays. This would give opportunity for the practice of
+lively grimace and facial play.
+
+The text itself contains not infrequent descriptions of the outward
+appearance of the characters, often pointing to grotesqueries of make-up
+that rival those of the Old Comedy. From _As._ 400-1 we learn that Saurea
+was:
+
+  Macilentis malis, rufulus, aliquantum ventriosus,
+  Truculentis oculis, commoda statura, tristi fronte.
+
+In the _Mer._ Lysimachus is described as a veritable _thensaurus
+mali_ (639-40):
+
+  Canum, varum, ventriosum, buculentum, breviculum,
+  Subnigris oculis, oblongis malis, pansam aliquantulum.
+
+Curculio was one-eyed: "Unocule, salve" (Cur. 392). Pseudolus must have
+been a joy to the groundlings _(Ps._ 1218 ff.):
+
+  Rufus quidam, ventriosus, crassis suris, subniger,
+  Magno capite, acutis oculis, ore rubicundo, admodum
+  Magnis pedibus. BA. Perdidisti, ut nominavisti pedes.
+  Pseudolus fuit ipsus.
+
+His red slave's wig is thus made a feature in the characterization.
+(Cf. Ter. _Phor._ 51). When Trachalio is looking for the procurer,
+he inquires (_Rud._ 316 ff.):
+
+                                           Ecquem
+  Recalvom ad Silanum senem, statutum, ventriosum,
+  Tortis superciliis, contracta fronte...?[90]
+
+The precise details of the histrionic technique and "stage business" in
+vogue must remain more or less a mystery to us. Our limitations in this
+respect are admirably enunciated by Saunders (TAPA. XLIV, p. 97): "One
+must conclude then, that it is dangerous to dogmatize on this subject, as
+on most others connected with the early Roman stage. Our evidence is too
+slight and the period of time involved is too long...." We can, therefore,
+deal in little but generalities. The Romans must have imitated and
+developed their Greek and Etruscan models.[91] When Livius Andronicus
+first fathered _palliatae_, he must have chosen the New Comedy not only as
+the type of drama most available to him, but as wholly adaptable to his
+audiences. When Plautus wrote, he had the machinery already built for him,
+and he doubtless seized upon the _palliata_ form as the natural medium for
+the exploitation of his talents. By Cicero's time considerable technical
+equipment was required; the actor must be an adept in gesticulation,
+gymnastic and dancing.[92] Appreciable refinement had been reached in
+Quintilian's age, for he scores the comic actor who departs too far from
+reality and pronounces the ideal player him who declaims with a measured
+artistic heightening of everyday discourse.[93] It is noteworthy that this
+practically coincides with the accepted standard of modern realistic
+acting. But the Plautine actor could never have felt himself trammeled by
+any such narrow and sophisticated restrictions, as we believe the evidence
+accumulated above amply proves. At any rate, the delineation of different
+roles must have been at all times strictly in character. The need of
+feminine vocal tones, unless another jest is intended is indicated by
+_Rud._ 233:
+
+  Certe vox muliebris auris tetigit meas.
+
+And Quintilian admonishes the youth who is taking lessons from a comic
+actor in voice-production not to carry his precepts so far as to imitate
+the female falsetto, the senile tremolo, the obsequiousness of the slave,
+the stuttering accents of intoxication or the intonations of love, greed,
+fear.[94]
+
+Where Donatus gives instructions as to the vocal expression with which
+certain lines are to be delivered, as in the case of his comments on
+gesture, they are almost painfully evident from the context. He cites for
+instance irony[95], anger[96], exhaustion [97], amazement [98],
+sympathy[99], pity[100]. He appears as the lineal ancestor of the modern
+"coach" of amateur theatricals in somewhat naively remarking[101] that
+upon leaving Thais for two days, Phaedria must pronounce "two days" as if
+"two years" were written.
+
+Another phase of the delivery of the dialogue that deserves passing
+mention is song and musical accompaniment. Livy's anecdote[102] of the
+employment by Livius Andronicus of a boy to sing for him while he
+gesticulated is almost universally accepted as an exceptional instance,
+prompted by the failing of Livius' voice through age[103]. We are now
+fairly well informed of the tripartite diversion of the dialogue into
+_canticum_ or song proper, recitative, and _diverbium_ or spoken
+utterance[104], with the incidental accompaniment of the _tibia_. Though
+there may be some dispute as to the apportionment of the various classes,
+the general truth is established.[105] The important feature of this for
+our purpose is that, if the ancient tragedy with its music and dancing was
+rather comparable to modern grand opera than to drama proper, the song and
+musical accompaniment of comedy lend it a strong flavor of the opera
+bouffe and even of the musical comedy of to-day. In Part II we shall draw
+numerous other parallels between this style of composition and the plays
+of Plautus. West, in A.J.P. VIII. 33, notes one of the few comparisons to
+"comic opera" that we have seen. Fay, in the Introduction to his ed. of
+the _Most._ (§ 11), likens Plautine drama to "an opera of the early
+schools."
+
+One feature of the performance still remains to be discussed--the
+"stage-business," that is, the movements of the actors apart from mere
+gesticulation and dialogue. Much of this too will find a place in Part II,
+in the treatment of special peculiarities, but in general we note here
+that the text itself contains many indications that are as plain as
+printed stage directions regarding the movements being made or about to be
+made by the characters. Examples of the more significant follow: _Amph._
+308: Cingitur: Certe expedit se; 312: Perii, pugnos ponderat. (Sosia
+speaks aside of Mercury and similarly during the succeeding scene); 903:
+Potin ut abstineas manum?; 955: Aperiuntur aedis. This motif is
+commonplace and frequent; 958: Vos tranquillos video; 1130: quam valide
+tonuit; _As._ 39: Age, age, usque excrea; _Bac._ 668: quod sic terram
+optuere?; _Cap._ 557: Viden tu hunc, quam inimico voltu intuitur?; 594:
+Ardent oculi;[106] 793: Hic homo pugilatum incipit; _Ep._ 609: illi
+caperrat frons severitudine; _Mer._ 138: iam dudum spato sanguinem; _Mil._
+1324: Nefle; _Most._ 1030: vocis non habeo satis. (He must have been
+shouting); _Ps._ 458: Statum vide hominis, Callipho, quam basilicum; 955:
+transvorsus ... cedit, quasi cancer solet: _Trin._ 623 f.: celeri
+graducunt uterque: ille rcprehendit hunc priorem pallio.[107]
+
+This practice of indicating business in the lines, of making the
+play act, is common to all the older types of drama, Elizabethan as
+well as classic. A single striking example from Shakespeare will
+furnish a parallel, in the well-known lines from _Macbeth_:
+
+  The devil damn thee black, thou cream-faced loon,
+  Where gott'st thou that goose look? (V. 3).
+
+The modern playwright robs his lines of their vividness and
+throws the onus on the actor through the medium of his interpolated
+direction, a custom which reaches its most exaggerated form
+in the plays of Bernard Shaw, as mentioned above.
+
+[Sidenote: Thesis] We have now made a perceptible advance towards getting
+an answer to our original questions: "What manner of drama is this?" and
+"How was it done?" The comments of the most eminent critics on the former
+question have left us rather bewildered by their diversity. Almost to a
+man they have taken Plautus too seriously or else have arraigned him for
+not conforming to their preconceived code of comedy, without questioning
+whether it were Plautus' own or not. This has really nullified their
+efforts to explain away the peculiarities and absurdities of his style.
+Some _solvent_ of these difficulties is needed.
+
+As to the second question, we have examined briefly the extant evidence
+regarding the actor's employment of gesture and business, his delivery of
+the dialogue, make-up and character delineation, and found a disappointing
+paucity, but a general and irresistible trend towards liveliness, vivacity
+and broad undiluted comedy that must have been the sort of dramatic fare
+demanded by the primeval appetite of the Plautine audience. But again we
+find ourselves falling short of a satisfying answer to our question.
+Again, some _solvent_ is needed. As the last resort, we turn to the
+evidence of the plays themselves and the unbounded realm of subjective
+criticism.
+
+From the earliest times gesture and business in Aristophanes and the Old
+Comedy were marked by the riotous license of all the media of that notable
+epoch[108] of comedy. From the broad spirit of its frank and vivid
+burlesque not even the most stolidly Teutonic of humorless critics ever
+thought of demanding a "picture of life." But with the abandonment of the
+purpose of political propaganda, the consequent disappearance of the
+chorus with its burlesque trappings (largely through motives of state
+economy), and the establishment in the New Comedy of a type of dramatic
+machinery that had a specious outer shell of reflection of characters and
+events in daily life, the critics instantly seem to demand the standard of
+dramatic technique of Aristotle and Freytag and condemn all departures
+from this standard. In reality, we believe that the kinship of Plautus
+with Aristophanes is much closer than has usually been realized.
+
+Is, then, the change from Old to New Comedy as great as has been
+represented? Does not the change consist rather in the outer form and in
+the ideas expounded than in the spirit of the histrionism and mimicry? And
+must not the vigor, from what we have seen, have been intensified in
+Plautus? LeGrand alone seems to have caught the essence of this:[109] "Que
+dire de la mimique? D'après les indications contenues dans le texte même
+des comédies, d'après les commentaires--notamment ceux de Donat, d'après
+les monuments figurés--en particulier les images des manuscrits, elle
+devait être en general très vive, souvent trop vive pour le goût des
+modernes.... Et puis, ils s'addressaient a des spectateurs méridionaux,
+coutumiers dans la vie quotidienne d'une gesticulation plus animée que la
+nôtre." And this is said as a combined estimate of New Comedy and
+_palliatae_.
+
+We are now prepared to advance a definite thesis, that shall gather up the
+random threads of argument and suggestion scattered through the foregoing
+pages and shall, we hope, provide a conclusive and final answer to both of
+our original questions. If we can establish: that our author's sole aim
+was to feed the popular hunger for amusement; that, while after leaving
+much of his Greek originals practically untouched, he considered them in
+effect but a medium for the provocation of laughter, but a vessel into
+which to pour a highly seasoned brew of fun; that to this end his actors
+went before the public, potentially speaking slap-stick in hand, equipped
+by nature with liveliness of grimace and gesture and prepared to act with
+verve, unction and an abandon of dash and vigor that would produce a riot
+of merriment; that his dramatic machinery is hopelessly crippled and that
+his evident intentions and effects are hopelessly lost unless interpreted
+in this spirit: then we relegate Plautine drama to a low plane of broad
+farce, where verisimilitude to life becomes wholly unnecessary because
+undesirable; where the canons of dramatic art become inoperative; where,
+contrary to what Körting says, we are not asked to believe that
+"everything is happening in a perfectly natural manner"; where the poet
+may stick at nothing provided the laugh be forthcoming; where all the
+apparently absurd conventions of _palliatae_ cease to be absurd, vanish
+into thin air and become unamenable to literary criticism, inasmuch as
+they are all only part of the laugh-compelling scheme. This is the
+_solvent_ that we propose. To establish this, let us proceed to an
+examination of the internal mechanism of the plays.
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+An Analysis of the Dramatic Values in Plautus
+
+
+
+The salient features that characterize the plays of Plautus include both
+his consciously employed means of producing his comic effects, and the
+peculiarities and abnormalities that evidence his attitude of mind in
+writing them. We should make bold to catalogue them as follows:
+
+I. Machinery characteristic of the lower types of modern drama--farce, low
+   comedy, musical comedy, burlesque shows, vaudeville, and the like.
+
+  A. Devices self-evident from the text.
+    1. Bombast and mock-heroics.
+    2. Horse-play and slap-sticks.
+    3. Burlesque, farce and extravagance of situation and dialogue.
+      a. True burlesque.
+      b. True farce.
+      c. Extravagances obviously unnatural and merely for the sake of fun.
+
+  B. Devices absurd and inexplicable unless interpreted in a broad
+     farcical spirit.
+    1. The running slave.
+    2. Wilful blindness.
+    3. Adventitious entrance.
+
+II. Evidences of loose composition which prove a disregard of
+    technique and hence indicate that entertainment was the sole aim.
+
+  A. Solo speeches and passages.
+    1. Asides and soliloquies.
+    2. Lengthy monodies, monologues and episodical specialties.
+    3. Direct address of the audience.
+
+  B. Inconsistencies and carelessness of composition.
+    1. Pointless badinage and padded scenes.
+    2. Inconsistencies of character and situation.
+    3. Looseness of dramatic construction.
+    4. Roman admixture and topical allusions.
+    5. Jokes on the dramatic machinery.
+    6. Use of stock plots and characters.
+
+Let us illustrate these points by typical passages and endeavor to insert
+such stage-directions as would indicate how the most telling effects could
+be produced and hence aid the reader in visualizing the actual
+performance.
+
+
+I. Machinery Characteristic of the Lower Types of Modern Drama
+
+A. _Devices self-evident from the text._
+
+1. Bombast and mock-heroics.
+
+It is a little difficult to sublimate this entirely from burlesque, but
+its true nature is instanced by the opening lines of the _Miles_, where
+the vainglorious Pyrgopolinices, with many a sweep and strut, addresses
+his attendants, who are probably staggering under the weight of an
+enormous shield:
+
+"Have a care that the effulgence of my shield be brighter than e'er the
+sun's rays in a cloudless sky: when the time for action comes and the
+battle's on, I intend it shall dazzle the eyesight o' m' foes. (_Patting
+his sword_). Verily I would condole with this m' sword, lest he lament and
+be cast down in spirit, forasmuch as now full long hath he hung idle by m'
+side, thirsting, poor lad, to meet his fellow 'mongst the foe," and so on.
+
+In line with this, a simulation of the military is a favorite device. So
+we find Pseudolus addressing the audience in ringing blustering tones and
+with grandiose gesture (_Ps._ 584 ff.):
+
+"It now becomes my aim today to lay siege to this town and capture it."
+(Ballio the procurer is the town). "I shall hurl all my legions against
+it. If I take it, ... good luck to you, my citizens, for part of the booty
+shall be yours."
+
+This finds a close counterpart in the _Mil._ 219 ff., a passage which
+West[110] thinks was deliberately inserted to rouse the populace into
+demanding that Scipio be at once despatched to Africa.
+
+Periplecomenus is urging Palaestrio to find a stratagem. Actually he
+probably addresses the pit:
+
+"Don't you see that the enemy are upon you and investing your rear? Call a
+council of war, reach out for stores and reinforcements in this crisis:
+haste, haste, no time to waste! Make a detour through some pass, forestall
+your foes, beleaguer them, protect our troops! Cut off the enemy's base of
+supplies!" etc.
+
+Whether this passage had an ulterior purpose or not, the motif is
+frequent.[111] So we find Chrysalus in _Bac._ 925 ff. holding the stage
+for an entire scene with an elaborate comparison of himself to Ulysses,
+the brains of the Greek host, overcoming his master Nicobulus who
+represents Priam.
+
+In general the mocking assumption of an heroic attitude recurs with
+sufficient frequency to stamp it as a staple of comic effect. Many
+passages would become tiresome and meaningless instead of amusing unless
+so interpreted. The soliloquy of Mnesilochus in _Bac._ 500 ff. could be
+made interesting only by turgid ranting. Similarly in _Bac._ 530 ff. and
+612 ff.[112]
+
+
+2. Horse-play and slap-sticks.
+
+By this we mean what can in nowise be so clearly defined as by
+"rough-house." For instance, the turbulent Euclio in _Aul._ delivers
+bastings impartially to various _dramatis personae_ and as a climax drives
+the cooks and music-girl pell-mell out of the house, doubtless accompanied
+by deafening howling and clatter (415 ff.). Similarly in the _Cas._ (875
+ff.) Chalinus routs Olympio and the lecherous Lysidamus. We may well
+imagine that such scenes were preceded as well as accompanied by a fearful
+racket within (a familiar device of our low comedy and extravaganza), the
+effect probably heightened by tempestuous _melodrama_ on the _tibiae_, as
+both the scenes cited are in _canticum_.
+
+In the _Men._ we are treated to a free fight, in which the valiant
+Messenio routs the _lorarii_ by vigorous punches, while Menaechmus plants
+his fist in one antagonist's eye (_Men._ 1011 ff.):
+
+(Menaechmus of Epidamnus is seized by _lorarii_; as he struggles,
+Messenio, slave of Menaechmus Sosicles, rushes into the fray to his
+rescue). "MES. I say! Gouge out that fellow's eye, the one that's got you
+by the shoulder, master. Now as for these rotters, I'll plant a crop of
+fists on their faces. (_Lays about._) By Heaven, you'll be everlastingly
+sorry for the day you tried to carry my master off. Let go!
+
+MEN. (_Joining in with a will._) I've got this fellow by the eye!
+
+MES. Bore it out! A hole's good enough for his face! You villians, you
+thieves, you robbers! (_General melée. Lorarii weaken._)
+
+LOR. We're done for! Oh Lord, please!
+
+MES. Let go then!
+
+MEN. What right had you to lay hands on me? Give them a good beating up!
+(_Lorarii break and scatter wildly under the ferocious onslaught._)
+
+MES. Come, clear out! To the devil with you all! That for _you_!
+(_Strikes._) You're the last; here's _your_ reward! (_Strikes again._)"
+
+The lines themselves are sufficiently graphic and need but little
+annotation. Other pugilistic activities crop up at not infrequent
+intervals in the text,[113] and in _Ps._ 135 ff. Ballio generously plies
+the whip. In the lacuna of the _Amph._ after line 1034, Mercury probably
+bestows a drenching on Amphitruo.[114] In _As._ III. 3, especially 697
+ff., Libanus makes his master Argyrippus "play horsey" with him, doubtless
+with indelicate buffonery. With invariable energy, even so simple a matter
+as knocking on doors is made the excuse for raising a violent disturbance,
+as in _Amph._ 1019 f. and 1025: Paene effregisti, fatue, foribus
+cardines.[115] And this idea is actually parodied in _As._ 384 ff. No,
+Plautus did not allow his public to languish for want of noise.
+
+
+3. Burlesque, farce and extravagance of situation and dialogue.
+
+Under this head we include such conscious strivings for comic as are
+frankly and plainly exaggerated and hyper-natural.
+
+
+a. True burlesque.
+
+This is in effect pure parody, cartooning. Patent burlesque of tragedy
+appears in _Trin._ 820 ff. (_Charmides returns from abroad._)
+
+"CHAR. To Neptune, ruler of the deep, and puissant brother unto Jove and
+Nereus, do I in joy and gladness cry my praises and gratefully proclaim my
+gratitude; and to the briny waves, who held me in their power, yea, even
+my chattels and my very life, and from their realms restored me to the
+city of my birth," etc., etc.
+
+To tickle the ears of the groundlings, this must have been delivered in
+grandiloquent mimicry with all the paraphernalia of the tragic style.
+Horace notes a kindred manifestation of this tendency (to which he himself
+is pleasingly addicted), in _Ep._ II. 3.93 f.:
+
+  Interdum tamen et vocem comoedia tollit
+  Iratusque Chremes tumido delitigat ore.
+
+Tragic burlesque is again beautifully exemplified in _Ps._ 702 ff. The
+versatile Pseudolus after a significant aside: "I'll address the fellow in
+high-sounding words," says to his master Calidorus:
+
+"Hail! Hail! Thee, thee, O mighty ruler, thee do I beseech who art lord
+over Pseudolus. Thee do I seek that thou mayst obtain thrice three times
+triple delights in three various ways, joys earned by three tricks and
+three tricksters, cunningly won by treachery, fraud and villainy, which in
+this little sealed missive have I but erstwhile brought to thee....
+
+CHAR. The rascal's spouting like a tragedian."
+
+When Sosia, in the first scene of _Amph._ (203 ff.), turgidly describes
+the battle between the Thebans and Teleboans, he is parodying the
+Messenger of tragedy. Another echo from tragedy is heard at the end of the
+play, when Jupiter appears in the role of deus ex machina.[116]
+
+Burlesque of character and calling puts in an occasional appearance. The
+recreant Sosia in _Amph._ 958 ff. mimics the dutiful slave. _As._ 259 ff.
+contains an ironical treatment of augury, while in 751 ff. the poet has
+his satirical fling at the legal profession.
+
+
+b. True farce.
+
+This is of course the comedy of situation and finds its mainstay in
+mistaken identity. The _Men._ and _Amph._ with their doubles are
+farce-comedies proper, but the element of farce forms the motive power of
+nearly all the plots; for example, the shuffling-up of Acropolistis,
+Telestis and the _fidicina_ in _Ep._, the quarrel between Mnesilochus and
+Pistoclerus in _Bac._ resulting from the former's belief that his friend
+had stolen his sweetheart, the exchange of names between Tyndarus and
+Philocrates in _Cap._, the entrapping of Demaenetus with the _meretrix_ at
+the dénouement of _As._, etc., etc. It is understood, we presume, that the
+modern farce occupies no exalted position in the comic scale, is
+distinguished by the grotesquerie of its characters, incidents and
+dialogue, and is indulgently permitted to stray far from the paths of
+realism. Even in Shakespearian farce, note the exaggerated antics of the
+two Dromios in "The Comedy of Errors." It is significant then that farce
+is a staple of our plays.
+
+The farcical element is strikingly exemplified in _Amph._ 365-462, where
+Mercury persuades Sosia that he is not himself. Impersonation and
+assumption of a role is another noteworthy and frequent medium of plot
+motivation. In _As._ 407 ff. Leonida tries to palm himself off as the
+_atriensis_. Note the violent efforts of the two slaves to wheedle the
+cunning ass-dealer (449 ff.). In _Cas._ 815 ff. Chalinus enters disguised
+as the blushing bride. In _Men._ 828 ff. Menaechmus Sosicles pretends
+madness in a clever scene of uproarious humor. In the _Mil._ (411 ff.)
+Philocomasium needs only to change clothing to appear in the role of her
+own hypothetical twin sister, and in 874 ff. and 1216 ff. the _meretrix_
+plays _matrona_. Sagaristio and the daughter of the _leno_ impersonate
+Persians (_Per._ 549 ff.), Collabiscus becomes a Spartan (_Poen._ 578
+ff.), Simia as Harpax gets Ballio's money (_Ps._ 905 ff.), the sycophant
+is garbed as messenger (_Trin._ 843 ff.), Phronesium elaborately pretends
+to be a mother (_Truc._ 499 ff.). A swindle is almost invariably the
+object in view. But we have said enough on this score: no one who knows
+the plays at all can fail to recognize the predominance of farce. Compare
+on the modern stage the sudden appearance of "the long-lost cousin from
+Chicago."
+
+
+c. Extravagances obviously unnatural and merely for the sake of fun.
+
+This group of course often contains marked features of burlesque and
+farce, and hence shows a close kinship with the foregoing.
+
+The extravagance of the love-sick swain is a fruitful source of this
+species of caricature. The ridiculous Calidorus, always wearing his heart
+on his sleeve, rolls his eyes, brushes away a tear and says (_Ps._ 38
+ff.): "But for a short space have I been e'en as a lily of the field.
+Suddenly sprang I up, as suddenly I withered." The irreverent Pseudolus
+replies: "Oh, shut up while I read the letter over." Calidorus finds his
+counterpart in Phaedromus of the _Cur._, who, accompanied by his slave,
+approaches milady's abode (_Cur._ 10 ff.):
+
+"PH. (_In languishing accents, with eyes cast upward_): Shall I not take
+sweets to the sweet: what is culled by the toil of the busy bees to my own
+little honey?... (_They advance to milady's doorway which he sprinkles
+with wine_, 88 ff.): Come, drink, ye portals of pleasure, quaff and deign
+to be propitious unto me.
+
+PALINURUS SER. (_Addressing the door with mimicry of Phaedromus' airs._)
+Do you want some olives or sweetmeats or capers?
+
+PH. (_Continuing._) Arouse your portress; hither send her unto me.
+(_Lavishes the wine._)
+
+PAL. (_In great alarm, grasping his arm._) You're spilling the wine!
+What's got hold of you?
+
+PH. Unhand me! (_Gently shakes himself loose._) Lo! The temple of joys
+untold is opening. Did not the hinge creak? 'Tis charming!
+
+PAL. (_Turning aside in disgust._) Why don't you give it a kiss?"
+
+In each case the impertinent slave provides the foil. When the lovers
+succeed in meeting, they are interlocked in embrace from 172 to 192,
+probably invested with no small amount of suggestive "business." This
+would doubtless hardly be tolerated by the "censor" today. Another variety
+of lover's extravagance is the lavishing of terms of endearment, as we
+find in _Cas._ 134 ff.[117]
+
+When this feature of "extravagance" enters the situation instead of the
+dialogue, we have episodes such as the final scene of the _Ps._, where the
+name character is irrelevantly introduced (1246) in a state of
+intoxication which, with copious belching in Simo's face, culminates in a
+rebellion of the overloaded stomach (1294). We can scarcely doubt that
+such business was carried out in ultra-graphic detail and rewarded by
+copious guffaws from the populace. In sharp contrast to this, the
+drunkenness of Callidamates in _Most._ 313 ff. is depicted with unusual
+artistry, but still from the very nature of such a scene it may be labeled
+"extravagant."
+
+Manifestation of violent anger is another source of exaggerated stage
+business. _Ep._ 512 ff. should be interpreted somewhat as follows:
+
+"(_The deluded Periphanes has just discovered that the fidicina is an
+impostor and not his daughter._) FID. (_Sweetly._) Do you want me for
+anything else?
+
+PER. (_Stamping foot and shaking fists in a passion._) The foul fiend take
+you to utter perdition! Clear out, and quickly too!
+
+FID. (_In alarm._) Won't you give me back my harp?
+
+PER. Nor harp nor pipes! So hurry up and get out of here, if you know
+what's good for you!
+
+FID. (_Stamping her foot in tearful rage._) I'll go, but you'll have to
+give them back later just the same and it will be all the worse for you.
+
+PER. (_Striding up and down in wildest anger._) What!... shall I let her
+go unpunished? Nay, even if I have to lose as much again, I'll lose it
+rather than let myself be mocked and despoiled with impunity!" and so
+on.[118]
+
+Other random scenes that may be classed as "extravagant" are found in
+Strobilus' cartoon of Euclio (_Aul._ 300 ff.), Demipho's discovery in the
+distance of a mythical bidder for the girl (_Mer._ 434 ff.), Charinus'
+playing "horsey" and taking a trip in his imaginary car (_Mer._ 930 ff.),
+and the loud "boo-hoo" to which Philocomasium gives vent (_Mil._ 1321
+ff.). These all might be classed under either "farce" or "burlesque," but
+they seem to come more exactly under the kindred head of "extravagance."
+
+A familiar figure in modern farce-comedy is the comic conspirator with
+finger on lip, tiptoeing round in fear of listeners. He finds his
+prototype in _Trin._ (146 ff.):
+
+"(_Callicles and Megaronides converse._)
+
+CAL. (_In a mysterious whisper._) Look around a bit and make sure there's
+nobody spying on us--and please look around every few seconds. (_They
+pause and peer in every direction, perhaps creeping round on tiptoe._)
+
+MEG. Now, I am all ears.
+
+CAL. When you're through, I'll talk. (_Pauses and nods._) Just before
+Charmides went abroad, he showed me a treasure, (_stops and looks over his
+shoulders_) in his house here, in one of the rooms. (_Starts, as if at a
+noise._) Look around! (_They repeat the search and return again._)
+
+MEG. There's nobody."[119]
+
+Another old stage friend is the detected plotter trying to lie out of an
+embarrassing situation. He is lineally descended from Tranio in the
+_Most._ Tranio has just induced his master Theopropides to pay forty minae
+to the money-lender on the pretext that Theopropides' son Philolaches has
+bought a house (659 ff.):
+
+"TH. In what neighborhood did my son buy this house?
+
+TR. (_Aside to audience in comic despair, with appropriate gesture._) See
+there now! I'm a goner!
+
+TH. (_Impatiently._) Will you answer my question?
+
+TR. Oh yes, but (_Stammering and displaying symptoms of acute
+embarrassment_) I--I'm trying to think of the owner's name. (_Groans._)
+
+TH. Well, hurry up and remember it!
+
+TR. (_Rapidly, aside._) I can't see anything better to do than tell him
+his son bought the house of our next-door neighbor here. (_With a shrug._)
+Thunder, I've heard that a _steaming_ lie is the best kind.
+(_Mock-heroically._) 'Tis the will of the gods, my mind's made up.
+
+TH. (_Who has been frowning and stamping in impatience._) Well, well,
+well! Haven't you thought of it yet?
+
+TR. (_Aside._) Curses on him!... (_Finally turning and bursting out
+suddenly._) It's our next-door neighbor here--your son bought the house
+from him. (_He sees that the lie goes and sighs with relief._)"[120]
+
+Another variation on this theme is the futile effort of the plotter to get
+rid of a character armed with incriminating evidence. Again we quote
+_Most._ (573 ff.), where Tranio is conversing with Theopropides. The
+money-lender from whom young Philolaches has borrowed appears on the other
+side of the stage. Tranio espies him. He must keep him away from the old
+man. With a hurried excuse he flies across to meet Misargyrides.
+
+"TR. (_Taking Misargyrides' arm and attempting to steer him off-stage._) I
+was never so glad to see a man in my life.
+
+MIS. (_Suspiciously, holding back._) What's the matter?
+
+TR. (_Confidentially._) Just step this way. (_Looks back apprehensively at
+Theopropides, who is regarding them suspiciously._)
+
+MIS. (_In a loud and offensive voice._) Won't my interest be paid?
+
+TR. I know you have a good voice; don't shout so loud.
+
+MIS. (_Louder._) Hang it, but I _will_ shout!
+
+TR. (_Groans and glances over shoulder again._) Run along home, there's a
+good fellow. (_Urges him toward exit._)", etc.
+
+Tranio has a chance for very lively business: a sickly smile for the
+usurer, lightning glances of apprehension towards Theopropides, with an
+occasional intimate groan aside to the audience. Other farcical scenes of
+the many that may be cited as calling for particularly vivacious business
+and gesture are, e.g., _Cas._ 621 ff., where Pardalisca befools Lysidamus
+by timely fainting, _Rud._ 414 ff., where Sceparnio flirts with Ampelisca,
+and the quarrel scene, _Rud._ 485 ff.[121]
+
+The last four passages quoted in translation are by no means lacking in
+artistic humor and a measure of reality, but they imply a pronounced
+heightening of the actions and emotions of everyday life and lose their
+humor unless presented in the broad spirit that stamps them as belonging
+to the plane of farce. We now pass on to motives where the dialogue aims
+at effects manifestly unnatural and where verisimilitude is sacrificed to
+the joke, as we have seen it is in the employment of "bombast," "true
+burlesque," etc.
+
+The first of these motives is a stream of copious abuse, as in _Per._ 406
+ff., where Toxilus _servos_ and Dordalus _leno_ exchange Rabelaisian
+compliments.
+
+"TOX. (_Hopping about with rabid gestures._) You filthy pimp, you
+mud-heap, you common dung-hill, you besmirched, corrupt, law-breaking
+decoy, you public sewer, ... robber, mobber, jobber, ...!
+
+DOR. (_Who has been dancing around in fury, shaking his fist until
+exhausted by his paroxysms._) Wait--till--(_Puffing_)--I--get--my
+breath--I'll--answer you! You dregs of the rabble, you slave-brothel, you
+'white-slave' freer, you sweat-of-the-lash, you chain gang, you king of
+the treadmill, ... you eat-away, steal-away run-away....!" etc.[122]
+
+Perhaps we have here the forerunner of the shrewish wife in modern
+vaudeville, who administers to her shrinking consort a rapid-fire
+tongue-lashing. Another phase of this profuse riot of words appears in the
+formidable Persian name that Sagaristio, disguised as a Persian, adopts in
+the _Per._ (700 ff.):
+
+"DORDALUS. What's your name?
+
+SAG. Listen then, and you shall hear: False-speaker-us Girl-seller-son
+Much-o'-nothing-talk-son Money-gouge-out-son Talk-up-to you-son
+Coin-wheedle-out-son What-I-once-get-son Never-give-up-son: there you are!
+
+DOR. (_With staring eyes and gasping breath._) Ye Gods! That's a
+variegated name of yours!
+
+SAG. (_With a superior wave of the hand._) It's the Persian fashion."
+
+The second point in this category is own cousin to the above. We should
+label it persistent interruption and repetition. An excellent instance is
+_Trin._ 582 ff., when Stasimus, Lesbonicus and Philto have just hatched a
+plot. Philto departs.
+
+"LES. (_To Stasimus._) You attend to my instructions. I'll be there
+presently. Tell Callicles to meet me.
+
+ST. Now you just clear out! (_Pushes him after Philto._)
+
+LES. (_Calls out as he is being shoved away._) Tell him to see what has to
+be done about the dowry.
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES. (_Raising his voice._) For I'm determined not to marry her off
+without a dowry.
+
+ST. Won't you clear out?
+
+LES. (_Still louder._) And I won't let her suffer harm by reason.----
+
+ST. Get out, I say!
+
+LES. (_Shouts._)--of my carelessness.
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES. It seems right that my own sins--
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES.--should affect me alone.
+
+ST. Clear out!
+
+LES. (_Mock heroically._) Oh father, shall I ever behold you again?
+
+ST. Out, out, out! (_With a final shove._) (_Exit Lesbonicus._) At last, I
+'ve got him away! (_Breathes hard._)"
+
+The fun, if fun there be, lies in the hammer-like repetition of "I modo,"
+a sort of verbal buffoonery. A clever actor could din this with telling
+effect. The device is employed several times. In _Most._ 974 ff. the word
+is _aio_, in _Per._ 482 ff. _credo_, in _Poen._ 731 ff. _quippini_, in
+_Ps._ 484 ff. ναι γάρ, in _Rud._ 1212 ff. _licet_ and 1269 ff.
+_censeo_. The last two examples are the lengthiest.[123]
+
+The third of these motives is the introduction of clearly unnatural
+dialogue, wholly incidental and foreign to the action, for the sake of
+lugging in a joke. The _As._ (38 ff.) yields the following conversation
+between Demaenetus _senex_ and his slave Libanus:
+
+"LI. By all that's holy, as a favor to me, spit out the words you have
+uttered.
+
+DE. All right, I'll be glad to oblige you. (_Coughs._)
+
+LI. Now, now, get it right up! (_Pats him on the back._)
+
+DE. More? (_Coughs._)
+
+LI. Gad, yes, please! Right from the bottom of your throat: more still!
+(_Pats._)
+
+DE. Well, how far down then?
+
+LI. (_Unguardedly._) Down to Hades is my wish!
+
+DE. I say, look out for trouble!
+
+LI. (_Diplomatically._) For your wife, I mean, not for you.
+
+DE. For that speech I bestow upon you freedom from punishment."[124]
+
+The childish bandying of words in _Truc._ 858 ff. is egregiously tiresome
+in the reading, but in action could have been made to produce a modicum of
+amusement if presented in the broad burlesque spirit that we believe was
+almost invariably employed. This gives us a clue to the next topic.
+
+
+
+B. _Devices absurd and inexplicable unless interpreted in a broad farcical
+spirit._
+
+
+This includes peculiarities that have usually been commented on as
+weaknesses or conventions, or else been given up as hopeless
+incongruities, but which we hope to prove also yield their quota of
+amusement if clownishly performed. The foremost of these is the famous
+
+
+1. Running Slave or Parasite.
+
+We all know him: rushing madly cross stage at top-speed (if we take the
+literal word of the text for it), with girded loins, in search of somebody
+right under his nose, the while unburdening himself of exhaustive periods
+that, however great the breadth of the Roman stage, would carry him
+several times across and back: as Curculio in 279 ff.:
+
+"Make way for me, friends and strangers, while I carry out my duty here.
+Run, all of you, scatter and clear the road! I'm in a hurry and I don't
+want to butt into anybody with my head, or elbow, or chest, or knee....
+And there's none so rich as can stand in my way, ... none so famous but
+down he goes off the sidewalk and stands on his head in the street," and
+so on for ten lines or more. After he has found his patron Phaedromus, he
+is apparently so exhausted that he cries: "Hold me up, please, hold me up!
+(_Wobbles and falls panting into Phaedromus' arms._)
+
+PH.... Get him a chair ... quick!"
+
+When Leonida enters (_As._ 267 ff.) as the running slave, he is still out
+of breath at 326-7! Stasimus in _Trin._ 1008 ff., though his mission is
+also proclaimed as desperately urgent, pauses to declaim on public morals!
+
+Considerable light has been thrown upon this subject recently by the
+dissertation of Weissman, _De servi currentis persona apud comicos
+Romanes_ (Giessen, 1911), though his explanation of the _modus operandi_
+is inconclusive. Langen has commented on it at some length,[125] but
+offers no solution. Weise frankly admits:[126] "Wie sie gelaufen sind, ist
+ein Rätsel fur uns." LeGrand[127] follows Weise's conclusion that it is an
+imitation from the Greek and in support of this instances Curculio's use,
+while running, of the presumed translations from the Greek: _agoranomus_,
+_demarchus_, etc. He also cites as parallels some unconvincing phrases from
+fragments of New Comedy, while developing an ingenious theory that the
+device is a heritage from the Greek orchestra, where it could have been
+performed with a hippodrome effect. Terence berates the practice,[128] but
+makes use of it himself.[129]
+
+Weissman's conclusions are worth a summary. He notes the following as the
+usual essential concomitants: 1. It is mentioned in the text that the
+slave is on the run. 2. He is the bearer of news of the moment; 3. He
+fails to recognize other characters on stage; 4. He is halted by the very
+man he is so violently seeking. He cites as the genuine occurrences of the
+_servus_ or _parasitus currens_, besides the passages mentioned above,
+_Cap._ 781 ff., _Ep._ 1 ff., 192 ff., _Mer._ 111 ff., _Per._ 272 ff.,
+_St._ 274 ff. Furthermore, he argues convincingly that this was an
+independent Roman development without a prototype on the Greek stage and
+neatly refutes Weise and LeGrand by proving that there are no extant Greek
+fragments sufficient to furnish a ground for any but the most tenuous
+argument. Above all, he correctly interprets the poet's aim with the
+dictum: "Praeterquam quod hac persona optime utitur ad actionem bene
+continuandam id maxime spectat ut per eam _spectatorum risum_ captet." And
+this from a German youth of twenty-two!
+
+It is in his attempt to explain the mechanism that we believe Weissman
+fails. He essays an exegesis of each passage, though the separate
+explanations are naturally similar. It will suffice to quote one, that to
+_As._ 267 ff.: "Hoc nullo modo aliter mihi declarari posse videtur nisi
+sic: Oratio Leonidae currentis maior est quam ut arbitrari possimus
+currentem semper eum habuisse eam. Ex versu 290 Leonidam de celeritate sua
+remisisse plane apparet. Quod semel solum eum fecisse cum non satis mihi
+esse videatur, saepius--bis vel ter--per breve tempus eum cursum suum
+interrupisse, circumspexisse, Libanum autem non spectavisse (hoc consilium
+poetae erat, licentia poetica est) et hoc modo per totam scaenam cursum
+suum direxisse arbitror."
+
+It will be observed that for lack of any tangible evidence he very
+properly makes use of subjective reasoning. Now it has long been the
+opinion of the writer that the maximum of comic effect (and that this was
+the purpose of the _servus currens_ there can surely be no doubt) could
+best be obtained by the actor's making a violent and frenzied pretense of
+running while scarcely moving from the spot. Consider the ludicrous
+spectacle of the rapidly moving legs and the flailing arms, with the
+actor's face turned toward the audience, as he declaims sonorously of his
+haste to perform his vital errand, while making but a snail's progress.
+Truly then his plea of exhaustion would not be without excuse! This is an
+explanation at once simpler, more potentially comic, more in accord with
+what we predicate as the spirit of Plautus, and furthermore we have seen
+roars of laughter created by the similar device of a low comedian in a
+modern extravaganza. Taking advantage of the same subjective license, we
+see nothing in Weissman's theory to offset our opinion. But, what is more,
+our subjective reconstruction is given color by a shred of tangible
+evidence. Suetonius (_Tib._ 38) refers to a popular quip on the emperor
+that compares him to an actor on the classic Greek stage: "Biennio
+continuo post ademptum imperium pedem porta non extulit; ... ut vulgo iam
+per iocum Callip(p)ides vocaretur, quem cursitare ac ne cubiti quidem
+mensuram progredi proverbio Graeco notatum est." That this Callipides was
+the ὑποϗριτής mentioned by Xenophon (_Sym._ III. 11), Plutarch
+(_Ages._ 21 and _Apophth. Lacon._: s. v. _Ages._), Cicyero (_Ad. Att._
+XIII. 12) and possibly by Aristotle (_Poet._ 26.), seems highly plausible.
+Compare the _saltus fullonius_ (Sen. _Ep._ 15.4).
+
+Most amusing of all is Plautus' introduction of a parody on the parody,
+when Mercury rushes in post-haste crying (_Amph._ 984 ff.):
+
+"Make way, give way, everybody, clear the way! I tell you all: don't you
+get so bold as to stand in my road. For, egad! I'd like to know why I, a
+god, shouldn't have as much right to threaten the rabble as a mere slave
+in the comedies!"
+
+And perhaps _St._ 307 is a joke on the running slave: Sed spatium hoc
+occidit: brevest curriculo: quam me paenitet? That violent haste was
+considered a slavish trait is evidenced by _Poen._ 523-3.
+
+
+2. Wilful blindness.
+
+In the scene recently quoted (_Cur._ 279 ff.), Curculio, after his violent
+exertions in search of his patron, is for a time apparently unable to
+discover him, though he is on the stage all the time. This species of
+blindness must be wilfully designed as a burlesque effect and again finds
+its echo in low comedy types of today. The breadth and depth of the Roman
+stage alone will not account for this either; indeed, its very size could
+be utilized to heighten the humor, as the actor peers hither and yon in
+every direction but the right one. So Curculio (front) may pass directly
+by Phaedromus (rear) without seeing him, to the huge delight of the
+audience, and turn back again, while saying (301 ff.):
+
+"Is there anybody who can point out Phaedromus, my guardian angel, to me?
+The matter's very urgent: I must find this chap at once.
+
+PALINURUS. (_To Phaedromus._) It's you he's looking for.
+
+PH. What do you say we speak to him? Hello, Curculio, I want you!
+
+CUR. (_Stopping and again looking vainly round._) Who's calling? Who says
+"Curculio"?
+
+PH. Somebody that wants to see you.
+
+CUR. (_At last recognizing him when almost on top of him._) Ah! You don't
+want to see me any more than I want to see you."
+
+Acanthio in _Mer._ 130 ff. is still more blind to the presence of Charinus
+and raises a deal more fuss, as he enters in the wildest haste looking for
+Charinus, who is of course in plain sight. Acanthio, with labored
+breathing and the remark that he would never make a piper, probably passes
+by Charinus and goes to the house.
+
+"AC. What am I standing here for, anyway? I'll make splinters of these
+doors without a single qualm. (_Hammers violently. Charinus approaches,
+vainly trying to attract his attention._) Open up, somebody! Where's my
+master Charinus, at home or out? (_Still hammering._) Isn't anybody
+supposed to have the job of tending door?
+
+CH. (_Shouting._) Here I am, Acanthio! You're looking for me, aren't you?
+
+AC. (_Still punishing the door._) I never saw such slovenly management.
+
+CH. (_Finally grabbing and shaking him._) What the deuce has got hold of
+you?"[130] And so in the case of practically all the _servi currentes_.
+
+The opening scene of the _Per._ (13 ff.) between two slaves apparently
+unable to distinguish each other's features from opposite sides of the
+stage affords an opportunity for a similar species of farcical by-play.
+Toxilus and Sagaristio stroll slowly in from the different side-entrances,
+alternately soliloquizing. Suddenly, when probably fairly close, both look
+up and peer curiously at each other:
+
+"TOX. (_Shading his eyes with his hand._) Who's that standing over there?
+
+SAG. Who's this standing over here?
+
+TOX. Looks like Sagaristio.
+
+SAG. I bet it's my friend Toxilus.
+
+TOX. He's the fellow, all right.
+
+SAG. That's the chap, I'm sure.
+
+TOX. I'll go over to him.
+
+SAG. I'll go up and speak to him. (_They draw closer._)
+
+TOX. Sagaristio, I hope the gods are good to you.
+
+SAG. Toxilus, I hope the gods give you everything you want. How are you?
+
+TOX. So so."[131]
+
+Note that this is _canticum_ and the effect of the two "sing-songing"
+slaves on the audience must have been much the same as, upon us, the
+spectacle of a vaudeville "duo," entering from opposite wings and singing
+perchance a burlesque of grand opera at each other.
+
+
+3. Adventitious entrance.
+
+This is of a piece with the above, but is usually due to a weakness of
+composition, to the goddess Τύχη, who is the presiding deity of
+the plots of New Comedy.[132] However, there are times when appreciable
+fun can be extracted from this, if the actor speak in a bland jocular
+tone, taking the audience into his confidence, as _Trin._ 400 f.:
+
+"PHILTO. But the door of the house to which I was going is opening. Isn't
+that nice? Lesbonicus, the very man I'm looking for, is coming out with
+his slave."
+
+And _Aul._ 176 f.:
+
+"MEGADORUS. I'd like to see Euclio, if he's at home. Ah, here he comes!
+He's on his way home from some place or other."[133]
+
+We believe that enough has been said to prove that the favorite devices of
+the lower types of modern stage-production form the back-bone of Plautus'
+methods of securing his comic effects. Let us pass on without more ado to
+a discussion of points that establish equally well that he was careless of
+every other consideration but the eliciting of laughter.
+
+
+
+
+II. Evidences of Loose Composition Which Prove a Disregard of Technique
+and Hence Indicate that Entertainment Was the Sole Aim
+
+
+A. _Solo speeches and passages_.
+
+
+1. Asides and soliloquies.
+
+As it is often important for the audience to know the thoughts of stage
+characters, the aside and the soliloquy in all species of dramatic
+composition have always been recognized as the only feasible conventional
+mode of conveying them. According to the strictest canons of dramatic art,
+the ideally constructed play should be entirely free from this weakness.
+Mr. Gillette is credited with having written in "Secret Service" the first
+aside-less play. But this is abnormal and rather an affectation of
+technical skill. The aside is an accepted convention. But in the plays of
+Plautus we
+
+have a profuse riot of solo speeches and passages that transcends the
+conventional and becomes a gross weakness of composition, pointing plainly
+to a poverty of technique and hence further strengthening the conception
+of entertainment as the author's sole purpose. And often too, as we shall
+point out, this very form can be used for amusement. To attempt a complete
+collection of these passages would mean a citation of hundreds of lines,
+comprising a formidable percentage of all the verses.
+
+And furthermore, the Plautine character is not so tame and spiritless as
+merely to think aloud. He has a fondness for actual conversation with
+himself that shows a noble regard for the value of his own society. This
+is attested by many passages, such as _Amph._ 381: Etiam muttis?; _Aul._
+52: At ut scelesta sola secum murmurat; _Aul._ 190: Quid tu solus tecum
+loquere?; _Bac._ 773: Quis loquitur prope?; _Cap._ 133: Quis hic
+loquitur?[134]
+
+One character standing aside and commenting on the main action is a
+familiar situation and often productive of good fun. An excellent example
+is _Most._ 166 ff., where Philematium is performing her conventionally
+out-door toilet with the aid of her duenna Scapha. Philolaches stands on
+the other side of the stage and interjects remarks:
+
+"PHILEM. Look at me please, Scapha dear; is this gown becoming? I want to
+please Philolaches, the apple of my eye....
+
+SC. Why deck yourself out, when your charm lies in your charming manners?
+It isn't gowns that lovers love, but what bellies out the gowns.
+
+PHILO. (_Aside._) God bless me, but Scapha's clever; the hussy has
+horse-sense....
+
+PHILEM. (_Pettishly._) Well, then?
+
+SC. What is it?
+
+PHILEM. Look me over anyhow and see how this becomes me.
+
+SC. The grace of your figure makes everything you wear becoming.
+
+PHILO. (_Aside._) Now for that speech, Scapha, I'll give you some present
+before the day is out--and so on for a whole long scene.
+
+The quips are amusing in an evident burlesque spirit. Such a scene was
+easily done on the broad Roman stage, whether it was a heritage from the
+use of the orchestra in Greek comedy, as LeGrand thinks,[135] or not. In
+similar vein, clever by-play on the part of the cunning Palaestrio would
+make a capital scene out of _Mil. 1037 ff._[136] A perfectly unnatural but
+utterly amusing scene of the same type is _Amph. 153-262_, where Mercury
+apostrophizes his fists, and the quaking Sosia (cross-stage) is frightened
+to a jelly at the prospect of his early demise. In Cap. 966, Ilegio, staid
+gentleman that he is, introduces an exceeding "rough" remark in the middle
+of a serious scene. The aside of Pseudolus in _Ps. 636 f._ could be
+rendered as a good-natured burlesque as follows:
+
+"HARPAX. What's your name?
+
+PS. (_Hopping forward and addressing audience with hand over mouth._) The
+pander has a slave named Surus. I'll say I'm he. (_Hopping back and
+addressing Harpax._) I'm Surus." Many other scenes were doubtless rendered
+by one character's thus stepping aside and confiding his ideas to the
+spectators, as for example _Aul. 194 ff._ and _Trin. 895 ff._ Often our
+characters blurt out their inmost thoughts to the public, as in _Cas. 937
+ff._, with eavesdroppers conveniently placed, else what would become of
+the plot?
+
+The soliloquy is constantly used to keep the audience acquainted with the
+advance of the plot[137], or to paint in narrative intervening events that
+connect the loose joints of the action. This is of course wholly
+inartistic, but may often find its true office in keeping a noisy,
+turbulent and uneducated audience aware of "what is going on." In many
+cases the soliloquy is in the nature of a reflection on the action and
+seems to bear all the ear-marks of a heritage from the original function
+of the tragic chorus[138]. It devolved upon the actor by sprightly mimicry
+to relieve, in these scenes, the tedium that appeals to the reader. So in
+_Cap._ 909 ff. the _canticum_ of the _puer_ becomes more than a mere
+stopgap, if he acts out vividly the violence of Ergasilus; and in _Bac._
+1067 ff. the soliloquy would acquire humor, if confidentially directed at
+the audience. In _As._ 127 ff., as Argyrippus berates the _lena_ within,
+it must be delivered with an abundance of pantomime.
+
+
+2. Lengthy monodies, monologues and episodical specialties.
+
+Frequently the soliloquy takes the form of a long solo passage directed at
+the audience, while the action halts for a whole scene to allow the actor
+to regale his public with the poet's views on the sins of society,
+economic topics of the day, or topics of the by-gone days in Athens, and
+the like. The resemblance to the interpolated song and dance of musical
+comedy is most striking. The comparison is the more apt, as about
+two-thirds of the illustrative scenes referred to in the next paragraph
+are in _canticum_. It is a pity that the comic chorus had disappeared, or
+the picture were complete. That it is often on the actor's initial
+appearance that he sings his song or speaks his piece, strengthens the
+resemblance. But this is a natural growth under the influence of two
+publics, the Greek and the Roman, notably fond of declamation and oratory.
+LeGrand believes this a characteristic directly derived from a narrative
+form of Middle Comedy embodied in certain extant fragments.[139]
+
+The slave class is the topic of many of these monodies: either the virtues
+of the loyal slave are extolled[140], or the knavery of the cunning
+slave[141]. The parasite is "featured" too, when Ergasilus bewails the
+decline of his profession[142], or Peniculus and Gelasimus indulge in
+haunting threnody on their perpetual lack of food[143]. Bankers, lawyers
+and panders come in for their share of satire[144]. Our favorite topic
+today, the frills and furbelows of woman's dress and its reform, held the
+boards of ancient Athens and Rome[145]. In _Mil._ 637 ff, Periplecomenus
+descants on the joys of the old bon vivant and the expense of a wife. The
+delights or pains of love[146], the ruminations of old age[147], marriage
+reform[148] and divorce[149], the views of _meretrices_ and their victims
+on the arts of their profession[150], the habits of cooks[151], the pride
+of valor and heroic deeds[152] are fruitful subjects. In _Cur._ 462 ff.
+the _choragus_ interpolates a recital composed of topical allusions to the
+manners of different neighborhoods of Rome. We have two descriptions of
+dreams[153], and a clever bit which paints a likeness between a man and a
+house[154]. In foreign vein is the lament of Palaestra in _Rud._ 185 ff.,
+which sounds like an echo from tragedy. The appearance of the Fishermen's
+Chorus (_Rud._ 290 ff.) is wholly adventitious and seems designed to
+intensify the atmosphere of the seacoast, if indeed it has any purpose at
+all. In this category also belong the revels of the drunken Pseudolus with
+his song and dance[155], and the final scene of the _St._[156], where, the
+action of the slender plot over, the comedy slaves royster and dance with
+the harlot. When Ballio drives his herd before him, as he berates them
+merrily to the tune of a whip, we have an energetic and effective
+scene[157].
+
+
+3. Direct address of the audience.
+
+It is a well-established principle that the most intimate cognizance of
+the spectator's existence is a characteristic of the lowest types of
+dramatic production (v. Part I, § 1, fin.). The use of soliloquy, aside
+and monologue all indicate the effort of the lines to put the player on
+terms of intimacy with his public. But even this is transcended by the
+frequent recurrence in jocular vein of deliberate, conscious and direct
+address of the audience, when they are called by name. In _Truc._ 482
+Stratophanes says: Ne expectetis, spectatores, meas pugnas dum
+praedicem.... In _Poen Truc._ 597 we are told: Aurumst profecto hic,
+spectatores, sed comicum; i. e., "stage-money." During a halt in the
+action of the _Ps._ (573) we are graciously informed: Tibicen vos interibi
+hic delectaverit. Mercury's comments (_Amph._ 449-550 passim), probably
+with copious buffoonery, on the leave-taking of Jove and Alemena contain
+the remark (507): Observatote, quam blande mulieri palpabitur. At the
+close of the _Men._ (1157 ff.) Messenio announces an auction and invites
+the spectators to attend.
+
+When Euclio discovers the loss of his hoard, he rushes forth in wild
+lament. In his extremity he turns to the audience (_Aul._ 715 ff.):
+
+"EUC. I beg, I beseech, I implore you, help me and show me the man that
+stole it. (_Picking out one of the spectators, probably a tough looking
+"bruiser", and stretching out his hand to him._) What do _you_ say? I know
+I can trust _you_. I can tell by your face you're honest. (_To the whole
+audience, in response to the laughter sure to ensue._) What's the matter?
+What are you laughing at?" etc.
+
+Moilère has imitated this scene very closely in _L'Avare_ (IV. 7), with a
+super-Plautine profusion of verbiage.
+
+In _Mil._ 200 ff. Periplecomenus obligingly acts as guide and personal
+conductor to the manoeuvers of Palaestrio's mind, while it is in the
+throes of evolving a stratagem. Palaestrio of course indulges in vivid,
+pointed pantomime:
+
+"PER. I'll step aside here awhile. (_To audience, pointing to
+Palaestrio._) Look yonder, please, how he stands with serried brow in
+anxious contemplation. His fingers smite his breast; I trow, he fain would
+summon forth his heart. Presto, change! His left hand he rests upon his
+left thigh. With the fingers of his right he reckons out his scheme. Ha!
+He whacks his right thigh!" etc.
+
+It is very amusing too, when Jupiter in _Amph._ 861 ff. strolls in and
+speaks his little piece to the pit:
+
+"JUP. I am the renowned Amphitruo, whose slave is Sosia; you know, the
+fellow that turns into Mercury at will. I dwell in my sky-parlor and
+become Jupiter the while, ad libitum."[158]
+
+Even in olden times Euanthius censured this practice (_de Com._ III.
+6)[159]: <Terentius> nihil ad populum facit actorem velut extra comoediam
+loqui, quod vitium Plauti frequentissimum.
+
+Naturally we shall hardly consider under this head the speech of the whole
+_grex_, or the "Nunc plaudite" of an actor that closes a number of the
+plays. It is no more than the bowing or curtain-calls of today[160],
+unless it was an emphatic announcement to the audience that the play was
+over.
+
+
+
+B. _Inconsistencies and carelessness of composition_.
+
+
+We have referred above to the voluminous mass of inconsistencies,
+contradictions and psychological improbabilities collected by Langen in
+his _Plautinische Studien_. He really succeeds in finding the crux of the
+situation in recognizing that these features are inherent in Plautus'
+style and are frequently employed solely for comic effect, though he is
+often overcome by a natural Teutonic stolidity. He aptly points out that
+Plautus in his selection of originals has in the main chosen plots with
+more vigorous action than Terence. We shall have occasion to quote him at
+intervals, but desire to develop this topic quite independently.
+
+
+1. Pointless badinage and padded scenes.
+
+Strong evidence of loose construction and lack of a technical dramatic
+ideal is contained in the large number of scenes padded out with pointless
+badinage, often tiresome, often wholly episodical in nature, as the
+monodies, and putting for a time a complete check on the plot. The most
+striking of these is _Aul._ 631 ff., when Euclio, suspecting Strobilus of
+the theft of his gold, pounces upon him and belabors him:
+
+"STR. (_Howling and dancing and making violent efforts to free himself._)
+What the plague has got hold of you? What have you to do with me, you
+dotard? Why pick on me? Why are you grabbing me? Don't beat me! (_Succeeds
+in breaking loose._)
+
+EUC. (_Shaking stick at him._) You first-class jailbird, do you dare ask
+me again? You're not a thief, but three thieves rolled into one!
+
+STR. (_Whining and nursing bruises_) What did I steal from you?
+
+EUC. (_Still threatening._) Give it back here, I say?
+
+STR. (_Trembling and edging off._) What is it you want me to give back?
+
+EUC. (_Watching him narrowly._) You ask?
+
+STR. I tell you, I didn't take a thing from you.
+
+EUC. (_Impatiently._) All right, but hand over what you did take!
+(_Pause._) Well, well!
+
+STR. Well, what?
+
+EUC. You can't get away with it.
+
+STR. (_Bolder._) Look here, what do you want?...
+
+EUC. (_Angrier and angrier._) Hand it over, I say! Stop quibbling! I'm not
+trifling now!
+
+STR. Now what shall I hand over? Speak out! Why don't you give the thing a
+name? I swear I never touched or handled anything of yours.
+
+EUC. Put out your hands.
+
+STR. There you are! I've done so. See them?
+
+EUC. (_Scrutinizing his hands closely._) All right. Now put out the third
+too.
+
+STR. (_Aside, growing angry._) The foul fiends of madness have possessed
+this doddering idiot. (_Majestically._) Confess you wrong me?
+
+EUC. (_Dancing in frenzy._) To the utmost, since I don't have you strung
+up! And that's what'll happen too, if you don't confess.
+
+STR. (_Shouting._) Confess what?
+
+EUC. What did you steal from here? (_Pointing to his house._)
+
+STR. Strike me if I stole anything of yours, (_Aside to audience_) and if
+I don't wish I'd made off with it.
+
+EUC. Come now, shake out your cloak.
+
+STR. (_Doing so._) As you please.
+
+EUC. (_Stooping to see if anything falls out._) Haven't got it under your
+shirt? (_Pounces upon him and ransacks clothing._)
+
+STR. (_Resignedly._) Search me, if you like;" and so on with "Give it
+back," What is it? "Put out your right hand," etc., etc.
+
+Molière again imitated almost slavishly (_L'Avare_, V. 3). Longwinded as
+the thing is, it is clear that the liveliness of the action not only
+relieves it, but could make it immensely amusing. At least it is superior
+to the average vaudeville skit of the present day. It must not be
+forgotten too that, as Plautus was in close touch with his players, he
+could have done much of the stage-directing himself and might even have
+worked up some parts to fit the peculiar talents of certain actors, as is
+regularly done in the modern "tailormade drama."
+
+There are numbers of scenes of the sort quoted above, where the apparent
+monotony and verbal padding could be converted into coin for laughter by
+the clever comedian. _Amph._ 551-632 could be worked up poco a poco
+crescendo e animato; in _Poen._ 504 ff., Agorastocles and the _Advocati_
+bandy extensive rhetoric; in _Trin._ 276 ff., the action is suspended
+while Philto proves himself Polonius' ancestor in his long-winded
+sermonizing to Lysiteles and his insistent _laudatio temporis acti_; in
+_St._ 326 ff., as Pinacium, the _servus currens_, finally succeeds in
+"arriving" out of breath (he has been running since 274), bursting with
+the vast importance of his news, he postpones the delivery of his tidings
+till 371 while he indulges in irrelevant badinage. This is pure
+buffoonery. And we can instance scene upon scene where the self-evident
+padding can either furnish an excuse for agile histrionism, or become
+merely tiresome in its iteration[161]. The danger of the latter was even
+recognized by our poet, when, at the end of much word-fencing, Acanthio
+asks Charinus if his desire to talk quietly is prompted by fear of waking
+"the sleeping spectators" (_Mer._ 160). This was probably no exaggeration.
+
+When the padding takes the form of mutual "spoofing," the scene assumes an
+uncanny likeness to the usual lines of a modern "high-class vaudeville
+duo." Note Leonida and Libanus, the merry slaves of the _As._ in 297 ff.,
+Toxilus and Sagaristio in the _Per._, Milphio and Syncerastus in the
+_Poen._ (esp. 851 ff.), Pseudolus and Simia in _Ps._ 905 ff., Trachalio
+and Gripus in _Rud._ 938 ff., Stichus and Sagarinus in the final scene of
+the _St._, and in _Ps._ 1167 ff. Harpax is unmercifully "chaffed" by Simo
+and Ballio. Or, in view of the surrounding drama, we might better compare
+these roysterers to the "team" of low comedians often grafted on a musical
+comedy, where their antics effectually prevent the tenuous plot from
+becoming vulgarly prominent.
+
+
+2. Inconsistencies of character and situation.
+
+The Plautine character is never a consistent human character. He is rather
+a personified trait, a broad caricature on magnified foibles of some type
+of mankind. There is never any character development, no chastening. We
+leave our friends as we found them. They may exhibit the outward
+manifestation of grief, joy, love, anger, but their marionette nature
+cannot be affected thereby. That we should find inconsistencies in
+character portrayal under these circumstances, is not only to be expected,
+but is a mathematical certainty. The poet cares not; they must only dance,
+dance, dance!
+
+Persistent moralizers, such as Megaronides in the _Trin._, who serve but
+as a foil from whom the revelry "sticks fiery off," descend themselves at
+moments to bandying the merriest quips (Scene I.). In _Ep._ 382 ff., the
+moralizing of Periphanes is counterfeit coinage. Gilded youths such as
+Calidorus of the _Ps._ begin by asking (290 f.): "Could I by any chance
+trip up father, who is such a wide-awake old boy?", and end by rolling
+their eyes upward with: "And besides, if I could, filial piety prevents."
+The Menaechmi twins are eminently respectable, but they cheerfully purloin
+mantles, bracelets and purses. Hanno of the _Poen._ should according to
+specifications be a staid _pater familias_, but Plautus imputes to him a
+layer of the _Punica fides_ that he knew his public would take delight in
+"booing." And the old gentleman enters into a plot (1090) to chaff
+elaborately his newly-found long-lost daughters, whom he has spent a
+lifetime in seeking, before disclosing his identity to them (1211 ff.).
+Saturio's daughter in the _Per._ is at one time the very model of maidenly
+modesty and wisdom (336 ff.), at others an accomplished intriguante and
+demi-mondaine (549 ff., esp. 607 ff.). When the plot of the _Ep._ is
+getting hopelessly tangled, of a sudden it is magically resolved as by a
+deus ex machina and everybody decides to "shake and make up."
+
+Slaves ever fearful of the mills or quarries are yet prone to the most
+abominable "freshness" towards their masters. The irrepressible Pseudolus
+in reading a letter from Calidorus' mistress says (27 ff.):
+
+"What letters! Humph! I'm afraid the Sibyl is the only person capable of
+interpreting these.
+
+"CAL. Oh why do you speak so rudely of those lovely letters written on a
+lovely tablet with a lovely hand?
+
+"PS. Well, would you mind telling me if hens have hands? For these look to
+me very like hen-scratches.
+
+"CAL. You insulting beast! Read, or return the tablet!
+
+"PS. Oh, I'll read all right, all right. Just focus your mind on this.
+
+"CAL. _(Pointing vacantly to his head._) Mind? It's not here.
+
+"PS. What! Go get one quick then![162]."
+
+In order that the machinations of these cunning slaves may mature, it is
+usually necessary to portray their victims as the veriest fools. Witness
+the cock-and-bull story by which Stasimus, in _Trin._ 515 ff., convinces
+Philto that his master's land is an undesirable real estate prospect.
+Dordalus in _Per._ (esp. 493 ff.) exhibits a certain amount of caution in
+face of Toxilus' "confidence game," but that he should be victimized at
+all stamps him as a caricature.
+
+LeGrand is certainly right in pronouncing the cunning slave a pure
+convention, adapted from the Greek and so unsuitable to Roman society that
+even Plautus found it necessary to apologize for their unrestrained
+gambols, on the ground that 'that was the way they did in Athens!'[163]
+
+Certain of the characters are caricatures _par excellence_, embodiments of
+a single attribute. Leaena of the _Cur._ is the perpetually thirsty
+_lena_: "Wine, wine, wine!"[164] Cleaerata of the _As._ is a plain
+caricature, but is exceptionally cleverly drawn as the _lena_ with the
+mordant tongue. Phronesium's thirst in the _Truc._, is gold, gold, gold!
+The _danista_ of the _Most._ finds the whole expression of his nature in
+the cry of "Faenus!"[165] Assuredly, he is the progenitor of the modern
+low-comedy Jew: "I vant my inderesd!" Calidorus of the _Ps._ and
+Phaedromus of the _Cur._ are but bleeding hearts dressed up in clothes.
+The _milites gloriosi_ are all cartoons;[166] and the perpetually
+moralizing pedagogue Lydus of the _Bac._ becomes funny, instead of
+egregiously tedious, if acted as a broad burlesque.
+
+The panders[167] are all manifest caricatures, too, especially the famous
+Ballio of the _Ps._, whom even Lorenz properly describes as "der
+Einbegriff aller Schlechtigkeit," though he deprecates the part as "eine
+etwas zu grell and zu breit angefuhrte Schilderung."[168] "Ego scelestus,"
+says Ballio himself.[169] He calmly and unctuously pleads guilty to every
+charge of "liar, thief, perjurer," etc., and can never be induced to lend
+an ear until the cabalistic charm "Lucrum!" is pronounced (264).
+
+The famous miser Euclio has given rise to an inordinate amount of
+unnecessary comment. Lamarre[170] is at great pains to defend Plautus from
+"le reproche d'avoir introduit dans la peinture de son principal
+personnage <Euclio> des traits outres et hors de nature." Indeed, he
+possesses few traits in accord with normal human nature. But curiously
+enough, as we learn from the _argumenta_ (in view of the loss of the
+genuine end of the _Aul._), Euclio at the _denouement_ professes himself
+amply content to bid an everlasting farewell to his stolen hoard, and
+bestows his health and blessing on "the happy pair." This apparent
+conversion, with absolutely nothing dramatic to furnish an introduction or
+pretext for it, has caused Langen to depart from his usual judicious
+scholarship. After much hair-splitting he solemnly pronounces it
+"psychologically possible."[171] LeGrand points out[172] that his change
+of heart is not a conversion, but merely a professed reconciliation to the
+loss. But there is no need for all this pother. The simple truth is that
+Plautus was through with his humorous complication and was ready to top it
+off with a happy ending. It is the forerunner of modern musical comedy,
+where the grouchy millionaire papa is propitiated at the last moment
+(perhaps by the pleadings of the handsome widow), and similarly consents
+to his daughter's marriage with the handsome, if impecunious, ensign.
+
+
+3. Looseness of dramatic construction.
+
+Lorenz with commendable insight has pointed out[173] that Τύχη, the
+goddess of Chance, is the motive power of the Plautine plot, as
+distinguished from the μοῖρα of tragedy. A student of Plautus readily
+recognizes this point. The entire development of the _Rud._ and _Poen._
+exemplifies it in the highest degree. Hanno in the _Poen._, in particular,
+meets first of all, in the strange city of Calydon, the very man he is
+looking for! When Pseudolus is racking his wits for a stratagem, Harpax
+obligingly drops in with all the requisites. The ass-dealer in the _As._
+is so ridiculously fortuitous that it savors of childlike naiveté.
+
+Characters are perpetually entering just when wanted. We hear "Optume
+advenis" and "Eccum ipsum video" so frequently that they become as
+meaningless as "How d'ye do!"[174]; though, as shown above[175], even this
+very weakness could at moments be made the pretext for a mild laugh.
+
+For a complete catalogue of the formidable mass of inconsistencies and
+contradictions that throng the plays, the reader is referred to the
+_Plautinische Studien_ of Langen, as aforesaid. It will be of passing
+interest to recall one or two. In _Cas._ 530 Lysidamus goes to the "forum"
+and returns _32 verses later_ complaining that he has wasted the whole day
+standing "advocate" for a kinsman. But this difficulty is resolved, if we
+accept the theory of Prof. Kent (TAPA. XXXVII), that the change of acts
+which occurs in between, is a conventional excuse for any lapse of time,
+in Roman comedy as well as in Greek tragedy. But it is extremely doubtful
+that Prof. Kent succeeds in establishing the truth of this view in the
+case of Roman comedy. We see no convincing reason for departing from the
+accepted theory, as expressed by Duff (_A Literary History of Rome_, pp.
+196-7): "In Plautus' time a play proceeded continuously from the lowering
+of the curtain at the beginning to its rise at the end, save for short
+breaks filled generally by simple music from the _tibicen_ (_Ps._ 573). The
+division into scenes is ancient and regularly indicated in manuscripts of
+Plautus and Terence."
+
+Langen seems surprised[176] when Menaechmus Sosicles, on beholding his
+twin for the first time (_Men._ 1062), though he was the object of a six
+years' search, wades through some twenty lines of amazed argument before
+Messenio (with marvelous cunning!) hits on the true explanation. It is of
+course conceived in a burlesque spirit. What would become of the comic
+action if Menaechmus II simply walked up to Menaechmus I and remarked:
+"Hello, brother, don't you remember me?"
+
+That the seven months of _Most._ 470 miraculously change into six months
+in 954 is the sort of mistake possible to any writer. In the _Amph._ 1053
+ff., Alcmena is in labor apparently a few minutes after consorting with
+Jupiter; but the change of acts _may_ account for the lapse of time, here
+as in _Cas._ 530 ff.
+
+But after the exhaustive work of Langen, we need linger no longer in this
+well-ploughed field. We repeat, the evidence all points irresistibly to
+the conclusion that Plautus is wholly careless of his dramatic machinery
+so long as it moves. The laugh's the thing!
+
+The _St._ is an apt illustration of the probable workings of Plautus'
+mind. The virtue of the Penelope-like Pamphila and Panegyris proves too
+great a strain and unproductive of merriment. The topic gradually vanishes
+as the drolleries of the parasite Gelasimus usurp the boards. He in turn
+gives way to the hilarious buffoonery of the two slaves. The result is a
+succession of loose-jointed scenes[177]. The _Aul._ too is fragmentary and
+episodical. The _Trin._ is insufferably long-winded, with insufficient
+comic accompaniment. The _Cis._ is a wretched piece of vacuous
+inanity[178].
+
+
+4. Roman admixture and topical allusions.
+
+Plautus' frequent forgetfulness of his Greek environment and the
+interjection of Roman references--what De Quincey calls "anatopism"--is
+another item of careless composition too well known to need more than
+passing mention. The repeated appearance of the _Velabrum,_[179] or
+_Capitolium,_[180] or _circus,_[181] or _senatus_, or _dictator_,[182] or
+_centuriata comitio,_[183] or _plebiscitum,_[184] and a host of others in
+the Greek investiture, becomes after a while a matter of course to us. We
+see however no need to quarrel with _forum_; it was Plautus' natural
+translation for ἀγορά. But it all adds inevitably and relentlessly to
+our argument--Plautus was heedless of the petty demands of technique and
+realism. His attention was too much occupied in devising means of
+amusement.
+
+The occasional topical allusions belong in the same category as above; for
+example, the allusion to the Punic war (_Cis._ 202),[185] the _lex
+Platoria_ (_Ps._ 303, _Rud._ 1381-2), Naevius' imprisonment (_Mil. _
+211-2), Attalus of Pergamum (_Per._ 339, _Poen._ 664), Antiochus the Great
+(_Poen._ 693-4). Again we have a modern parallel: the topics of the day
+are a favorite resort of the lower types of present-day stage production.
+
+
+5. Jokes on the dramatic machinery.
+
+But the most extreme stage of intimate jocularity is reached when the last
+sorry pretense of drama is discarded and the dramatic machinery itself
+becomes the subject of jest. So in the _Cas._ 1006 the cast is warned:
+Hanc ex longa longiorem ne faciamus fabulam. In _Per._ 159-60 Saturio
+wants to know where to get his daughter's projected disguise:
+
+"SAT. πόθεν ornamenta?
+
+TOX. Abs chorago sumito. Dare debet: praebenda aediles locaverunt." (Cf.
+_Trin._ 858.)
+
+Even the _Ps._, heralded as dramatically one of the best of the plays,
+yields the following: Horum caussa haec agitur spectatorum fabula (720);
+hanc fabulam dum transigam (562) and following speech; verba quae in
+comoediis solent lenoni dici (1081-2); quam in aliis comoediis fit (1240);
+quin vocas spectatores simul? (1332). In _St._ 715 ff., the action of the
+play is interrupted while the boisterous slaves give the musician a drink.
+From the _Poen._ comes a gem that will bear quoting at length (550 ff.):
+
+  Omnia istaec scimus iam nos, si hi spectatores sciant.
+  Horunc hic nunc causa haec agitur spectatorum fabula:
+  Hos te satius est docere ut, quando agas, quid agas sciant.
+  Nos tu ne curassis: scimus rem omnem, quippe omnes simul.
+  Didicimus tecum una, ut respondere possimus tibi.[186]
+
+This is the final degeneration into the realm of pure foolery. It is a
+patent declaration: "This is only a play; laugh and we are content." Once
+more we venture to point a parallel on the modern stage, in the vaudeville
+comedian who interlards his dancing with comments such as: "I hate to do
+this, but it's the only way I can earn a living."
+
+
+6. Use of stock plots and characters.
+
+We must touch finally, but very lightly, on the commonplaces of stock
+plots and characters. The whole array of puppets is familiar to us all:
+the cunning slave, the fond or licentious papa, the spendthrift son and
+their inevitable confrères appear in play after play with relentless
+regularity. The close correspondence of many plots is also too familiar to
+need discussion.[187] The glimmering of originality in the plot of the
+_Cap._ called for special advertisement.[188] In the light of the
+foregoing evidence, the pertinence of these facts for us, we reiterate, is
+that Plautus merely adopted the New Comedy form as his comic medium, and,
+while leaving his originals in the main untouched, took what liberties he
+desired with them, with the single-minded purpose of making his public
+laugh.[189]
+
+
+
+
+In Conclusion
+
+
+
+In contrast to these grotesqueries certain individual scenes and plays
+stand out with startling distinctness as possessed of wit and humor of
+high order. The description by Cleaereta of the relations of lover,
+mistress and _lena_ is replete with biting satire (_As._ 177 ff., 215
+ff.). The finale of the same play is irresistibly comic. In _Aul. _ 731
+ff. real sparks issue from the verbal cross-purposes of Euclio and
+Lyconides over the words "pot" and "daughter." The _Bac._ is an excellent
+play, marred by padding. When the sisters chaff the old men as "sheep"
+(1120 ff.), the humor is naturalistic and human. The _Cas._, uproarious
+and lewd as it is, becomes excruciatingly amusing if the mind is open to
+appreciating humor in the broadest spirit. The discourse of Periplecomenus
+(_Mil._ 637 ff.) is marked by homely satirical wisdom. In the _Ps._ the
+badinage of the name-character is appreciably superior to most of the
+incidental quips. Pseudolus generously compliments Charinus on beating him
+at his own game of repartee (743). When Weise (_Die Komodien des Plautus_,
+p. 181) describes _Ps._ IV. 7 as "eine der ausgezeichnetsten Scenen, die
+es irgend giebt," his superlative finds a better justification than usual.
+
+When Menaechmus Sosicles sees fit "to put an antic disposition on," we
+have a scene which, while eminently farcical, is signally clever and
+dramatically effective. Witness the imitation by Shakespeare in _The
+Comedy of Errors_, IV. 4, and in spirit by modern farce; for instance, in
+_A Night Off_, when the staid old Professor feels the recrudescence of his
+youthful aspirations to attend a prize-fight, he simulates madness as a
+prelude to dashing wildly away.
+
+The following from _Rud._ (160 ff.) is theatrical but tremendously
+effective and worthy of the highest type of drama. Sceparnio, looking
+off-stage, spies Ampelisca and Palaestra tossed about in a boat. He
+addresses Daemones:
+
+"SC. But O Palaemon! Hallowed comrade of Neptune ... what scene meets my
+eye?
+
+DAE. What do you see?
+
+SC. I see two poor lone women sitting in a bit of a boat. How the poor
+creatures are being tossed about! Hoorah! Hoorah! Fine! The waves are
+whirling their boat past the rocks into the shallows. A pilot couldn't
+have steered straighter. I swear I never saw waves more high. They're safe
+if they escape those breakers. Now, now, danger! One is overboard! Ah, the
+water's not deep: she'll swim out in a minute. Hooray! See the other one,
+how the wave tossed her out! She is up, she's on her way shoreward; she's
+safe!"
+
+Sceparnio clasps his hands, jumps up and down, grasps the shaking Daemones
+convulsively and communicates his excitement to the audience. It is a
+piece of thrilling theatrical declamation and must have wrought the
+spectators up to a high pitch. In general, the _Rud._ is a superior play.
+
+In _Cas._ 229 ff. there is developed a piece of faithful and entertaining
+character-drawing, as the old roué Lysidamus fawns upon his militant
+spouse Cleostrata, with the following as its climax:
+
+"CLE. (_Sniffling._) Ha! Whence that odor of perfumes, eh?
+
+LYS. The jig's up."
+
+In the whole panorama of Plautine personae the portrayal of Alcmena in the
+_Amph._ is unique, for she is drawn with absolute sincerity and speaks
+nothing out of character. Certainly no parody can be made out of the nobly
+spoken lines 633-52, which lend a genuine air of tragedy to the professed
+_tragi(co)comoedia_ (59, 63); unless we think of the lady's unwitting
+compromising condition (surely too subtle a thought for the original
+audience). Note also the exalted tone of 831-4, 839-42. But all through
+this scene Sosia is prancing around, prating nonsense, and playing the
+buffoon, so that perchance even here the nobility becomes but a foil for
+the revelry. And in 882-955 his royal godship Jove clowns it to the lady's
+truly minted sentiments.
+
+No, we are far from attempting to deny to Plautus all dramatic technique,
+skill in character painting and cleverness of situation, but he was never
+hide-bound by any technical considerations. He felt free to break through
+the formal bonds of his selected medium at will. He had wit, esprit and
+above all a knowledge of his audience; and of human nature generally, or
+else he could not have had such a trenchant effect on the literature of
+all time.
+
+At any rate, the above lonely landmarks cannot affect our comprehensive
+estimate of the mise-en-scène. Enough has been said, we believe, in our
+discussion of the criticism and acting and in our analysis of his dramatic
+values, to show that the aberrations of Plautus' commentators have been
+due to their failure to reach the crucial point: the absolute license with
+which his plays were acted and intended to be acted is at once the
+explanation of their absurdities and deficiencies. This was true in a far
+less degree of Terence, who dealt in plots more _stataria_ and less
+_motoria_.[190] Though using the same store of models, he endeavored to
+produce an artistically constructed play, which should make some honest
+effort to "hold the mirror up to nature." We are convinced that even his
+extensive use of _contaminatio_ was designed to evolve a better plot. The
+extravagance of Plautus is toned down in Terence to a reasonable
+verisimilitude and a far more "gentlemanly" mode of fun-making that was
+appropriate to one in the confidence of the aristocratic Scipionic circle.
+But when all is said and done, Terence lacks the vivid primeval
+"Volkswitz" of Plautus. We dare only skirt the edges of this extensive
+subject.[191]
+
+Above all, our noble jester _succeeds_ in his mission of laugh-producing.
+But his methods are not possessed in the main of dramatic respectability.
+And it must be apparent that our analysis and citations have covered the
+bulk of the plays.
+
+We conclude then that the prevalence of inherent defects of composition
+and the lack of serious motive, coupled with the author's constant and
+conscious employment of the implements of broad farce and extravagant
+burlesque, impel us inevitably to the conclusion that we have before us a
+species of composition which, while following a dramatic form, is not
+inherently drama, but a variety of entertainment that may be described as
+a compound of comedy, farce and burlesque; while the accompanying music,
+which would lend dignity to tragedy or grand opera, merely heightens the
+humorous effect and lends the color of musical comedy or opera
+bouffe.[192] Körting is right in calling it mere entertainment, Mommsen is
+right in calling it caricature, but we maintain that it is professedly
+mere entertainment, that it is consciously caricature and if it fulfills
+these functions we have no right to criticise it on other grounds. If we
+attempt a serious critique of it as drama, we have at once on our hands a
+capricious mass of dramatic unrealities and absurdities: bombast,
+burlesque, extravagance, horse-play, soliloquies, asides, direct address
+of the audience, pointless quips, and so on. The minute we accept it as a
+consciously conceived medium for amusement only, we have a highly
+effective theatrical mechanism for the unlimited production of laughter.
+And, in fact, every shred of evidence, however scant, goes to show that
+the histrionism must have been conceived in a spirit of extreme
+liveliness, abandon and extravagance in gesture and declamation, that
+would not confine the actor to faithful portrayal in character, but would
+allow him scope and license to resort to any means whatsoever to bestir
+laughter amongst a not over-stolid audience.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+[1]: E.g., Casina in the _Cas._, Silenium in the _Cis._,
+Planesium in the _Cur._, Adelphasium and Anterastylis in the
+_Poen._, Palaestra in the _Rud._
+
+[2]: V. infra, part II, sec. I. B. I.
+
+[3]: E.g., Lorcnz's Introd. to _Most._ and _Pseud._ V. infra,
+part I, § i.
+
+[4]: We are not concerned in this question with technical discussion as to
+the position of the banquet table on the stage, the nature of the dog of
+the _Most._ and the like, but with the delivery and movements of the
+actors themselves.
+
+[5]: De Off. I. 29.104.
+
+[6]: X. 1.99. Cf. Ritschl's citations of Varro: _Parerga_, p. 71 ff.
+Cf. Epig. quoted by Varro and attributed to Plautus himself, ap. Gel.
+N.A., I. 24.1-3. But that this was a patent literary forgery is proved by
+Gudeman in TAPA. XXV, p. 160.
+
+[7]: N.A., VI. 17.4.
+
+[8]: I.7.17.
+
+[9]: XIX. 8.6.
+
+[10]: _A.P._, 270 ff. Cf. _Ep._ II. I.170 ff. and Fay, ed.
+_Most._, Intro. § 2.
+
+[11]: _De Com._ III. 6, Donatus ed. Wessner. For full quotation, v.
+infra, Part II, Sec. II. A. 3, Note 50.
+
+[12]: _Excerpta de Com._ V. 1.
+
+[13]: For a complete list, see _Testimonia_ prefixed to Goetz and
+Schoell's ed. of Plautus.
+
+[14]: P. 217 M.
+
+[15]: 404, 412, 823.
+
+[16]: Ed. _Men._ (Leipzig, 1891), ad 410.
+
+[17]: Cf. opening lines of Eurip. _Iph. in Taur._
+
+[18]: Pp. 13--19. V. Langen, _Plautinische Studien_, pp. 139-142. Cf.
+also comments of Brix to _Menaechmi_ passim.
+
+[19]: Op. cit., p. 146.
+
+[20]: Cf. Gel. N. A., III. 3-14 ff.
+
+[21]: V. infra, Part II, under 'Careless Composition'.
+
+[22]: _Beschluss der Critik iiber die Gefangenen des Plaulus_.
+
+[23]: 23: Op. cit., fin.
+
+[24]: _La Litterature latine depuis la fondation de Rome_ (Paris,
+1899), Bk. II. chap. 3. sec. 15, p. 362.
+
+[25]: Introd. to ed. _Mosl._, p. 37.
+
+[26]: Bk. II, Ch. 4.
+
+[27]: Lamarre, op. cit., Bk. II, Ch. 4, Sec. 12, p. 475.
+
+[28]: _Théâtre de Plaute_ (Paris, 1845), Introd. p. 18.
+
+[29]: _Opuscula Philologica_, Vol. II p. 743.
+
+[30]: _Opusc._ II. 733 ff.
+
+[31]: In _Opusc._ III. 455, Ritschl relates that Varro wrote six books
+on drama, with Plautus as the especial object of his interest: _de
+originibus scaenicis, de scaenicis actionibus, de actibus scaenicis, de
+personis, de descriptionibus, quaestiones Plautinae_.
+
+[32]: Langen, op. cit., p. 127.
+
+[33]: _Opusc._ II. 746.
+
+[34]: Op. cit., p. 165.
+
+[35]: Op. cit., p. 167.
+
+[36]: _Mil._ 522 ff. (All citations from Plautus are based on the text
+and numbering of the lines in the text of Goetz and Schoell).
+
+[37]: _History of Rome_, (Transl. Dickson, Scribner, N.Y., 1900), Vol.
+III, p. 143.
+
+[38]: E.g., LeGrand, _Daos_, V. supra. Cf. also N. 80, Part II.
+
+[39]: P. 190, trans. John Black (London, 1846), Lecture XIV.
+
+[40]: _Theatre of the Greeks_, p. 443.
+
+[41]: P. 197.
+
+[42]: Cf. Ritschl's opinion, Note 30.
+
+[43]: V. supra.
+
+[44]: P. 620. But cf. Note 37.
+
+[45]: Cf. further Plessis, _La poésie latine_ (Paris, 1909), p. 54
+ff.; Patin, _Études sur la poésie latine_ (Paris, 1869), Vol. II, p.
+224 ff.; Ribbeck, _Geschichte der römischen Dichtung_ (Stuttgart,
+1894), Vol. I, p. 57 ff.; Tyrrell, _Early Latin Poetry_, p. 44 ff. A
+very excellent discussion is contained in Duff, _A Literary History of
+Rome_ (N.Y., 1909), p. 183 ff.
+
+[46]: _History of Rome_, Vol. III, p. 139. Cf. note 37.
+
+[47]: Cf. Prol. _Poen._ 28-9.
+
+[48]: Prol. _Poen._, II ff.
+
+[49]: _Plaudere_, πάλιν, _sibilare_ or _exsibilare, explodere,
+eicere_ were expressions used to indicate approval or disapproval.
+Cf. the discussion of Oehmichen, article _Bühnenwesen_ in Von Müller's
+_Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, 5ter Band, 3te
+Abteilung, § 73. 2, p. 271.
+
+[50]: Cf. Prol. _Poen._ 36 ff.
+
+[51]: Cf. Tac. _Ann._ I. 77. V. Oehmichen, op. cit., § 39.3, p. 220.
+
+[52]: V. Prol. _Amph._ 52-3:
+
+  Quid contraxistis frontem?
+  Quia tragoediam Dixi futuram hanc?
+
+[53]: _Parad._ III. 2.26. Cf. _Or._ 51.173, _de Or._ III.
+50.196: _"theatra tota reclamant_"; Hor. _Ep._ II. 1.200 ff.;
+Suet. _Nero_, 24.1.
+
+[54]: Cic. _de Or._ I.61.259, I.27.124.
+
+[55]: _Hist. Rome_, ed. cit., Vol. III, p. 140.
+
+[56]: _Cist._ 785: Qui deliquit vapulabit, qui non deliquit bibet. Cf.
+_Trin._ 990. _Amph._ 83-4, (if this is not merely an imitation
+of the Greek original).
+
+[57]: Tac. _Ann._ 1.77.
+
+[58]: _Amph._ 65 ff., _Poen._ 36 ff., Ter. _Phor._ 16 ff.,
+Cic. _ad Att._ IV. 15.6, Hor. _Ep._ II. 1.181.
+
+[59]: _Cas._ 17 ff., _Trin._ 706 ff. But others argue that these
+passages are only translations from the Greek. V. Leo in _Hermes_,
+1883, p. 561, F. Ostermayer, _De hist. fab. in com. Pl._ (Greifswald,
+1884), p. 7. Ritschl (_Parerga_, p. 229) argues that the passages
+refer to cases of extraordinary public approval, not to formal contests.
+Cf. Var. _L.L._ V. 178.
+
+[60]: Cic. _pro. Ros. Com._ 10.28-9, Plin. _N. H._ 7.39.128, Dio
+77.21. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 80.7.
+
+[61]: Körting, op. cit., p. 244 ff.
+
+[62]: Cic. _de Or._ I.59.251, Suet. _Nero_ 20, Quint. XI. 3.19.
+
+[63]: I.ii.i-2, I.ii.12.
+
+[64]: Quint. XI.3.iii.
+
+[65]: Cic. _Or._ 31.109.
+
+[66]: Quint. XI.3.178, Juv. III. 98-9.
+
+[67]: Cic. _de Off._ I.31.114, _ad Att._ IV.15.6.
+
+[68]: Ap. Athen. XIV. 615 A.
+
+[69]: For a full discussion of the ancient actor v. Pauly-Wissowa,
+_Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, s. v.
+_histrio_; Friedlander in Marquardt-Mommsen _Handbuch der romischen
+Altertumer_, VI. p. 508 ff.; J. van Wageningen, _Scaenica Romana_;
+Warnecke, _Die Vortragskunst der romischen Schauspieler_, in _Neue
+Jahrbucher_, 1908, p. 704 ff.
+
+[70]: Cf. _de Or._ III.56.214, III.22.83, Quint. XI. 3.125, 181-2.
+
+[71]: Quint. XI.3.112.
+
+[72]: Cf. Quint. XI.3.89.
+
+[73]: Cic. _ad Att._ VI.1.8.
+
+[74]: Cf. _de Or._ III.26.102, Quint. XI.3.71, 89.
+
+[75]: For further treatment of the gestures of orators see Pauly-Wissowa,
+_Real-Encyclopadie_, s. v. _histrio_; Warnecke in _Neue
+Jahrbucher_, 1910, p. 593; Sittl, _Die Gebarden der Griechen und
+Romer_, Chap. XI; Mart. Cap. 43. In the other rhetoricians of the later
+Empire there is much copying of Cicero and Quintilian, but nothing of
+significance for our purpose, unless it be the comparison of the rigid
+training recommended to the embryo orator. For further citations, v.
+Pauly-Wissowa, op. cit.
+
+[76]: 0p. cit., p. 203.
+
+[77]: _Wiener Studien_, Vol. XIV, p. 120.
+
+[78]: _Scaen. Rom._, p. 52. Cf. Karsten in _Mnem._ XXXII, (1904),
+pp. 209-251, 287-322, who concludes that at least four hands aided in the
+commentaries.
+
+[79]: E.g., Donat. ad _And._ 88, _Eun._ 187, 986, _Phor._
+315.
+
+[80]: A11 the passages in Donatus dealing with gesture have been collected
+by Leo, _Rheinisches Museum_ XXXVIII, p. 331 ff.
+
+[81]: E.g., Donat. ad _And._ 180, 363, 380-1, _Eun._ 209, 559,
+974, _Ad._ 84, 499, 661, 795, 951, _Hec._ 612, 689, _Phor._
+49, 315. Cf. _Ad._ 285: superbe ac magnifice. Cf. Schol. ad
+_And._ 332: Vultuose hoc dicitur, hoc est cum gestu. Cf. also
+Warnecke in _Neue Jahrbücher_, 1910, note 75.
+
+[82]: Cf. XI.3.103, _Auct. ad Her._ III.15.27.
+
+[83]: Their precise age and antiquity have been disputed with some
+acrimony. With Sittl cf. Bethe, _Praef. Cod. Ambros._ p. 64; van
+Wageningen, op. cit., p. 50 ff.; Leo in _Rhein. Mus._ XXXVIII, p. 342
+ff. V. reproductions in Wieseler, _Theatergebäude und Denkmäler des
+Bühnenwesens bei den Griechen und Römern,_ Tafel X; and Bethe, ed. of
+Codex Ambrosianus.
+
+[84]: _Neue Jahr._, Sup. Band I (1832), p. 447 ff.
+
+[85]: Quint. VI.3.29, Mart. Cap., Chap. 43, p. 543 ed. Kopp.
+
+[86]: V. reproductions in Baumeister, _Denkmäler des klassischen
+Altertums_, s. v. "Lustspiel" and Wieseler, op. cit., note 83.
+
+[87]: Donat. _de Com._ VI. 3. There is some suspicion that the names
+have been interchanged.
+
+[88]: _Ars Gram._ III, p. 489, 10 K; Festus, s.v. _personata_,
+p. 217. Cf. Cic. _de Nat. Deo._ I. 28.79. Ribbock, _Romische
+Tragodie_ p. 661, and Dziatzko in _Rhein. Mus._ XXI. 68, have made a
+violent effort to reconcile the conflicting statements by arguing
+that Roscius belonged to the troupe of Minucius. This is denied by
+Weinberger, _Wien. Stud._ XIV. 126. For further discussion v. van
+Wageningen, _Scaen. Rom._ p. 34 ff.; Leo in _Rhein. Mus._ XXXVIII.
+342; Oehmichen, op. cit. p. 250; B. Arnold, _Ueber Antike
+Theatermasken_; Teuffel, _Romische Litteraturgeschichte_ §16.
+Sec. 13; Pauly-Wissowa, op. cit., s.v. _histrio_, pp. 2120-21. A
+recent article by Saunders (A.J.P., XXXII, p. 58) gives an admirable
+summing-up of the whole controversy, with substantial proof that at
+any rate the performers of Plautus' day were unmasked.
+
+[89]: Diom. III. p. 489.10 K. Cf. Saunders, _Costume in Roman
+Comedy_; Marquardt-Mommsen, _Handbuch der romischen Altertumer_,
+VI. p. 525; Pauly-Wissowa, l.c. Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ VII. 6.
+
+[90]: Cf. _Mil._ 629 ff., 923, _Ps._ 967, _Rud._ 125 f., 313
+f., 1303, _Trin._ 861 f., _Truc._ 286 ff.; Ter., _Phor._
+51.
+
+[91]: V. van Wageningen, op. cit. pp. 40 f.
+
+[92]: _De Or._ III. 22.83.
+
+[93]: II. 10.13. Cf. XI. 3.91.
+
+[94]: I. II. 1-2
+
+[95]: Donat. ad _And._ 505, _Eun._ 224, 288, 403, _Ad._ 187,
+395.
+
+[96]: Ad _And._ 194, 301, _Eun._ 467, 986, _Hec._ 98, 439,
+640, _Ad._ 101. Cf. _Ad._ 96.; cum admiratone indignantis; 97;
+intento digito et infestis in Micionem oculis.
+
+[97]: Ad _Eun._ 1055.
+
+[98]: Ad _And._ 633, _Eun._ 233, 451, _Hec._ 63, _Ad._
+259.
+
+[99]: Ad _Phor._ 145.
+
+[100]: Ad _Ad._ 200.
+
+[101]: Ad _Eun._ 187.
+
+[102]: VII. 2.8-10.
+
+[103]: Cf. Diom. 291, 23 ff., K; Ribbeck, _Rom. Trag._ p. 634,
+believes that this was the rule, but he is apparently alone in the
+opinion. Cf. Budensteiner in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_ CVI, p. 162
+ff., who agrees with the proof of van Eck, _Quaest. Sten. Rom._
+(Amsterdam 1892), that it was an isolated intance.
+
+[104]: We are not even remotely concerned with metrical analysis. For that
+phase, with a discussion as to the effect of the various metrical systems,
+see Klotz, _Grundzuge der altromischen Metrik_, esp. p. 370 ff. Cf.
+Duff, _A Lit. Hist. of Rome_, p. 196. Note Donat, _de Com._
+VIII. 9 and Diom. 491, 23K.
+
+[105]: For arguments as to the divisions of the three classes, v., besides
+Klotz, Ritschl, _Parerga_, p. 40; Conradt, _Die metrische
+Komposition der Komodien des Terenz_ (Berlin 1876); Bucheler in _Neue
+Jahr. fur Phil._ CXLI (1871), p. 273 ff.; Dziatzko in _Rhein.
+Mus._ XXVI (1871), pp. 97-100: G. Hermann, _de Canticis in Romanorum
+Fabulis, Opusc._ I. 290; which have all been landmarks in the
+discussion. Cf. also Teuffel, _Rom. Lit._, § 16. Sec. 5, etc.
+
+[106]: Cf. Cic. _de Or._ II.46.193.
+
+[107]: Cf. _As._ 265, 587, 640, 403, _Bac._ 611, _Cap._ 637,
+_Cas._ 845 ff., _Cis._ 53 ff., _Cur._ 278, 309, 311,
+_Ep._ 623 ff., _Men._ 828 f., 910, _Mer._ 599 f.,
+_Mil._ 200 ff. (quoted infra, Part II), 798-9 (Palaestrio must shout
+at Periplecomenus to provoke such a reply), _Most._ 265 ff., 594,
+_Per._ 307 f., _Ps._ 911, 1287, _St._ 271, 288 f.,
+_Trin._ 1099, _Truc._ 276, 476 ff., 549, 593 f., 599 ff., 822.
+Cf. also Ter. _Phor._ 210-11 and Moliere's imitation in _Les
+Fourberies de Scapin_, l. 4.
+
+[108]: Cf. Sittl, _Gebarden_, p. 201 and Warnecke's citations from the
+Scholiast to Aristophanes in _Neue Jahr._ 1910, p. 592.
+
+[109]: _Daos_, p. 617.
+
+[110]: A.J.P. VIII. 15 ff.
+
+[111]: Cf. _As._ 554 ff., _Bac._ 710 ff., _Cap._ 159 ff.
+_Cur._ 572 ff., _Ep._ 437 ff., _Men._ 1342., _Per._
+753 ff., _Ps._ 761 ff., _Trin._ 718 ff., etc.
+
+[112]: For further examples of bombast and mock-heroics v. _As._
+405-6, _Bac._ 792 f., 842 ff., _Cis._ 640 ff., _Cur._ 96
+ff. 439 ff., _Ep._ 181 ff. (in similar vein most of the soliloquies
+of the name part), _Her._ 469 ff., 601 ff., 830 ff., _Mil._ 459
+ff., 486 ff., 947 ff., _Per._ 251 ff., _Poen._ 470 ff., 1294
+ff., _Ps._ 1063 f., _Truce._ 482 ff., 602 ff.
+
+[113]: V. _Amph._ 370 ff., _As._ 431, _Cas._ 404 ff.,
+_Cur._ 192 ff., 624 ff., _Mil._ 1394 ff., _Mos._ i ff.,
+_Per._ 809 ff., _Poen._ 382 ff., _Rud._ 706 ff.
+
+[114]: V. Frag. IV, G. & S., ap. Non. p. 543.
+
+[115]: Cf. _Bac._ 581 ff., 1119, _Cap._ 830 ff., _Most._ 898
+ff., _Rud._ 414, _St._ 308 ff., _Truc._ 254 ff.
+
+[116]: Cf. also _Bac._ 925 ff., _Per._ 251 ff., _Men._ 409
+ff. (v. supra, Part I, § I, s.v. _Festus, Brix_). On _Bac._ 933,
+v. Ribbeck, _Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta_, on Enn., frag.
+_Androm._ 81; Kiessling, _Analecta Plautina_, I. 14 f.;
+Ostermayer, _De historia fabulari in comoediis Plautinis_, p. 9. On
+_Men._ 808 ff., v. Kiessling, II. 9.
+
+[117]: Cf. further _As._ 606 ff., _Cur._ 147 ff., _Most._
+233 ff., _Poen._ 275 ff. and passim, _Truc._ 434 ff.
+
+[118]: Cf. _Ep._ 580 ff. Cf. also "bombast," supra A. 1, and "copious
+abuse" infra, A. 3. c. Cf. also wall-painting labeled "Der erzurnte
+Hausherr," in Baumeister, _Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_, s.
+v. _Lustspiel_.
+
+[119]: Cf. _Mil._ 596 ff., _Most._ 454 ff., _Trin._ 517 ff.
+
+[120]: Cf. _Mer._ 748 ff., _Men._ 607 ff.
+
+[121]: Cf. further _Most._ 265 ff., 456 ff. and note Donat. ad
+_Phor._ 210-11: hic locus magis actoris quam lectoris est.
+
+[122]: Cf. _Most._ 38 ff., _Poen._ 1309 ff. Cf. also "Lavishing
+of terms of endearment," supra, A. 3. c.
+
+[123]: Cf. also _Poen._ 426 ff., _Rud._ 938 ff.
+
+[124]: Cf. similarly _Cap._ 121 ff., 177 ff., _Cas._ 725 ff.,
+_Most._ 909, 999 f. Cf. infra II. B.5.
+
+[125]: _Plaut. Stud._ pp. 121 f. Cf. pp. 101, 137 f., 158 f., 217, 229
+f.
+
+[126]: _Die Kom. des Pl._, pp. 70-71.
+
+[127]: _Daos_, p. 430-1.
+
+[128]: Prol. _Haut._ 32-40, Prol. _Eun._ 35-40. Cf. Eugraphius ad
+_Haut._ 31: quid tale hic est, cum servus currit, cum populus
+discedit, quod domino insano oboediat servus? Cf. also ad _Haut._ 37;
+Donatus ad _Phor._ 1.4.
+
+[129]: _And._ 338 ff., _Phor._ 179 ff., 841 ff., _Ad._ 299
+ff. Weissman agrees with Donat. that in the last passage humor is not the
+object. Cf. _ancilla currens_ in _Eun._ 643 ff.
+
+[130]: Cf. _servi currentes_ supra. Cf. also _Aul._ 811 ff.,
+_Ep._ 195 ff., _Mer._ 865 ff., _Ps._ 243 ff., _St._
+330 ff., _Trin._ 1068 ff., _Truc._ 115 ff.
+
+[131]: For other passages containing the comedy of "peering," v.
+_Bac._ 534, _Ep._ 526 ff., _Rud._ 331 ff., et al. Cf.
+Weise, op. cit., p. 72 f.
+
+[132]: Further comments infra II. B. 3.
+
+[133]: Cf. _As._ 403, and passim.
+
+[134]: Cf. _As._ 447, _Cur._ 111, _Men._ 125, 478 f., 909,
+_Mer._ 364, 379, _Mil._ 275, _Most._ 548, _Per._ 99,
+_Poen._ 840, _Ps._ 445, 615, 908, _Rud._ 97, _St._ 88,
+_Trin._ 45, 567, _Truc._ 499, etc.
+
+[135]: _Daos, p. 431 ff._ See Dieterich, _Pulcinella, PI. II_.
+Note esp. _As. 851 ff._
+
+[136]: Cf. _Per. 81 ff., 599 ff., Poen. 210 ff., et al._
+
+[137]: V. _Amph._ 952-3, _As._ 118 ff., 243 ff., _Aul._ 67
+ff., 667 ff., 701 ff., _Bac._ 170 ff., 349 ff., 573 ff., 761 ff.,
+_Cas._ 504 ff., _Cis._ 120 ff., _Cur._ 216 ff., 591 ff.,
+_Mer._ 544 ff., 588 ff., _Mil._ 464 ff., _Most._ 931 ff.,
+1041 ff., _Rud._ 1191 ff., _St._ 674 ff., et al.
+
+[138]: V. Cas. 424 ff., 759 ff., _Ep._ 81 ff., _Men._ 1039 ff.,
+_Ps._ 1017 ff., 1052 ff., 1102 ff., _Rud._ 892 ff., 1281 ff.,
+_St._ 641 ff., _Trin._ 199 ff., 1115 ff., _Truc._ 322 ff.,
+335 ff., 645 ff., 699 ff.
+
+Cf. the treatment of Le Grand, _Daos_, p. 412 ff., where he has an
+analysis from a different point of view. The soliloquy and aside are
+evidently not so frequent in New Comedy.
+
+[139]: _Daos_ p. 379. Cf. p. 550.
+
+[140]: _Aul._ 587 ff., _Men._ 966 ff. Cf. _Most._ 858 ff.
+and _As._ 545 ff., a duologue in _canticum_.
+
+[141]: _Bac._ 640 ff. Cf. _Ps._ 767 ff.
+
+[142]: _Cap._ 461 ff., Cf. _Per._ 53 ff.
+
+[143]: _Men._ 77 ff., 446 ff., _St._ 155 ff.
+
+[144]: _Cur._ 371 ff., (Cf. 494 ff.), _Men._ 571 ff.,
+_Poen._ 823 ff.
+
+[145]: _Ep._ 225 ff.
+
+[146]: _Cas._ 217 ff., _Trin._ 223 ff. (Cf. 660 ff.)
+
+[147]: _Men._ 753 ff.
+
+[148]: _Aul._ 475 ff. (496-536 branded as spurious by Weise, op. cit.,
+pp. 42-44).
+
+[149]: _Mer._ 817 ff.
+
+[150]: _Poen._ 210 ff. (though not a solo), _Truc._ 22 ff., 210
+ff., 551 ff.
+
+[151]: _Ps._ 790 ff.
+
+[152]: _Truc._ 482 ff.
+
+[153]: _Mer._ 825 ff., _Rud._ 593 ff.
+
+[154]: _Mosl._ 85 ff.
+
+[155]: _Ps._ 1246 ff.
+
+[156]: _St._ 683 to end.
+
+[157]: _Ps._ 133 ff. For further passages of the episodical type, cf.
+_Bac._ 925 ff. (v. supra under "bombast," I. A. 1), _Poen._ 449
+ff., _Rud._ 906 ff., _Trin._ 820 ff. (v. supra under
+"burlesque," I. A. 3).
+
+[158]: Cf. further _Amph._ 463, 998, _Bac._ 1072, _Cap._ 69
+ff., _Cas._ 879, _Cis._ 146, 678, _Men._ 880, _Mer._
+313, _Mil._ 862, _Most._ 280, 354, 708 ff., _Poen._ 921 f.,
+_Ps._ 124, _St._ 224,446, 674 ff., _Truc._ 109 ff., 463
+ff., 965 ff. Cf. infra II. B. 5.
+
+[159]: In Donat. ed. Wessner.
+
+[160]: V. _As., Bac., Cap., Cis., Cur., Ep., Men., Mer., Most., Per.,
+Rod., St._ Cf. _Cas._ 1013 ff., _Poen._ 1370 f.
+
+[161]: V. _Bac._ 235-367, _Cap._ 835-99, _Cis._ 203 ff.,
+540-630, 705 ff., _Cur._ 251-73 and passim (this play is full of
+bandying of quips), _Ep._ 1 ff., _Men._ 137-81, 602-67,
+_Mer._ 474 ff., 708 ff., 866 ff., _Most._ 633 ff., 717 ff., 885
+ff., _Per._ 1 ff., 201 ff., _Poen._ 210 ff., _Ps._ 653 ff.
+and passim, _Rud._ 485 ff. (the jokes here are unusually good), 780
+ff., _St._ 579 ff., _Trin._ 39 ff., 843 ff., _Truc._ 95 ff.
+
+[162]: Cf. Sosia im _Amph._ (esp. 659 ff.), Libanus in _As._ 1
+ff., Palinurus in _Cur._, Acanthio in _Mer._ (esp. 137 ff.),
+Milphio in _Poen._, Sceparnio in _Rud._ (esp. 104 ff.) and
+Trachalio, Pinacium in _St._ (esp. 331 ff.), Stasimus in _Trin._
+
+[163]: _St._ 446 ff., Prol. _Cas._ 67 ff. For an exhaustive
+discussion of the 'truth to life' of the characters, v. LeGrand,
+_Daos_, Part I, Chap. V.
+
+[164]: V. esp. 96 ff.
+
+[165]: 603 ff.
+
+[166]: Pyrgopolinices in _Mil._, Therapontigonus in _Cur._, the
+_miles_ in _Ep._, Anthemonides in _Poen._ Stratophanes in
+_Truc_, is not so violent.
+
+[167]: Cappadox in _Cur._, Dordalus in _Per._, Lycus in
+_Poen._, Labrax in _Rud._ Similarly the _lenae_.
+
+[168]: Introd. to ed. of _Ps._
+
+[169]: 355. Cf. 360 ff., 974 ff.
+
+[170]: _Hist. de la lit. lat._ Bk. II, Ch. III., Sec. 4. p. 307.
+
+[171]: _Plaut. Stud._, p. 105.
+
+[172]: _Daos_, pp. 557 f. Cf. 218 f.
+
+[173]: Introd. to _Ps._ Cf. _Daos_, p. 452 ff.
+
+[174]: E.g., _Amph._ 957, _Bac._ 844, _Cas._ 308,
+_Men._ 898, _Mil._ 1137, 1188, _Per._ 301, 543,
+_Poen._ 576, _Rud._ 1209, _St._ 400-1, _Trin._ 482.
+
+[175]: Part II, Sec. I. B. 2.
+
+[176]: P. 157.
+
+[177]: Cf. _Daos_, p. 60.
+
+[178]: Cf. in general the conclusions of LeGrand, _Daos_, p. 550, and
+his admirable analysis (Part II) of "La structure des comedies." He has
+recognized the existence of a number of the characteristics treated above,
+but his discussion is in different vein and with a different object in
+view.
+
+[179]: _Cap._ 489, _Cur._ 483.
+
+[180]: _Cur._ 269, et al.
+
+[181]: _Mil._ 991.
+
+[182]: _Ps._ 416, et al.
+
+[183]: _Ps._ 1232.
+
+[184]: _Ps._ 748. For a fairly complete collection, v. LeGrand,
+_Daos_, p. 44 ff. Cf. Middleton and Mills, _Students' Companion to
+Latin Authors_, p. 20 ff.
+
+[185]: Cf. West in A.J.P. VIII. 15. Cf. note 1, Part II, supra.
+
+[186]: Cf. _Amph._ 861 ff., _As._ 174 f., _Cap._ 778,
+_Cur._ 464, _Her._ 160, _Poen._ 1224.
+
+[187]: Cf. _Daos_, Part I, Chap. III: Les personnages, and p. 303 ff.;
+Mommsen, _Hist._ pp. 141 ff.
+
+[188]: Prol, 53 ff.
+
+[189]: For a discussion of the relation of Plautus to his originals, v.
+Schuster, _Quomodo Plautus Attica exemplaria transtulerit_; LeGrand,
+_Daos_, passim; Ostermayer, _de hist. fab. in com. Pl._;
+Ritschl, _Par._ 271, etc. The efforts to distinguish Plautus from his
+models have so far been fragmentary and abortive and will not advance
+appreciably until a complete play that he adapted has been found. At any
+rate, the discussion has no real bearing on our subject, since we can
+consider only the plays as actually transmitted; their sources cannot
+affect our argument. The comparisons in _Daos_ seem to indicate that
+Plautus did not debase his originals so much as Mommsen, Körting, Schlegel
+and others had thought. Even in 1881, Kiessling (_Anal. Plaut._ II.
+9) boldly expresses the opinion: "Atque omnino Plautus multo pressius
+Atticorum exemplarium vestigia secutus est quam hodie vulgo arbitrantur".
+Cf. Kellogg in PAPA. XLIV (1913).
+
+[190]: Euanthius, _de Com._ IV. 4.
+
+[191]: For an interesting comparison of Plautus and Terence, v. Spengel,
+_Über die lateinische Komödie_, (Munich 1878).
+
+[192]: The importance of the music is indicated by the transmission of the
+composer's name in all extant _didascaliae_, esp. those of Terence.
+V. Klotz, _Altröm. Met._ p. 384 ff.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dramatic Values in Plautus
+by William Wallace Blancke
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