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diff --git a/9939-8.txt b/9939-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9aaa15d --- /dev/null +++ b/9939-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15087 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 5, by +Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 5 + Volume 5: Fruit and Fruit Desserts; Canning and Drying; + Jelly Making, Preserving and Pickling; Confections; + Beverages; The Planning of Meals + +Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Posting Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #9939] +Release Date: February, 2006 +First Posted: November 2, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + + + + + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY + + +VOLUME FIVE + + + +FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS + +CANNING AND DRYING + +JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING + +CONFECTIONS + +BEVERAGES + +THE PLANNING OF MEALS + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc. + + + + +PREFACE + +This volume, the fifth of the Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +deals with the varieties of fruits and the desserts that can be made +from them, the canning and preserving of foods, the making of +confections of every description, beverages and their place in the diet, +and every phase of the planning of meals. + +With fruits becoming less seasonal and more a daily food, an +understanding of them is of great value to the housewife. In _Fruit and +Fruit Desserts_, she first learns their place in the diet, their nature, +composition, and food value. Then she proceeds with the preparation and +serving of every variety of fruit. Included in this section also are +fruit cocktails, those refreshing appetizers often used to introduce a +special meal. + +To understand how to preserve perishable foods in the seasons of plenty +for the times when they are not obtainable is a valuable part of a +housewife's knowledge. _Canning and Drying_ deals with two ways of +preserving foodstuffs, treating carefully the equipment needed and all +the methods that can be employed and showing by means of excellent +illustrations, one of them in natural colors, every part of the +procedure followed. The fruits and vegetables that permit of canning, as +well as certain meats and fish, are taken up in a systematic manner. + +_Jelly Making, Preserving, and Pickling_ continues a discussion of the +home preservation of foods, showing how they can be kept for long +periods of time not by sterilization, but with the aid of preservatives. +Each one of these methods is treated as to its principles, equipment, +and the procedure to be followed. After trying the numerous recipes +given, the housewife will be able to show with pride the results of her +efforts, for nothing adds more to the attractiveness and palatability of +a meal than a choice jelly, conserve, marmalade, or jam. + +_Confections_ deals with that very delightful and fascinating part of +cookery--confection making. Not only are home-made confections cheaper +than commercially made ones, but they usually contain more wholesome +materials, so it is to the housewife's advantage to familiarize herself +with the making of this food. Recipes are given for all varieties of +confections, including taffies, caramels, cream candies, and the +confections related to them. Fondant making is treated in detail with +illustrations showing every step and directions for making many +unusual kinds. + +Though beverages often receive only slight consideration, they are so +necessary that the body cannot exist very long without them. In +_Beverages_ is discussed the relation of beverages to meals, the classes +of beverages, and the preparation of those required by the human system, +as well as the proper way to serve them. In addition to coffee, tea, +cocoa, chocolate, and cereal beverages, fruit, soft, and nourishing +drinks receive their share of attention. + +To be a successful home maker, it is not enough for a housewife to know +how to prepare food; she must also understand how to buy it, how to look +after the household accounts, what constitutes correct diet for each +member of her family, how to plan menus for her regular meals and for +special occasions, and the essentials of good table service. All these +things, and many more, she learns in _The Planning of Meals_, which +completes this volume. + + + +CONTENTS + + +FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS + Fruit in the Diet + Composition of Fruits + Food Value of Fruits + Preparing and Serving Fruits + Blackberries + Blueberries + Cranberries + Raspberries + Strawberries + Miscellaneous Berries + Apples + Apricots + Cherries + Grapes + Peaches + Pears + Plums + Quinces + Rhubarb + Grapefruit + Lemons + Oranges + Miscellaneous Citrus Fruits + Bananas + Pineapples + Miscellaneous Tropical Fruits + Melons + Fruit Cocktails + Dates + Figs + Prunes + Raisins + Dried Apples, Apricots, and Peaches + + +CANNING AND DRYING + Necessity for Preserving Foods + Principles of Canning + General Equipment for Canning + Open-Kettle Method + Cold-Pack Method + Procedure in the One-Period Cold-Pack Method + Procedure in the Fractional-Sterilization Method + Steam-Pressure Methods + Canning with Tin Cans + Oven Method + Preparation for Canning + Directions for Canning Vegetables + Directions for Canning Fruits + Sirups for Canning Fruits + Canning Meat and Fish + Storing and Serving Canned Foods + Scoring Canned Foods + Principles of Drying + Drying Methods + Directions for Drying Vegetables and Fruits + Storing and Cooking Dried Foods + + +JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING + Value of Jellies, Preserves, and Pickles + Principles of Jelly Making + Equipment for Jelly Making + Procedure in Jelly Making + Scoring Jelly + Recipes for Jelly + Principles of Preserving + Preserves + Conserves + Marmalades + Jams + Butters + Principles of Pickling + Recipes for Pickles + Recipes for Relishes + + +CONFECTIONS + Nature of Confections + Composition of Confections + Foundation Materials in Confections + Flavorings + Colorings + Acids + Food Materials + Equipment for Confection Making + Cooking the Mixture + Pouring and Cooling the Mixture + Finishing Candies + Taffies and Similar Candies + Caramels + Fudge and Related Candies + Fondant and Related Creams + Miscellaneous Confections + Serving Candy + + +BEVERAGES + Nature and Classes of Beverages + Water in Beverages + Relation of Beverages to Meals + Alcoholic Beverages + Stimulating Beverages + History and Production of Coffee + Preparation of Coffee + Serving Coffee + History and Production of Tea + Preparation of Tea + Serving Tea + Nature and Selection of Cocoa and Chocolate + Preparation of Cocoa and Chocolate + Serving Cocoa and Chocolate + Cereal Beverages + Ingredients for Fruit Beverages + Preparation of Fruit Beverages + Soft Drinks + Nourishing Beverages + + +THE PLANNING OF MEALS + Necessity for Careful Meal Planning + Successful Marketing + Keeping Household Accounts + Factors Influencing Cost of Foods + Economical Buying + Suitability of Food + Composition of Food + Balancing the Diet + Diet for Infants and Children + Diet for the Family + Proportion of Food Substances + General Rules for Menu Making + Card-File System for Menu Making + Dinner Menus + Luncheon Menus + Breakfast Menus + Menus for Special Occasions + Table Service + + + * * * * * + +FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS + +FRUIT IN THE DIET + +1. FRUIT, as is generally understood, is the fleshy, juicy product of +some plant or tree which, when ripe, is suitable for use as food. +Although some fruits are seedless, they generally contain the seeds of +the plants or trees that produce them. Many fruits require cooking to +make them palatable, others are never cooked, and still others may be +cooked or eaten raw, as desired. + +Fruits, because they are wholesome, appetizing, and attractive, occupy a +valuable place in the diet. In fact, it is these qualities rather than +their food value that accounts for the popularity of fruits among all +people. In addition to causing fruits to appeal to the esthetic sense, +their attractiveness serves another important purpose. It is said that +Nature made them attractive in color, odor, and flavor in order that +birds might be allured to attack them for food and, by spreading the +seeds, assist in their propagation. + +2. Fruits are gradually growing to be less seasonal and more a daily +food, and are thus constantly becoming more prevalent in the diet. This +condition may be attributed to the present rapid means of transportation +and the excellent methods of cold storage that exist. Through these +agencies it is possible to ship more or less perishable fruits long +distances from their native localities and at times of the year other +than the particular season in which they are at their best in the places +where they are grown. Thus, fruits that were formerly considered a +luxury may now be served regularly, even on the tables of persons having +only moderate means. + +The fact that fruits are being more extensively used every day is as it +should be, for this food is entitled to an important place in the diet +of all persons. So important is fruit in the diet that it must be looked +on not as one of the things that may be taken or omitted as a person +wishes without making any difference either way, but as a food to +include in one form or another in nearly every meal. The child who is so +young that it cannot take any solid food may have fruit juices included +in its diet to decided advantage; but children who are slightly older +and adults may take the fruits cooked or raw instead of in the form +of juices. + +3. As far as the composition of fruits is concerned, it is such that +most fresh fruits are not particularly high in food value. However, they +are characterized by other qualities that make up for what they lack in +this respect; then, too, what they contain in the way of heat-producing +or tissue-building material is easily digestible. Most fruits contain +considerable acid, and this food substance makes them stimulating to the +appetite. Advantage of this fact is taken when fruits are served at the +beginning of a breakfast or when several of them are combined in a fruit +cocktail and served before luncheon or dinner. This acid produces real +stimulation in the stomach, resulting in a flow of gastric juice from +the glands of the stomach walls. In addition, the delightful color, the +fragrant odor, or the pleasant taste of fruit, although a mental effect, +is just as real and just as valuable as the actual stimulation of +the acids. + +4. Many fruits are eaten raw, while others are cooked either because +they require cooking to make them appetizing or because it is desired +not to use them in their raw state. The cooking of fruits has a variety +of effects on them, being sometimes advantageous and other times +detrimental. The flavor is always changed by the application of heat, +and in some cases the acid that fruit contains becomes stronger. On the +other hand, the fibrous material, or cellulose, of fruits is softened by +cooking and thus becomes more digestible. Then, too, the sugar that is +usually added to fruits in their cooking increases their food value. +Because of these facts, cooked fruits have considerable value and, like +raw fruits, should have an important place in the diet. Those fruits +which are dried and usually eaten raw, such as figs and dates, supply +much nourishment in an easily digestible form. + +5. The medicinal value of fruit has long been considered to be of +importance, but this may be almost entirely disregarded, for, with the +exception of the fact that most fruits are valuable as a laxative, there +is nothing to consider. However, several fruits, such as blackberries +and bananas, have an anti-laxative effect, and large quantities of +these should for the most part be avoided, especially in the feeding +of children. + +6. In general, fruits are divided into two classes, namely, food fruits +and flavor fruits. As their names imply, _food fruits_ are valuable as +food, whereas _flavor fruits_ are those distinguished by a +characteristic flavor. It should be remembered that the flavors, as well +as the odors, of fruits, are due chiefly to what is known as their +volatile, or ethereal, oils. Fruits in which these oils are very strong +are often irritating to certain persons and cause distress of some sort +after eating. + +7. In this Section, it is the purpose to acquaint the housewife with the +relative value and uses of the various kinds of fruit, to teach her the +best methods of preparation, and to supply her with recipes that will +encourage her to make greater use of this valuable food in her family's +diet. In this discussion, however, the general classification of fruits +is not followed. Instead, the various fruits are arranged alphabetically +under the headings Berries, Non-Tropical Fruits, Citrus Fruits, Tropical +Fruits, Melons, and Dried Fruits, in order to simplify matters. While it +is hardly possible to use fruits too extensively, they must not be +allowed to take the place of other more nourishing foods that are +required by the body. Therefore, in order to make proper use of them, +their value in the diet should not be overlooked. + + * * * * * + +NATURE OF FRUITS + +ADVANCE IN FRUIT CULTIVATION + +8. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between vegetables and +fruits. For instance, the tomato is in reality a fruit, but it is +commonly used as a vegetable, and rhubarb is more of a vegetable than a +fruit, but it is always used as a fruit. It can therefore be seen that +the line between vegetables and fruits is not clearly drawn. It is well +to remember that fruit is usually the edible pulpy mass covering the +seeds of various plants and trees, and that it is generally cooked or +eaten raw with sugar, whereas vegetables are seldom sweetened +in cooking. + +9. Great strides have been made in the cultivation of fruit. Many +varieties that formerly grew wild are now commonly cultivated. Most of +the cultivated fruits are superior to the same kind in the wild state, +at least in size and appearance, but often there seems to be a loss of +flavor. Through cultivation, some fruits that were almost inedible in +their wild state on account of containing so many seeds have been made +seedless. Also, through cross-cultivation, varieties of fruit different +from what formerly existed have been obtained. An example of such fruit +is the loganberry which is a cross between a red raspberry and a +blackberry and retains many of the qualities of each. However, some +small fruits, such as blueberries, or huckleberries, are still grown +wild and marketed only from their wild source. + +10. While fruit is usually improved by cultivation, there has been a +tendency through this means to produce fruits that will stand up for +long periods of time, so that they may be marketed at great distances +from the place where they are grown. For instance, apples, especially +those found in the market in the spring, and other fruits, which look +very fine, will many times be found to have a tough skin and to be +almost tasteless. + +In general, fruits of delicate flavor and texture cannot be kept very +long after they have ripened. To stand shipping, they must be picked in +their green stage; then if they are kept in the right temperature they +will ripen after picking. Bananas that are to be shipped a long distance +are picked when perfectly green, but by the time the consumer buys them +they are usually well ripened. In addition to bananas, a few other +tropical fruits are shipped out of their native climates in small +numbers and are sold at very high prices. However, many tropical fruits +cannot be shipped to the Northern States because of their +perishable nature. + + * * * * * + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS + +COMPOSITION OF FRUITS + +11. The composition of fruits is a matter of considerable importance, +for on it the food value of the fruits depends. To a certain extent, the +composition of all fruits is the same, but the varieties of this food +differ in their food values almost as greatly as do vegetables. Many of +them are extremely low in this respect, while a few of them are rather +high. In order to determine the place that fruit should have in a meal, +it is necessary to obtain a definite idea of the composition as well as +the food value of the different varieties. + +12. PROTEIN AND FAT IN FRUITS.--Such small quantities of protein and fat +are contained in fruits that very little attention need be given to +these substances. Exceptions are found in avocados, or alligator pears, +and in ripe olives, both of which are high in fat. Then, too, there is a +small amount of protein in grapes and some other fruits, but it is not +sufficient to merit consideration. + +13. CARBOHYDRATE IN FRUIT.--Whatever food value fruits may have, whether +it be high or low, is due to the carbohydrate they contain. Some green +fruits and bananas contain a very small amount of starch, but on the +whole the carbohydrate of fruits is in the form of sugar and is in +solution in the fruit juices. The chief form of this carbohydrate is +known as _levulose_, or _fruit sugar_. However, _glucose_, another form +of sugar, is also found in nearly all fruits, grapes and dried fruits, +such as figs, raisins, etc., containing an unusually large amount. In +addition, _cane sugar_ is contained in the majority of fruits. _Pectin_ +is also a carbohydrate that is found in large quantities in some fruits, +while in other fruits it is lacking. This substance is related to the +gums and to cellulose. Although it is one of the carbohydrates from +which no food value is derived, it is of considerable importance, +because it is responsible for the jelly-making properties of fruits. + +14. In fruits that are not fully matured, or, in other words, green +fruits, the sugar has not developed to so great an extent as it has in +perfectly ripe fruits. Consequently, such fruits are not so high in food +value as they are when they become ripe. As is well known, it is the +sugar of fruits that accounts for their sweet taste, for the sweeter the +fruits, the more sugar and the less acid they contain. The quantity of +this substance varies from 1 per cent. in lemons to 20 per cent. in some +other fresh fruits, such as plums. In dried fruits, the amount of sugar +is much higher, reaching as high as 60 per cent. or even more in such +fruits as figs, dates, and raisins. + +15. CELLULOSE IN FRUIT.--In fruits, as in vegetables, cellulose is found +in varying quantities. The larger the quantity, the lower will be the +food value of the fruit, except where the water has been evaporated, as +in the case of dried fruits. The digestibility of this cellulose, +however, is not worth considering, for, while it is possible that small +amounts of very young and tender cellulose from fruits may be digested, +on the whole this characteristic may be disregarded. The skins and seeds +of fruits, as well as the coarse material that helps to make up the +pulp, are known as refuse and are treated as such by the human digestive +tract; but it is to this waste material, or cellulose, that the laxative +quality of fruit is largely due. + +In cases where there are digestive or intestinal troubles, it is often +necessary to remove the cellulose before the fruit is eaten. The coarse +material may be removed and that which is more tender may be broken up +by pressing the fruit through a sieve or a strainer of some kind. The +cooking of fruits is another means of making the cellulose in them more +easily digested, for it softens, or disintegrates, the various particles +of the indigestible material. When fruit is taken for its laxative +effect and the irritation of the cellulose needs no consideration, the +skins of the fruits may be eaten instead of being rejected. However, to +avoid any trouble, they should be well chewed. + +16. Minerals in Fruit.--All fruits contain a certain percentage of +mineral salts. The quantity varies in the different kinds of fruits, but +it averages about 1 per cent. These salts have the opposite effect on +the blood from those found in meats and cereals, but they act in much +the same way as the minerals of vegetables. In other words, they have a +tendency to render the blood more alkaline and less acid. They are +therefore one of the food constituents that help to make fruit valuable +in the diet and should be retained as far as possible in its +preparation. In fact, any method that results in a loss of minerals is +not a good one to adopt in the preparation of fruits. + +The minerals commonly found in fruits are iron, lime, sodium, magnesium, +potash, and phosphorus. These are in solution in the fruit juices to a +very great extent, and when the juices are extracted the minerals +remain in them. + +17. Acids in Fruit.--Some fruits contain only a small amount of acid, +while others contain larger quantities. It is these acids, together with +the sugar and the volatile oils of fruits, that constitute the entire +flavor of this food. Most ripe fruits contain less acid than unripe +ones, and cooked fruits are often higher in acid than the same +fruits when raw. + +Numerous kinds of acid are found in the different varieties of fruits. +For example, lemons, oranges, grapefruit, and a few other fruits +belonging to the class known as citrus fruits contain _citric acid_; +peaches, plums, apricots, and apples, _malic acid_; and grapes and many +other fruits, _tartaric acid_. + + +TABLE I + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS + + | | | | | |Food Value +Fruit |Water|Protein| Fat |Carbo- |Mineral|per Pound, + | | | |hydrate|Matter |in Calories +------------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-------+----------- + | | | | | | +Apples, fresh |84.6 | .4 | .5 | 14.2 | .3 | 290 +Apples, dried |28.1 | 1.6 | 2.2 | 66.1 | 2.0 | 1,350 +Apricots, fresh |85.0 | 1.1 | -- | 13.4 | .5 | 270 +Apricots, dried |29.4 | 4.7 | 1.0 | 62.5 | 2.4 | 1,290 +Bananas |75.3 | 1.3 | .6 | 22.0 | .8 | 460 +Blackberries |86.3 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 10.9 | .5 | 270 +Cherries |80.9 | 1.0 | .8 | 16.7 | .6 | 365 +Cranberries |88.9 | .4 | .6 | 9.9 | .2 | 215 +Currants |85.0 | 1.5 | -- | 12.8 | .7 | 265 +Dates |15.4 | 2.1 | 2.8 | 78.4 | 1.3 | 1,615 +Figs, fresh |79.1 | 1.5 | -- | 18.8 | .6 | 380 +Figs, dried |18.8 | 4.3 | .3 | 74.2 | 2.4 | 1,475 +Grapefruit |86.9 | .8 | .2 | 11.6 | .5 | 240 +Grapes |77.4 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 19.2 | .5 | 450 +Huckleberries |81.9 | .6 | .6 | 16.6 | .3 | 345 +Lemons |89.3 | 1.0 | .7 | 8.5 | .5 | 205 +Muskmelons |89.5 | .6 | -- | 9.3 | .6 | 185 +Nectarines |82.9 | .6 | -- | 15.9 | .6 | 305 +Oranges |86.9 | .8 | .2 | 11.6 | .5 | 240 +Peaches |89.4 | .7 | .1 | 9.4 | .4 | 190 +Pears |84.4 | .6 | .5 | 14.1 | .4 | 295 +Persimmons |66.1 | .8 | .7 | 31.5 | .9 | 630 +Pineapple |89.3 | .4 | .3 | 9.7 | .3 | 200 +Plums |78.4 | 1.0 | -- | 20.1 | .5 | 395 +Pomegranates |76.8 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 19.5 | .6 | 460 +Prunes, fresh |79.6 | .9 | -- | 18.9 | .6 | 370 +Prunes, dried |22.3 | 2.1 | -- | 73.3 | 2.3 | 1,400 +Raisins |14.6 | 2.6 | 3.3 | 76.1 | 3.4 | 1,605 +Raspberries, red |85.8 | 1.0 | -- | 12.6 | .6 | 255 +Raspberries, black|84.1 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 12.6 | .6 | 310 +Rhubarb |94.4 | .6 | .7 | 3.6 | .7 | 105 +Strawberries |90.4 | 1.0 | .6 | 7.4 | .6 | 180 +Watermelon |92.4 | .4 | .2 | 6.7 | .3 | 140 +------------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-------+----------- + +18. The juice of fruits that contain very little sugar and a large +quantity of acid, such as the lemon, may be used for the seasoning of +food in much the same way that vinegar is used. It may also be diluted +with other liquids and used for a beverage. Then, again, various kinds +of fruit juices are subjected to a process of fermentation and, through +the production of another acid, are made into vinegar and wines. When +apples are treated in this way, the fermentation produces _acetic acid_ +and, in addition, a certain amount of alcohol. It is on this principle +that the making of wines depends. + +19. WATER IN FRUIT.--The water content of fresh fruits is very high, +reaching 94 per cent. in some varieties. Dried fruits, on the other +hand, contain much less water, their content being in some cases as low +as 15 to 20 per cent. It naturally follows that the fruits low in water +are high in food value, while those containing considerable water have +in their composition less of the material that adds food value. The high +percentage of water in fresh fruits, together with the acids they +contain, accounts for the fact that these fruits are so refreshing. +Fruits of this kind, in addition to having this refreshing quality, help +to provide the necessary liquid in the diet. + +20. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS.--Just as fruits +vary in their composition, so do they vary in their food value. This +fact is clearly shown in Table I, which gives the percentage of food +substances contained in different fruits and the food value per pound, +in calories, that these fruits contain. As in the table showing the +composition and food value of vegetables given in _Vegetables_, Part 1, +the figures in this table are taken from Atwater's Table of American +Food Materials and refer to the edible part of the material. Reference +to Table I, as progress is made with the study of fruits and their +preparation, will be of much assistance in learning the place that +fruits occupy in the dietary. + + +FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS + +21. EFFECT OF RIPENESS ON FRUITS.--There is a very marked difference +between ripe and green fruits as to their composition, flavor, texture, +palatability, and digestibility. Green fruits, containing more acid than +ripe ones, serve some purposes for which ripe fruits of the same variety +cannot be used so well. For instance, a very much better jelly can be +made from grapes that are not entirely ripe than from those which have +completely ripened. Green fruits contain less sugar than do ripe ones, +and so they are more sour to the taste. In some cases, the carbohydrate +found in green fruits is partly in the form of starch, which in the +process of development is changed to sugar. The cellulose of green +fruits, especially that distributed throughout the pulp of the fruit +itself, is usually tougher and harder than that which is found in the +same fruit after it has ripened. + +22. DIGESTIBILITY OF FRUITS.--The ripeness and freshness of fruits +determine their digestibility to a great extent, but the peculiarities +of each person have much to do with this matter. Many times a particular +fruit will agree with almost every one but a few exceptional persons, +and, for no apparent reason except their own peculiarities of digestion, +it disagrees very badly with them. Abnormal conditions of the alimentary +tract, however, cannot be taken into consideration in a general +discussion on the digestibility of foods, for it is a subject that +cannot be treated except from a dietetic standpoint. A safe rule to +follow when a fruit is found to disagree with a person is to omit it +from that person's diet. This need not prove a hardship, for the wide +range, or variety, of fruits makes it possible to find one or more kinds +that will agree with each person. + +23. As has been explained, sugar is the food material from which the +nutritive value of fruits is obtained. With the exception of a few +predigested foods, manufactured in such a way that they can be digested +easily, this sugar is probably the most easily digested form of food +that can be obtained. This substance, being held in solution in the +fruit juices, which are encased in a cellulose covering, depends to some +extent for its digestion on the hardness of the cellulose. When this +covering is old and hard or green and tough, as the case may be, it is +difficult for the digestive juices to break through and attack the sugar +contained inside. As this difficulty is not encountered when fruit is +fresh and ripe, its freshness and ripeness become important factors in +digestibility. Cooking is also an important factor because it softens +the cellulose, but there are certain other changes made by cooking that +must be taken into consideration as well. + +24. EFFECT OF COOKING ON FRUIT.--Cooking affects fruits in numerous +ways, depending on the condition of the fruit itself, the method used, +and the length of time the heat is applied. When fruits are cooked in +water or in a thin sirup, the cellulose becomes softened. On the other +hand, if they are cooked in a heavy sirup, as, for instance, in the +making of preserves, the cellulose becomes hardened and the fruit, +instead of breaking up, remains whole or nearly so and becomes tough +and hard in texture. The addition of quantities of sugar, as in the +latter case, besides helping to keep the fruit whole, increases its +food value. + +25. Another change that usually takes place when fruit is cooked is in +its flavor. This change is due either to an increase in the acid +contained in the fruit or to a decrease in the amount of sugar. Some +authorities believe that cooking increases the amount of acid, while +others hold the view that, when fruit is cooked without removing the +skins and seeds, the acid contained in the seeds and skins and not +noticeable when the fruit is fresh, is released during the cooking. Such +is undoubtedly the case with plums. The change that is brought about in +the sugar by the cooking of fruits consists in changing the cane sugar +into levulose and dextrose, which are not so sweet. This change accounts +for the fact that some cooked fruits are less sweet than others, in +spite of the fact that the acid does not seem to be increased. + +26. In addition to producing certain changes in fruit, cooking, if done +thoroughly, renders fruits sterile, as it does other foods; that is, it +kills any bacteria that the fruits may contain. Advantage of this fact +is taken when fruits are canned for future use. Although most persons +prefer raw fruit to that which is cooked, there are some who object to +eating this food raw, but who are not always certain as to the reason +for their objection. Like other raw foods, fruits in their fresh state +contain _vitamines_; that is, a substance that helps to keep the body in +a healthy, normal condition. These are found to some extent in cooked +fruits, but not in the same quantity as in raw ones; consequently, as +much use as possible should be made of raw fruits in the diet. + + * * * * * + +FRUITS AND THEIR PREPARATION AS FOOD + +PREPARING AND SERVING + +27. REQUIRED SANITARY CONDITIONS.--Since large quantities of fruits are +eaten raw, it is necessary that they be handled in the most sanitary +manner if disease from their use be prevented. However, they are often +in an unsanitary condition when they reach the housewife. For instance, +they become contaminated from the soiled hands of the persons who handle +them, from the dirt deposited on them during their growth, from the +fertilizer that may be used on the soil, from flies and other insects +that may crawl over them, and from being stored, displayed, or sold in +surroundings where they may be exposed to the dirt from streets and +other contaminating sources. Because of the possibility of all these +sources of contamination, it is essential that fruits that are not to be +cooked be thoroughly washed before they are eaten. It is true that a +certain amount of flavor or food material may be lost from the washing, +but this is of little importance compared with the possibility of +preventing disease. + +28. WASHING FRUITS.--The manner of washing fruits depends largely on the +nature of the fruit. Fruits that have a sticky surface, such as raisins, +figs, and dates, usually have to be washed in several waters. Hard +fruits, such as pears, apples, plums, etc., should be washed with +running water. Berries and softer fruits require more careful procedure, +it usually being advisable to pour them into a pan containing water and +then, after stirring them around in the water until all dirt is removed, +take them from the water, rather than pour the water from them. In any +event, all fruits eaten raw should be properly washed. + +29. SERVING FRUITS.--While the serving of fruits is a simple matter, it +should be done in as dainty a way as possible, so as not to detract from +their natural attractiveness. If the skins are to remain on the fruits +while serving, a knife, preferably a fruit knife, should be served with +them, and nothing smaller than a salad plate should be used. The +carefully washed leaves of the fruit served make an attractive garnish. +For instance, large, perfect strawberries with the stems on, when heaped +on a plate garnished with strawberry leaves and served with a small dish +of powdered sugar, are always attractive. Likewise, a bunch of grapes +served on grape leaves never fails to attract. + +A mixture of a number of fruits, such as peaches, pears, and plums, or, +in winter, oranges, bananas, and apples, piled in a large bowl and +passed after salad plates have been distributed, not only makes an +excellent dessert, but permits the persons served to take their choice. + +Fresh berries, sliced peaches, bananas, oranges, etc. may be served in +sauce dishes, which should be placed on a service plate. They may be +passed or served from a bowl by the hostess. Canned or stewed fruits may +be served in the same way. + + * * * * * + +BERRIES + +NATURE AND CARE + +30. BERRIES are among the most perishable fruits and begin to come into +market early in the summer season. In most localities, the berry season +begins with strawberries and ends with blackberries. Because the +numerous varieties are somewhat juicy and soft and therefore extremely +perishable, they will not stand shipping and storage for long periods of +time. The quality of berries depends much on the nature of the season, +as well as on the locality in which the berries are grown. If there is a +good supply of rain, the berries will be very moist, containing a large +amount of pulp in proportion to seeds and skins; but if the season is +very dry, the berries are likely to be less moist and consequently less +palatable. A general use of berries, and to almost every one the most +important, is the making of jams, jellies, and preserves. + +In the preparation of berries for the table, they should be handled as +little as possible in order to prevent them from breaking up and losing +their shape. After being purchased, they should be kept where it is cool +until they are to be used. It is advisable not to wash them until just +before serving, as the extra handling usually bruises them and causes +them to spoil. + +The different varieties of berries are here taken up in alphabetical +order so as to make the matter easy for reference. Those of which +extensive use is made contain one or more recipes that may be followed +without any hesitation. In a few instances, as in the case of currants, +recipes are not included, as the fruits are limited to only a few uses +and directions for these occur elsewhere. + + +BLACKBERRIES + +31. BLACKBERRIES come late in the summer season. Good varieties of +cultivated blackberries, which are large in size and contain +comparatively few seeds, are the best for use. However, in some +localities, uncultivated blackberries grow in sufficient quantities to +be useful for food. Blackberries are used extensively for jam, as they +make an excellent kind that appeals to most persons. Their juice may be +used for jelly, but if the berries are to be utilized most successfully +in this way they must be picked before they are thoroughly ripe or some +fruit that will supply an additional quantity of pectin may have to be +combined with them. Fresh blackberries may be served for dessert with +sugar and cream. Otherwise, the use of this fruit in desserts is not +very extensive, except where the canned berries are used for pastry or +pie or are eaten for sauce or where the jam is used in making up various +dessert dishes. + +Very little preparation is necessary in getting blackberries ready to +serve. They should simply be looked over carefully, so that all +imperfect ones and all foreign matter may be removed, and then washed in +cold water. + +32. BLACKBERRY SPONGE.--One of the few desserts made from fresh +blackberries is that explained in the accompanying recipe and known as +blackberry sponge. This is very delicious, for the berries are combined +with cake and the combination then served with whipped cream. + +BLACKBERRY SPONGE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. blackberries +3/4 c. sugar +1 c. water +4 pieces plain loaf or sponge cake +Whipped cream + +Heat half of the berries with the sugar and the water until they are +mushy. Then force the whole through a sieve. Cut the cake into cubes and +put them into a bowl. Pour the juice and the blackberry pulp on the +cake. Press the mixture down with a spoon until it is quite solid and +set in the refrigerator or some other cold place to cool. Turn out of +the bowl on a large plate, garnish with the remaining berries, heap with +the whipped cream, and serve. + + +BLUEBERRIES + +33. BLUEBERRIES, which are not cultivated, but grow in the wild state, +are a many-seeded berry, blue or bluish-black in color. _Huckleberries_, +although belonging to a different class, are commonly regarded as +blueberries by many persons. Berries of this kind occur in many +varieties. Some grow on low bushes close to the ground, others are found +on taller bushes, and still others grow on very tall bushes. Again, some +grow in dry ground in a mountainous region, others grow in a level, +sandy soil, and other varieties succeed better on swampy soil. Berries +of this class are not so perishable as most other berries, but in many +localities they cannot be purchased at all, for, as a rule, they are +used only in the immediate vicinity in which they grow. + +Blueberries have small seeds and coarse, tough skins. They contain very +little acid, but are excellent for pies and sauce. However, they will +make jelly very well if there are a few partly ripe berries among them, +and their flavor is improved if some fruit containing acid is added to +them. To prepare them for use, whether they are to be served raw or +cooked, look them over carefully in order that all green or spoiled ones +are removed and then wash them well in cold water. + +34. PRESSED BLUEBERRY PUDDING.--A delicious pudding can be made by +combining blueberries with slices of bread. The accompanying recipe +gives directions for pudding of this kind. + +PRESSED BLUEBERRY PUDDING +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 qt. blueberries +1 c. water +1/2 c. sugar +8 slices bread +Whipped cream + +Put the blueberries, water, and sugar into a saucepan and boil for a +few minutes. Put four of the slices of bread, which should be cut about +1/2 inch thick, in the bottom of a square pan. Pour one-half of the +blueberries and the juice over the bread, and put the four remaining +slices of bread on top of the berries. Pour the rest of the blueberries +and juice over the bread. Place another square pan over the top and +weight it down so as to press the pudding. Then set the pudding in the +refrigerator until it is cool. Cut into squares, remove from the pan, +and serve with sweetened whipped cream. + +35. BLUEBERRY PUDDING.--A baking-powder-biscuit dough baked with +blueberries makes a very appetizing dessert. To serve with a pudding of +this kind, a cream or a hard sauce should be made. + +BLUEBERRY PUDDING +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +Baking-powder-biscuit dough +1 qt. blueberries +1/2 c. sugar + +Make a rather thin baking-powder-biscuit mixture. Spread a layer of this +in the bottom of a square pan and cover it with a layer of the +blueberries. Pour 1/4 cupful of the sugar over the berries and then +cover with another layer of the dough. Over this, pour the remainder of +the berries and sprinkle the rest of the sugar over all. Place in the +oven and bake for about 20 minutes. Remove from the oven, cut into +squares, and serve with cream or hard sauce. + + +CRANBERRIES + +36. CRANBERRIES grow wild in many localities, but most persons who use +them buy them in the market as a cultivated fruit. Their season begins +in the fall and lasts until early spring, and during this time they can +usually be obtained in the market. They contain considerable acid and +consequently require a great deal of sugar to make them sufficiently +sweet to be palatable. They are more often served as an accompaniment to +a dinner course, especially with turkey or other poultry, than eaten as +a sauce. At times they are used in the making of muffins, pudding, and +various kinds of pastry. + +One of the advantages of cranberries is that they keep very well in the +raw state. However, before they are cooked, they should be looked over +carefully, freed of any stems, foreign material, and spoiled berries, +and then washed thoroughly in cold water. + +37. CRANBERRY SAUCE.--One can hardly imagine a turkey dinner without +cranberry sauce as one of the accompaniments; but it may be served when +meats other than turkey are used. In fact, because of its tart flavor, +it forms a most appetizing addition to any meal. + +CRANBERRY SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. water +2 c. sugar +4 c. cranberries + +Add the water to the cranberries and place over the fire to cook in a +closely covered kettle. As soon as the skins of the berries have +cracked, add the sugar. Cook slowly for a few minutes or until the sugar +is completely dissolved. Remove from the fire and cool before serving. + +38. CRANBERRY JELLY.--If the cranberries are preferred without the +skins, cranberry jelly should be tried. When cool, this solidifies and +may be served in attractive ways. + +CRANBERRY JELLY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. water +1 qt. cranberries +2 c. sugar + +Pour the water over the cranberries and cook them for 10 or 15 minutes. +Then mash them through a sieve or a colander with a wooden potato +masher. Add the sugar to the mashed cranberries. Return to the heat and +cook for 5 to 8 minutes longer. Turn into a mold and cool. + + +RASPBERRIES + +39. RASPBERRIES come in two general varieties, which are commonly known +as _red_ and _black_. There are many species of each kind, and all of +them are much favored, as they are delicious fruit. As a raw fruit, +raspberries have their most satisfactory use, but they may be made into +several excellent desserts and they are also much used for canning and +preserving. They are a perishable fruit and so do not keep well. Because +of their softness, they have to be washed very carefully to prevent +them from breaking or becoming mushy. + +40. RED-RASPBERRY WHIP.--No more dainty dessert can be made than +raspberry whip, which is explained in the accompanying recipe. Cake that +is not very rich, such as ladyfingers or sponge cake, makes a very good +accompaniment for this dessert. + +RED-RASPBERRY WHIP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. raspberries +1 c. powdered sugar +2 egg whites + +Put the raspberries, sugar, and egg whites into a bowl. Mash the berries +before starting to whip. Beat the mixture with an egg whip until it is +reduced to a pulpy mass and is stiff and fluffy. Pile lightly into a +bowl, chill, and serve with ladyfingers or sponge cake. + +41. RASPBERRY SHORTCAKE.--Either black or red raspberries make a +delicious shortcake when combined with a cake or a biscuit mixture. +Directions for making such a shortcake are given in the +accompanying recipe. + +RASPBERRY SHORTCAKE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. raspberries +1 c. sugar +Biscuit or plain-cake dough + +Mash or chop the berries, as preferred, and add the sugar to them. Bake +the biscuit or plain-cake dough in a single, thick layer, and when it +has been removed from the pan split it into halves with a sharp knife. +Spread half the berries between the two pieces of biscuit or cake and +the remaining half on top. Cut into pieces of the desired size and serve +with plain or whipped cream. + + +STRAWBERRIES + +42. STRAWBERRIES are perhaps more popular than any other kind of berry. +They are reddish in color, have a somewhat acid flavor, and range in +size from 1/2 inch to 2 inches in diameter. Strawberries are much used +for jams and preserves; they may also be used for making a delicious +jelly, but as they lack pectin this ingredient must be supplied. These +berries are eaten fresh to a great extent, but are also much used for +pastry making and for various kinds of dessert; in fact, there is +practically no limit to the number of recipes that may be given for +strawberries. Before they are used in any way, they should be washed +thoroughly in cold water and then their hulls should be removed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +43. STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE.--For strawberry shortcake, either a biscuit or +a plain-cake mixture may be used, some persons preferring the one and +other persons the other. This may be made in a large cake, as shown in +Fig. 1, and then cut into pieces, or it may be made into individual +cakes, as Fig. 2 shows. Whichever plan is followed, the cakes are split +in the same way and the crushed berries inserted between the halves. +This dish may be made more attractive in appearance if a few of the +finest berries are saved and used as a garniture. + +STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. strawberries +1 c. sugar +Biscuit or plain cake dough + +Mash or chop the berries, add the sugar to them, and let them stand +until the sugar has dissolved. Bake the biscuit or plain-cake dough in a +single thick layer or, if desired, bake it in individual cakes, cutting +the biscuit dough with a cookie cutter and putting the cake mixture in +muffin pans. Remove from the pan, cut in two with a sharp knife, and +spread half of the berries over the lower piece. Set the upper piece on +the berries. In the case of the large cake, sprinkle powdered sugar over +the top and then on this arrange a number of the largest and finest of +the berries, as Fig. 1 shows, as a garniture. Cut in pieces of the +desired size and serve with or without either plain or whipped cream. In +preparing the individual cakes, spread a spoonful or two of the crushed +berries over the top, as Fig. 2 shows, and serve with whipped cream. + +44. STRAWBERRY WHIP.--Strawberries may be used instead of raspberries in +the recipe for red-raspberry whip. When prepared in this way and served +with fresh cake, strawberries make a very appetizing dessert. + +45. OTHER STRAWBERRY DESSERTS.--If it is desired to serve strawberries +just with sugar, they can be made attractive with very little effort. +Garnish a plate with some of the strawberry leaves and on them place a +few fine large strawberries that have been washed but have not had the +hulls removed. Serve a small dish of powdered sugar with the +strawberries, so that they may be dipped into the sugar and eaten by +holding the hull of the berry in the fingers. Strawberries crushed with +sugar and served with blanc mange or custard also make a very +delicious dessert. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + + +MISCELLANEOUS BERRIES + +46. CURRANTS come in three varieties--red, white, and black. They are +not often eaten fresh, but are generally utilized for making jellies, +jams, and preserves, or for pastry and pies. When they are to be used +for jelly, it is not necessary to pick them from the stems, as they may +be washed and cooked on their stems. Some varieties of currants are +dried and these are used extensively in the making of cakes, cookies, +etc. The usefulness of this fruit as a food is not so great as many +others. No recipes are given for it because of its little use in the +fresh form. + +47. GOOSEBERRIES, like currants, are somewhat limited in their variety +of uses, being seldom used except for jelly, preserves, and pies. Before +gooseberries are ripe they are light green in color and rather sour in +taste, but as they ripen the amount of acid they contain decreases, so +that they become sweet in flavor and change to brownish-purple. Green +gooseberries are often canned for pies, and when in this state or when +partly ripe they are also made up into many kinds of preserves and +jelly. In their preparation for these uses, both the stems and the +blossom ends should be removed. As a rule, berries of this kind keep +very well and stand considerable handling because their outside skin is +very tough. + +48. LOGANBERRIES are a fruit produced by crossing a variety of red +raspberries with a species of blackberry. They are not very common, but +are an excellent berry and are well liked by those who can obtain them. +They may be used for any purpose for which either raspberries or +blackberries are used. Therefore, in the recipes given for these two +kinds of berries, loganberries may be substituted whenever they can +be obtained. + + * * * * * + + +NON-TROPICAL FRUITS + +NATURE AND USE + +49. Besides the berries that have just been described, there are a large +number of fruits that are grown in temperate climates and are therefore +regarded as NON-TROPICAL FRUITS. Extensive use is made of these fruits +in the regions in which they are grown or in places that are within easy +shipping distances of the source of supply. All of them have a +protective covering, or skin, and consequently keep for long periods of +time if they are not too ripe when picked. Those which contain the +highest percentage of water are the most perishable. + + +APPLES + +50. APPLES, of which there are at least a thousand varieties, are +probably the best known of the non-tropical fruits. Some apples mature +early in the summer, while others do not ripen until late in the fall. +The late apples can be kept during the entire winter if they are +properly stored, but the summer varieties must generally be used +immediately, as they do not have good keeping qualities. In each +locality in which apples are grown, a few varieties seem to be +especially popular and are used to the exclusion of others. Some apples +are good for one purpose and some for another. For instance, many that +are excellent if eaten raw are not good for cooking purposes, and others +that cook well are not suitable for eating. It is therefore a good idea +for the housewife to become familiar with the varieties of apples raised +in her community and to learn the use to which each kind can be put to +advantage. + +Apples of all kinds may be prepared in a large variety of ways. They are +much used for sauce, pie, and numerous desserts, as well as for jelly +and, with various fruit mixtures, for jams and preserves. The juice of +apples, which upon being extracted is known as _cider_, is used in a +number of ways, but its most important use is in the manufacture +of vinegar. + +51. APPLE SAUCE.--When apple sauce is to be made, apples that are +somewhat sour and that will cook soft easily should be selected. This is +a dessert that can be made all during the winter when it is often +difficult to obtain other fruits fresh. It is usually served when roast +pork is the main dish of a meal, but is just as appetizing when served +with other foods. + +APPLE SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +10 medium-sized apples +1/2 c. water +1 c. sugar + +Wash the apples, cut them in quarters, remove the cores, and, if +desired, peel them. Put them into a saucepan, add the water, and allow +them to cook until they are very soft. If the apples are inclined to be +dry, a little more water may be necessary. When done, force them through +a colander or a sieve, add the sugar to the pulp, and return to the +stove. Cook until the sugar is completely dissolved and, if necessary, +until the apple sauce is slightly thickened, stirring frequently to +prevent scorching. Remove from the heat, and season with lemon peel cut +fine, cinnamon, or nutmeg. + +If there are apples in supply that do not cook well for apple sauce, +they may be peeled, quartered, and cored, and cooked with the sugar and +water. Then, instead of being forced through a sieve, they should be +allowed to remain in pieces in the sirup. + +52. PORCUPINE APPLES.--A pleasing change in the way of an apple dessert +may be had by making porcupine apples. + +PORCUPINE APPLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 large apples +1 c. sugar +1 c. water +2 doz. almonds +Currant jelly + +Wash, core, and pare the apples. Make a sirup by bringing the sugar and +water to the boiling point. Put the apples into the sirup, cook on one +side for several minutes, and then turn and cook on the other side. Do +not allow the apples to cook completely in the sirup, but when they are +still hard remove them and continue to boil the sirup down. Set the +apples in a shallow pan, stick the almonds, which should be blanched, +into them so that they will project like porcupine quills, sprinkle them +with sugar, and bake in the oven until they are soft and the almonds +slightly brown. Remove from the oven, fill the center of each with +currant jelly, pour the juice over them, and serve. + +53. BAKED APPLES.--Nothing is more palatable than baked apples if a +juicy, sour variety can be secured. + +BAKED APPLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 medium-sized sour apples +1/2 c. brown sugar +1/2 tsp. cinnamon +1 Tb. butter +1/2 c. water + +Wash and core the apples, place them in a baking dish, and fill the +centers with the brown sugar mixed with the cinnamon. Put a small piece +of butter on top of each apple, pour the water in the bottom of the pan, +set in the oven, and bake until the apples are soft. Baste frequently +with the juice that collects in the bottom of the pan. Serve hot or +cold, as desired. + +Apples baked in this way may be improved in flavor by serving grape +juice over them. Heat the grape juice, and then, if the apples are to be +served hot, pour about 2 tablespoonfuls over each apple just before +serving. In case the apples are to be served cold, pour the hot grape +juice over them and then allow them to cool. + +54. MAPLE APPLES.--Apples cooked in maple sirup have a very pleasing +flavor. The sirup that remains in the pan is poured over the apples when +they are served. + +MAPLE APPLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 medium-sized apples +1 c. maple sirup + +Wash, peel, and core the apples. Bring the maple sirup to the boiling +point in a saucepan. Drop the apples into the hot sirup, cook first on +one side, and then turn and cook on the other. As soon as they become +soft, remove from the sirup, pour the sirup over them, and serve. + +55. STEAMED APPLES.--If it is desired to retain the color in apples that +have red skins, they should be steamed instead of baked, for the color +is lost in baking. Prepare apples that are to be steamed by washing them +and removing the cores. Place the apples in a pan with a perforated +bottom, put this over a pan of boiling water, cover closely, and steam +until they are soft. Serve in any desired way. They will be found to be +delicious in flavor and attractive in appearance. + + +APRICOTS + +56. APRICOTS, in appearance, are a cross between peaches and plums. They +are grown extensively in the western part of the United States, but they +can be grown in any climate where peaches and plums are raised. As they +contain considerable acid, they require a large quantity of sugar when +they are cooked with their skins and seeds. They are used most +frequently for canning, but they make excellent marmalades and jams. +They are also dried in large quantities and, in this form, make +delicious desserts. + +57. APRICOT SOUFFLÉ.--No more attractive as well as delicious dessert +can be prepared than apricot soufflé, which is illustrated in Fig. 3. +The apricots are just tart enough to give it a very pleasing flavor. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +APRICOT SOUFFLÉ +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +4 Tb. flour +1/3 c. sugar +Pinch of salt +1 c. scalded milk +3 eggs +1/2 tsp. vanilla +1 can apricots + +Melt the butter, add the flour, sugar, and salt, and stir in the hot +milk. Bring this mixture to the boiling point. Separate the yolks and +whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks until they are thick and +lemon-colored, and then pour the hot mixture over them, stirring +constantly to prevent the eggs from curding. Beat the whites until they +are stiff, fold them into the mixture, and add the vanilla. Place the +apricots without juice in a layer on the bottom of the buttered baking +dish, pour the mixture over them, and bake for 45 to 60 minutes in a hot +oven, when it should be baked through and slightly brown on top and +should appear as in Fig. 3. Remove from the oven and serve with the +sirup from the apricots. Whipped cream may also be added if desired. + + +CHERRIES + +58. CHERRIES come in numerous varieties, some of which are sweet and +others sour. The method of using them in cookery depends largely on the +kind of cherry that is to be used. Any of the varieties may be canned +with varying quantities of sugar and then used for sauce. They also make +excellent preserves, especially the sour varieties. However, they do not +contain pectin in sufficient quantity for jelly, so that when cherry +jelly is desired, other fruit or material containing pectin must be used +with the cherries. When purchased in the market, cherries usually have +their stems on. They should be washed before the stems are removed. The +seeds may be taken out by hand or by means of cherry seeders made +especially for this purpose. + +59. CHERRY FRITTERS.--Something different in the way of dessert can be +had by making cherry fritters according to the accompanying recipe. + +CHERRY FRITTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. flour +2 tsp. baking powder +1/4 tsp. salt +2 Tb. sugar +1/2 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. cherries cut into halves + +Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk and egg, and beat all +together well. Add the melted butter and fold in the cherries. Drop by +spoonfuls into hot fat and fry until brown. Remove from the fat, +sprinkle with powdered sugar, and serve. + + +GRAPES + +60. GRAPES are a fruit extensively cultivated both for eating and for +the making of wines and raisins. Although found in many varieties, they +naturally divide themselves into two general classes: those which retain +their skins, such as the Malaga, Tokay, Muscat, Cornichon, Emperor, +etc., and those which slip out of their skins easily, such as the +Concord, Niagara, Delaware, Catawba, etc. + +Grapes are much used as a fresh fruit. When they are to be used in this +way, the bunches should be put into a colander and washed thoroughly by +running cold water over them. Then all the imperfect ones should be +removed and the grapes kept cool until they are to be served. Clean +grape leaves make an attractive garnish for the individual plates or the +serving dish on which the grapes are placed. Grapes are also used +extensively for making jelly and grape juice, a beverage that is +well liked. + +61. It will be found that through proper care grapes can be kept a long +time in the fall after they are removed from the vines, provided perfect +bunches are obtained and they are picked before they have become too +ripe. To preserve such grapes, dip the ends of the stems into melted +sealing wax in order to prevent the evaporation of moisture through the +stems. Then, in a cool, dry place, lay the bunches out on racks in a +single layer, taking care not to crush nor bruise them. + +62. UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITH WATER.--Grape juice may be made either +with or without water. That in which water is used in the making usually +requires no diluting when it is served as a beverage. Concord grapes are +perhaps used more commonly for the making of grape juice than any other +variety, but other kinds, particularly Catawbas and Niagaras, may be +used as well. + +UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITH WATER + +12 qt. grapes +2 qt. water +4 lb. sugar + +Wash the grapes and remove them from the stems. Put them with the water +into a preserving kettle, and heat gradually until the skins of the +grapes burst. Dip off as much juice as possible, and put it into a jelly +bag. Continue to heat and dip off the juice in this way until the pulp +is comparatively dry. Then add a little more water to the pulp and put +it in the bag to drip. When all the juice has dripped through the bag, +pour it back into the preserving kettle, add the sugar, and bring to the +boiling point. Stir frequently, so that the sugar will be well +dissolved. Pour into jars or bottles, seal, and sterilize by cooking for +about 5 minutes in hot water that nearly covers the bottles. Any large +receptacle that will hold sufficient water may be used as a sterilizer. + +63. UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITHOUT WATER.--When grape juice is made +without water, it is both thick and rich. Consequently, it should +usually be diluted with water when it is served as a beverage. + +UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITHOUT WATER + +12 qt. grapes +3 lb. sugar + +Wash the grapes, remove them from the stems, and put them into a +preserving kettle. Heat very slowly and mash with a spoon, so that +enough juice will be pressed out and thus prevent the grapes from +scorching. Remove the juice as it forms and put it into a jelly bag. +When all of it has been taken from the grapes and strained through the +jelly bag, strain the pulp and put all the juice into a preserving +kettle, add the sugar, and bring to the boiling point. Pour into bottles +or jars, seal, and sterilize in a water bath for about 5 minutes. + + +PEACHES + +64. PEACHES may be divided into two general classes: those having a +yellow skin and those having a white skin. In each of these classes are +found both _clingstone_ and _freestone_ peaches; that is, peaches whose +pulp adheres tightly to the seed, or stone, and those in which the pulp +can be separated easily from the stone. When peaches are purchased for +canning or for any use in which it is necessary to remove the seeds, +freestones should be selected. Clingstones may be used when the stones +are allowed to remain in the fruit, as in pickled peaches, and for jams, +preserves, or butters, in which small pieces may be used or the entire +peach mashed. Whether to select yellow or white peaches, however, is +merely a matter of taste, as some persons prefer one kind and some +the other. + +65. Peaches are not satisfactory for jelly making, because they do not +contain pectin. However, the juice of peaches makes a very good sirup if +it is sweetened and cooked until it is thick. Such sirup is really just +as delicious as maple sirup with griddle cakes. Peaches are used to a +large extent for canning and are also made into preserves, jams, and +butters. In addition, they are much used without cooking, for they are +favored by most persons. When they are to be served whole, they should +be washed and then wiped with a damp cloth to remove the fuzz. The skins +may be removed by blanching the peaches in boiling water or peeling them +with a sharp knife. If they are then sliced or cut in any desirable way +and served with cream and sugar, they make a delicious dessert. + +66. STEWED PEACHES.--Fresh stewed peaches make a very desirable dessert +to serve with simple cake or cookies. Children may very readily eat such +dessert without danger of digestive disturbances. Adding a tablespoonful +of butter to the hot stewed peaches and then serving them over freshly +made toast makes a delightful breakfast dish. The cooked peaches may +also be run through a sieve, reheated with a little flour or corn starch +to thicken them slightly, and then served hot on buttered toast. + +STEWED PEACHES +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1-1/2 qt. peaches +1 lb. sugar +1 c. water + +Peel the peaches, cut into halves, and remove the seeds. Put the sugar +and water over the fire to cook in a saucepan and bring to a rapid boil. +Add the peaches and cook until they may be easily pierced with a fork. + +67. BAKED PEACHES.--When peaches are to be baked, select large firm +ones. Wash them thoroughly and cut them into halves, removing the +stones. Place the peaches in a shallow pan, fill the cavities with +sugar, and dot the top of each half with butter. Set in the oven and +bake until the peaches become soft. Serve hot or cold, either with or +without cream, as desired. + + +PEARS + +68. PEARS, like apples, come in summer and winter varieties. The summer +varieties must be utilized during the summer and early fall or must be +canned at this time to preserve them for future use. Winter pears, +however, may be stored, for they keep like apples. A number of the small +varieties of pears are much used for pickling. Pears are most valuable +when they are canned and used for sauce. They cannot be used for jelly, +because they do not contain sufficient acid nor pectin. The juice from +canned pears, because of its mild flavor, is often found to be valuable +in the feeding of invalids or persons who have gastric troubles. It is +usually advisable to pick pears before they are entirely ripe, for then +they may be kept for a considerable length of time and will +ripen slowly. + +69. BAKED PEARS.--Although pears are rather mild in flavor, they are +delicious when baked if lemon is added. Wash thoroughly pears that are +to be baked, cut them into halves, and remove the cores. Place them in a +shallow pan, fill the holes in the center with sugar, dot with butter, +and place a thin slice of lemon over each piece. Pour a few spoonfuls of +water into the pan, set in the oven, and bake until the pears can be +easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the oven and serve hot or cold. + + +PLUMS + +70. PLUMS are among the very strong acid fruits. Some varieties of them +seem to be more tart after they are cooked than before, but, as already +explained, this condition is due to the fact that the acid contained in +the skin and around the seeds is liberated during the cooking. This +fruit, of which there are numerous varieties, is generally used for +canning, preserving, etc. It does not make jelly successfully in all +cases unless some material containing pectin is added. Very firm plums +may have the skins removed by blanching if it seems advisable to +take them off. + +71. STEWED PLUMS.--Because of the many varieties of plums with their +varying degrees of acidity, it is difficult to make a recipe with a +quantity of sugar that will suit all kinds. The recipe given here is +suitable for medium sour plums, such as egg plums and the common red and +yellow varieties. Damsons and green gages will probably require more +sugar, while prune plums may require less. + +STEWED PLUMS +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1-1/2 qt. plums +1 lb. sugar +3/4 c. water + +Wash the plums and prick each one two or three times with a fork. Bring +the sugar and water to the boiling point and, when rapidly boiling, add +the plums. Cook until they are tender, remove from the fire, cool, +and serve. + + +QUINCES + +72. QUINCES are one of the non-perishable fruits. They mature late in +the fall and may be kept during the winter in much the same way as +apples. While quinces are not used so extensively as most other fruits, +there are many uses to which they may be put and much can be done with a +small quantity. For instance, various kinds of preserves and marmalades +may be made entirely of quinces or of a combination of quinces and some +other fruit. They also make excellent jelly. As their flavor is very +strong, a small quantity of quince pulp used with apples or some other +fruit will give the typical flavor of quinces. When combined with sweet +apples, they make a very delicious sauce. + +The skin of quinces is covered with a thick fuzz, which can be removed +by wiping the fruit with a damp cloth. A point that should be remembered +about quinces is that they are extremely hard and require long cooking +to make them tender and palatable. + +73. STEWED QUINCES AND APPLES.--The combination of quinces and apples is +very delicious. Sweet apples, which are difficult to use as a cooked +fruit because of a lack of flavor, may be combined very satisfactorily +with quinces, for the quinces impart a certain amount of their strong +flavor to the bland apples and thus the flavor of both is improved. + +STEWED QUINCES AND APPLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. sweet apples +1 pt. quinces +1 lb. sugar +1 c. water + +Wash, peel, core, and quarter the fruit. Add the sugar to the water and +place over the fire until it conies to a rapid boil. Then add the +quinces and cook until they are partly softened. Add the sweet apples +and continue the cooking until both are tender. Remove from the fire, +cool, and serve. + + +RHUBARB + +74. RHUBARB is in reality not a fruit, but it is always considered as +such because it is cooked with sugar and served as a fruit. It has the +advantage of coming early in the spring before there are many fruits in +the market. As it contains a large quantity of oxalic acid, it is very +sour and must be cooked with considerable sugar to become palatable, the +addition of which makes the food value of cooked rhubarb very high. +Rhubarb is much used for pies and is frequently canned for sauce. It is +also used as a cheap filler with a more expensive fruit in the making of +marmalades, conserves, and jams. + +The stems of some varieties of rhubarb are characterized by a great deal +of red color, while others are entirely green. The red rhubarb makes a +more attractive dish when it is cooked and served than the green, but it +has no better flavor. The outside of the stem has a skin that may be +removed by catching hold of it at one end with a knife and stripping it +off the remainder of the stem. It is not necessary to remove the skin +from young and tender rhubarb, but it is often an advantage to remove it +from rhubarb that is old. It should be remembered that the stems of +rhubarb contain considerable water and so require very little liquid in +their cooking. + +75. STEWED RHUBARB.--Two methods of stewing rhubarb are in practice, the +one to select depending on the way it is preferred. In one method, which +keeps the pieces whole, the sugar and water are brought to the boiling +point before the rhubarb is added, while in the other, the rhubarb is +cooked with water until it is soft and the sugar then added. + +STEWED RHUBARB +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. sugar +1/2 c. water +1 qt. cut rhubarb + +Mix the sugar and water in a saucepan and bring to the boiling point. +Wash the stems of the rhubarb and cut into inch lengths. Add the rhubarb +to the sirup and cook until it is tender enough to be pierced with a +fork. If desired, a flavoring of lemon peel may be added. Turn into a +dish, allow to cool, and serve. + +If the other method is preferred, cook the rhubarb with the water until +it is soft and then add the sugar. + + * * * * * + +CITRUS FRUITS + +CHARACTERISTICS + +76. Fruits that contain citric acid are grouped together and are known +as CITRUS FRUITS. All of these are similar in structure, although they +differ in size, as will be observed from Fig. 4. Here the citrus fruits +most commonly used are illustrated, the large one in the center being a +grapefruit; the two to the left, oranges; the two to the right, lemons; +and the two in the front, tangerines. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +All varieties of these fruits are tropical or semitropical and are +shipped to the North in boxes that contain various numbers, the number +that can be packed in a box depending on the size of the fruit. The +south, southeastern, and western parts of the United States supply +practically all of these fruits that are found in the northern markets. +They stand storage well and keep for long periods of time if they are +packed before they are too ripe. These characteristics, together with +the fact that they are at their prime at different times in different +localities, make it possible to market such fruits during the entire +year, although they are much better at certain seasons than at others. + +77. The majority of citrus fruits contain a fair amount of sugar and a +great deal of water; consequently, they are very juicy and refreshing. A +few of them, however, such as lemons and limes, contain very little +sugar and considerable acid and are therefore extremely sour. In the use +of such varieties, sugar must be added to make them palatable. + +The greatest use made of citrus fruits is that of serving them raw. +However, they are also used in the making of marmalades, conserves, and +such confections as candied fruits. Then, too, the juice of a number of +them, such as lemons, oranges, and limes, makes very refreshing +beverages, so these varieties are much used for this purpose. + + +GRAPEFRUIT + +78. Grapefruit, also known as _shaddock_, is a large, pale-yellow fruit +belonging to the citrus group. One variety, known as the _pomelo_, is +the kind that is commonly found in the market. It is slightly flattened +on both the blossom and stem ends. + +Grapefruit has a typical flavor and a slightly bitter taste and contains +neither a great deal of sugar nor a large amount of acid. Because of its +refreshing, somewhat acid pulp and juice, it is highly prized as a fruit +to be eaten at breakfast or as an appetizer for a fruit cocktail. It is +also much used in the making of fruit salads. + +79. SELECTION OF GRAPEFRUIT.--Grapefruit should be selected with care in +order that fruit of good quality may be obtained. Some persons think +that to be good grapefruit should be large, but it should be remembered +that size is not the factor by which to judge the quality. The fruit +should be heavy for its size and the skin should be fine-grained and +even. Coarse-grained skin, as a rule, is thick and indicates that the +pulp is rather pithy and without juice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +80. PREPARATION OF GRAPEFRUIT.--Different ways of serving grapefruit are +in practice, and it is well that these be understood. This is generally +considered a rather difficult fruit to eat, but if care is exercised in +its preparation for the table it can be eaten with comfort. For +preparing grapefruit, a narrow, sharp-bladed paring knife may be used. +As is well known, a grapefruit is always cut apart half way between the +stem and the blossom ends and a half served to each person. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +81. One method of preparing grapefruit consists in cutting the skin in +such a way that the seeds can be taken out and the pulp then easily +removed with a spoon. To prepare it in this way, cut the grapefruit into +halves, and then, with a sharp knife, cut around the pithy core in the +center, cutting off the smallest possible end of each of the sections. +With this done, remove the seeds, which will be found firmly lodged near +the core and which can be readily pushed out with the point of the +knife. Then cut down each side of the skin between the sections so as +to separate the pulp from the skin. Around the edge next to the outside +skin, cut the pulp in each section with a single jab of the knife, +taking care not to cut the skin between the sections. The entire pulp of +each section, which will be found to be loose on both sides and ends if +the cutting is correctly done, can then be readily removed with a spoon. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +82. In another method of preparing this fruit for the table, all the +skin inside of the fruit is removed and nothing but the pulp is left. +This method, which is illustrated in Figs. 5 to 10, inclusive, requires +a little more time and care than the previous one, but the result +justifies the effort. After cutting the grapefruit into halves, remove +the seeds with a sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 5. Then, with the same +knife, cut the grapefruit from the skin all the way around the edge, as +in Fig. 6; also, cut down each side of the skin between the sections, so +as to separate the pulp from the skin, as in Fig. 7. With the pulp +loosened, insert a pair of scissors along the outside edge, as in Fig. +8, and make a slanting cut toward the core. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +Then, as in Fig. 9, cut the core loose from the outside skin. Repeat +this operation for each section. If the cutting has been properly done, +the core and skin enclosing the sections may be lifted out of the +grapefruit, and, as shown in Fig. 10, will then be in the form of a +many-pointed star. As only the pulp remains in the outside skin, the +grapefruit can be eaten without difficulty. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +83. SERVING GRAPEFRUIT.--When grapefruit has been properly ripened, it +is rather sweet, so that many persons prefer it without sugar; but when +sugar is desired, the fruit is very much more delicious if it is +prepared some time before it is to be served, the sugar added to it, and +the fruit placed in a cool place. If this is done in the evening and the +grapefruit is served for breakfast, a large amount of very delicious +juice will have collected through the night. At any rate, grapefruit is +best if it is sweetened long enough before it is served to give the +sugar a chance to penetrate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + + +LEMONS + +84. LEMONS are a citrus fruit raised in tropical regions. They are +shipped to other climates in cases that hold from 180 to 540, depending +on the size of the lemons, 300 to the case being a medium and commonly +used size. Their quality is judged like that of grapefruit; that is, by +their weight, the texture of their skin, and their general color +and shape. + +Lemons contain very little sugar, but they are characterized by a large +amount of acid. Because of this fact, their juice is used to season +foods in much the same way as vinegar is used. In fact, their chief +uses are in making desserts and in seasoning such foods as custards, +pudding sauces, etc. However, their juice is also much used in the +making of beverages, such as lemonade and fruit punch. + + +ORANGES + +85. ORANGES belong to the group of citrus fruits, but they differ from +both lemons and grapefruit in that they contain more sugar and less +acid. Two kinds of oranges supply the demands for this fruit, Florida +and California oranges. _Florida oranges_ have a skin more the color of +lemons and grapefruit and contain seeds, but they are considered to be +the finest both as to flavor and quality. _California oranges_, which +have a bright-yellow or orange skin, are seedless and are known as +_navel oranges_. As soon as the Florida season ends, the California +season begins; consequently, the market season for this fruit is a +lengthy one. The russet of oranges is caused by the bite of an insect on +the skin. To be shipped, oranges are packed in cases that will contain +from 48 to 400 to the case. + +Probably no citrus fruit is used so extensively as oranges. Because of +their refreshing subacid flavor, they are much eaten in their fresh +state, both alone and in combination with other foods in numerous salads +and desserts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +86. PREPARATION OF ORANGES.--Several attractive ways of preparing +oranges for the table when they are to be eaten raw are shown in +Fig. 11. + +To prepare them in the way shown at the left, cut the orange into two +parts, cutting half way between the stem and blossom ends, and loosen +the pulp in each half in the manner explained in Art. 81 for the +preparation of grapefruit. Then the pulp may be eaten from the orange +with a spoon. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +If an orange is to be eaten in sections, the skin may be cut from the +stem to the blossom end about six times and then loosened from the one +end and turned in toward the orange in the manner shown in the central +figure of the group. It will then be easy to remove the skin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +Sometimes it is desired to serve sliced oranges, as shown at the right. +To prepare oranges in this way, remove the skin from the orange, cut it +in halves lengthwise, and then slice it in thin slices crosswise. +Arrange the slices on a plate and serve as desired. + +87. When oranges are to be used for salads, or for any purpose in which +merely the pulp is desired, as, for instance, orange custard, all the +skin between the sections must be removed, as it makes any warm mixture +bitter. To secure the pulp without any of the skin, first peel the +orange, as shown in Fig. 12, in the same way an apple is peeled, +beginning at one end and peeling around and around deeply enough to +remove with the skin all the white pithy material under it. If the knife +is a sharp one and the peeling is carefully done, there will be little +waste of the pulp. When the orange is entirely peeled, cut each section +from the skin by passing the knife as closely as possible between the +pulp and the skin, as shown in Fig. 13. The sections thus obtained may +be used whole or cut into pieces of any desired size. + + +MISCELLANEOUS CITRUS FRUITS + +88. In addition to grapefruit, lemons, and oranges, the three principal +varieties of citrus fruits, this group also includes kumquats, limes, +mandarins, and tangerines. These fruits are not of so much importance in +the diet as the other varieties, but when they are used as foods they +have a food value about equal to that of apples the same in size. They +are not in such common use as the citrus fruits already discussed, but +it is well for every housewife to know what they are and to what use +they can be put. + +89. KUMQUATS are an acid fruit resembling oranges in color but being +about the size and shape of small plums. They are used principally for +the making of marmalades and jams, and in this use both the skin and the +pulp are included. + +90. LIMES look like small lemons. They are very sour and do not contain +sugar in any quantity. They are valued chiefly for their juice, which is +utilized in the making of drinks, confections, etc. + +91. MANDARINS and TANGERINES are really varieties of oranges and are +used in much the same way. They have a very sweet flavor. Their skin +does not cling so closely as the skin of oranges. For this reason they +are known as _glove oranges_ and are very easily peeled. + + * * * * * + +TROPICAL FRUITS + +VARIETIES + +92. Besides the citrus fruits, which may also be regarded as tropical +fruits because they grow in tropical regions, there are a number of +other fruits that may be conveniently grouped under the heading Tropical +Fruits. The best known of these are bananas and pineapples, but numerous +others, such as avocados, guavas, nectarines, pomegranates, tamarinds, +and mangoes, are also raised in the tropical countries and should be +included in this class. The majority of these fruits stand shipment +well, but if they are to be shipped to far distant places they must be +picked before they become too ripe and must be packed well. As bananas +and pineapples are used more extensively than the other tropical fruits, +they are discussed here in greater detail; however, enough information +is given about the others to enable the housewife to become familiar +with them. + + +BANANAS + +93. BANANAS are a tropical fruit that have become very popular with the +people in the North. As they are usually picked and shipped green and +then ripened by a process of heating when they are ready to be put on +the market, it is possible to obtain them in a very good condition. It +should be remembered, however, that they are not ripe enough to eat +until all the green color has left the skin. The stem of the bunch may +be green, but the bananas themselves should be perfectly yellow. Black +spots, which are sometimes found on the skins, indicate overripeness or +bruises. When the spots come from overripeness, however, they do not +injure the quality of the fruit, unless there are a great many of them; +in fact, many persons consider that bananas are better when the skins +are black than at any other time. + +94. Just under the skin of the banana is some pithy material that clings +to the outside of the fruit and that has a pungent, disagreeable taste. +This objectionable taste may be done away with by scraping the surface +of the banana slightly, as shown in Fig. 14, after the skin is removed. + +The strong, typical flavor that characterizes bananas is due to the +volatile oil they contain. It is this oil that causes bananas to +disagree with some persons. The common yellow variety has a milder +flavor than red bananas and certain other kinds and, consequently, is +more popular. If the oil of bananas does not prove irritating, much use +should be made of this fruit, because its food value is high, being +about double that of apples and oranges. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +95. Bananas are eaten raw more often than in any other way, but many +persons find cooked bananas very agreeable. Then, too, it is sometimes +claimed that cooked bananas are more digestible than raw ones because of +the starch that bananas contain. However, this argument may be +discounted, for a well-ripened banana contains such a small quantity of +starch that no consideration need be given to it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +96. BAKED BANANAS.--If bananas are to be cooked, they can be made very +appetizing by baking them with a sirup made of vinegar, sugar, and +butter. When prepared in this way, they should be cut in two +lengthwise, and then baked in a shallow pan, as Fig. 15 shows. + +BAKED BANANAS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 bananas +2 Tb. butter +1/3 c. sugar +3 Tb. vinegar + +Remove the skins from the bananas, scrape the surface as in Fig. 14, and +cut them in half lengthwise. Arrange the halves in a shallow pan. Melt +the butter and mix it with the sugar and the vinegar. Pour a spoonful of +the mixture over each banana and then set the pan in the oven. Bake in a +slow oven for about 20 minutes, basting frequently with the remainder of +the sirup during the baking. Remove from the oven and serve hot. + +97. Banana Fritters.--Delicious fritters can be made with bananas as a +foundation. The accompanying recipe, if carefully followed, will result +in a dish that will be appetizing, especially to those who are fond of +this fruit. + +BANANA FRITTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 bananas +1 Tb. lemon juice +1/2 c. flour +2 Tb. sugar +1/4 tsp. salt +1/3 c. milk +1 egg +1 Tb. butter, melted +Powdered sugar + +Remove the skins from the bananas, scrape them, and cut them once +lengthwise and once crosswise. Sprinkle the pieces with the lemon juice. +Make a batter by mixing and sifting the flour, sugar, and salt. Stir in +the milk gradually, and add the yolk of the beaten egg and the melted +butter. Lastly, fold in the beaten egg white. Sprinkle the bananas with +powdered sugar, dip them into the batter, and fry in deep fat until +brown. Sprinkle again with powdered sugar and serve. + + +PINEAPPLES + +98. Pineapples are grown in the southern part of the United States, on +the islands off the southeastern coast, and in Hawaii. They vary in size +according to the age of the plants. It requires from 18 to 20 months for +the fruit to develop, and the plants yield only four or five crops. Much +of this fruit is canned where it is grown, but as it is covered with a +heavy skin it will tolerate shipping long distances very well. It is +shipped to the market in cases that contain from 24 to 48 pineapples to +the case. Usually, for a few weeks during the summer, the price of fresh +pineapples is reasonable enough to warrant canning them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +99. The food value of pineapples is slightly lower than that of oranges +and apples. However, pineapples have a great deal of flavor, and for +this reason they are very valuable in the making of desserts, preserves, +marmalades, and beverages of various kinds. It is said that the +combination of pineapple and lemon will flavor a greater amount of food +than any other fruit combined. Another characteristic of pineapples is +that they contain a ferment that acts upon protein material and +therefore is sometimes thought to aid considerably in the digestion of +food. The probabilities are that this ferment really produces very +little action in the stomach, but its effect upon protein material can +readily be observed by attempting to use raw pineapple in the making of +a gelatine dessert. If the pineapple is put in raw, the gelatine will +not solidify; but if the pineapple is heated sufficiently to kill this +ferment, it has no effect whatsoever upon the gelatine. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +100. SELECTING PINEAPPLES.--When pineapples are to be selected, care +should be exercised to see that they are ripe. The most certain way of +determining this fact is to pull out the center leaves of each pineapple +that is chosen. As shown in Fig. 16, grasp the pineapple with one hand +and then with the other pull out, one at a time, several of the center +leaves of the tuft at the top. If the fruit is ripe a sharp jerk will +usually remove each leaf readily, but the harder the leaves pull, the +greener the pineapple is. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +An overripe pineapple is just as unsatisfactory as one that is not ripe +enough. When a pineapple becomes too ripe, rotten spots begin to develop +around the base. Such spots can be easily detected by the discoloration +of the skin and such a pineapple should not be selected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +101. PREPARATION OF PINEAPPLE.--Some persons consider pineapple a +difficult fruit to prepare, but no trouble will be experienced if the +method illustrated in Figs. 17 to 19 is followed. Place the pineapple on +a hard surface, such as a wooden cutting board, and with a large sharp +knife cut off the tuft of leaves at the top. Then, as shown in Fig. 17, +cut the pineapple into 1/2-inch slices crosswise of the head. When the +entire pineapple has been sliced, peel each slice with a sharp paring +knife, as in Fig. 18. With the peeling removed, it will be observed that +each slice contains a number of eyes. Remove these with the point of a +knife, as Fig. 19 shows. After cutting out the core from the center of +each slice, the slices may be allowed to remain whole or may be cut into +pieces of any desirable size or shape. Pineapple prepared in this way is +ready either for canning or for desserts in which it is used fresh. + +102. PINEAPPLE PUDDING.--One of the most satisfactory desserts made from +pineapple is the pudding given here. It is in reality a corn-starch +pudding in which grated pineapple is used for the flavoring. + +PINEAPPLE PUDDING +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2-1/2 c. scalded milk +1/3 c. corn starch +1/2 c. sugar +1/4 tsp. salt +1/4 c. cold milk +1-1/2 c. grated pineapple, canned or fresh +2 egg whites + +Scald the milk by heating it over the fire in a double boiler. Mix the +corn starch, sugar, and salt, and dissolve in the cold milk. Add to the +scalded milk in the double boiler and cook for about 15 or 20 minutes. +Remove from the fire and add the grated pineapple from which all juice +has been drained. Then fold in the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Pour +into molds previously dipped in cold water, allow to cool, and serve +with cream. + + +MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS + +103. AVOCADOS.--The avocado, which is also known as the _alligator +pear_, is a large pear-shaped, pulpy fruit raised principally in the +West Indies. It has a purplish-brown skin and contains just one very +large seed in the center. The flesh contains considerable fat, and so +the food value of this fruit is rather high, being fully twice as great +as a like quantity of apples or oranges. + +This fruit, which is gaining in popularity in the Northern States, is +very perishable and does not stand shipment well. As a rule, it reaches +the northern market green and is ripened after its arrival. It is an +expensive fruit and is used almost entirely for salads. As its flavor is +somewhat peculiar, a taste for it must usually be cultivated. + +104. GUAVAS.--The guava is a tropical fruit that is extensively grown in +the southern part of the United States. Guavas come in two varieties: +_red guava_, which resembles the apple, and _white guava_, which +resembles the pear. The fruit, which has a pleasant acid pulp, is +characterized by a more or less peculiar flavor for which a liking must +be cultivated. It can be canned and preserved in much the same way as +peaches are. + +Because guavas are very perishable, they cannot be shipped to northern +markets, but various products are made from them and sent to every +market. Preserved and pickled guavas and confections made from what is +known as guava paste are common, but guava jelly made from the pulp is +probably the best known product. + +105. NECTARINES.--The tropical fruit called the nectarine is really a +variety of peach, but it differs from the common peach in that it has a +smooth, waxy skin. Also, the flesh of the nectarine is firmer and has a +stronger flavor than that of the peach. Nectarines are not shipped to +the northern markets to any extent, but they are canned in exactly the +same way as peaches are and can be secured in this form. + +106. PERSIMMONS.--The persimmon is a semitropical plum-like fruit, +globular in shape and an orange-red or yellow in color. It comes in many +varieties, but few of them find their way into the northern markets. The +Japanese persimmon, which resembles a tomato in color, is the variety +most frequently purchased. Persimmons are characterized by a great deal +of very pungent acid, which has a puckery effect until the fruit is made +sweet and edible by exposure to the frost. In localities where they are +plentiful, persimmons are extensively used and are preserved for use +during the winter season. + +107. POMEGRANATES.--The pomegranate is about as large as a full-sized +apple and has a hard reddish-yellow rind. Most varieties contain many +seeds and a comparatively small amount of red edible pulp. Pomegranates +of various kinds are grown in the southern part of the United States and +in other warm climates. They are used extensively in the localities +where they are grown and are much enjoyed by persons who learn to care +for their flavor. A cooling drink made from their pulp finds much favor. + +108. TAMARINDS AND MANGOES.--Although tamarinds and mangoes are +practically unknown outside of tropical countries, they are considered +to be very delicious fruits and are used extensively in their native +localities. + +The tamarind consists of a brown-shelled pod that contains a brown acid +pulp and from three to ten seeds. This fruit has various uses in +medicine and cookery and is found very satisfactory for a +cooling beverage. + +Mangoes vary greatly in size, shape, flavor, and color. Some varieties +are large, fleshy, and luscious, while others are small and stringy and +have a peculiar flavor. + + +MELONS + +109. CANTALOUPES AND MUSKMELONS.--The variety of melons known as +muskmelons consists of a juicy, edible fruit that is characterized by a +globular shape and a ribbed surface. Cantaloupes are a variety of +muskmelons, but the distinction between them is sometimes difficult to +understand. For the most part, these names are used interchangeably with +reference to melons. + +Considerable variation occurs in this fruit. Some cantaloupes and +muskmelons are large and others are small; some have pink or yellow +flesh and others have white or light-green flesh. All the variations of +color and size are found between these two extremes. The flesh of these +fruits contains considerable water; therefore, their food value is not +high, being only a little over half as much as that of apples. + +110. If melons suitable for the table are desired, they should be +selected with care. To be just at the right stage, the blossom end of +the melon should be a trifle soft when pressed with the fingers. If it +is very soft, the melon is perhaps too ripe; but if it does not give +with pressure, the melon is too green. + +111. Various ways of serving muskmelons and cantaloupes are in practice. +When they are to be served plain as a breakfast food or a luncheon +dessert, cut them crosswise into halves, or, if they are large, divide +them into sections lengthwise. With the melons cut in the desired way, +remove all the seeds and keep the melons on ice until they are to be +served. The pulp of the melon may also be cut from the rind and then +diced and used in the making of fruit salads. Again, the pulp may be +partly scraped out of the melon and the rinds then filled with fruit +mixtures and served with a salad dressing for a salad or with fruit +juices for a cocktail. The pulp that is scraped out may be diced and +used in the fruit mixture, and what is left in the rind may be eaten +after the contents have been eaten. + +112. CASABA MELONS.--The variety of melons known as casaba, or honeydew, +melons are a cross between a cucumber and a cantaloupe. They have white +flesh and a rind that is smoother than the rind of cantaloupes. Melons +of this kind are raised in the western part of the United States, but as +they stand shipment very well, they can usually be obtained in the +market in other regions. They are much enjoyed by those who are fond of +this class of fruit. Their particular advantage is that they come later +in the season than cantaloupes and muskmelons, and thus can be obtained +for the table long after these other fruits are out of season. Casaba +melons may be served in the same ways as cantaloupes. + +113. WATERMELONS.--A very well-known type of melon is the watermelon. It +is grown principally in warm climates of the Southern States, as the +season in the North is not sufficiently long to allow it to develop. +This is a large fruit, having a smooth green skin that is often mottled +or striped, and a pinkish pulp containing many seeds and having a sweet, +watery juice. The large amount of water contained in this fruit makes +its food value very low, it being lower in this respect than muskmelons +and cantaloupes. The volatile oil it contains, which is responsible for +its flavor, proves irritating to some persons who eat it. + +114. Watermelon is delicious when it is served ice cold. Therefore, +before it is served, it should be kept on ice for a sufficient time to +allow it to become thoroughly cold. Then it may be cut in any desirable +way. If it is cut in slices, the slices should be trimmed so that only +the pink pulp that is edible is served, the green rind being discarded. +As an appetizer, watermelon is delicious when cut into pieces and served +in a cocktail glass with fresh mint chopped fine and sprinkled over the +top. Small pieces of watermelon cut with a French vegetable cutter make +a very attractive garnish for fruit salads and other fruit mixtures. + + +FRUIT COCKTAILS + +115. Cocktails made of a combination of fruits are often served as the +first course of a meal, usually a luncheon or a dinner, to precede the +soup course. In warm weather, they are an excellent substitute for heavy +cocktails made of lobster or crab, and they may even be used to replace +the soup course. The fruits used for this purpose should be the more +acid ones, for the acids and flavors are intended to serve as an +appetizer, or the same purpose for which the hot and highly seasoned +soups are taken. Therefore, they are seldom made sweet and are not taken +for their food value. Besides being refreshing appetizers, they afford a +hostess an opportunity to carry out a certain color scheme in a meal. +Many kinds of fruit may be combined into cocktails, but directions for +the cocktails that are usually made are here given. Fruit cocktails +should always be served ice cold. + +116. GRAPEFRUIT COCKTAIL.--The cocktail here explained may be served in +stemmed glasses or in the shells of the grapefruit. If the fruit shells +are to be used, the grapefruit should be cut into two parts, half way +between the blossom and the stem ends, the fruit removed, and the edges +of the shell then notched. This plan of serving a cocktail should be +adopted only when small grapefruits are used, for if the shells are +large more fruit will have to be used than is agreeable for a cocktail. + +GRAPEFRUIT COCKTAIL +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 grapefruits +2 oranges +1 c. diced pineapple, fresh or canned +Powdered sugar + +Remove the pulp from the grapefruits and oranges in the manner +previously explained. However, if the grapefruit shells are to be used +for serving the cocktail, the grapefruit should be cut in half and the +pulp then taken out of the skin with a sharp knife. With the sections of +pulp removed, cut each one into several pieces. Add the diced pineapple +to the other fruits, mix together well and set on ice until thoroughly +chilled. Put in cocktail glasses or grapefruit shells, pour a spoonful +or two of orange juice over each serving, sprinkle with powdered sugar, +garnish with a cherry, and serve ice cold. + +117. SUMMER COCKTAIL.--As strawberries and pineapples can be obtained +fresh at the same time during the summer, they are often used together +in a cocktail. When sweetened slightly with powdered sugar and allowed +to become ice cold, these fruits make a delicious combination. + +SUMMER COCKTAIL +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. diced fresh pineapple +2 c. sliced strawberries +Powdered sugar + +Prepare a fresh pineapple in the manner previously explained, and cut +each slice into small pieces or dice. Wash and hull the strawberries and +slice them into small slices. Mix the two fruits and sprinkle them with +powdered sugar. Place in cocktail glasses and allow to stand on ice a +short time before serving. + +118. FRUIT COCKTAIL.--A fruit cocktail proper is made by combining a +number of different kinds of fruit, such as bananas, pineapple, oranges, +and maraschino cherries. As shown in Fig. 20, such a cocktail is served +in a stemmed glass set on a small plate. Nothing more delicious than +this can be prepared for the first course of a dinner or a luncheon that +is to be served daintily. Its advantage is that it can be made at almost +any season of the year with these particular fruits. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +FRUIT COCKTAIL +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 bananas +1 c. canned pineapple +2 oranges +1 doz. maraschino cherries +Lemon juice +Powdered sugar + +Peel the bananas and dice them. Dice the pineapple. Remove the pulp from +the oranges in the manner previously explained, and cut each section +into several pieces. Mix these three fruits. Cut the cherries in half +and add to the mixture. Set on ice until thoroughly chilled. To serve, +put into cocktail glasses as shown in the illustration, and add to each +glass 1 tablespoonful of maraschino juice from the cherries and 1 +teaspoonful of lemon juice. Sprinkle with powdered sugar and serve. + + * * * * * + +DRIED FRUITS + +VARIETIES OF DRIED FRUITS + +119. The fruits that have been discussed up to this point are fresh +fruits; that is, they are placed on the markets, and consequently can be +obtained, in their fresh state. However, there are a number of fruits +that are dried before they are put on the market, and as they can be +obtained during all seasons they may be used when fresh fruits are out +of season or as a substitute for canned fruits when the household supply +is low. The chief varieties of dried fruits are dates, figs, prunes, +which are dried plums, and raisins, which are dried grapes. Apples, +apricots, and peaches are also dried in large quantities and are much +used in place of these fruits when they cannot be obtained in their +fresh form. Discussions of the different varieties of dried fruits are +here given, together with recipes showing how some of them may be used. + + +DATES + +120. DATES, which are the fruit of the date palm, are not only very +nutritious but well liked by most persons. They are oblong in shape and +have a single hard seed that is grooved on one side. As dates contain +very little water and a great deal of sugar, their food value is high, +being more than five times that of apples and oranges. They are also +valuable in the diet because of their slightly laxative effect. When +added to other food, such as cakes, hot breads, etc., they provide a +great deal of nutriment. + +121. The finest dates on the market come from Turkey and the Eastern +countries. They are prepared for sale at the places where they grow, +being put up in packages that weigh from 1/2 to 1 pound, as well as in +large boxes from which they can be sold in bulk. It is very important +that all dates, whether bought in packages or in bulk, be thoroughly +washed before they are eaten. While those contained in packages do not +collect dirt after they are packed, they are contaminated to a certain +extent by the hands of the persons who pack them. To be most +satisfactory, dates should first be washed in hot water and then have +cold water run over them. If they are to be stuffed, they should be +thoroughly dried between towels or placed in a single layer on pans to +allow the water to evaporate. While the washing of dates undoubtedly +causes the loss of a small amount of food material, it is, nevertheless, +a wise procedure. + +122. Dates can be put to many valuable uses in the diet. They are much +used in cakes, muffins, and hot breads and in fillings for cakes and +cookies. Several kinds of delicious pastry, as well as salads and +sandwiches, are also made with dates. Their use as a confection is +probably the most important one, as they are very appetizing when +stuffed with nuts, candy, and such foods. + + +FIGS + +123. FIGS are a small pear-shaped fruit grown extensively in Eastern +countries and to some extent in the western part of the United States. +The varieties grown in this country are not especially valuable when +they are dried, but they can be canned fresh in the localities where +they are grown. Fresh figs cannot be shipped, as they are too +perishable, but when dried they can be kept an indefinite length of time +and they are highly nutritious, too. In fact, dried figs are nearly as +high in food value as dates, and they are even more laxative. + +124. Dried figs are found on the market both as pressed and pulled figs. +_Pressed figs_ are those which are pressed tightly together when they +are packed and are so crushed down in at least one place that they are +more or less sugary from the juice of the fig. _Pulled figs_ are those +which are dried without being pressed and are suitable for such purposes +as stewing and steaming. + +125. STEWED FIGS.--If pulled figs can be secured, they may be stewed to +be served as a sauce. When prepared in this way, they will be found to +make a highly nutritious and delightful breakfast fruit or +winter dessert. + +STEWED FIGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. pulled figs +3 c. water + +Wash the figs and remove the stems. Put them into a preserving kettle +with the water and allow them to come slowly to the boiling point. +Simmer gently over the fire until the figs become soft. If they are +desired very sweet, sugar may be added before they are removed from the +heat and the juice then cooked until it is as thick as is desirable. +Serve cold. + +126. STEAMED FIGS.--When figs are steamed until they are soft and then +served with plain or whipped cream, they make a delightful dessert. To +prepare them in this way, wash the desired number and remove the stems. +Place them in a steamer over boiling water and steam them until they are +soft. Remove from the stove, allow them to cool, and serve with cream. + + +PRUNES + +127. PRUNES are the dried fruit of any one of several varieties of plum +trees and are raised mostly in Southern Europe and California. In their +fresh state, they are purple in color, but they become darker during +their drying. They are priced and purchased according to size, being +graded with a certain number to the pound, just as lemons and oranges +are graded with a certain number to the case. In food value they are +about equal to dates and figs. They contain very little acid, but are +characterized by a large quantity of easily digested sugar. They also +have a laxative quality that makes them valuable in the diet. + +128. STEWED PRUNES.--A simple way in which to prepare prunes is to stew +them and then add sugar to sweeten them. Stewed prunes may be served as +a sauce with cake of some kind or they may be used as a breakfast fruit. + +STEWED PRUNES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 lb. prunes +1 c. sugar + +Look the prunes over carefully, wash them thoroughly in hot water, and +soak them in warm water for about 6 hours. Place them on the stove in +the same water in which they were soaked and which should well cover +them. Cook slowly until they can be easily pierced with a fork or until +the seeds separate from the pulp upon being crushed. Add the sugar, +continue to cook until it is completely dissolved, and then remove from +the stove and cool. If desired, more sweetening may be used or a few +slices of lemon or a small amount of lemon peel may be added to give an +agreeable flavor. + +129. STUFFED PRUNES.--After prunes have been stewed, they may have the +seeds removed and then be filled with peanut butter. Stuffed in this way +and served with whipped cream, as shown in Fig. 21, or merely the prune +juice, they make an excellent dessert. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21, Stewed prunes stuffed with peanut butter.] + +Select prunes of good size and stew them according to the directions +just given, but remove them from the fire before they have become very +soft. Cool and then cut a slit in each one and remove the seed. Fill the +cavity with peanut butter and press together again. Serve with some of +the prune juice or with whipped cream. + +130. PRUNE WHIP.--A very dainty prune dessert can be made from stewed +prunes by reducing the prunes to a pulp and then adding the whites of +eggs. Directions for this dessert follow: + +PRUNE WHIP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. prune pulp +1/4 c. powdered sugar +2 egg whites +Whipped cream + +Make the prune pulp by removing the seeds from stewed prunes and forcing +the prunes through a sieve or a ricer. Mix the powdered sugar with the +pulp. Beat the whites of the eggs until they are stiff and then +carefully fold them into the prune pulp. Chill and serve with +whipped cream. + + +RAISINS + +131. RAISINS are the dried fruit of various kinds of grapes that contain +considerable sugar and are cured in the sun or in an oven. They come +principally from the Mediterranean region and from California. They have +an extensive use in cookery, both as a confection and an ingredient in +cakes, puddings, and pastry. In food value, raisins are very high and +contain sugar in the form of glucose; however, their skins are coarse +cellulose and for this reason are likely to be injurious to children if +taken in too large quantities. They are also valuable as a laxative and +in adding variety to the diet if they are well cooked before they +are served. + +Like other dried fruits, raisins should be washed thoroughly before they +are used. They may then be soaked in warm water and stewed in exactly +the same way as prunes. Sugar may or may not be added, as desired. +Sultana raisins, which are the seedless variety, are especially +desirable for stewing, although they may be used for any of the other +purposes for which raisins are used. + + +DRIED APPLES, APRICOTS, AND PEACHES + +132. Apples, apricots, and peaches are fruits that are used extensively +in their dried form. They enable the housewife to supply her family with +fruit during seasons when it is impossible to obtain fresh fruit. They +may also be used to take the place of canned fruit, especially when the +supply is low or has been exhausted. Besides their use as a sauce, they +may be used for pies and various desserts. + +133. These fruits, which may all be used in just the same way, should be +soaked before stewing and should be stewed according to the directions +for the preparation and cooking of prunes. Then sufficient sugar to make +them sweet should be added. If they are desired for sauce, they may be +used without any further preparation. However, they may be substituted +for fresh fruit in recipes that call for any of them or for prunes. For +instance, dried apricots, after being stewed, may be passed through a +sieve to make a purée and may then be used to make apricot whip or +soufflé according to the directions given for other similar desserts. +The flavor of apricots is very strong and a small amount of the pulp +will flavor a large quantity of ice cream, sherbet, or water ice. + + * * * * * + +FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) To what are the flavors and odors of fruits chiefly due? + +(2) What food substances are found in only very small amounts in fruits? + +(3) Mention the kinds of carbohydrate to which the food value of fruits +is chiefly due. + +(4) What parts of fruits make up the cellulose they contain? + +(5) Discuss the value of minerals in fruits. + +(6) Of what value in cookery are fruits containing large quantities of +acid? + +(7) What qualities of fruits are affected as they ripen? + +(8) Discuss the digestibility of fruits. + +(9) What are the effects of cooking on fruit? + +(10) What sanitary precautions concerning fruits should be observed? + +(11) (_a_) How do weather conditions affect the quality of berries? +(_b_) What is the most important use of berries in cookery? + +(12) Name some varieties of apples that can be purchased in your +locality that are best for: (_a_) cookery; (_b_) eating. + +(13) How can peach juice be utilized to advantage? + +(14) Mention the citrus fruits. + +(15) Describe a method of preparing grapefruit for the table. + +(16) Describe the preparation of oranges for salads and desserts. + +(17) Describe the appearance of bananas in the best condition for +serving. + +(18) (_a_) Give a test for the ripeness of pineapples. (_b_) Describe +the most convenient method of preparing pineapples. + +(19) Discuss the use of fruit cocktails. + +(20) Describe the general preparation of dried fruits that are to be +stewed. + + * * * * * + + + +CANNING AND DRYING + + * * * * * + +NECESSITY FOR PRESERVING FOODS + +1. The various methods of preserving perishable foods in the home for +winter use originated because of necessity. In localities where the +seasons for fruits and vegetables are short, the available supply in +early times was limited to its particular season. Then foods had to be +preserved in some way to provide for the season of scarcity. It was not +possible, as it is now, to obtain foods in all parts of the country from +localities that produce abundantly or have long seasons, because there +were no means of rapid transportation, no cold storage, nor no +commercial canning industries. + +2. In the small towns and farming communities, the first preservation +methods for meats, as well as for fruits and vegetables, were pickling, +curing, drying, and preserving. Not until later was canning known. It +was this preserving of foodstuffs in the home that led to the +manufacture and commercial canning of many kinds of edible materials. +These industries, however, are of comparatively recent origin, the first +canning of foods commercially having been done in France about a hundred +years ago. At that time glass jars were utilized, but it was not until +tin cans came into use later in England that commercial canning met with +much favor. + +3. Both canning in the home and commercial canning have had many +drawbacks, chief among which was spoiling. It was believed that the +spoiling of canned foods was due to the presence of air in the jars or +cans, and it is only within the last 50 years that the true cause of +spoiling, namely, the presence of bacteria, has been understood. Since +that time methods of canning that are much more successful have been +originated, and the present methods are the result of the study of +bacteria and their functions in nature. It is now definitely known that +on this knowledge depends the success of the various canning methods. + +4. Since commercial canning provides nearly every kind of foodstuff, and +since cold storage and rapid transportation make it possible to supply +almost every locality with foods that are out of season, it has not been +deemed so necessary to preserve foods in the home. Nevertheless, the +present day brings forth a new problem and a new attitude toward the +home preservation of foods. There are three distinct reasons why foods +should be preserved in the home. The first is to bring about _economy_. +If fruits, vegetables, and other foods can be procured at a price that +will make it possible to preserve them in the home at a lower cost than +that of the same foods prepared commercially, it will pay from an +economical standpoint. The second is to promote _conservation_; that is, +to prevent the wasting of food. When fruits and vegetables are +plentiful, the supply is often greater than the demand for immediate +consumption. Then, unless the surplus food is preserved in some way for +later use, there will be a serious loss of food material. The third is +to produce _quality_. If the home-canned product can be made superior to +that commercially preserved, then, even at an equal or a slightly higher +cost, it will pay to preserve food in the home. + +5. Of the methods of preserving perishable foods, only two, namely, +canning and drying, are considered in this Section. Before satisfactory +methods of canning came into use, drying was a common method of +preserving both fruits and vegetables, and while it has fallen into +disuse to a great extent in the home, much may be said for its value. +Drying consists merely in evaporating the water contained in the food, +and, with the exception of keeping it dry and protected from vermin, no +care need be given to the food in storage. In the preparation of dried +food for the table, it is transformed into its original composition by +the addition of water, in which it is usually soaked and then cooked. + +The drying of food is simple, and no elaborate equipment is required for +carrying out the process. Dried food requires less space and care in +storage than food preserved in any other way, and both paper and cloth +containers may be used in storing it. When storage space is limited, or +when there is a very large quantity of some such food as apples or +string beans that cannot be used or canned at once, it is advisable to +dry at least a part of them. When used in combination with canning, +drying offers an excellent means of preserving foods and thus adding to +their variety. + +6. Canning has a greater range of possibilities than drying. A larger +number of foods can be preserved in this way, and, besides, the foods +require very little preparation, in some cases none at all, when they +are removed from the cans. Practically every food that may be desired +for use at some future time may be canned and kept if the process is +carried out properly. These include the perishable vegetables and fruits +of the summer season, as well as any winter vegetables that are not +likely to keep in the usual way or that are gathered while they +are immature. + +Many ready-to-serve dishes may be made up when the ingredients are the +most plentiful and canned to keep them for the time when they are +difficult or impossible to obtain otherwise. Such foods are very +convenient in any emergency. Often, too, when something is being cooked +for the table, an extra supply may be made with no greater use of fuel +and very little extra labor, and if the excess is canned it will save +labor and fuel for another day. In the same way, left-over foods from +the table may be preserved by reheating and canning them. Many foods and +combinations of foods may be made ready for pies and desserts and then +canned, it being often possible to use fruits that are inferior in +appearance for such purposes. + +Soup may be canned. It may be made especially for canning, or it may be +made in larger quantity than is required for a meal and the surplus +canned. For canning, it is an excellent plan to make soup more +concentrated than that which would be served immediately, as such soup +will require fewer jars and will keep better. Water or milk or the +liquid from cooked vegetables or cereals may be added to dilute it when +it is to be served. + +Meat and fish also may be canned, and many times it is advisable to do +this, especially in the case of varieties that cannot be preserved to +advantage by such methods as salting, pickling, or curing. + +7. The preservation of foods by canning and drying should not be looked +at as an old-fashioned idea; rather, it is a matter in which the +housewife should be vitally interested. In fact, it is the duty of every +housewife to learn all she can about the best methods to employ. Canning +methods have been greatly improved within the last few years, and it is +a wise plan to adopt the newer methods and follow directions closely. +Especially should this be done if foods canned by the older methods have +spoiled or if mold has formed on top of the food in the jars. + +In order to preserve foods successfully and with ease, the housewife +should realize the importance of carrying out details with precision and +care. The exactness with which the ingredients are measured, the choice +and care of utensils, the selection and preparation of the food to be +canned--all have a direct bearing on whether her results will be +successful or not. + +By observing such points and exercising a little ingenuity, the +economical housewife may provide both a supply and a convenient variety +of practical foods for winter use. For example, one single fruit or +vegetable may be preserved in a number of ways. Thus, if there is a very +large supply of apples that will not keep, some may be canned in large +pieces, some may be put through a sieve, seasoned differently, and +canned as apple sauce, and some may be cut into small pieces and canned +for use in making pies. Apple butter and various kinds of jams and +marmalades may be made of all or part apples, or the apples may be +spiced and used as a relish. Combining fruits of different flavor in +canning also adds variety. In fact, neither quinces nor apples canned +alone are so delicious as the two properly combined and canned together. + +In the same way, if the housewife will watch the markets closely and +make good use of materials at hand, she may provide canned foods at +comparatively little cost. Of course, the woman who has a garden of her +own has a decided advantage over the one who must depend on the market +for foods to can. The woman with access to a garden may can foods as +soon as they have been gathered, and for this reason she runs less risk +of losing them after they have been canned. Nevertheless, as has been +pointed out, it is really the duty of every housewife to preserve food +in the home for the use of her family. + + * * * * * + +CANNING + +PRINCIPLES OF CANNING + +8. CANNING consists in sealing foods in receptacles, such as cans or +jars, in such a way that they will remain sterile for an indefinite +period of time. Several methods of canning are in use, and the one to +adopt will depend considerably on personal preference and the money that +can be expended for the equipment. In any case, successful results in +canning depend on the care that is given to every detail that enters +into the work. This means, then, that from the selection of the food to +be canned to the final operation in canning not one thing that has to do +with good results should be overlooked. + +9. SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CANNING.--A careful selection of the food that +is to be canned is of great importance. If it is in good condition at +the time of canning, it is much more likely to remain good when canned +than food that is not. The flavor of the finished product also depends a +great deal on the condition of the food. Fruits have the best flavor +when they are ripe, but they are in the best condition for canning just +before they have completely ripened. Immediately following perfect +ripeness comes the spoiling stage, and if fruits, as well as vegetables, +are canned before they are completely ripe, they are, of course, farther +from the conditions that tend to spoil them. This, however, does not +mean that green fruits or vegetables should be canned. + +Whenever possible, any food that is to be canned should be perfectly +fresh. The sooner it is canned after it has been gathered, the more +satisfactory will be the results. For instance, it is better to can it +12 hours after gathering than 24 hours, but to can it 2 hours after is +much better. Fruits, such as berries, that are especially perishable +should not be allowed to stand overnight if this can be prevented; and +it is absolutely necessary to can some vegetables, such as peas, beans, +and corn, within a very few hours after gathering. Unless this is done, +they will develop a bad flavor because of _flat sour_, a condition that +results from the action of certain bacteria. Imperfect fruits should +not be canned, but should be used for making jam, marmalade, or jelly. + +10. WHY CANNED FOODS SPOIL.--Canned foods spoil because of the action of +micro-organisms that cause fermentation, putrefaction, and molding. The +reasons for the spoiling of food are thoroughly discussed in _Essentials +of Cookery_, Part 2, and in that discussion canning is mentioned as one +of the means of preserving food or preventing it from spoiling. However, +when canning does not prove effective, it is because undesirable +bacteria are present in the food. Either they have not been destroyed by +the canning process or they have been allowed to enter before the jar +was closed, and have then developed to such an extent as to cause the +food to spoil. Odors, flavors, and gases result from the putrefaction, +fermentation, or molding caused by these bacteria, and these make the +foods offensive or harmful, or perhaps both. + +11. PREVENTING CANNED FOODS FROM SPOILING.--From what has just been +said, it will be seen that the success of canning depends entirely on +destroying harmful micro-organisms that are present in the food and +preventing those present in the air from entering the jars in which the +food is placed. + +Some foods are more difficult to keep than others, because bacteria act +on them more readily and the foods themselves contain nothing that +prevents their growth. Among such foods are meat, fish, peas, corn, +beans, and meat soups. On the other hand, some foods contain acids that +prevent the growth of bacteria, and these keep easily. Among these are +rhubarb, cranberries, and green gooseberries. However, foods that keep +easily are few, and in most cases extreme care in the process of canning +must be exercised. + +12. While warmth is necessary for bacterial growth, very high +temperatures will destroy or retard it. In canning, a temperature as +high as 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or boiling point, retards the growth of +active bacteria, but retarding their growth is not sufficient. They must +be rendered inactive. To do this requires either a higher temperature +than boiling point or long continued cooking at 212 degrees. _Spores_ +are a protective form that many kinds of bacteria assume under +unfavorable conditions. They are very difficult to kill, and unless they +are completely destroyed in the canning process, they will develop into +active bacteria when conditions again become favorable. The result of +the spore development is the spoiling of the food. + +13. Other things besides the application of heat assist in the keeping +of canned food, as, for example, the acids of the fruits and vegetables +themselves, as has been mentioned. The use of sugar also assists; the +greater the quantity of sugar in solution the easier it will be to keep +the food. This is proved in the case of jams and jellies, which will +keep without being sealed tight or put into jars immediately after +cooking. Salt helps to keep vegetables that are canned, and, in making +butters, conserves, and pickles, the spices and vinegars used help to +protect the foods from bacterial action. However, none of these things +are essential to the keeping of any _sterile food_, by which is meant +food in which all bacteria or sources of bacteria have been rendered +inactive by the application of sufficient heat. + +14. CANNING PRESERVATIVES.--Numerous compounds, usually in the form of +powders, are advertised as being useful for keeping canned foods from +spoiling. None of them should be used, however, because they are +unnecessary. If the work of canning is carefully and effectively done, +good foods will keep perfectly without the addition of a preservative. +The pure-food laws of the United States and of many of the states +themselves forbid the use of some preservatives because of their harmful +effect on the human system. For this reason, to say nothing of the extra +expense that would be incurred in their use, such preservatives may well +be left alone. + + +GENERAL EQUIPMENT FOR CANNING + +15. The equipment required for canning depends on two things: the +quantity of food to be canned at one time and, since there are several +canning methods in use, the canning method that is to be employed. + +Various kinds of elaborate equipment have been devised to make the work +of canning easy as well as effective. However, it is possible to do +excellent work with simple equipment, and if the matter of expense must +be considered there should be no hesitation about choosing the simplest +and least expensive and doing the work in the best possible way with it. +It is important also that utensils already included in the household +equipment be improvised to meet the needs of the canning season as far +as possible. + +16. Whatever the canning method that is to be followed may be, there are +a number of utensils and containers that go to make up the general +equipment that is required. Familiarity with such an equipment is +extremely necessary for correct results in canning, and for this reason +the general equipment is discussed here in detail. The special equipment +needed for each of the canning methods, however, is not taken up until +the method is considered. In giving this general equipment, mention is +made of some utensils that are convenient but not absolutely necessary. +Any unnecessary, but convenient, part of a canning equipment should +therefore be chosen with a view to its labor-saving qualities and its +expense. A device that will make the keeping of canned foods more +certain and prevent loss may be a valuable purchase; still, that which +makes for greater convenience, but not absolute saving, need not be +considered a necessity. + +17. VESSELS FOR CANNING.--The pots, kettles, and pans in ordinary use in +the kitchen for cooking purposes are usually satisfactory for the +canning of foods. Those made of tin or iron, however, are not so good as +enameled ones or those made of other metals, such as aluminum. +Especially is this true of utensils used for the canning of acid fruits +or vegetables, because, if such food remains in contact with tin or iron +for more than a few minutes, the acid will corrode the surface +sufficiently to give the food a bad or metallic taste. In addition, such +utensils often give the food a dark color. If enameled kettles are used +for the cooking of foods that are to be canned, it is important that the +surface be perfectly smooth and unbroken. Otherwise, it will be +difficult to prevent burning; besides, chips of the enamel are liable to +get into the food. Kettles for the cooking of fruits with sirup should +be flat and have a broad surface. Fruit is not so likely to crush in +such kettles as in kettles that are deep and have a small surface. + +18. KNIVES, SPOONS AND OTHER SMALL UTENSILS.--Many of the small utensils +in a kitchen equipment are practically indispensable for canning +purposes. Thus, for paring fruits and vegetables and cutting out cores, +blossoms, and stem ends or any defective spots, nothing is more +satisfactory than a sharp paring knife with a good point. For paring +acid fruits, though, a plated knife is not so likely to cause +discoloring as a common steel knife. There are, however, other useful +implements for special work, such as the _strawberry huller_, Fig. 1, +for removing the stems of strawberries, and the _peach pitter_, Fig. 2, +for removing the stones from clingstone peaches. For placing the food to +be canned into jars, both forks and large spoons are necessities. A +large spoon with holes or slits in the bowl is convenient for picking +fruits and vegetables out of a kettle when no liquid is desired, as well +as for skimming a kettle of fruit. For packing foods into jars, a +long-handled spoon with a small bowl is convenient. Still another useful +small utensil is a short, wide funnel that may be inserted into the +mouth of a jar and thus permit the food to be dipped or poured into it +without being spilled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +19. DEVICES FOR MEASURING.--Accurate measures are necessary in canning; +in fact, some of the work cannot be done satisfactorily without them. A +half-pint measuring cup and a quart measure with the cups marked on it +are very satisfactory for making all measures. + +Scales are often convenient, too. For measuring dry materials, they are +always more accurate than measures. Many canning proportions and recipes +call for the measurement of the ingredients by weight rather than by +measure. When this is the case and a pair of scales is not convenient, +it is almost impossible to be certain that the proportions are correct. +For instance, if a recipe calls for a pound of sugar and an equal amount +of fruit, a measuring cup will in no way indicate the correct quantity. + +20. COLANDER AND WIRE STRAINER.--For the cleansing of fruits and +vegetables that are to be canned, a colander is of great assistance; +also, if a large wire strainer is purchased, it may be used as a sieve +and for scalding and blanching, steps in canning that are +explained later. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +21. GLASS JARS.--For household canning, the most acceptable containers +for food are glass jars that may be closed air-tight with jar rubbers +and tops. Use is sometimes made of bottles, jars, and cans of various +kinds that happen to be at hand, but never should they be employed +unless they can be fitted with covers and made positively air-tight. +Like utensils, the glass jars that are a part of the household supply +should be used from year to year, if possible, but not at the loss of +material. Such loss, however, will depend on the proper sealing of the +jars, provided everything up to that point has been correctly done. All +jars should be carefully inspected before they are used, because +imperfect or broken edges are often responsible for the spoiling +of food. + +In purchasing glass jars, only what are known as _first quality_ should +be selected. Cheap jars are likely to be seconds and will not prove so +satisfactory. Glass jars may be purchased in sizes that hold from 1/2 +pint to 2 quarts. If possible, food should be canned in the size of jar +that best suits the number of persons to be served. + +If the family consists of two, pint jars will hold even more than may be +used at one time, while if the family is large the contents of a quart +jar may not be sufficient. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +22. Numerous types of glass jars are to be had. Some of them are more +convenient than others and may be made air-tight more easily. These two +features are the most important to consider in making a selection. Jars +that close with difficulty, especially if the tops screw on, are not +likely to keep food successfully because the bacteria in the air will +have a chance to enter and thus cause the food to spoil. + +Glass jars used for canning foods have improved with canning methods. +The old-style jars had a groove into which the cover fit, and melted +sealing wax or rosin was poured into the space surrounding the cover. +Later came the screw-top jar shown in Fig. 3. This type of jar has been +extensively used with excellent results. Both the mouth of this jar and +the jar top, which is made of metal, usually zinc, lined with glass or +porcelain, have threads that match, and the jar is sealed by placing the +jar rubber over the top, or ridge, of the jar and then screwing the jar +top firmly in place. Such jars, however, are more difficult to make +air-tight than some of the newer types. One of these jars is illustrated +in Fig. 4. It is provided with a glass cover that fits on the ridge of +the jar and a metal clasp that serves to hold the cover in place and to +make the jar air-tight after a rubber is placed in position. Another +convenient and simple type of glass jar, known as the _automatic seal +top_, has a metal cover with a rubber attached. + +Another improvement in jars is that the opening has been enlarged so +that large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, tomatoes, etc., can +be packed into them whole. With such wide-mouthed jars, it is easier to +pack the contents in an orderly manner and thus improve the appearance +of the product. Besides, it is a simpler matter to clean such a jar than +one that has a small opening. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +23. JAR TOPS AND COVERS.--While the tops, or covers, for glass jars are +made of both metal and glass, as has been stated, the glass tops meet +with most favor. Of course, they are breakable, but they are even more +durable than metal tops, which are usually rendered less effective by +the bending they undergo when they are removed from the jar. Covers made +of zinc are being rapidly abandoned, and it has been proved that the +fewer the grooves and the simpler the cover, the more carefully and +successfully can it be cleaned. For safety, glass tops that have become +chipped or nicked on the edges that fit the jar should be replaced by +perfect ones. The covers for automatic-seal jars must be pierced before +they can be removed, and this necessitates a new supply for each +canning. If there is any question about the first-class condition of jar +covers, whether of metal or glass, tops that are perfect should +be provided. + +24. JAR RUBBERS.--Jar rubbers are required with jar tops to seal jars +air-tight. Before they are used, they should be tested in the manner +shown in Fig. 5. Good jar rubbers will return to their original shape +after being stretched. Such rubbers should be rather soft and elastic, +and they should fit the jars perfectly and lie down flat when adjusted. +A new supply of rubbers should be purchased each canning season, because +rubber deteriorates as it grows old. Rubbers of good quality will stand +boiling for 5 hours without being affected, but when they have become +stiff and hard from age it is sometimes impossible to make jars +air-tight. Occasionally, two old rubbers that are comparatively soft may +be used in place of a new one, and sometimes old rubbers are dipped in +paraffin and then used. However, if there is any difficulty in sealing +jars properly with rubbers so treated, they should be discarded and good +ones used. + +25. TIN CANS.--For household canning, tin cans are not so convenient as +glass jars, but in spite of this they are coming into extensive use. The +kind that may be used without any special equipment has a tin lid that +fits into a groove and is fastened in place with rosin or sealing wax. +Some cans, however, require that the lids be soldered in place. While +soldering requires special equipment, this method of making the cans +air-tight is the best, and it is employed where considerable canning is +done, as by canning clubs or commercial canners. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +In the purchase of tin cans, the size of the opening should receive +consideration. If large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, pears, +and tomatoes, are to be canned, the opening must be a large one; +whereas, if peas, beans, corn, and other small vegetables or fruits are +to be canned, cans having a smaller opening may be chosen. When acid +fruits or vegetables are to be canned, use should be made of cans that +are coated with shellac, as this covering on the inside of the cans +prevents any action of the acid on the tin. + + * * * * * + +CANNING METHODS + +GENERAL DISCUSSION + +26. The methods employed for the canning of foods include the +_open-kettle method_, the _cold-pack method_, the _steam-pressure +method_, and the _oven method_. Of these, the open-kettle method is +perhaps the oldest household method of canning, and it is still used by +many housewives. The other methods, which are newer, seem troublesome to +the housewife who is familiar with the open-kettle method, yet it will +only be fair to give the new methods a trial before deciding which to +use. The one-period cold-pack method has much to recommend it. Foods +canned in this way undergo less change in form and flavor than those +canned by the open-kettle method; besides, there is less danger of +spoiling. In fact, many foods, such as vegetables and meats, that cannot +be canned satisfactorily by the open-kettle method will keep perfectly +if they are carefully preserved by the one-period cold-pack method. The +steam-pressure method requires the use of special equipment, as is +explained later. While it is a very acceptable canning method, it is not +accessible in many homes. The oven method is liked by many housewives, +but it offers almost the same chance for contamination as does the +open-kettle method. + + +OPEN-KETTLE METHOD + +27. The OPEN-KETTLE METHOD of canning is very simple and requires no +equipment other than that to be found in every kitchen. It consists in +thoroughly cooking the food that is to be canned, transferring it to +containers, and sealing them immediately. + +28. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--Not many utensils are required for the +open-kettle canning method. For cooking the food, a large enamel or +metal vessel other than tin or iron should be provided. It should be +broad and shallow, rather than deep, especially for fruit, as this food +retains its shape better if it is cooked in a layer that is not deep. +The other utensils for canning fruits and vegetables by this method are +practically the same as those already discussed--measuring utensils, a +knife, large spoons, pans for sterilizing jars or cans, covers, rubbers, +and jars or cans into which to put the food. + +29. PROCEDURE.--The first step in the open-kettle canning method +consists in sterilizing the containers. To do this, first clean the +jars, covers, and rubbers by washing them and then boiling them in clear +water for 15 to 20 minutes. + +Next, attention should be given to the food that is to be canned. Look +it over carefully, cut out any decayed portions, and wash it thoroughly. +Sometimes roots, leaves, stems, or seeds are removed before washing, and +sometimes this is not done until after washing. At any rate, all dirt or +foreign material must be washed from foods before they are ready +for canning. + +After preparing the food, it must be cooked. If fruit is being canned, +put it into the required sirup, the making of which is explained later, +and cook it until it is well softened, as if preparing it for immediate +table use. If vegetables are being canned, cook them in the same way, +but use salt and water instead of sirup. When the food is cooked, +transfer it to the sterile jars and seal at once with the sterile +rubbers and covers. Then invert each jar to permit the food to cool and +to test for leaks. + +30. The danger of not securing good results with the open-kettle method +lies in the possibility of contaminating the contents before the jar is +closed and sealed. In addition to having the jars, rubbers, and covers +sterile, therefore, all spoons and other utensils used to handle the +cooked food must be sterile. Likewise, the jars must be filled to the +top and the covers put on and made as firm and tight as possible at +once, so that as few bacteria as possible will enter. If screw-top cans +are used, the tops should not be twisted or turned after cooling, as +this may affect the sealing. If jars leak upon being turned upside down, +the contents must be removed and reheated and the jar must be fitted +with another cover. Then both jar and cover must be sterilized and the +contents returned and sealed immediately. + + +COLD-PACK METHOD + +31. The COLD-PACK METHOD of canning differs from the open-kettle method +in that the food to be canned is not cooked in a kettle before placing +it in the jars and sealing them. In this method, the food to be canned +is prepared by washing, peeling, scraping, hulling, stemming, seeding, +or cutting, depending on the kind. Then it is _scalded_ or _blanched_ +and plunged into cold water quickly and taken out immediately, the +latter operation being called _cold-dipping_. After this it is placed +into hot jars, covered with boiling liquid--boiling water and salt for +vegetables, meats, fish, or soups, and boiling sirup for fruits. Then +the filled jars are covered loosely and placed in a water bath and +_processed_; that is, cooked and sterilized. When food that is being +canned is subjected to processing only once, the method is referred to +as the _one-period cold-pack method_; but when the food in the jars has +not been blanched and cold-dipped and is processed, allowed to stand 24 +hours and then processed again, and this operation repeated, it is +called the _fractional-sterilization method_. The equipment required for +the cold-pack canning method and the procedure in performing the work +are taken up in detail, so that every point concerning the work may be +thoroughly understood. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +32. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--The utensils required for canning by the +cold-pack method are shown assembled in Fig. 6. Chief among them is a +_sterilizer_, or boiler, which consists of a large fiat-bottomed vessel +fitted with a rack and a tight-fitting cover. A number of such devices +are manufactured for canning by the cold-pack method, but it is possible +to improvise one in the home. A wash boiler, a large pail, a large lard +can, or, in fact, any large vessel with a flat bottom into which is +fitted a rack of some kind to keep the jars 3/4 inch above the bottom +can be used. Several layers of wire netting cut to correct size and +fastened at each end to a 3/4-inch strip of wood will do very well for a +rack. In any event, the vessel must be deep enough to allow the water to +cover the jars completely and must have a tight-fitting cover. Besides a +sterilizer, there are needed three large vessels, one for scalding the +food that is to be canned, one for cold-dipping, and one for keeping the +jars hot. To hold the food that is to be dipped, a sieve, a wire +basket, also shown in Fig. 6, or a large square of cheesecloth must also +be provided, and for placing jars in the water bath, a can lifter, a +type of which is shown on the table in Fig. 6, may be needed. The +remainder of the equipment is practically the same as that described +under the heading General Equipment for Canning. + + +PROCEDURE IN THE ONE-PERIOD COLD-PACK METHOD + +33. PREPARING THE CONTAINERS.--The first step in the cold-pack method +consists in preparing the containers for the food. The jars, rubbers, +and covers, however, do not have to be sterilized as in the open-kettle +method. But it is necessary first to test and cleanse the jars and then +to keep them hot, so that later, when they are filled and ready to be +placed in the water bath, they will not crack by coming in contact with +boiling water. The best way in which to keep the jars hot is to let them +stand in hot water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +34. PREPARATION OF THE FOOD.--Attention should next be directed to the +preparation of the food to be canned; that is, clean it and have it +ready for the processes that follow. The fruits or vegetables may be +canned whole or in pieces of any desirable size. What to do with them is +explained later, when the directions for canning the different kinds are +discussed. While the food is undergoing preparation, fill the sterilizer +with hot water and allow it to come to the boiling point. + +35. SCALDING AND BLANCHING.--When the food is made ready, the next step +is to scald or blanch it. Scalding is done to loosen the skin of such +food as peaches, plums, and tomatoes, so that they may be peeled +easily. To scald such fruits or vegetables, dip them quickly into +boiling water and allow them to remain there just long enough to loosen +the skin. If they are ripe, the scalding must be done quickly; otherwise +they will become soft. They should never be allowed to remain in the +water after the skin begins to loosen. For scalding fruits and +vegetables a wire basket or a square of cheesecloth may be used in the +manner shown in Figs. 7 and 8. + +Blanching is done to reduce the bulk of such foods as spinach and other +greens, to render them partly sterilized, and to improve their flavor. +It consists in dipping the food into boiling water or suspending it over +live steam and allowing it to remain there for a longer period of time +than is necessary for scalding. To blanch food, place it in a wire +basket, a sieve, or a piece of clean cheesecloth and lower it into +boiling water or suspend it above the water in a closely covered vessel. +Allow it to remain there long enough to accomplish the purpose intended. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +36. COLD DIPPING.--After the food to be canned is scalded or blanched, +it is ready for cold-dipping. Cold-dipping is done partly to improve the +color of the food. It stops the softening process at once, makes the +food more firm and thus easier to handle, and helps to loosen the skin +of foods that have been scalded. It also assists in destroying bacteria +by suddenly shocking the spores after the application of heat. +Cold-dipping, in conjunction with blanching or scalding, replaces the +long process of fractional sterilization, and is what makes the +one-period cold-pack method superior to this other process. To cold-dip +food, simply plunge that which has just been scalded or blanched into +cold water, as in Fig. 9, and then take it out at once. + +37. PACKING THE JARS.--Packing the jars immediately follows +cold-dipping, and it is work that should be done as rapidly as possible. +Remove the jars from the hot water as they are needed and fill each with +the cold-dipped fruit or vegetable. Pack the jars in an orderly manner +and as solidly as possible with the aid of a spoon, as in Fig. 10. Just +this little attention to detail not only will help to improve the +appearance of the canned fruit, but will make it possible to put more +food in the jars. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +When a jar is filled, pour into it whatever liquid is to be used, as in +Fig. 11. As has been stated, hot sirup is added for fruits and boiling +water and salt for vegetables. However, when fruit is to be canned +without sugar, only water is added. With tomatoes and some greens, no +liquid need be used, because they contain a sufficient amount in +themselves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +38. PREPARATION FOR THE WATER BATH.--As the jars are filled, they must +be prepared for the water bath. Therefore, proceed to place the rubber +and cover on the jar. Adjust the rubber, as shown in Fig. 12, so that it +will be flat in place. Then put the cover, or lid, on as in Fig. 13, but +do not tighten it. The cover must be loose enough to allow steam to +escape during the boiling in the water bath and thus prevent the jar +from bursting. If the cover screws on, as in the jar at the left, do not +screw it down tight; merely turn it lightly until it stops without +pressure being put upon it. If glass covers that fasten in place with +the aid of a clamp are to be used, as in the jar at the right, simply +push the wire over the cover and allow the clamp at the side to remain +up. Jars of food so prepared are ready for processing. + +[Illustration: FIG 11] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +39. PROCESSING.--The purpose of the water bath is to _process_ the food +contained in the jars before they are thoroughly sealed. Therefore, when +the jars are filled, proceed to place them in the water bath. The water, +which was placed in the sterilizer during the preparation of the food, +should be boiling, and there should be enough to come 2 inches over the +tops of the jars when they are placed in this large vessel. In putting +the jars of food into the sterilizer, place them upright and allow them +to rest on the rack in the bottom. If the filled jars have cooled, they +should be warmed before placing them in the sterilizer by putting them +in hot water. On account of the boiling water, the jars should be +handled with a jar lifter, as in Fig. 14. However, if the sterilizer is +provided with a perforated part like that in Fig. 15, all the jars may +be placed in it and then lowered in place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +When the jars are in place, put the tight-fitting cover on the +sterilizer and allow the water to boil and thus cook and sterilize the +food in the jars. The length of time for boiling varies with the kind of +food and is given later with the directions for canning different foods. +The boiling time should be counted from the instant the water in the +sterilizer begins to bubble violently. A good plan to follow, provided +an alarm clock is at hand, it to set it at this time, so that it will go +off when the jars are to be removed from the sterilizer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +40. SEALING THE JARS.--After processing the food in this manner, the +jars must be completely sealed. Therefore, after the boiling has +continued for the required length of time, remove the jars from the +water with the aid of the jar lifter or the tray and seal them at once +by clamping or screwing the covers, or lids, in place, as in Fig. 16. +Sometimes, the food inside the jars shrinks so much in this process that +the jars are not full when they are ready to be sealed. This is +illustrated in Fig. 17. Such shrinkage is usually the result of +insufficient blanching, or poor packing or both. However, it will not +prevent the food from keeping perfectly. Therefore, the covers of such +jars of food must not be removed and the jars refilled; rather, seal the +jars tight immediately, just as if the food entirely filled them. If, in +sealing jars removed from the water bath, it is found that a rubber has +worked loose, shove it back carefully with the point of a clean knife, +but do not remove the cover. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +As the jars are sealed, place them on their sides or stand them upside +down, as in Fig. 18, to test for leaks, in a place where a draft will +not strike them and cause them to break. If a leak is found in any jar, +a new rubber and cover must be provided and the food then reprocessed +for a few minutes. This may seem to be a great inconvenience, but it is +the only way in which to be certain that the food will not be wasted +by spoiling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +41. WRAPPING AND LABELING.--When the jars of food have stood long +enough to cool, usually overnight, they are ready for wrapping and +labeling. Wrapping is advisable for practically all foods that are +canned, so as to prevent bleaching, and, of course, labeling is +necessary when canned food is wrapped, so as to enable it to be +distinguished readily when it is in storage. To wrap canned foods, +proceed as in Fig. 19. Use ordinary wrapping paper cut to a size that +will be suitable for the jar, and secure it in place with a rubber band, +as shown, or by pasting the label over the free edge. + + +PROCEDURE IN THE FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION METHOD + +42. In canning food by the FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION CANNING METHOD, the +procedure is much the same as in the one-period cold-pack method. In +fact, the only difference between the two is that blanching and +cold-dipping are omitted, and in their stead the food in the jars is +subjected to three periods of cooking. When the jars of food are made +ready for processing in the sterilizer, they are put in the water bath, +boiled for a short time, and then allowed to cool. After 24 hours, they +are again boiled for the same length of time and allowed to cool. After +another 24 hours, they are subjected to boiling for a third time. Then +the jars of food are removed and sealed as in the one-period cold-pack +method. By the fractional-sterilization method, the spores of bacteria +contained in the food packed in the jars are given a chance to develop +during the 24-hour periods after the first and second cookings, those +which become active being destroyed by cooking the second and third +times. Although some canners prefer this method to those already +mentioned, the majority look on it with disfavor, owing to the length of +time it requires. + + +STEAM-PRESSURE METHODS + +43. For canning foods by steam pressure, special equipment is necessary. +In one of the steam-pressure methods, what is known as a _water-seal +outfit_ is required, and in the other a device called a _pressure +cooker_ is employed. The work of getting the containers ready, preparing +the food for canning, packing it into the jars, and sealing and testing +the jars is practically the same in the steam pressure methods as in the +cold-pack methods. The difference lies in the cooking and sterilization +of the foods after they are in the jars and partly sealed and in the +rapidity with which it may be done. + +44. CANNING WITH A WATER-SEAL OUTFIT.--A water-seal outfit, which may be +purchased in stores that sell canning supplies, consists of a large +metal vessel into which fits a perforated metal basket designed to hold +jars of food. This vessel is also provided with a tight-fitting cover +having an edge that passes down through the water, which is placed in +the bottom of the vessel. When heat is applied to the bottom of the +vessel, the water inside of it is changed into steam. The cover prevents +the steam from passing out, and it collects in and around the metal +basket supporting the jars of food. Enough steam is generated in this +outfit to raise the temperature about 4 to 6 degrees above the boiling +point. Thus, the water-seal outfit will cook the food in the cans in +about one-fourth less time than will the water bath of the one-period +cold-pack canning method. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +45. CANNING WITH A PRESSURE COOKER.--For canning by steam pressure, a +number of different kinds of pressure cookers are to be had, but in +principle they are all alike and they are always made of heavy material, +so as to withstand the severe steam pressure generated in them. In Fig. +20 is shown one type of pressure cooker. It is provided with a bail, or +handle, for carrying it and with clamps that hold the cover firmly in +place. Attached to the cover is a steam gauge, which indicates the steam +pressure inside the cooker, and a pet-cock, which is used to regulate +the pressure. On some cookers, a thermometer is also attached to the +cover. Also, inside of some, resting on the bottom, is an elevated rack +for supporting the jars of food that are to be sterilized and cooked. In +operating a pressure cooker, water for generating steam is poured in +until it reaches the top of this rack, but it should not be allowed to +cover any part of the jars of food. Steam is generated by applying heat +to the bottom of the cooker, and the longer the heat is applied the +higher the steam pressure will go. + +It is possible to secure a steam pressure of 5 to 25 pounds per square +inch in a cooker of this kind. This means that the temperature reached +will vary from a few degrees above boiling to about 275 degrees +Fahrenheit. At a pressure of 20 pounds, the temperature will be about +260 degrees. The heavier the material used for a cooker and the more +solid the construction, the higher may go the steam pressure, and, of +course, the temperature. Some cookers of light construction will not +permit of a pressure greater than 5 pounds, but even such cookers are +very satisfactory. It is the high temperature that may be developed in a +pressure cooker that greatly shortens the time required for cooking jars +of food and making them sterile. + + +CANNING WITH TIN CANS + +46. For canning food in some tin cans, it is necessary to have a +soldering outfit for properly closing them. This consists of a capping +steel, a tipping iron, solder in small strips and in powder form, a +small can of sal ammoniac, and a bottle of flux, which is a fluid that +makes solder stick to tin. + +47. Prepare the food that is to be canned in tin cans in the same way as +for canning in jars by the cold-pack method; likewise, pack the cans in +the same way, but allow the liquid and fruit or vegetables to come to +within only 1/4 inch of the top. Then proceed to close the cans. Apply +the flux to the groove in the top of each can where the solder is to be +melted, using for this purpose a small brush or a small stick having a +piece of cloth wrapped around one end. Heat the capping steel, which +should be thoroughly clean, until it is almost red hot, dip it quickly +into a little of the flux, and then put it into a mixture consisting of +equal parts of sal ammoniac and powdered solder until it is covered with +bright solder. Put the cap on the can and apply the hot capping steel +covered with the solder. Hold this device firmly, press it downwards, +and turn it slowly as the solder melts and thus joins the cap to +the can. + +48. After the caps are soldered in place, the air inside the cans must +be driven out through the small vent, or opening, usually in the center +of the cap, and the cans made air-tight. Therefore, place the cans into +boiling water to within 1/2 inch of the top and let them remain there +for a few minutes. Usually, 3 minutes in boiling water is sufficient. +Immediately after _exhausting_, as this process is called, apply a +little of the flux as in capping, and, with the tipping iron well heated +and a strip of solder, seal the hole in the caps. After this is done, +test each can for leaks by submerging it in water. If bubbles arise, it +is an indication that the cover is not tight and must be resoldered. + +49. The next step consists in processing the cans of food. This may be +done either in a water bath or in a pressure cooker. If the cans are to +be processed in a water bath, keep them in the boiling water just as +long as glass jars of food would be kept there. If a pressure cooker is +to be used, keep the cans in it for 6 to 40 minutes, depending on the +steam pressure employed, the ripeness of the food or the necessity for +cooking it, and the size of the cans employed. For canning meat or fish, +processing in a pressure cooker is the most successful, as the high +temperature reached in it kills bacteria, which are difficult to destroy +at the boiling point. + +As soon as the cans of food are removed from the water bath or the +pressure cooker, plunge them into cold water to stop the cooking and +prevent the food from getting soft and mushy. Then label the cans, so +that no mistake will be made as to their contents. + +50. In another method, the tin cans may be closed without soldering the +caps on. The caps used in this case are different from those which must +be soldered. They are forced in place by a hand-pressure machine that +may be attached to a table. Otherwise the procedure is the same as that +just given. + + +OVEN METHOD + +51. The OVEN METHOD oven method of canning is thought to be very +satisfactory by many housewives, but, as it is necessary to remove the +covers after cooking the contents of the jars, food canned in this way +is subjected to contamination, just as in the open-kettle method. In +addition, the jars are difficult to handle in the oven, owing to the +extreme heat that is required to cook the food in the jars. + +52. In canning by the oven method, proceed by preparing the food as for +the cold-pack canning method; also, fill the jars with fruit or +vegetables and with liquid or sirup as in this method. Put the covers on +the jars loosely, omitting the jar rubbers. Place the jars in a shallow +pan of water, as in Fig. 21, and set the pan containing the jars into a +stove oven, which should be only slightly warm. At the same time place +the jar rubbers in a pan of boiling water, so that they may be +sterilized as the food cooks. When the jars are in the oven, increase +the heat gradually until the food in them boils. Then keep up a +temperature that will allow the food to boil quietly for a period long +enough to cook it soft and sterilize it. Usually, 30 to 45 minutes after +boiling has begun will be sufficient. During the cooking some of the +liquid in the jars evaporates. Therefore, when the jars of food are +ready to be removed from the oven, have boiling water or sirup ready, +remove the cover of each jar in turn, and fill the jar brimful with the +liquid. Then place a sterilized rubber in place and fasten the cover +down tight. The procedure from this point on is the same as in the other +canning methods. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + + * * * * * + +CANNING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS + +PREPARATION FOR CANNING + +53. In canning, as in all other tasks related to cookery, the +housewife's aim should be to do the greatest amount of work, and do it +well, with the least effort on her part. The results she gets in +canning, then, will depend considerably on the orderly arrangement of +the utensils and materials with which she is to do the work. But of +greater importance is the preparation she makes to eliminate as much as +she can the possibilities of contamination, for, as has been repeatedly +pointed out, success in canning depends on the absence of +dangerous bacteria. + +54. From what has just been mentioned, it is essential that everything +about the person who is to do the work and the place in which the work +is to done should be clean. Clean dresses and aprons should be worn, and +the hands and finger nails should be scrupulously clean. The kitchen +floor should be scrubbed and the furniture dusted with a damp cloth. Any +unnecessary utensils and kitchen equipment should be put out of the way +and those required for canning assembled and made ready for the work. +The jars should be washed and the covers tested by fitting them on +without the rubbers. If a glass cover rocks, it does not fit correctly; +and if a screw cover will not screw down tight, it should be discarded. +Without the rubber, there should be just enough space between the cover +and the jar to permit the thumb nail to be inserted as is shown in Fig. +3. The edge of each jar and each glass cover should be carefully +examined every time it is used, so that none with pieces chipped off +will be used, as these will admit air. This examination is made by +running the finger over the edge of the jar and the cover, as is shown +in Fig. 4. The jars, covers, and rubbers should be put into pans of cold +water, and the water should be brought to the boiling point and allowed +to boil for 15 minutes or more while the fruit or vegetables are being +prepared for canning. They should be kept in the hot water until the +food is ready to be placed in them. In the one-period cold-pack method, +it is not necessary to boil the jars, rubbers, and covers, but this may +be done if desired. + +To produce good-looking jars of food, the fruit or vegetables to be +canned should be graded to some extent; that is, the finest of the +fruits or vegetables should be separated and used by themselves, as +should also those of medium quality. Often it is wise to use the poorest +foods for purposes other than canning. The food may then be canned +according to the chosen method, but by no means should methods be mixed. +In handling the product after it has been cooked by the open-kettle +method, any spoon, funnel, or other utensil must be thoroughly +sterilized in the same way as the jars and their covers and rubbers; +indeed, no unsterile utensil should ever be allowed to touch the food +when a jar is being filled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +55. It is by the observance of such precautions as these, some of them +seemingly unimportant, that the housewife will be repaid for her efforts +in canning and be able to produce canned fruits and vegetables like +those shown in color in Fig. 22. This illustration shows, with a few +exceptions, such foods canned by the one-period cold-pack method, and +merits close inspection. As will be observed, the jars are full and well +packed and the color of each food is retained. Each can of food +indicates careful work and serves to show the housewife what she may +expect if she performs her work under the right conditions and in the +right way. This illustration likewise serves to demonstrate that any +food may be successfully canned by the one-period cold-pack method, a +claim that cannot be made for the other canning methods. In fact, some +of the foods illustrated, as, for instance, peas and corn, cannot be +canned successfully by any other method. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR CANNING VEGETABLES + +56. CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES.--To simplify the directions here given +for the canning of vegetables, this food is divided into four groups, +as follows: + +1. _Greens_, which include all wild and cultivated edible greens, such +as beet greens, collards, cress, dandelion, endive, horseradish greens, +kale, mustard greens, spinach, New Zealand spinach, and Swiss chard. + +2. _Pod and related vegetables_, which include asparagus, beans, both +string and wax, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, okra, +peppers, both green and ripe, summer squash, and vegetable marrow. + +3. _Root and tuber vegetables_, which include beets, carrots, kohlrabi, +parsnips, rutabagas, salsify, sweet potatoes, and turnips. + +4. _Special vegetables_, which include beans, both Lima and shell, corn, +mushrooms, peas, pumpkin, sauerkraut, squash, succotash and other +vegetable combinations, and tomatoes. + +The convenience of this plan will be readily seen when it is understood +that, with the exception of the special vegetables, the same method of +preparation and the time given for the various steps in the canning +process apply to all vegetables of the same class. Thus, if directions +for a vegetable belonging to a certain class are not definitely stated +in the text, it may be taken for granted that this vegetable may be +canned in the manner given for another vegetable of the same class. + +57. GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--The canning of vegetables may be most +successfully done by the one-period cold-pack method. Tomatoes, +however, because of the large quantity of acid they contain, may be +canned and kept with little difficulty by the open-kettle method, but +they will be found to keep their shape better if the cold-pack method +is employed. + +The time required for cooking any vegetable after it is packed in jars +depends on the kind and the age. Therefore, if a vegetable is hard or +likely to be tough, it may be necessary to increase the time given in +the directions; whereas, if it is young and tender or very ripe, as in +the case of tomatoes, the time for cooking may perhaps have to be +decreased. Because, in altitudes higher than sea level, the boiling +point of water is lower than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, the length of time +for boiling foods in the water bath must be increased after an altitude +of 500 feet is reached. Therefore, for every additional 500 feet over +the first 500 feet, 10 per cent. should be added to the time given for +the boiling in water. In case a pressure cooker is used, however, this +is not necessary. + +The canning directions here given are for 1-quart jars. If pint jars are +to be used, decrease the salt proportionately; also, decrease the time +for cooking in each case one-fifth of the time, or 20 per cent. If +2-quart jars are to be used, double the amount of salt and add to the +length of time for cooking one-fifth, or 20 per cent. For instance, if a +1-quart jar of food requires 90 minutes, a pint jar of the same food +would require 72 minutes and a 2-quart jar, 108 minutes. + + +GROUP 1--GREENS + +58. In canning greens, or vegetables belonging to the first group, +select those which are fresh and tender. Greens that are old and +inclined to be strong and tough may require longer blanching and +cooking. Look the greens over carefully, rejecting all leaves that are +wilted or otherwise spoiled. Cut off the roots and drop the leaves into +a pan of cold water. Wash these thoroughly a number of times, using +fresh water each time, in order to remove all sand and dirt that may be +clinging to them. Then proceed to blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in +steam, suspending the greens over boiling water in a piece of +cheesecloth, a colander, or the top of a steamer. After blanching, dip +them quickly into cold water. Then pack the greens tightly into jars and +add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful. No water has to be added to +greens, because the leaves themselves contain sufficient water. When the +jars are thus packed, adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and +cook the greens according to the directions previously given. If the +water bath is to be used, boil them in it for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; but if +the pressure cooker is to be employed for this purpose, cook them at a +5-pound pressure for 60 minutes or at a 10-pound pressure for +40 minutes. + + +GROUP 2--POD AND RELATED VEGETABLES + +59. The best results in canning vegetables belonging to the second group +will be derived when those which are fresh and tender are selected. As +has been mentioned, the sooner vegetables are canned after they are +taken from the garden, the better will be the canned product. Directions +for practically all vegetables included in this group are here given. + +60. ASPARAGUS.--Select tender asparagus, and proceed with the canning no +later than 5 hours after it has been taken from the garden. Remove the +hard portions at the ends of the stems, and cut the trimmed stems into +pieces the length of the jars into which they are to be placed. If +preferred, however, the asparagus may be cut into small pieces. Wash the +cut asparagus thoroughly in cold water, and then sort out the uneven +pieces that were cut off in making the stems even in length. These may +be canned separately for soup. Lay the stems of asparagus in an orderly +pile in a colander or a wire basket, cover it, and place it into a large +vessel where it may be kept completely covered with boiling water for 5 +minutes. Then cold-dip the asparagus quickly, and pack it neatly into +the jars, keeping the tip ends up. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each +jarful and pour boiling water into each jar until it is completely full. +Adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook the jars of food. +Cook for 1-1/2 to 2 hours in the water bath, or, in the pressure cooker, +cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a +pressure of 10 pounds. + +61. BRUSSELS SPROUTS, CABBAGE, AND CAULIFLOWER.--In canning Brussels +sprouts, cabbage, or cauliflower, first prepare each vegetable as if it +were to be cooked for the table. When thus made ready, blanch it with +the aid of a square of cheesecloth or a colander in live steam, over +boiling water, for 10 to 15 minutes. Then cold-dip it and pack it +tightly into the jars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful and fill +each jar with boiling water. Proceed next to sterilize and cook it +according to the method selected. Boil for 90 minutes in the water bath; +in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for +40 minutes at a 10-pound pressure. + +62. EGGPLANT AND SUMMER SQUASH.--Both eggplant and summer squash are +canned in the same way, because the consistency of these vegetables is +much alike. Select firm vegetables with no decayed spots. Blanch for 3 +to 8 minutes in boiling water; cold-dip quickly; remove the skins; cut +into pieces of a size that will fit into the jars; pack into the jars; +and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful. Next, adjust the jar lids +and proceed according to the directions given for the method selected. +In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook +for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure +of 10 pounds. Eggplant or summer squash so canned may be rolled in egg +and crumbs and sautéd or fried, the same as fresh vegetables of +this kind. + +63. OKRA AND GREEN PEPPERS.--Both okra and green peppers may also be +canned in the same way. Prepare these vegetables for canning by washing +fresh, tender pods of either vegetable thoroughly. Blanch for 5 to 15 +minutes in boiling water and cold-dip quickly. Pack the pods into the +jars, add a teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with +boiling water. Adjust the lids and proceed according to directions for +the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; in +the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or +for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + +64. STRING BEANS.--String beans of any variety should be canned as soon +as they are gathered. If the beans to be canned are not of the +stringless variety, prepare them by stringing them, following the +directions given in _Vegetables_, Part 1. Stringless beans should be +selected if possible, to avoid this part of the work. Cut out any rusted +portions, cut each end from the beans, and, if preferred, cut the beans +into inch lengths. When thus prepared, blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes +in live steam, cold-dip quickly, and pack tightly into the jars. Add a +teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, fill the jars with boiling water, +adjust the lids, and cook according to the method preferred. In the +water bath, boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for +60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of +10 pounds. + + +GROUP 3--ROOT AND TUBER VEGETABLES + +65. Only the small, young, and tender vegetables included in the third +group lend themselves readily to canning. As a rule, such vegetables are +allowed to mature, when they can be stored for winter use without +canning them. However, many housewives like to can some of them for the +variety they offer in the preparation and planning of meals. + +66. BEETS.--For canning, select small, young beets. Prepare them by +cutting off the tops, which may be cooked as greens or canned +separately, and all but about an inch of the stems and an inch of the +roots. Scrub the trimmed beets well, and then blanch them in boiling +water for 5 to 15 minutes or until the skins may be easily scraped off +with a knife. Plunge them quickly into cold water and draw them out +again. Then scrape off the skins and remove the roots and stems. The +roots and stems are left on during the blanching and cold-dipping to +prevent them from bleeding, or losing color. When thus prepared, pack +the beets into jars, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill +the jars with boiling water. Then adjust the jar tops and proceed to +sterilize and cook the jars of beets according to the directions for any +preferred method. In the water bath, cook them for 1-1/2 hours; in the +pressure cooker, cook them for 1 hour at a pressure of 5 pounds or for +40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + +67. CARROTS, PARSNIPS, AND TURNIPS.--Young parsnips and turnips are +canned in exactly the same way as young carrots. Therefore, directions +for the canning of carrots will suffice for all three of these +vegetables. Prepare the carrots for canning by cutting off the tops and +the roots and scrubbing them well. Blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in +boiling water, so that the skins may be easily removed, and cold-dip +them. Then remove the skins by scraping, pack the carrots into the jars, +add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling +water. Adjust the jar tops next, and proceed to sterilize and cook the +jars of carrots according to the method selected. In the water bath, +cook for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1 hour at a +pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + + +GROUP 4--SPECIAL VEGETABLES + +68. Vegetables of the fourth group, which include those which cannot +well be classified in the other groups, lend themselves readily to +combinations, such as succotash, that make for variety in food. As is +true of the other vegetables, special vegetables must be fresh and sound +if good results in canning are expected. + +69. LIMA AND OTHER SHELLED BEANS.--For canning, only tender beans, +whether Lima or some other variety, should be chosen. Prepare them for +immediate canning by shelling them--that is, taking them from the +pods--blanching them for 5 to 10 minutes in boiling water, and then +cold-dipping them quickly. Pack the jars to within 1/2 inch of the top, +add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jar, and fill the jars with boiling +water. Adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook them. In the +water bath, boil for 2-1/2 to 3 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for +1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of +10 pounds. + +70. GREEN CORN.--For canning purposes, only corn that is young and milky +should be selected. Get it ready for canning by husking it and removing +the silk. Then blanch it for 3 to 5 minutes in boiling water and +cold-dip it quickly. Cut the kernels half way down to the cob and scrape +out what remains after cutting. For best results in this operation, hold +the ear of corn so that the butt end is up; then cut from the tip toward +the butt, but scrape from the butt toward the tip. Next, pack the jars +tightly with the corn, pressing it into them with a wooden masher. +Unless two persons can work together, however, cut only enough corn for +one jar and fill and partly seal it before cutting more. As corn swells +in the cooking, fill each jar to within 1/2 inch of the top. The milk in +the corn should fill all spaces between the kernels, provided there are +any, but if it does not, boiling water may be poured in. Add 1 +teaspoonful of salt to each jarful of corn and adjust the jar lids. Boil +for 3 hours in the water bath; but, if the pressure cooker is to be +used, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a +pressure of 10 pounds. + +Corn on the cob may be canned in the same way if desired, but as only +three small ears can be put into a quart jar, this would seem to be a +waste of space and labor. If corn on the cob is to be canned, 2-quart +jars will prove more convenient than 1-quart jars. + +71. PEAS.--Peas for canning should be well formed and tender, and they +should be canned as soon as possible after coming from the garden. +Proceed by washing the pods and shelling the peas. Blanch the shelled +peas for 5 to 10 minutes in live steam, and cold-dip them quickly. Pack +the peas into the jars, having them come to within 1/2 inch from the +top, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with +boiling water. Then adjust the jar lids and proceed according to +directions for the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 2 or 3 +hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 +pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of 10 pounds. + +72. PUMPKIN AND SQUASH.--The canning of pumpkin and squash is advisable +when there is any possibility of their not keeping until they can be +used. Prepare either of these vegetables for canning by first peeling it +and cutting the edible part into inch cubes. Blanch these cubes for 10 +to 15 minutes in live steam and cold-dip them quickly. Pack the jars as +full as possible, and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jar, but no +water. After adjusting the jar lids, boil the jars of food for 1-1/2 +hours in the water bath, or cook them for 1 hour at a pressure of 5 +pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds in the pressure +cooker. When finished, the jars will be found to be only about half +full, but the contents will keep perfectly. + +If desired, pumpkin or squash may first be cooked as if preparing it for +use and then put into the jars for processing. + +73. SUCCOTASH.--Of course, succotash is not a vegetable, but the name of +a food that results from combining corn and beans. These vegetables may +be canned together to make for variety in the winter's food supply, or +each may be canned separately and combined later. Clean the ears of corn +in the manner previously directed; then blanch them for 5 minutes and +cold-dip them. Also, remove green Lima beans from the pods, blanch them +for 10 minutes, and cold-dip them. Then cut and scrape the corn off the +cobs and mix it with an equal quantity of the beans. Pack the mixture +into the jars to within 1/2 inch of the top, add a teaspoonful of salt +to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Adjust the jar +tops and proceed according to the directions for the process to be +employed. In the water bath, boil for 2 hours; in the pressure cooker, +cook for 50 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 35 minutes at a +pressure of 10 pounds. + +74. TOMATOES.--As has been stated, tomatoes may be canned successfully +by the open-kettle method. If this method is to be employed, the first +part of the preparation is exactly the same as for the cold-pack method, +except that the jars, jar tops, and jar rubbers must be carefully +sterilized. + +For canning, firm tomatoes should be selected if possible, as they will +keep their shape better than those which are very ripe. If some are +soft, they should be sorted out and canned for soup making or made into +catsup. After washing the tomatoes, proceed to blanch them. The length +of time required for blanching depends entirely on the condition of the +tomatoes. They should be blanched for 1 to 3 minutes, or just long +enough to loosen the skin. After blanching, dip them quickly into cold +water and remove the skins. These, it will be found, may be removed +easily and quickly. Pack the tomatoes thus prepared tightly into jars +and fill them with boiling water, boiling tomato juice, or stewed +tomatoes. Add a teaspoonful of salt to each jar. Then adjust the jar +lids and proceed according to the directions given for the method +selected. Boil for 22 minutes in the water bath; in the pressure cooker, +cook for 15 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 10 minutes at a +pressure of 10 pounds. + +75. TOMATOES FOR SOUP.--If there are soft tomatoes at hand or if +tomatoes are canned by the open-kettle method, quantities of tomato +juice will be available. Such material as this may be put through a +sieve and boiled down for winter use in the making of soups, bisques, +etc. It may be canned simply by pouring the boiling juice into +sterilized jars and sealing them immediately. + +76. TOMATOES AND CORN.--An excellent food combination results from +combining stewed tomatoes with corn. Such a combination may be canned +safely by either the open-kettle or the cold-pack method. The acid of +the tomatoes helps to keep the corn, but the combination requires longer +cooking than just plain tomatoes. Prepare each vegetable as for canning +separately, but, if desired, cut the tomatoes into pieces. Mix the two +foods in any desirable proportion and, for the cold-pack canning method, +put the food into the jars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, +but no water. Then adjust the jar lids, and proceed to sterilize and +cook the jars of food. In the water bath, cook them 1-1/2 hours; in the +pressure cooker, cook them for 50 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or +for 35 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR CANNING FRUITS + +77. The chief difference between the canning of fruits and the canning +of vegetables is that sugar in the form of sirup, instead of salt water, +is used for the liquid. Fruits may be canned without sugar if desired, +but nothing is gained by so doing, for sugar will have to be added +later. Because of the sugar used in canning and the acid contained in +the fruit, canned fruit has better keeping qualities than canned +vegetables. In fact, it is much more likely to keep well even though it +does not receive such careful attention as vegetables. It is for this +reason that canned fruit does not require so much time for sterilization +as vegetables do. Still it should not be inferred that care is not +necessary in the canning of fruits. Indeed, the more care that is taken, +the better are the results likely to be. + +78. SIRUPS FOR CANNING.--Before the canning of fruits can be undertaken, +it is necessary to possess a knowledge of the sirups that are needed. +Such sirups consist simply of sugar dissolved in boiling water. The +quantity of sugar and water required for a sirup depends on the acidity +of the fruit and the purpose for which it is to be used. Plain canned +fruits that are to be used for sauces, etc. require less sugar +proportionately than those which are preserved, and fruit canned for pie +making may have less than either. Thus, fruits of the same kind may be +canned with sirups of different proportions. To a great extent, the +quantity of sugar to use with fruit may be regulated by the taste, but +it will be readily seen that such fruits as sour cherries and plums will +require more sugar to make them palatable than pears and blueberries. It +will be well to note, though, that the sugar does not penetrate the +fruit unless the two are cooked together. + +79. In order to make sirup for canning, place the desired quantities of +sugar and water in a kettle and proceed to heat them. Stir the liquid +while it is heating, in order to assist in dissolving the sugar. When it +has begun to boil rapidly, remove the sirup from the fire and use it at +once. Do not continue boiling. + +In preparing such sirups, it will be well to note that the greater the +proportion of sugar to water or the longer the sugar and water are +allowed to boil, the denser, or heavier, will the sirup become. It is +this _density_ of sirup that regulates its use for the different kinds +of fruit and determines its nature. Thus, a sirup in which the +proportion of sugar to water is so large as to make the sirup thick is +known as a _heavy sirup_; one in which the proportion of water to sugar +is so large as to make the sirup thin is called a _light sirup_; and one +in which the proportion of sugar and water is such as to produce a sirup +that is neither thick nor thin, but stands between the two extremes, is +called a _medium sirup_. + + +TABLE I + +SIRUPS FOR CANNING FRUITS + + Proportions Degrees + ------------ With +Sirup Sugar Water Hydro- + No. Cups Cups meter Uses +--------------------------------------------------------------- + 1 2 4 28 Open-kettle canning, or pie + fruit canned by any method. + + 2 2 3 30 Open-kettle canning, or pie + fruit canned by any method. + + 3 2 2 40 Open-kettle canning, or sweet + fruits canned by cold-pack + methods. + + 4 2 1-1/2 48 Sweet fruits canned by + cold-pack methods. + + 5 2 1 54 Sour fruits canned by + cold-pack methods. + + 6 2 1/2 68 Very rich fruits canned by + cold-pack methods; preserves + canned by open-kettle method. +--------------------------------------------------------------- + +80. The density of sirup is also affected by the amount and rapidity of +evaporation that takes place in boiling, and these, in turn, depend on +the amount of surface that is exposed. For instance, if a sirup is +cooked in a large, flat kettle, the evaporation will be greater and more +rapid than if it is cooked in a small, deep vessel. Atmospheric pressure +affects the rapidity of evaporation, too. In a high altitude, +evaporation takes place more slowly than at sea level, because the +boiling point is lower. Thus, in the making of sirups for canning, the +first point to be determined is whether the sirup desired should be +light, medium, or heavy, and in its preparation the points mentioned +must receive consideration. + +81. For determining the density of sirup, a _sirup gauge_, or +_hydrometer_, will be found useful. This device consists of a graduated +glass tube attached to a bulb that is weighted with mercury. The +graduations, or marks, on the tube, or top part, of the hydrometer serve +to indicate the percentage of solid matter dissolved in a solution and +register from to 50 degrees. To use such a gauge, partly fill a glass +cylinder--an ordinary drinking glass will do--with the sirup and place +the hydrometer in it. The greater the amount of solid matter dissolved +in the sirup, the higher will be hydrometer float. Then read the number +of degrees registered by observing the mark that is level with the +surface of the sirup. + +The number of degrees that the hydrometer should register for sirups of +different densities--that is, for sirups consisting of different +proportions of sugar and water--are given in Table I. This table, in +addition, gives the uses that should be made of such sirups, and each +one is numbered so that it may be referred to readily later in the +recipes for canning fruits. + +82. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.--For the sake of convenience in canning, +fruits, too, are here divided into groups. These groups, three in +number, together with the fruits included in each, are: + +1. _Soft Fruits_, which are subdivided into three kinds, namely, sweet, +sour, and very sour. The _sweet soft fruits_ include blackberries, +blueberries or huckleberries, sweet cherries, elderberries, ripe +gooseberries, mulberries, and black and red raspberries; the _sour soft +fruits_, apricots, currants, grapes, peaches, and strawberries; and the +_very sour soft fruits_, sour cherries, cranberries, green gooseberries, +plums, and rhubarb. + +2. _Hard Fruits_, which include apples, quinces, and pears. + +3. _Special Fruits_, which include ripe figs, kumquats, loquats, +nectarines, persimmons, and pineapples. + +The advantage of this classification, as in the case of the vegetable +classification, is that, as a rule, all fruits belonging to a group or a +subdivision of a group may be canned in the same way and with sirup of +practically the same density. + +83. CANNING METHODS FOR FRUITS.--The canning of fruits may be done by +the several methods previously discussed, but the Cold-pack and +open-kettle methods seem to meet with most favor. On account of the +sirup used in canning fruit and the acid in the fruit, the open-kettle +method is usually fairly successful, whereas, in the canning of +vegetables, with the exception of tomatoes, it is not so reliable. The +housewife, by experiment, can determine which method will suit her needs +best, but by no means should methods be mixed. If a certain method is +decided on, it should be adhered to in every detail and carried through +without any substitution. For all methods, as has been mentioned, the +fruit should be selected when it is fresh and in good condition, as such +fruit has less chance to spoil than fruit that is overripe or has +decayed spots. After it is graded for size and condition, the fruit +should be washed, stemmed, hulled, seeded, peeled, or halved, quartered, +or sliced, depending on the kind. Then the work may be proceeded with +according to the canning method that is to be followed. + +84. If fruits are to be canned by the open-kettle method, certain +precautions must be observed in order to insure success. The +sterilization of the product cannot be perfect in this method no matter +how carefully the canning is done; and this means that the sugar and the +fruit acids must be greatly relied on to assist in preservation. Still, +the jars, jar covers, jar rubbers, and any utensils used for filling the +jars must be sterilized and kept in boiling water until the fruit is +ready to be canned. Another thing to guard against is the discoloring of +the fruit. Any fruit that is likely to become discolored after it is +prepared for canning should be kept in salt water until it is ready to +be cooked. A solution consisting of 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart +of water will answer for this purpose. + +After the fruit has been prepared and while the containers, etc. are +being sterilized, it is necessary to prepare the sirup that is to be +used. For the sweet fruits of Group 1, No. 1 or 2 sirup should be made; +for the sour fruits of this group, No. 2 or 3 sirup; and for the very +sour fruits, No. 4 or 5 sirup. The hard fruits may be canned by this +method with No. 1, 2, or 3 sirup, while the special fruits require No. 4 +or 5 sirup. If the fruit is to be canned for pie, it will be advisable +to use thin sirup and then use more sweetening when pies are made. + +When the sirup is made by mixing the sugar and water and bringing it to +a boil, the prepared fruit should be dropped into it and cooked. The +fruit should be cooked in the sirup until it may be easily pierced with +a fork or until it is soft. Berries have to be cooked only a few +minutes, while the hard fruits may require from 10 to 15 minutes. The +jars should be placed upright in a pan of hot water while the boiling +fruit from the kettle is poured into them, and as each jar is filled the +rubber should be put in place and the cover adjusted and secured. It is +important to close one jar before filling another, because the longer a +jar remains open the more bacteria will be permitted to enter. Even by +working as rapidly as possible and taking the greatest precaution, a +certain number of bacteria are bound to enter in this method of canning. +After the jars are filled and sealed, they should be placed upside down +or on the side to cool and test for leaks. + +85. If the cold-pack method is employed in canning fruit, it is possible +to obtain a sterilized product that is dependent for preservation on +neither the sirup used nor the acid of the fruit. In this method, the +jars, jar tops, covers, and utensils for handling the fruit do not have +to be sterilized beforehand. They may simply be washed clean and kept +hot in clean water until they are needed. After the fruits are prepared, +some are blanched or scalded and cold-dipped, while others are not. They +are then packed into jars and boiling sirup is poured over them. Then +the rubbers are adjusted, the covers placed on, but not made tight, and +the jars are placed under water in the water bath or on the racks in the +pressure cooker, which should contain a small amount of water, as has +been explained. After cooking the required length of time, the jars of +fruit are removed from the cooking utensil, sealed, and allowed to cool. + +The sirup used in the cold-pack canning method may be heavier in each +case than that mentioned for the open-kettle method, because there is no +evaporation, as is the case where fruits are boiled in the sirup before +they are placed in the cans, but less will be required if the packing is +well done. + + +GROUP 1--SOFT FRUITS + +86. SWEET SOFT FRUITS.--The sweet fruits included in Group 1 +--blackberries, huckleberries, elderberries, ripe gooseberries, +mulberries, raspberries, and sweet cherries-may be canned in exactly the +same way, so that the same general directions will apply to all. Prepare +the different kinds of berries, which should be as fresh as possible, by +looking them over carefully and removing the poor ones, and then +washing them. To wash them, pour them into a colander and dip it up and +down in a large pan of clean, cold water. The less handling such fruits +receive, the more perfect will they remain for canning. Prepare sweet +cherries, which should be procured with the stems on if possible, by +first washing them and then stemming them. They may be pitted, or +seeded, or they may be left whole, depending on personal preference. +Cherries that are not pitted will keep their shape and have a good +appearance, but they are not so convenient for eating as those which +have been pitted. + +87. After the fruit has been prepared in the manner just explained, pack +it closely into the hot, clean jars, using a spoon for this purpose and +turning each jar as the fruit is poured into it. Press the berries or +the cherries down carefully, so that 2 quarts of them will fill a +1-quart jar. Then proceed to make the sirup. As these fruits are the +sweetest, they require less sugar than any other. If such fruit after it +is canned is to be used for pie making, sirup No. 1 or 2 will be +suitable, but if it is to be used for sauce, No. 3 sirup may be used. +When the mixed sugar and water is boiling rapidly, pour it over the +fruit packed into the jars. Then place the rubbers, adjust the jar tops, +and proceed to sterilize and cook the cans of fruit. Boil these in the +water bath for 15 minutes, or cook them in the pressure cooker for 8 +minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 4 minutes at a pressure of +10 pounds. + +88. SOUR SOFT FRUITS.--Of the sour fruits, STRAWBERRIES, GRAPES, and +CURRANTS require about the same quantity of sugar, that contained in +sirup No. 3, 4, or 5 usually being sufficient. Otherwise, the canning +process, including the length of time for processing, does not differ +materially from that just given for sweet soft fruits. + +In the case of strawberries, those which are of medium size and rather +dark in color are best for canning; in fact, very large, light-colored +strawberries will shrink more than any other kind. The berries are +washed in the same way as other berries, but they should not be allowed +to stand in water for any length of time, because this will tend to make +them soft and mushy. Strawberries must be stemmed after they are washed, +and for this purpose a strawberry huller should be utilized. Such a +device, which is shown in Fig. 1, permits the stems to be removed +without crushing the berries and soiling the fingers. + +In preparing currants for canning, the procedure is the same as for the +fruits already mentioned; and the same thing is true of grapes that are +not to be seeded. If the seeds are to be removed, however, the procedure +up to getting the cans of fruit ready for processing is different, as is +here pointed out. After washing the grapes, squeeze the pulp from the +skins and then cook it in a kettle for a sufficient length of time to +make it soft. Remove the seeds by forcing the pulp through a sieve. Then +add as much sugar as would be used for making the required sirup, and +cook until the sugar is dissolved. With this done, add the sweetened, +seedless pulp to the grape skins and fill the jars with this mixture. +Then continue the canning process as for the other fruits of this group. + +89. The procedure in canning APRICOTS and PEACHES, the other two sour +soft fruits, differs slightly from that required for strawberries, +grapes, and currants. So that the skins of both of these fruits may be +easily removed, they must be scalded, which is an operation that +corresponds to blanching in vegetable canning. + +For canning purposes, only firm, fresh apricots and peaches that are not +overripe should be selected. Also, in the case of peaches, care should +be taken to see that they are of the _freestone_ variety, as such +peaches may be split easily. _Clingstone peaches_ should not be chosen +unless the fruit is to be canned whole or unless an implement for +removing the seeds, or stones like that shown in Fig. 2, is at hand. +Proceed with the canning of either apricots or peaches by first scalding +them. To do this, put the fruit in boiling water for 1 to 3 minutes, +depending on its ripeness. Next, cold-dip it quickly, remove the skins, +and, if desired, cut each one in half and remove the seed, or stone. +When thus prepared, pack the fruit into hot jars as tightly as possible, +pour sirup No. 3, 4, or 5 over them, filling each jar, adjust the rubber +and jar top, and proceed as directed for the cold-pack method. In the +water bath, boil the cans of fruit for 15 minutes; in the pressure +cooker, cook them for 10 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 6 minutes +at a 10-pound pressure. + +90. VERY SOUR SOFT FRUITS.--Some of the fruits of the third subdivision +of Group 1, namely, SOUR CHERRIES, CRANBERRIES, and GREEN GOOSEBERRIES, +may be prepared and canned in the same way as those included in the +first subdivision. The cherries may be left whole or they may be seeded, +as preferred, and all the fruit must, of course, be fresh. For these +very sour fruits, sirups Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are required, and the +processing time is 15 minutes in the water bath and 10 minutes at a +5-pound pressure or 5 minutes at a 10-pound pressure in the +pressure cooker. + +91. PLUMS for canning should be fresh and firm, but not overripe. This +fruit may be canned with the skins on, but some varieties permit the +skins to be removed after scalding, and this may be done if desired. +Prepare the plums for canning by washing them, and, if the skins are to +be left on, by piercing each one in several places with a fork to +prevent the skins from cracking. Then scald the plums for about 1-1/2 +minutes, cold-dip them quickly, and pack them closely into the hot jars. +Pour sirup No. 4, 5, or 6 over the fruit in the jars, using sirup No. 6 +if they are very sour, adjust the rubbers and the covers, and proceed +according to the canning method selected. In the water bath, cook for 15 +minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 10 minutes at a pressure of 5 +pounds or for 6 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + +92. RHUBARB for canning should be selected when it is most tender. The +variety having red stems is the most attractive after it is canned. Only +the heavy stems, which should be cut from the leaves, may be canned. Cut +these stems into inch lengths, blanch them 1 to 3 minutes in boiling +water, and cold-dip them quickly. Then pack these pieces into the jars. +If the rhubarb is being canned for sauce, fill each jar with sirup No. 5 +or 6; if it is being canned for pie, use sirup No. 1, 2, or 3. Next, +adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the +water bath, cook for 15 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 10 +minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure. + + +GROUP 2--HARD FRUITS + +93. APPLES.--The canning of apples should be done when there is a large +supply of summer apples that cannot be stored for winter use or used at +once. Canning is also a good means of utilizing windfall apples. This +fruit may be canned in quarters for sauce, in slices for pie, or in any +other desirable shape or condition. + +After apples for canning are selected, wash them, scald, or blanch, them +for 1 to 5 minutes in boiling water, and cold-dip them quickly. Next, +peel and core them, and cut each one into pieces of any desirable size. +As these pieces are cut, drop them into salt water--1 teaspoonful of +salt to each quart of water--to prevent them from discoloring. Then pack +the fruit into the jars and fill the jars with boiling sirup. If the +apples are intended for pie, use sirup No. 1, 2, or 3; if they are for +sauce, use sirup No. 3, 4, or 5. When the jars are filled, adjust the +rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. If the pieces are +large, cook them in the water bath for 20 minutes; if they are medium in +size, cook them for 15 minutes; and if they are in the form of slices, +cook them for 10 minutes. If they are to be processed in the pressure +cooker, cook them for 8 to 12 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 6 +to 8 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + +If the apples to be canned are first baked or made into a sauce, simply +pack them into jars and process them for a few minutes. + +94. QUINCES.--Quinces may be canned alone, but they may be combined with +apples to good advantage. If canned alone, they may require a heavier +sirup than if apples are used with them. Prepare the quinces in the same +way as apples. If apples are to be canned with them, cut the pieces of +apples twice the size of the pieces of quinces. This should be done +because more time is required for cooking the quinces soft. After +packing the jars and pouring in the sirup, proceed with the processing. +If quinces alone are in the jars, cook them in the water bath for 30 +minutes; but if quinces and apples are combined, cook them for 20 +minutes. In the pressure cooker, cook the jars of fruit for 12 to 15 +minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 10 to 12 minutes at a +10-pound pressure. + +95. PEARS.--Pears for canning should be firm, but not hard. After +sorting and washing them, blanch them for 1 to 3 minutes and cold-dip +them quickly. Then pare, halve, and core them. Pack them immediately +into the jars and pour sirup No. 3 or 4 over them. Next, adjust the +rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the water bath, +cook them for 20 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook them for 8 +minutes at a 5-pound pressure or 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure. + + +GROUP 3--SPECIAL FRUITS + +96. FIGS.--Although figs are not a common fruit, there are parts of this +country, particularly on the western coast, in which they are abundant. +For canning, ripe figs should be selected. To prepare them, blanch them +for 2 minutes in boiling water and cold-dip them. Then pack them into +the jars and fill the jars by pouring sirup No. 4, 5, or 6 over the +figs. Proceed with the remainder of the process as in canning peaches. + +97. KUMQUATS AND LOQUATS.--Kumquats and loquats are small acid fruits +resembling oranges in color and plums in size and shape. Such fruits are +not very common, but they may be obtained in some markets. To can either +of these fruits, wash them, blanch for 5 minutes, cold-dip, pack into +jars, and fill the jars with sirup No. 5 or 6. In the water bath, cook +them for 15 minutes. In the pressure cooker, cook them for 10 minutes at +a 5-pound pressure or for 5 minutes at a 10-pound pressure. + +98. NECTARINES.--Nectarines are a smooth-skinned variety of peach. Ripe +nectarines may be canned in the same way as peaches, but they do not +require so much sugar, sirup No. 2 or 3 usually being about right. + +99. PERSIMMONS.--Persimmons are a seedy, plum-like fruit common to the +southern and southwestern parts of the United States. This fruit is very +astringent when unripe, but is sweet and delicious when ripe or touched +by frost. Well-frosted persimmons should be selected for canning. Blanch +them so that the skin may be removed easily and cold-dip them quickly. +Then peel them and pack them into hot jars. Fill the jars with sirup No. +6 and process them in the same way as peaches. + +100. PINEAPPLES.--Pineapples are better known than any of the other +special fruits. For canning, those ripe enough to permit the center +leaves to pull out easily should be selected; also, they should be free +from soft or rotten spots, which are most likely to appear first near +the bottom. Pineapples are graded in size by the number that may be +packed in a case. These sizes are 24, 30, 36, and 42, size 24 being the +largest and size 42 the smallest. Sizes 30 and 36 are best for canning. + +In canning pineapples, first place each in boiling water for 10 minutes +and dip it quickly into cold water. Then prepare it for the cans. This +may be done by removing the peeling with a sharp knife, digging out the +eyes, and then slicing or dicing; by slicing first and then peeling and +taking out the eyes; or by peeling, taking out the eyes, and then +shredding it with the aid of a fork. When it is prepared, pack the fruit +into the jars, fill each jar with sirup No. 4 or 5, adjust the rubbers +and covers, and proceed to process it. In the water bath, cook for 30 +minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 12 minutes at a pressure of 5 +pounds or for 10 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds. + + +CANNING MEAT AND FISH + +101. Both fish and meat, including that from fowl and game, may be +canned at times that seem convenient and then used when an emergency +arises or at a time when the same food will cost more to prepare. Fowl, +game, and fish may be canned to special advantage during the season when +each is plentiful. The best process for canning such foods is the +one-period cold-pack method. + +102. MEAT.--In canning meat, whether from domestic animals, fowl, or +game, first cut it into pieces of a size that would be suitable for +serving at the table. The meat may be left raw or it may be prepared by +any desirable cooking process, such as frying, fricasseeing, braizing, +etc. Careful attention must be given to the drawing of fowl that is to +be canned, because the entire alimentary tract should be removed without +being broken. The giblets should not be canned with the rest of the +meat, as they will not keep so well. Whether the meat is to be canned +raw or cooked, pack the jars as tightly as possible. If the meat is raw, +add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of food and fill the jars +three-fourths full with boiling water. In case the jar is filled to the +top, fat will rise and injure the rubber. If the meat is cooked, add any +liquid that may have resulted from the cooking, as well as boiling +water, provided more liquid is needed. Then, as in canning vegetables +and fruit, adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the +processing. In the case of raw meat, sterilize for 3 hours in the water +bath, or for 1-1/2 hours at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker. +In the case of cooked meat, sterilize for 1-1/2 hours in the water bath, +or for 30 minutes at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker. + +103. FISH.--To prepare fish for canning, first clean it by scaling it +and removing the entrails. Wrap the cleaned fish in cheesecloth and +steam for 15 minutes. After steaming, remove the bones, which will come +out easily, and cut the fish into pieces. Pack the pieces into the jars, +and to each quart of the food add 1 teaspoonful of salt. Next, fill each +jar three-fourths full with boiling water and continue with the canning +in the manner directed for meat. + + +STORING AND SERVING CANNED FOODS + +104. After jars of canned food have been cooled and tested for leaks, +carefully wiped with a damp cloth, and then wrapped and labeled, they +are ready to be placed in storage. Such food should be stored in an +orderly manner on shelves that may be covered to keep off dust, or in a +large cupboard provided with doors that may be closed. The temperature +of the room in which the canned foods are kept is of no great +importance, but, in homes provided with cellars, the cellar is the +logical place in which to store them. + +Canned foods, no matter how well the canning may have been done, undergo +gradual deterioration. Therefore, those kept for more than a year, will +not be so good as those used during the first year after canning. If +canned foods from a previous year are at hand when new cans are ready to +be stored, the old ones should be placed to the front of the shelves and +the new ones to the back, so that the old ones will be used up first. + +105. Canned foods take the place of raw foods, and whether they should +be cooked or not depends on the kind. In the case of vegetables, most of +them may be made ready to serve simply by heating them, although they +may be used in the preparation of many dishes, as is evident from the +recipes throughout the lessons. In the case of fruits, some may be +served just as they come from the can; however, there are many ways of +using canned fruits in the making of desserts, as is pointed out in +_Fruit and Fruit Desserts_. In the case of meats and fish, the food, if +cooked before canning, may be prepared for serving simply by heating it; +whereas, if it is canned raw, some cookery method for meat will have to +be applied. + +When foods are boiled, one reason for a change in taste is that oxygen +is driven off by the boiling. Therefore, to improve the taste of canned +foods that are to be served without any further preparation, it is +advisable, when a jar is opened, to pour the contents into an open dish +and thus expose it to the air. + +In opening jars of canned fruit, care must be taken not to crack or nick +either the top of the jar or its cover. The cover of any kind of jar +will come off easily if a little air is admitted. Insert a knife blade +between the cover and jar rubber of a glass-covered jar, but do not use +a knife to loosen a metal top, as it may bend the edge in places. Hot +water poured over the jar will assist in opening it. + + +SCORING CANNED FOODS + +106. In order that the housewife may judge the quality of her own canned +products according to standards that have been set by canning +authorities, a score card, together with an explanation of the terms and +the procedure, is here given. The beginner in canning will do well to +score her own foods, so that any fault that may be found can be +corrected when similar foods are canned at another time. In fact, the +chief purpose of scoring any product is to learn of faults that may be +corrected. The scoring should be done as impartially as if a +disinterested person were doing it, and if the cause of any trouble is +not readily apparent, pains should be taken to find it out. + +SCORE CARD PER CENT. + +General appearance 10 + +Method of sealing 10 + +Proportion of food to liquid 10 + +Flavor 35 + +Texture of food 20 + +Color 15 + --- + Total 100 + +107. As a rule, scoring, or judging, is done at the time the canned food +is to be opened and used. + +The _general appearance_ is judged before the jar is opened. If a jar of +food is well and symmetrically packed and has clear liquid and a good +color, it should receive a perfect score of 10. + +The _method of sealing_ must also be judged before the can is opened. A +properly filled jar with the rubber and cover in good condition and +tightly sealed should receive a perfect score of 10. + +The _proportion of food to liquid_ should score 10. The jars should be +as full of uncrushed food as possible, and the liquid that has been +added should fill all crevices to the very edge of the jar. + +The _flavor_ is judged after the can is opened, and if it is perfect, it +is entitled to a score of 35. The flavor of canned fruit is injured by +any kind of spoiling, such as molding, fermentation, etc. Fruits canned +in good condition should retain the characteristic flavor of the fresh +fruits; also, they should contain sufficient sugar to be agreeably +sweet, but no more. Canned vegetables should retain their characteristic +flavors, with no sour, musty, nor disagreeable taste, and be slightly +salty. Canned meats and fish should also possess their characteristic +flavors. + +The _texture of food_ is entitled to a score of 20 if it is perfect. +The canned food should be whole; that is, in the original pieces as they +were put into the can. Underripe fruit or insufficiently cooked fruit or +vegetables do not have the proper texture; neither do overripe or +uncooked foods. + +The _color_ of canned food merits a score of 15 if it is right. Fruits +and vegetables should have retained their natural color. Fading after +canning may be prevented by wrapping the cans, as has been explained. + + * * * * * + +DRYING + +PRINCIPLES OF DRYING + +108. DRYING consists in removing the moisture contained in foods by +evaporation and thus rendering them less susceptible to the attacks of +undesirable bacteria. _Dried foods_, as foods so treated are called, +will not replace fresh or canned foods. However, they are valuable in +many cases and possess some advantages over such foods. For example, the +weight of dried foods is very greatly reduced, the storage space +required by them is much less, and they are easy to keep without +spoiling and easy to transport. Likewise, the containers for such foods +are less costly than those required for canned foods and they are easily +procured, since paper boxes or paper bags are satisfactory. In fact, the +housewife, by taking care of the bags and boxes that come into the home, +can easily provide all the containers she will possibly need at +practically no cost. + +109. The water in food that is to be dried may be evaporated by applying +heat, by bringing the food in contact with moving air, or by subjecting +it to a combination of both of these methods. The heat for drying may be +obtained from the sun, as in the _sun-drying method_, or from the stove, +as in the _stove-drying method_, while moving air for evaporating +moisture may be obtained from an electric fan, as in the _electric-fan +drying method_. + +In the application of any of these drying methods, however, it is +important to note that the more surface of food there is exposed, the +more quickly will evaporation take place. Drying should therefore be +done on devices constructed in such a way that air may pass up through +food, as well as across its surface. In drying foods, the racks should +be turned frequently, so that all parts will be exposed equally to the +heat or the currents of air. Also, the food must be turned over often, +in order that all parts will dry evenly. + +110. Any fruit or vegetable may be dried if the method is properly +applied, but there is usually more or less change in both the flavor and +the color of the dried food. The more rapidly the drying can be done, +the more natural will the color and flavor remain; whereas, the longer +the process is continued, the greater will be this change. + +Foods should be dried when they are in such quantity that they cannot be +used to advantage in the raw state, when there is no market for them, +when the owner cannot afford to give them away, and when home canning +ceases to be practical and profitable. In other words, if it is not +practical to save foods in another way, they should be dried. + + +DRYING METHODS + +111. DEVICES FOR DRYING.--Many manufactured devices may be had for the +drying of foods. Some are made so that they may be placed on top of a +stove, like that shown in Fig. 23. This device is in the form of a metal +box. It has a tray for holding the food to be dried, and underneath this +is a space for holding water. Water is poured into this space through a +funnel in one corner, and heat for drying is supplied by heating the +water. Other devices are made so that they may be suspended over a +stove, put into a stove oven, or used out of doors. Still others have a +heating device placed inside of them. It is possible, however, to make +drying devices in the home that will answer the purpose just as well as +the devices that may be bought. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +As has been stated, drying devices should be so made that the air may +pass up through the food and across its surface. A pan, a platter, or a +solid board, as will be readily seen, is not so good for drying as a +wooden frame of convenient size that has small slats or fine, +rustless-wire netting, or screening, attached to the bottom. Such a +device may be covered with cheesecloth to keep out dirt. If it is to be +used in the oven or set in the sun, a nail driven part way into each +corner will provide feet and thus keep it from resting on the oven floor +or any other flat surface. + +For suspending food that is to be dried over a stove, a rack like that +shown in Fig. 24 may be easily made in the home. As will be observed, it +consists of three trays fastened together. These trays are suspended by +four strings tied to another string that runs over small pulleys. The +pulleys are attached to a wooden brace that is secured to the kitchen +wall. The pulleys and string permit the rack to be raised or lowered, so +that the food may be easily put into and taken out of the trays. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +112. SUN-DRYING METHOD.--If food is to be dried in the sun, spread it in +a single layer on each tray, cover the trays so that no dirt will fall +into them, and set them out of doors so that the sun's rays will strike +them. Glass covers will help to increase the heat from the sun. As the +sun changes, change the position of the trays or turn them. Food that is +being dried outdoors should be brought into the house when the sun goes +down and put out again the following morning. This procedure should be +kept up until the food is so dry as to be _leathery_; that is, in a +condition that will permit of bending without cracking. + +113. STOVE-DRYING METHOD.--If food is to be dried by the stove-drying +method, it may be placed in the oven, on top of the stove, or suspended +above the stove. + +114. If the oven is to be used, a device that fits the oven should be +employed. Spread the food on the trays in single layers, and put the +device into the oven. The temperature of the oven demands attention in +this method. Only a very moderate heat may be applied at first, 110 +degrees Fahrenheit being considered the ideal temperature for beginning. +As it is difficult to hold an oven at such a low temperature if a fire +is burning, the oven door should be left open to admit air. The +temperature of the oven of a coal stove in which the fire is banked or +is being allowed to go out is usually ideal for drying foods. If +desired, the heat of an oven may be gradually increased to about 180 +degrees as the food dries; but the application of greater heat is liable +to scorch the food and injure its flavor. The food must be turned often +to permit it to dry evenly. + +115. If food is to be dried on top of the stove, the device shown in +Fig. 23 will prove satisfactory. The same arrangement may be improvised +by placing a metal tray over a large flat vessel of water. Place the +food to be dried in a single layer on the tray over the water. Let the +water boil and keep it boiling, and turn the food frequently so that the +heat will be applied to all sides. Continue this process until the food +is leathery, when it may be stored. + +116. If food is to be dried in a rack suspended above the stove, a rack +like that shown in Fig. 24 should be used. Cover the trays in the rack +with a single layer of food, and dry it to the leathery stage, when it +may be removed and stored. In using this device, only a coal or a wood +stove is practical. When the heat coming from the stove is not great, +the rack may be allowed to come close to it, and when the heat is +intense the rack may be drawn up. Regulating the distance of the rack +from the stove will tend to keep the food at a uniform temperature and +allow it to dry evenly, especially when the food is turned from time +to time. + +117. ELECTRIC-FAN DRYING METHOD.--If a house is wired for electricity, +drying foods by means of the air-currents generated by a moving electric +fan is a simple matter. Use devices like those required for the sun and +oven-drying methods. Spread the foods to be dried on the trays in a +single thin layer, and arrange them so that the air from the electric +fan will blow over them. Turn the trays as the food dries, so that one +part does not dry sooner than another; also, turn the food frequently so +as to expose all parts alike. If the fan can be placed so as to blow +across a stove and thus blow heated air on the food, it will dry more +quickly. A very warm kitchen is an excellent place in which to do the +work with an electric fan, as the combination of air and heat does the +work more rapidly than either one used alone. + +118. COMBINATION DRYING METHODS.--A combination of any of the drying +methods mentioned may be used effectively. Drying may be started in the +sun and completed in the oven, or it may be started with an electric fan +and completed in the sun or the oven. Any means whereby the time +required for drying may be shortened is advantageous. + + +DIRECTIONS FOR DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS + +119. PREPARATION OF FOODS FOR DRYING.--The correct preparation of the +foods before drying is very important. The thinner and smaller the +pieces to be dried are cut, the more quickly may the process be +completed. Any skins or hulls that would prevent the rapid evaporation +of moisture from the food must be removed or broken, and every raw food +that is to be dried must first be immersed in salt water made in the +proportion of 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water, as this +prevents discoloring to a great extent. + +120. STRING BEANS.--Beans for drying should be selected while they are +young and tender. Wash them and remove the strings if this is necessary. +Cut them in half, lengthwise, with a sharp knife. Drop them into salt +water, remove, and spread on the drying trays. Dry by any +method selected. + +121. CORN.--Corn that is to be dried should be at the dough stage; +younger corn contains too much water for good results. Prepare the corn +by husking it and removing the silk. Then blanch it in boiling water for +5 minutes, after which cut off the grains close to the cob with a sharp +knife. Spread these on the drying trays and proceed according to the +method desired. + +122. GREENS.--Wash the greens thoroughly. Cut across the leaves several +times. Drop them into salt water, remove, and spread on the drying +trays. Dry by any method selected. + +123. TUBER AND ROOT VEGETABLES.--Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, +carrots, parsnips, and even onions may be successfully dried. First peel +or scrape them. Then slice or cut them into small pieces. Drop them into +salt water, remove from the water, and spread them on the drying trays. +Dry them by the method selected. + +124. SMALL FRUITS.--Berries, cherries, and other small fruits may be +dried, but since they contain considerable water, the drying is not +accomplished very rapidly. Ripe, firm fruit should be selected and +cleaned. Cherries should have the seeds, or pits, removed. Such fruits +must be dried as quickly as possible, or they will spoil in the process. + +125. APPLES, QUINCES, AND PEARS.--In order to dry apples, quinces, and +pears, wash, peel, core, and cut the fruit into eighths. Put the peeled +fruit into the salt water and keep it there until all are peeled and cut +and ready to dry. Then spread the cut pieces in a thin layer on the +drying trays and proceed according to the method desired. + +126. PEACHES AND APRICOTS.--Peaches and apricots are most easily dried +with the skin on. Wash them thoroughly and, in the case of peaches, rub +the fuzz off the skins. Cut the fruit into halves, remove the seeds, or +stones, and drop the halves into salt water and keep them there until +they are ready to be placed on the drying trays. Dry by any +process desired. + + +STORING AND COOKING DRIED FOODS + +127. When foods are taken from the various drying devices to be stored, +they still contain a very small quantity of moisture. This moisture, +however, is not distributed evenly, because some of the pieces of food +are larger than others, or some have been exposed more than others to +heat or air in drying. To offset this unequal drying, the containers in +which the foods are to be stored should not be closed permanently as +soon as the food is put into them. Rather, once a day, for about 3 days, +the food should be poured from one container into another and back again +several times. This will mix all the food and distribute the +moisture equally. + +128. The object in storing dried foods is to keep them as dry as +possible; that is, not to allow them to absorb moisture from the air. +The best containers in which they may be placed are those coated with +paraffin. Paper bags or boxes may be prepared in the home by dipping +them into paraffin, although heavy paper containers already covered with +paraffin may be bought in supply stores. Heavy paper or cloth bags may +be used, provided they are stored in a dry place where there is no +danger from rats and mice. Containers of any kind should be securely +tied before storing them permanently. Bags and boxes of dried food are +preferably suspended from rafters in an attic, but if this is not +possible a rack or a bin located in a place that is not damp +will answer. + +It is well, in storing dried foods, to use containers that will hold +only a small quantity of food, so that when some is taken out to be +cooked a large amount will not be exposed. It is best to store just +enough for a meal or two in each container. + +129. Before dried foods are cooked, as much as possible of the water +evaporated in drying should be restored. In order to do this, soaking is +necessary. The dried food should be put into cold salt water made in the +proportion of 1 teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of water and soaked for +at least 1/2 hour. The salt water seems to help restore the original +color of the food. When dried vegetables are to be cooked, they should +be cooked in the salt water in which they are soaked; when dried fruits +are to be cooked, the salt water should be poured off and fresh water +used. Long, slow cooking at a low temperature is better for all kinds of +dried foods than rapid cooking. The fireless cooker will be found +valuable for cooking dried foods. + + * * * * * + +CANNING AND DRYING + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) Give three reasons for canning food. + +(2) What foods may be canned? + +(3) (_a_) How may satisfactory canning equipment be provided at little +or no cost? (_b_) What metals are not good for canning or +preserving kettles? + +(4) (_a_) What are the requirements for satisfactory types of jars? +(_b_) What are the qualities of good jar rubbers? + +(5) What kind of tin cans should be used for canning fruits or +vegetables that contain acid? + +(6) (_a_) Why should care be exercised in the selection of foods to be +canned? (_b_) What points must be considered in the selection of foods +for canning? + +(7) Why do canned foods spoil? + +(8) How may canned foods be prevented from spoiling? + +(9) (_a_) What are spores? (_b_) What connection have spores with the +spoiling of canned food? + +(10) Mention three things that assist in the keeping of canned foods. + +(11) (_a_) How should jar covers and rubbers be treated in the +open-kettle canning method? (_b_) Describe the filling and closing of +jars in this method. + +(12) (_a_) Describe the utensil used for processing in the one-period +cold-pack canning method. (_b_) How should jars, covers, and rubbers be +treated in this method? + +(13) (_a_) How are foods blanched and scalded, and why are blanching and +scalding done? (_b_) How are foods cold-dipped, and why is +cold-dipping done? + +(14) (_a_) How should foods be packed in jars in the cold-pack canning +method? (_b_) How should the rubber and cover be adjusted before +processing? (_c_) When should you begin to count the boiling time for +food that is being processed in the water bath? + +(15) (_a_) How and when should jars be closed in the cold-pack method? +(_b_) How should jars of food be cooled? + +(16) (_a_) How should jars of food be treated for storage? (_b_) How +should they be stored? + +(17) Mention some advantages of dried foods over fresh or canned ones. + +(18) What important points should be considered in the process of drying +food? + +(19) What are the proportions of salt and water into which foods that +discolor are placed before they are canned or dried? + +(20) What precautions should be observed in the storing of dried foods? + + * * * * * + + + +JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING + + * * * * * + +VALUE OF JELLIES, PRESERVES, AND PICKLES + +1. Like canning and drying, JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, and PICKLING are +methods of preparing perishable foods to resist decomposition and +change. When treated by any of these three processes, fruits and +vegetables will keep for long periods of time and will thus be ready for +use during the seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh. The +preservation of food by making it into jellies, preserves, and pickles +does not, as in the case of canning, depend on the sterilization of the +product, but rather on the use of certain ingredients that act as +preservatives. These include sugar, spices, salt, and vinegar, all of +which are considered harmless preservatives in both the home and the +commercial preparation of foods. + +2. The making of jelly, preserves, and pickles may seem like an +extravagance in the expenditure of money for materials, as well as of +time and energy on the part of the housewife. Whether this is the case +or not is a matter that must be decided by the housewife herself. If +these foods are not of enough value to her in the preparation of meals +and the feeding of her family to make it worth her while to use her time +and materials in storing them for winter use, then it is not wise for +her to prepare them. But foods so preserved usually have sufficient +merit to warrant the expenditure of the time and the money required in +their making. + +3. In the first place, it will often be necessary to throw away material +that would make excellent jelly or jam unless the sugar can be supplied +and the time given to make this material into something that is edible +and at the same time attractive. As is well known, all through the +canning season, there is some material, which may have been intended +for canning, but which, for some reason, cannot be used in that way. +Such material should be utilized in the preparation of these foods. For +instance, some of the berries and other fruits bought for canning may be +found to be too ripe to make a good-looking product, but may be very +satisfactory for the making of jars or jellies. Then, too, if the +open-kettle method of canning is used, there is almost certain to be a +superfluous amount of juice that would be wasted if it were not used in +the making of jelly. Such material need not necessarily be used at the +time, for it may be canned and then made up later at some more +convenient time. + +In addition to material of this kind, there is often a surplus of +vegetables and fruits on hand, particularly if one has access to a +garden. Much of this can be canned and dried, but what is not desired +for these purposes might be wasted if it were not made up into +appetizing jellies, preserves, and pickles. + +4. Even though it were not necessary to consider the matter of waste and +the utilizing of surplus fruits and vegetables, there would still be +sufficient reason for the making of jellies, preserves, and pickles, +because these foods, when properly prepared, have great value in the +meal. Jellies and preserves, because of the large quantity of sugar used +in them, are foods high in carbohydrate. In view of this fact, they +should be considered as a part of the meal in which they are served, +instead of being used extravagantly or regarded as something extra in an +already sufficiently large menu. + +Besides their importance in food value, they should have a place in the +diet because they stimulate the appetite through their attractive colors +and delicious flavors. The familiar fact that a child will refuse to eat +plain bread and butter, but will accept the same piece when it has been +made attractive by the addition of a little jam, argues much for the use +of foods of this sort in children's diet. As it is with children, so it +is to a large extent with adults. During the winter months, when fruits +and fresh vegetables are scarce and expensive, practically every one +finds jellies and preserves appetizing, for these things, in a measure, +take the place of the foods that are difficult to procure. + +5. Not so much can be said of the various kinds of pickles, as they are +not so valuable in the diet from the standpoint of food values. They are +made from fruits and vegetables, as are jellies and preserves, but the +preservatives used in their preparation are vinegar and spices. In +addition to having no food value, such ingredients produce +overstimulation and irritation in the alimentary tract, toughen the +cellulose in the foods used, and consequently often cause indigestion +and various gastric disturbances. For these reasons, pickles should not +be included in the diet of children. However, because of the stimulation +they produce in the stomach, foods of this kind, if taken in small +quantities, are properly served as appetizers, and can be eaten by +normal adults without fear of digestive disturbances. Then, too, as +every one who has meals to prepare knows, they are valuable for +relieving monotony in the diet, a point that should not be overlooked. + +6. Because the preservation of food in jellies, preserves, and pickles +is accomplished by the use of certain preservatives instead of by the +sterilization of the food, as in canning, these preparations do not mold +or spoil readily. Therefore, containers of a different nature from those +used in canning may be used to store these foods. Jars having tightly +sealed covers are not required, but such containers as wide-necked +bottles, stone jars or crocks, glasses, etc. may be utilized for this +purpose. In fact, containers of almost any description may be used for +jellies, preserves, and pickles. They should, of course, be sealed in +some way to prevent the entrance of bacteria, and various methods of +accomplishing this have been devised. A very satisfactory way consists +in pouring melted paraffin over the top of the food and then covering +the container with a piece of heavy paper and tying this on securely +with cord. + +7. Since jellies, preserves, and pickles occupy a place of importance in +the diet and at the same time provide an opportunity to utilize material +that might otherwise be wasted, they are entitled to a certain amount of +attention from the housewife. To equip her with the knowledge she needs +for this work and give her practice in jelly making, preserving, and +pickling, the details of these processes are taken up, step by step, in +this Section. + + * * * * * + +JELLY MAKING + +PRINCIPLES OF JELLY MAKING + +8. JELLY MAKING consists in cooking fruit juice with sugar until, upon +cooling, it will solidify, or jell. While this is not a difficult nor a +complicated process, there are some housewives who do not have success +with it. Often the result may be very good when a certain fruit is used, +whereas it may be entirely unsatisfactory at another time, even though +the same fruit is used and practically the same procedure is followed. +If the best results are to be assured in jelly making, the principles +that are involved in this process must first be thoroughly understood +and then the correct procedure must be painstakingly followed out. + +9. To solidify properly and thus become a desirable jelly, the fruit +juice that is used for this purpose must have the following +characteristics and treatment: (1) it must contain certain jelly-making +properties; (2) it must be extracted properly; (3) it must be combined +with the correct proportion of sugar; and (4) it must be cooked the +proper length of time. There are, of course, numerous degrees of +solidity of jelly, varying from that which will barely retain its shape +to that which is very tough and hard, but neither extreme is desirable. +To be right, the jelly should be firm enough to stand up well, but +should be tender and soft when a spoon is cut into it. + +10. Fruit is the principal ingredient in the making of jelly, as it is +the source from which the juice is obtained. Such imperfections in +fruits as poor shape or unattractive appearance do not count in this +matter, since only the juice is used; but they must contain jelly-making +properties in order that jelly can be made from them. + +Green or slightly unripe fruits are better for jelly making than fruits +that have become ripe. In fact, when in this immature state, fruits may +be used to make jelly, whereas the same fruits, when perfectly ripe, +often will not make jelly at all, or, if they do, will produce a jelly +that is inferior in quality. + +11. The chief requirement of fruits that are to be used for jelly +making is that they contain acid and pectin. _Pectin_ is the real +jelly-making property of fruits. When it is in the presence of acid and +combined with the correct proportion of sugar and the combination is +properly boiled, a desirable jelly is the result. Without pectin, +however, it is impossible to make the juice solidify, or jell. Pectin is +closely related to the carbohydrates, but as it does not yield heat +energy nor build tissue, its food value is not considered. In this +respect, it is like the cellulose of fruits and vegetables. + +It is because green fruits contain more pectin than do ripe fruits that +they are more suitable for jelly making. The lack of either acid or +pectin need not, however, prevent the making of jelly from fruits, such +as sweet fruits, that contain other jelly-making properties, for either +or both may be supplied from some other source. In other words, jelly +may be made from any fruit that will yield juice and flavor. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR JELLY MAKING + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +12. NECESSARY EQUIPMENT.--In the making of jelly, as in the preparation +of many other foods, numerous utensils will be found convenient and may, +if desired, be supplied to make the work easier. However, the necessary +ones are comparatively few in number and, for the most part, are found +in almost every kitchen. In Fig. 1 are shown assembled practically all +the equipment used in the making of jelly, and if a housewife is +provided with these things or substitutes for them, she will be well +equipped for her work. + +13. KETTLES.--As will be observed, two kettles are required in jelly +making. The larger one is used for cooking the fruit, and the smaller +one, to cook the juice and the sugar. These should have a perfectly +smooth surface, and may be made of almost any material used for such +utensils, except tin or iron. These two metals are undesirable, as they +are liable to lend to the jelly a disagreeable flavor and in all +probability an unattractive color. The one used to cook the fruit should +generally be a little larger than the other. As about 6 glassfuls of +jelly may be cooked at one time, the kettle in which the juice is boiled +should be of adequate size to cook this amount without danger of its +boiling over. When fruit juice and sugar are boiled together, the +mixture often boils up and runs over if the vessel is not large enough. + +14. JELLY BAG.--The jelly bag, which is used for straining the boiled +fruit and thus obtaining the juice, may be a home-made one or, as shown +in the illustration, one that is purchased for the purpose. If the bag +is made at home, a heavy, closely woven material, such as flannel, +should be selected, so as to prevent the tiny particles of fruit from +passing through with the juice. A liquid strained in this manner will be +much clearer and will make better looking jelly than that which has been +run through a coarse material, such as cheesecloth. The juice can be +strained very conveniently if the bag is attached to a wire arrangement, +like the one shown, or to an upright standard that can be fastened to a +chair or a table, for then the bag is held securely over the vessel into +which the juice drips. Sometimes, especially when more than one +extraction of the juice is to be made, the first extraction is made by +means of a strainer or a colander and the juice thus obtained is then +strained through the bag. + +15. ADDITIONAL UTENSILS.--As accurate measurements are absolutely +essential in jelly making, a measuring cup should be included in the +equipment. Then, too, a quart measure will be found very convenient, +especially if large quantities of materials are to be cooked at one +time. A large spoon or two for stirring, skimming, and testing should +also be provided. The spoon used for skimming will produce better +results if the bowl contains holes that will permit the juice to drop +back into the vessel, for then none of the juice will be wasted. + +16. CONTAINERS FOR JELLY.--Various types of receptacles in which to keep +jelly are in use, some turning out more attractive molds than others. +The shape of the mold, however, is a matter of minor importance. Almost +any wide-mouthed glass receptacle with comparatively smooth sides will +do very well, since the sealing of jelly is not a difficult thing to do. +Therefore, new receptacles should not be purchased if there is a supply +of any suitable kind on hand, for many other containers besides +purchased jelly glasses may be used for this purpose. The most +convenient type, which may be bought in any store selling kitchen +utensils, is that shown in Fig. 1. As will be observed, these are +somewhat broad and not very tall. A mold of jelly turned from a tall, +narrow glass does not stand up so well as that turned from a flat, wide +one. Then, too, a tall glass is much more likely to tip and spill than a +more shallow one. + +17. Metal covers that fit the tops of the glasses, like the ones shown, +are the most convenient kind that can be used, but they are not an +absolute necessity. In their place may be used paper caps that fit the +glasses, or the tops of the glasses may be covered with paper and then +tied. Before a cover of any kind is put on a glass, paraffin, several +cakes of which are arranged on a plate in Fig. 1, is melted and poured +in a thin layer over the top of the jelly itself. + +To designate the kind of jelly, it is advisable to label the glasses +with neat labels, a box of which is included in the equipment +here shown. + +18. Paraffin-covered paper cups have been recommended to take the place +of jelly glasses, and while they do very well in the case of scarcity of +containers they have some disadvantages. In the first place, they can be +used only once, as it is impossible to wash them. In addition, it will +be necessary to wait until the jelly is partly cold before pouring it +into such cups, as hot jelly will melt the paraffin on the surface of +the paper. + + +PROCEDURE IN JELLY MAKING + +19. When the necessary utensils have been conveniently placed and the +desired fruit has been selected, the housewife may proceed at once to +the work of making jelly. Each step is here outlined in the order in +which it should be taken up in doing the actual work. The entire +procedure should be properly followed out in order to insure the best +results, and every part of the work should be carefully done so as to +avoid any waste of material. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +20. COOKING THE FRUIT.--Prepare the fruit in whatever way is necessary. +The preparation needed will depend, of course, on the kind of fruit +selected for the jelly, but usually not so much preparation is needed as +in the case of canning. For instance, when crab-apple jelly is made, the +stems are removed and the fruit is cut into halves or quarters, but they +need not be peeled nor have the seeds taken out. Specific directions for +the different varieties of fruits are given in the various recipes. The +chief precaution to take in preparing the fruit, no matter what kind is +used, is to see that it is thoroughly cleaned. + +With the fruit prepared, put it into a large kettle and add enough water +to start the cooking and prevent scorching. Some fruits will require +more water than others, especially when they must be cooked a long time +in order to soften them sufficiently to extract the juice. Juicy fruits, +like plums, need only the minimum amount of water, while drier fruits, +such as apples, require more. Place the kettle on the stove, as in Fig. +2, and allow the fruit to cook until it is soft or is reduced to a pulp. +The length of time for cooking will also depend entirely on the kind of +fruit that is being used. + +21. EXTRACTING JUICE.--When the fruit is thoroughly cooked, pour the +pulp and the juice that has formed into the jelly bag and allow it to +drip into a pan placed directly under the bag, as shown in Fig. 3. +Formerly, it was the custom to let the juice drip until no more remained +in the bag. This method is followed to some extent at present, but it is +falling into disuse, as it is not the most economical way of extracting +the juice from the pulp. More juice can be obtained and more jelly made +from the same amount of fruit if three extractions instead of one are +made. Make the first extraction by pouring the pulp and juice into the +bag and permitting the juice to drip only until it begins to run very +slowly. Then return the pulp to the kettle, add a small quantity of +water, and let it boil again for a few minutes. Pour it the second time +into the jelly bag, and let it drip as before. Cook it the third time in +the same way, and then allow it to drip until all the juice is +extracted. At this point, mix the juice from the three extractions. They +should not be used separately, for they are much different in quality, +the third one being not so good as the second and the second, inferior +to the first. On the other hand, when all three are mixed, an excellent +quality is the result, provided all conditions are correct, and a larger +quantity of juice is obtained for the jelly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +22. The quantity of juice that may be extracted depends on the quality +as well as the kind of fruit. If the season is a rainy one, the fruits +will be found to contain more juice than they would in a dry season. +Then, too, if the fruits are picked immediately after a rain, they will +contain more juice than the same fruits before the rain. The amount of +juice the fruit contains determines, of course, the quantity of water +that should be added in the cooking. If only one extraction is intended, +3 to 4 quarts of water may be used for 8 quarts of fruit, depending on +the kind of fruit; but if three extractions are to be made, less water +should be added for each extraction. In case the extracted juice +contains more water than it should have, either because the fruit +contains an excessive amount of water or because too much water was +added to the fruit in its cooking, the superfluous water will be +extracted by boiling the juice with the sugar a little longer as the +jelly is being made. + +It is not always necessary to have the fleshy part of fruit for jelly +making, for often the skins, seeds, and cores of fruits may be cooked +with water and the juice then extracted from them. Another point to +remember is that the pulp from which the juice is extracted may +sometimes be used for jam or marmalade. If points like these are taken +into consideration, it will not be necessary to waste any part of +edible fruits. + +23. TESTING THE JUICE FOR PECTIN.--When the juice has been extracted +from the fruit, it should be tested for pectin in order to determine +whether or not it will be satisfactory for the making of jelly. A test +that can be applied by the housewife is illustrated in Fig. 4. Into a +tumbler, put a tablespoonful of juice and with this mix a tablespoonful +of alcohol. If, upon adding the alcohol, the fruit juice turns into a +gelatinous, or jelly-like, mass that may be easily gathered up on the +spoon, it may be known that pectin is present. As has already been +stated, the presence of this substance in fruit juice insures the fact +that jelly can be made from the juice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +24. USING JUICE LACKING IN PECTIN.--If, in the test for pectin, the +addition of alcohol to the fruit juice does not turn the juice into a +jelly-like mass, pectin is not present. Such juice, or juice that +contains only a small amount of pectin, will prove unsuccessful in jelly +making unless some substance or juice high in pectin is added to it. The +white skin from the inside of orange, lemon, or grapefruit peelings or +the juice from apples, crab apples, currants, green gooseberries, or +other fruit containing a large quantity of pectin may be used for this +purpose. Also, commercial pectin may be purchased and used with fruits +according to the directions that accompany it. + +It is always necessary to supply pectin in some way to such fruits as +strawberries, peaches, raspberries, blueberries, cherries, pears, etc. +To the sweet ones, like peaches and raspberries, lemon juice or other +acid fruit juice also must be added if satisfactory jelly is desired. + +25. DETERMINING PROPORTION OF SUGAR.--The only other ingredient used in +jelly making, besides the fruit juice, is sugar. After the juice has +been strained from the fruit, the next step is to determine how much +sugar must be used. This is of extreme importance, as the success of the +jelly depends very largely on whether or not the correct proportion is +used. If too much sugar is added to the juice, a greater quantity of +jelly will result, but it will not stand up as it should when it is +turned out of the glass. On the other hand, if too little sugar is used, +a smaller quantity of jelly than the required amount will be made and it +will be tough and sour. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +26. It is difficult to give the exact proportion of sugar to use with +every kind of fruit, for some fruits require more than others. However, +in general, 3/4 cupful of sugar to each cupful of juice, as shown in +Fig. 5, will be sufficient. This is especially true if the season has +been a dry one and the fruits are neither very sour nor very juicy. +After a wet season or with very sour or very juicy fruits, it will +usually be necessary to use 1 cupful of sugar to each cupful of juice. + +27. Much waste of sugar and spoiling of jelly can be avoided by the use +of the test for pectin, which has just been described. After the juice +and the alcohol have been mixed, pour the mixture slowly from the glass, +noting how the pectin is precipitated. If it is precipitated as one +lump, a cupful of sugar may be used for each cupful of juice; if in +several lumps, the proportion of sugar must be reduced to approximately +three-fourths the amount of juice. If the pectin is not in lumps, but is +merely precipitated, the sugar should be one-half or less of the amount +of the juice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +28. To assist in determining the correct proportion of sugar to use in +the making of jelly, the hydrometer, or sirup gauge, which is explained +in _Canning and Drying_, will be found helpful. After the juice has been +extracted, mix with a small amount of it the proportion of sugar that is +to be used when the jelly is cooked. Allow the sugar to dissolve +completely, pour a little of the mixture into a glass or a graduate, and +insert the hydrometer, as shown in Fig. 6. Regardless of the kind of +juice, the hydrometer should register 25 degrees for perfect jelly. If +it registers less than 25 degrees, more sugar should be added. Then if +it is necessary to add either sugar or juice, the additional ingredient +should be carefully measured in order that the proportions may be +correct for the making of jelly. It must not be understood that a +hydrometer is an actual necessity in the making of jelly, for very good +jelly can be made without measuring the ingredients in this manner. +However, if a hydrometer is not used, it will be necessary to apply the +best judgment possible to the rules given for the proportion of +ingredients used in jelly making. + +29. COMBINING THE JUICE AND SUGAR.--The mixing of the juice and the +sugar may seem like a trivial matter, but in reality much is involved in +combining these ingredients properly. It may be done in three different +ways. In the first method, which is called _long boiling_, the sugar and +the juice are mixed cold and are then allowed to come to the boiling +point together. The second, which is known as _mean boiling_, consists +in putting the cold juice on the stove, allowing it to boil about half +the required time, and then adding the sugar, which has also been +heated. In the third, which is known as the _short-boiling method_, the +juice is boiled without the sugar almost the full length of time +required for making the jelly, and the sugar, which has been heated, is +added just before the boiling is completed. + +30. Experience in the use of these three methods has shown their +advantages and disadvantages. The first one, or the long-boiling +process, has the disadvantage of losing sugar through the skimming that +is always necessary in the making of jelly. In addition, the long +boiling often causes the sugar to crystallize and thus produces a jelly +that would not score very high. The short boiling is not entirely +satisfactory, because of the difficulty in determining just when to add +the sugar to the juice. The process of mean boiling, having neither of +these drawbacks and usually resulting in jelly of excellent quality, is +the most satisfactory and the one that is recommended. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +To carry out this method, place the sugar in a pan in a warm oven or +other place where it will gradually become heated without either melting +or scorching. Put the juice over the fire in a saucepan and let it boil +for 5 to 8 minutes. Then, as shown in Fig. 7, slowly add the correct +proportion of hot sugar to the boiling juice, stirring constantly so +that the sugar will dissolve as quickly as possible. + +31. BOILING THE JUICE AND SUGAR.--The boiling of the juice, both before +and after the sugar is added, should be done rapidly. During this +process, it will be found that a scum will form over the top of the +juice. This should be skimmed off as it forms, for it is a detriment to +the jelly. As shown in Fig. 8, draw a large spoon over the top of the +boiling juice from time to time and skim off the scum that rises, +placing it into any small dish that is handy. It is usually advisable +to do as much skimming as possible before the sugar is added, so that +only a minimum amount of sugar will be lost. + +The length of time required to boil the juice after the sugar is added +depends very largely on the way in which the boiling is carried on. If +the mixture is boiled rapidly, less time will, of course, be needed than +if it is boiled slowly. Therefore, no definite time can be set for the +cooking. However, several tests may be resorted to in order to determine +whether the sugar and juice have boiled long enough to jell when the +mixture is cold. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +32. TESTING THE JELLY MIXTURE.--The testing of the mixture can be done +in various ways, the one to select depending on the success the +housewife has in using them. A means very often resorted to consists in +dipping a spoonful or two of the mixture out of the kettle and pouring +it on the flat surface of a cold dish. If it is cooked sufficiently, it +will solidify when it is cold and will appear just like jelly. The +disadvantage of this test lies in the fact that the jelly on the stove +continues to boil while the test is being made, and as this takes +several minutes, the jelly is likely to overboil to a considerable +extent. Tests that can be performed more quickly are therefore more +satisfactory. + +33. A test that invariably proves successful consists in dipping up a +spoonful of the juice and allowing it to run slowly from the spoon back +into the pan. If, as shown in Fig. 9, a double row of drops forms on the +spoon with the last of the jelly that remains, it may be known that the +cooking is finished. + +34. Another very satisfactory test is called _sheeting_. In the +performing of this test, a spoonful of the jelly is dipped from the pan +and then poured from the spoon into the pan again. If it is cooked to +the proper consistency, large drops will form at the edge of the spoon +and break off quickly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +35. FILLING THE GLASSES.--As soon as it has been determined that the +jelly is sufficiently cooked, it should be removed from the stove. The +glasses may then be filled at once. These, together with the covers, +must be thoroughly cleansed before being used, and this can be done +while the jelly is cooking. After being thoroughly washed, submerge them +in a pan of hot water and allow them to remain there until they are to +be used. Keeping them hot in this way will prevent them from cracking +when the hot jelly is poured into them. Take out one glass at a time, +place it on a small plate or any small dish, and, as shown in Fig. 10, +pour the hot jelly into it from the pan to within 1/4 inch of the top. +Fill the remaining glasses in the same way, and then set them somewhere +out of a draft to cool. If, as the jelly cools, it seems to be a little +bit thin, place it somewhere in the sunshine and the heat of the sun +will help to thicken it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +36. CLOSING AND STORING THE JELLY GLASSES.--The jelly should be allowed +to cool completely and should then be closed for storing. The best +results are obtained by putting a thin layer of paraffin over the top of +the jelly in each glass before applying the cover. To do this, put into +a small saucepan as much paraffin as you think will be needed to cover +the jelly you have made and set this on the stove to melt. When it has +melted, pour a layer about 1/8 inch thick over the surface of the jelly, +as shown in Fig. 11. As soon as it cools, it will harden and thus form a +protective covering for the jelly. When it is hard, cover the glass in +the desired way. Covers of tin are perhaps the most satisfactory, but if +these cannot be secured, heavy paper covers that fit into the glasses +snugly will answer the purpose very well. In the event of not having +covers of either of these kinds, cover the tops of the glasses with +paper--any good wrapping paper will do--and then tie this paper +securely. Just before putting the jelly away, label each glass with a +neat label on which is written the name of the jelly. Then no difficulty +will be experienced in selecting at once the kind of jelly desired when +one is taking a glass from the place where it is stored. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + + +SCORING JELLY + +37. With jelly, as with canned fruit, it is a splendid idea for every +housewife to score each kind she makes, so that she can determine how it +measures up in its various characteristics. If it falls below the +standard, this fact should be known, so that the fault can be remedied +the next time. On the other hand, extreme satisfaction is felt if it is +found to score high. To assist in scoring jelly, a score card is here +given, and following it each one of the characteristics is discussed. + +SCORE CARD FOR JELLY + Per Cent. +Color 20 +Solidity 25 +Flavor 25 +Sugar Content 25 +Method of Sealing 5 + --- + Total 100 + +_Color_.-For jelly having the proper color, 20 per cent. is given. The +fruit used in the making of jelly determines to a great extent the color +of the finished product, but it is possible to have a very wide +difference in the colors of jelly made from the same fruit. To be right, +jelly should be clear, bright, and not too dark. If the juice is boiled +too long, the jelly will be darker than it should be. If pulp has been +allowed to pass through the jelly bag in straining out the juice, either +through squeezing the bag or using a bag that is too thin, the jelly +will be found to have a cloudy appearance. + +_Solidity_.--When jelly is turned from the glass, it should be firm +enough to stand alone. If it has not been boiled long enough, it will +crush down and perhaps run like sirup. If it is boiled too long or the +proportion of juice to sugar is not correct, it may be tough and +leathery. Jelly whose solidity is correct scores 25 per cent. in +this respect. + +_Flavor_.--The characteristic flavor of the fruit used in making jelly +should be retained as much as possible, and when this is the case 25 per +cent. is given to the product. The flavor of the jelly is therefore +dependent on the flavor of the fruit. In addition, the flavor depends on +the amount of sugar used, the amount of acid in the fruit, and the +length of time consumed by the boiling. Jellies boiled too long will be +strong in flavor. + +_Sugar Content_.--The sugar content of jelly should be determined by the +amount of acid that must be sweetened. An insufficient amount of sugar +will result in tough, sour jelly, while too large a quantity will make +the jelly taffy-like. The correct amount of sugar, which produces the +right degree of sweetness, receives a score of 25 per cent. + +_Method of Sealing_.--The method of sealing may seem like a matter of +little importance, but if jelly is not sealed properly, it will not be +in good condition when it is to be served. To score in this respect, for +which 5 per cent. is given, the jelly should be covered with paraffin +and then closed with a cover or with paper in order to exclude the +dust and dirt. + +RECIPES FOR JELLY + +38. Recipes for the kinds of jelly usually made are here given. If the +directions given in the procedure for jelly making are thoroughly +mastered and then applied to these recipes, the housewife will +experience very little difficulty in making any of these varieties. +Other jellies may, without doubt, be made by combining the proper +fruits. All that has to be done in order to determine whether a certain +fruit juice or combination of fruit juices will make jelly is to apply +the test for pectin already explained. Whatever quantity of jelly is +desired may be made, but usually it can be handled best if not more than +6 glassfuls are made at one time. + +39. CRAB-APPLE JELLY.--Crab apples are much used for jelly, as they make +a product of good consistency and excellent flavor. Apples may be used +in the same way as crab apples with equally good results. + +Wash the apples thoroughly, remove the stems, and cut into quarters. +Make sure that the apples contain no worms. Put them into a kettle, add +about half as much water as apples, and cook slowly until the apples are +soft. Strain the juice through a jelly bag. Before it stops dripping, +return the pulp to the kettle, add half as much water as pulp, and allow +the fruit to cook again. Make a second extraction, and in the same way +make a third one. Then combine the juice, and strain all of it through a +bag to make it clear. Measure 6 or 8 cupfuls of juice, and pour it into +a preserving kettle. Boil for about 5 minutes, straining off the scum +that rises to the top. To each cupful of juice, add 3/4 to 1 cupful of +sugar that has been heated. Crab apples will require 1 cupful of sugar, +but apples milder in flavor will not need more than 3/4 cupful. Boil +until the test shows that it has boiled long enough. Pour into hot +glasses, cool, and seal. Label and then store for later use. + +40. CURRANT JELLY.--If jelly having a tart flavor is desired, currant +jelly should be tried. This kind of jelly is especially good to serve +with the heavy course of a meal. + +Wash and stem the currants. Put them into a kettle and add about +one-fourth as much water as currants. Boil until the currants are +reduced to a pulp. Pour into a jelly bag and strain. Make at least one +more extraction, and a third extraction if there is a fairly large +quantity of pulp. When all the juice has been strained from the pulp, +strain it again through the bag or a heavy cloth. Measure 6 or 8 cupfuls +of juice into a kettle, boil for about 5 minutes, and then add from +three-fourths to an equal amount of heated sugar. Remove the scum as it +forms, taking off as much as possible before the sugar is added. +Continue to boil until the tests show that the mixture has cooked +sufficiently. Remove from the heat and pour into hot glasses. Cool, +seal, label, and store. + +41. GRAPE JELLY.--Thoroughly ripe grapes may be used for jelly, but they +are not so satisfactory for this purpose as grapes that are only partly +ripe. This is due to the fact that green grapes contain more pectin and, +upon being cooked, produce fewer of the cream-of-tartar crystals usually +found in grape jelly than do ripe ones. The procedure for grape jelly is +the same as that for currant jelly. If ripe grapes are used, 3/4 cupful +of sugar will be needed to each cupful of juice; but if only partly ripe +grapes are used, 1 cupful of sugar will be required for every cupful +of juice. + +42. QUINCE JELLY.--Because of its attractive color and delicate flavor, +quince jelly is much favored. The quinces may be used alone, but if a +still more delicate flavor is desired, apples may be added to the +quinces, or the parings and cores of the quinces may be used with apples +or crab apples. To make quince jelly, proceed in the same way as for +apple jelly, using 3/4 cupful of sugar to 1 cupful of juice. + +43. RASPBERRY JELLY.--Either black or red raspberries may be used for +jelly making. To give jelly made from these fruits a better consistency, +a small quantity of green grape, crab-apple, or currant juice should be +added. The procedure in this case is the same as for currant jelly. + +44. STRAWBERRY JELLY.--Unripe strawberries contain a small amount of +pectin, but thoroughly ripe ones are almost lacking in this respect. For +this reason, strawberries cannot be used alone for making jelly. They +make a delicious jelly, however, if currants are combined with them. For +each 5 or 6 quarts of strawberries, 1 quart of currants will be +sufficient to make a jelly of good consistency. Wash and hull the +strawberries and then proceed as for currant jelly. + +45. PLUM JELLY.--Plums make a jelly that many persons like. If it is +desired to use plums alone, those which are not thoroughly ripe should +be selected. Ripe plums do not contain enough pectin for jelly; +therefore, a fruit high in pectin, such as crab apples, must be added. +The procedure for currant jelly should be followed for plum jelly. + +46. PEACH JELLY.--Peaches contain so little pectin that it is almost +impossible to make jelly of them unless some other fruit is added in +rather large quantities. Currants, crab apples, or green grapes may be +used with peaches, and whichever one is selected will be needed in the +proportion of about 50 per cent.; that is, half as much additional fruit +as peaches is needed. In the making of peach jelly, proceed as for +currant jelly. + +47. CANNING FRUIT JUICES FOR JELLY.--During the canning season, when a +great deal of such work is being done, the housewife often feels that +making jelly and preserves is an extravagant use of sugar. Still, fruit +juices left over from canning and large quantities of fruit, such as +crab apples and currants, that are not suitable for other purposes, will +be wasted unless they are used for jelly. If it is not convenient to use +the fruit at the time it is obtained, a good plan is to extract the +juice as for jelly making and then can it. In case this is done, jelly +may be made from the juice during the seasons of the year when less +sugar is required for other things. + +48. To can fruit juice, extract it from the fruit as for jelly making +and then bring it to the boiling point. Select bottles or jars that may +be tightly closed, sterilize them, fill them with the boiling juice, and +seal them. Bottles may be used for this purpose if they are well corked +and then dipped into melted sealing wax or paraffin. When properly +sealed, fruit juices will probably keep without any further effort to +preserve them, but to make positively certain that they will not spoil, +it is a wise precaution to process the filled bottles or jars in boiling +water for about 6 or 8 minutes in the same way in which canned fruit is +processed. When treated in this way, fruit juices will keep perfectly +and may be made into jelly at any time during the winter. + + * * * * * + + +PRESERVING + +PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING + +49. PRESERVING consists in preparing fruits in perfect condition to +resist decomposition or change by cooking them in heavy sirup. The +cooking is done so slightly that the original form, flavor, and color of +the fruit are retained as far as possible. This process is similar to +that of canning by the open-kettle method; that is, the fruit and sugar +are combined and cooked to the proper consistency in the preserving +kettle. Sugar is used in such quantity in the preparation of preserves +that it acts as a preservative and prevents bacteria from attacking the +foods in which it is used. If preserves of any kind ferment, it may be +known that not enough sugar was used in their preparation. The +sterilization of the product and the air-tight sealing of the +containers, which are necessary in the canning of fruits and vegetables, +need not be resorted to in the case of preserves. + +50. SELECTION OF FRUIT.--When fruit is to be made into preserves, much +attention should be paid to its selection, for, as a rule, only the +finest fruits are used for preserving. This is especially true of the +smaller fruits, such as berries and cherries, for they are preserved +whole. Therefore, in order that they may have a good appearance when +preserved, it is necessary that they be as perfect as possible to begin +with. In addition, the fruit should be thoroughly ripe, but not mushy +nor overripe. As the cooking of the fruits in sirup hardens them to a +certain extent, fruits that are not sufficiently ripe cannot be used, +for they would be too hard when done. If care is used in selecting +fruits that are to be preserved, a good-appearing product will be the +result, since this process is carried on in such a way as not to impair +their shape. + +51. METHODS OF PRESERVING.--Several methods of preserving fruit are in +practice, but in general the same principles characterise each one. +Probably the most successful method consists in bringing a certain +proportion of sugar and water to the boiling point, dropping the fruit +into the sirup thus formed, and cooking it for a definite length of +time. Boiling fruits in heavy sirup has a tendency to make them firm and +solid, rather than to cook them to pieces, as would be the case with +water or a thin sirup. Even very soft berries, when used for preserves, +will retain almost their original size and shape if they are properly +cooked. Except for the fact that a heavier sirup is used, the process of +preserving fruit is exactly like that of canning fruit by the +open-kettle method. The chief precaution to take in this method is that +as little water as possible be used, so that the sirup may be very thick +when the fruit is added. + +Another method that may be recommended because it helps to keep the +fruit in good condition consists in cooking it in its own juice. In this +method, equal quantities of fruit and sugar are put together and allowed +to stand until enough juice is formed, preferably overnight, so that the +fruit may be cooked without the addition of any water. Strawberries are +excellent when preserved in this way. + +Whichever method is followed, better results will be obtained if only a +few quarts of fruit are cooked at a time. When a large quantity of +berries, for instance, is added to the boiling sirup, they will form +such a thick layer that they will have to remain over the fire a long +time before they come to the boiling point. They will therefore be much +more likely to crush and give the finished product a mushy appearance +than if a smaller quantity, which will form a thinner layer, is cooked +each time. + +52. UTENSILS FOR PRESERVING.--The equipment necessary in the making of +preserves is similar to that used for making jelly, with the exception +of the dripping bag and the hydrometer. A good-sized preserving kettle +is, of course, required for the cooking of the fruit and sirup; a +measuring cup and a quart measure are needed for the measuring of the +ingredients; and a long-handled wooden spoon or paddle is the most +convenient utensil with which to stir all foods of this class. +Containers similar to those used for jelly will be satisfactory +receptacles in which to put preserves, but as preserved fruits are not +turned out in a mold, almost any kind of wide-mouthed bottle or jar may +be used for this purpose. Paraffin should also be provided, as this +should always be used for the first covering to prevent the formation of +molds, which are likely to grow on moist sweet substances exposed to the +air. Before using paraffin for preserves, they should be allowed to +stand until the surface has become absolutely dry. It is well to label +preserves, too; so labels should be kept on hand for this purpose. + + * * * * * + + +RECIPES FOR PRESERVED FRUITS + +VARIETIES OF PRESERVED FRUITS + +53. The several methods of preserving fruits result in considerable +variety in the finished product. _Preserves proper_ are those cooked in +a heavy sirup, either whole or cut into pieces. In addition to being +prepared in this way, fruit may be made into _conserve, marmalade, jam_, +and _butter_. Specific directions for the preparation of each one of +these varieties are here given, together with a number of recipes +showing the kinds of fruit most suitable for the different varieties. No +housewife need deprive her family of any of these delicious preparations +if she will familiarize herself with the methods explained and will +follow out minutely the directions given. In the making of the various +kinds of preserves, just as much care must be exercised as in canning +and jelly making if the best results are desired. + + +PRESERVES + +54. STRAWBERRY PRESERVE.--Strawberries selected for preserves should be +of the dark, solid variety, if possible, since these shrink less and +retain their shape and size better than do the lighter varieties. This +fruit is made into preserves probably more often than any other kind, +and this is not strange, for it makes a most delicious preserve. + +STRAWBERRY PRESERVE + +2 qt. strawberries +1/2 c. hot water +1 lb. sugar + +Clean the strawberries by placing them in a colander and raising and +lowering them into a large pan of water. Remove the hulls and make sure +that all the water is carefully drained from the berries. Add the water +to the sugar and place over the fire in a preserving kettle that has a +smooth surface. Stir until the sugar is dissolved, and allow the mixture +to come to a rapid boil. To the rapidly boiling sirup, add the +strawberries by dropping them carefully into it. Allow the fruit to +come to the boiling point in the sirup, and continue to boil for 10 or +12 minutes. If the berries seem to contain an unusual amount of water, +boiling for 15 minutes may be necessary. Remove from the fire and fill +into hot sterilized glasses at once, or set aside to cool. It has been +found that if the preserves are allowed to stand in the kettle +overnight, they will improve in flavor and, because of the absorption of +oxygen, which they lose in boiling, they will increase in size. If the +preserves are treated in this way, it will be necessary to pour them +cold into the sterilized glasses. When the preserves in the glasses are +cold, pour melted paraffin over them. Cover them with metal or paper +covers, label, and store for future use. + +55. CHERRY PRESERVE.--If sour cherries can be secured, an excellent +preserve can be made of them. Cherries should, of courser be seeded, or +pitted, when they are prepared in this way. + +CHERRY PRESERVE + +2 qt. seeded sour cherries +1 c. hot water +1-1/2 lb. sugar + +Drain off the superfluous juice from the cherries. Add the hot water to +the sugar in a preserving kettle, and allow the mixture to come to a +boil. Add the cherries and boil for 10 or 12 minutes. Have hot +sterilized jelly glasses ready and fill with the hot preserves. Allow +the preserves to cool, cover first with paraffin and then with metal or +paper covers, and label. + +56. RASPBERRY PRESERVE.--Although red raspberries are a rather soft +fruit, they can be used very well for preserves if care is taken not to +break them into pieces by too long cooking or too rapid boiling. + + +RASPBERRY PRESERVE + +2 qt. red raspberries +3/4 c. hot water +1 lb. sugar + +Wash the raspberries by placing them in a colander and raising and +lowering them in a large pan of cold water. Mix the hot water with the +sugar in a preserving kettle, place the mixture over the fire and bring +to the boiling point. Add the raspberries to the boiling sirup, and when +they have come to the boiling point, cook for 8 to 10 minutes. Remove +the hot preserves from the fire and pour into hot sterilized jars. Allow +them to cool, seal with paraffin and metal or paper covers, and label. + +57. PLUM PRESERVE.--A very rich, tart preserve can be made by cooking +plums in a thick sirup. Those who care for the flavor of plums will find +preserves of this kind very much to their taste. + +PLUM PRESERVE + +2 qt. plums +1 c. hot water +1-1/2 lb. sugar + +Select any variety of plums desired for preserves, and wash them in cold +water. Cut them in half and remove the seeds. Place the hot water and +the sugar in a preserving kettle, and bring to a rapid boil. Add the +plums and boil slowly for 15 minutes. Remove from the fire, pour into +hot sterilized jelly glasses. Allow them to cool and cover first with +paraffin and then with metal or paper covers. Before storing, label each +glass neatly. + +58. QUINCE PRESERVE.--Quinces combined with apples make a preserve that +finds favor with many. As shown in the accompanying recipe, about +one-third as many apples as quinces make the required proportion. + +QUINCE PRESERVE + +3 qt. quinces, peeled and quartered +1 qt. apples, peeled and quartered +1-1/2 c. hot water +3 lb. sugar + +Select well-ripened quinces. Rub the fuzz from the skin with a cloth, +and then wash, peel, quarter, and core. If desired, they may be sliced, +but they are very nice when preserved in quarters. Select firm apples, +wash, peel, quarter, and core them, and cut them the same size as the +quinces. Add the water to the sugar, place the mixture over the fire in +a preserving kettle, and let it come to a boil. Add the quinces, cook +until tender, and remove from the sirup. Then cook the apples in the +sirup in the same way, and when tender remove from the sirup. Place the +fruits in alternate layers in hot jars. Unless the sirup is very thick, +boil it until it becomes heavy; then fill each jarful of fruit with this +sirup. Seal with paraffin, cover with metal or paper covers, and label. + +59. PEACH PRESERVE.--Although somewhat bland in flavor, peaches make an +excellent preserve. Some persons prefer them cut into very small slices, +while others like them preserved in large slices. + +PEACH PRESERVE + +4 qt. peaches +1-1/2 c. hot water +3 lb. sugar + +Select firm peaches. Wash, pare, and cut into slices of any desirable +size. Add the water to the sugar in a preserving kettle, place over the +fire, and allow the mixture to come to a rapid boil. Drop the sliced +peaches into the sirup and cook until tender. Have hot sterilized jars +ready, fill with the hot preserves, and seal with paraffin. Cover in the +desired way and label. + + +CONSERVES + +60. CONSERVES do not differ materially from preserves in their +preparation, but they usually consist of a mixture of two or more +fruits, whereas preserves are made from a single fruit. All rules that +govern the making of preserves apply equally well to the making of +conserves. + +There are certain fruits that combine very well as far as flavor, color, +etc. are concerned, and these are generally used together in the +preparation of this food. However, almost any combination of fruits may +be made into conserves. This is therefore a very good way in which to +utilize small quantities of left-over fruits. Then, too, a cheap +material may be combined with a more expensive one to make a larger +quantity of a moderately priced product, as, for instance, rhubarb and +pineapple. Again, the pulp from which juice has been extracted for jelly +may be used to make conserve. In fact, a little ingenuity on the part of +the housewife and familiarity with general preserving methods will +enable her to make many kinds of excellent conserves, even though she +may not have a definite rule or recipe to cover the use of the +particular material that happens to be on hand. + +61. STRAWBERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE.--The combination of strawberries +and pineapple is an excellent one. The accompanying recipe shows how to +combine these fruits to make a most appetizing conserve. + +STRAWBERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE + +2 qt. strawberries +1 large pineapple +1 c. hot water +2-1/2 lb. sugar + +Prepare the strawberries as for canning. Peel and slice the pineapple, +remove the eyes, and cut into small pieces. Add the water to the sugar +in a preserving kettle, and allow it to come to a boil. Drop the pieces +of pineapple into the sirup and cook them until they are tender. To this +add the strawberries and cook for 5 or 10 minutes longer. The conserve +should then be sufficiently cooked to put into the jars. If the juice +seems too thin, fill the jars, which should be hot sterilized ones, +about three-fourths full of the fruit, and then return the sirup to the +heat and boil it until it is the right consistency. Remove the boiling +sirup from the stove, and pour it over the fruit in the jars until they +are full. Allow the conserve to cool, and then seal, first with paraffin +and then with metal or paper covers. Label each glass and set away for +future use. + +62. STRAWBERRY-AND-RHUBARB CONSERVE.--Rhubarb combines very well with +either strawberries or pineapple. The accompanying recipe is for +strawberries and rhubarb, but if pineapple is desired, it may be +substituted for the strawberries in the same quantity. + +STRAWBERRY-AND-RHUBARB CONSERVE + +2 qt. strawberries +1-1/2 qt. rhubarb +1-1/2 c. hot water +3 lb. sugar + +Prepare the strawberries as for canning. Cut the rhubarb, which should +be very tender, into cubes without removing the skin. Add the water to +the sugar, and bring to a rapid boil in a preserving kettle. Put the +rhubarb and strawberries into this sirup, and cook for at least 15 +minutes. Pour into hot sterilized glasses, and when cool seal in the +usual way. Label and store. + +63. PINEAPPLE-AND-APRICOT CONSERVE.--No more delicious conserve can be +made than pineapple-and-apricot conserve. The tartness of the apricots +gives a flavor that is pleasing to most persons. + +PINEAPPLE-AND-APRICOT CONSERVE + +2 qt. apricots +1 large pineapple +1 c. hot water +2-1/2 lb. sugar + +Wash the apricots, plunge them into boiling water to remove the skins, +and then cut into quarters. Peel and slice the pineapple, remove the +eyes, and cut into cubes. Add the water to the sugar in a preserving +kettle, and bring to the boiling point. Add the pineapple to the sirup, +and cook until tender. Then drop in the apricots and boil several +minutes longer. Have hot sterilized glasses ready, fill them with the +conserve, and when cool seal in the usual way. Before putting the +glasses away, label each one neatly. + +64. CRAB-APPLE-AND-ORANGE CONSERVE.--It is a good idea to make +crab-apple-and-orange conserve at the same time that crab-apple jelly is +made, for the pulp that remains after extracting the juice may be +utilized for the conserve. However, if it is desired to make it at some +other time, fresh pulp can be prepared for the purpose. + +CRAB-APPLE-AND-ORANGE CONSERVE + +1 qt. crab-apple pulp +3 lb. sugar +8 oranges + +To the crab-apple pulp, add the sugar, and place over the fire to boil. +Peel the oranges, scoop out the white portion from the peelings, cut the +peelings into thin strips, and add to the crab-apple pulp. Remove the +pulp of the orange from the skins and from between the sections, cut it +into small pieces, and add to the boiling mixture a few minutes before +it is removed from the stove. When it has cooked thick, pour into hot +sterilized glasses. Cool and then seal and label. + +65. PLUM CONSERVE.--A rather unusual conserve is made by combining +raisins and English walnut meats with plums. The accompanying recipe +gives directions for the preparation of this conserve. + +PLUM CONSERVE + +4 qt. plums +1 c. hot water +2 lb. sugar +1 lb. raisins +2 c. English walnut meats + +Wash the plums, cut them in half, and remove the seeds. Add the water to +the sugar, place over the fire in a preserving kettle, and stir until +the mixture comes to a rapid boil. Wash the raisins, which should be +seeded, add them with the plums to the sirup, and cook until the mixture +is the consistency of jelly. Just before removing from the stove, add +the nut meats. Pour the mixture into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, +and label. If very sour plums are used, increase the amount of sugar. + +66. CHERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE.--Cherries combine very well with +pineapple in a conserve. Sweet cherries should, if possible, be used for +this purpose. + +CHERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE + +2 qt. sweet cherries +1 pineapple +2 lb. sugar +1 c. hot water + +Wash, stem, and seed the cherries. Slice and peel the pineapple and +remove the eyes. Put the sugar and water over the fire in a preserving +kettle, and stir until the sirup comes to the boiling point. To this +sirup add the pineapple and the cherries and cook until the juice is +very thick. Pour into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label. + +67. RED-RASPBERRY-AND-CURRANT CONSERVE.--A conserve having a very +attractive color and a most appetizing flavor is made by combining red +raspberries with red currants. + +RED-RASPBERRY-AND-CURRANT CONSERVE + +3 qt. red raspberries +1 qt. red currants +1 c. hot water +2-1/2 lb. sugar + +Look the raspberries over carefully, and remove any that show signs of +spoiling. Wash the currants and stem them. Add the water to the sugar +and put the mixture over the fire to boil. Add the currants to this, and +stir until the mixture comes to the boiling point. Boil for several +minutes, or until the mixture begins to thicken, and then add the red +raspberries. Continue to boil for 2 or 3 minutes longer. Pour into hot +sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label. + +68. CARROT CONSERVE.--Conserve made from carrots will be found to be +surprisingly delicious, and it has the added advantage of being +inexpensive. + +CARROT CONSERVE + +1-1/2 qt. cooked cut carrots +Rind of 2 lemons +5 c. sugar +2 c. hot water +Juice of 3 lemons + +Boil the carrots until tender and chop or put through a grinder with the +lemon rind. Then mix with the sugar, water, and lemon juice, and boil +for about 1/2 hour or until thick. Put into hot sterilized glasses, +cool, seal, and label. + + +MARMALADES + +69. MARMALADES are a form of preserves that differ from the other +varieties more in the nature of the fruit used than in any other +respect. For marmalades, large fruits are generally used, and, as a +rule, the fruits are left in sections or in comparatively large pieces. +The preparation of this food, however, differs in no way from preserves +proper and conserves, the processes of cooking, sealing, storing, etc. +being practically the same. + +70. ORANGE MARMALADE.--Oranges combined with half as many lemons make a +marmalade that most persons like. In fact, orange marmalade is probably +made more often than any other kind. + +ORANGE MARMALADE + +12 oranges +6 lemons +1-1/2 qt. hot water +5 lb. sugar + +Peel the oranges and the lemons in the same way an apple would be +peeled, inserting the knife deep enough to cut through the skin covering +the sections. Remove the contents of the sections and squeeze out any +juice that may remain in the thin skin. Remove the white material from +the inside of the peeling, and cut the yellow portion that remains into +thin strips. Add the water to the skins and simmer slowly for 1 hour. At +the end of this time, add the sugar and the orange and the lemon pulp, +and boil until the mixture is thick. Pour into hot, sterilized glasses, +cool, and then seal and label. + +71. ORANGE-AND-RHUBARB MARMALADE.--If a somewhat different flavor is +desired in a marmalade, rhubarb instead of lemons may be used with +oranges, as shown in the accompanying recipe. + +ORANGE-AND-RHUBARB MARMALADE + +8 oranges +1 qt. hot water +4 lb. sugar +3 qt. rhubarb cut into pieces + +Prepare the oranges as for orange marmalade. Slowly cook the yellow part +of the skin in 1 quart of water for 1/2 hour. To this add the sugar and +the rhubarb, and cook slowly until it is quite thick. Stir in the orange +pulp and cook until the mixture is again thick. Pour into hot sterilized +glasses, cool, seal, and label. + +72. QUINCE MARMALADE.--Quinces cut into quarters, cooked, and then +forced through a sieve make an exceptionally good marmalade, so far as +both flavor and color are concerned. No other fruit need be used with +the quinces, as they have enough flavor in themselves. + +QUINCE MARMALADE + +4 qt. quartered quinces +1 qt. hot water +4 lb. sugar + +Wipe the fuzz from the quinces, wash, quarter, and remove the cores, but +do not peel. Put over the fire in a preserving kettle with the water. +Cook until the quinces are soft, remove from the fire, and mash through +a sieve. Add the sugar to the quince pulp, replace on the fire, and +cook until the mixture is thick, stirring constantly to prevent burning. +Pour into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label. + +73. GRAPE MARMALADE.--The pulp and skins of grapes are especially +satisfactory for marmalade. In fact, most persons who are fond of grapes +find marmalade of this kind very appetizing. + +GRAPE MARMALADE + +4 qt. stemmed grapes +2 c. hot water +3 lb. sugar + +Separate the pulp of the grapes from the skins, put it into a preserving +kettle with the water, and heat to the boiling point. Cook slowly until +the seeds can be separated from the pulp, and then remove the seeds by +pressing the pulp through a sieve. Return to the preserving kettle with +the grape skins. Add the sugar, and cook the mixture slowly until it is +thick, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. Care must be taken not +to cook it too long, as the marmalade becomes quite stiff. Pour into +hot, sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label. + +74. ORANGE-AND-PINEAPPLE MARMALADE.--No better combination can be +secured than oranges and pineapple. To make marmalade, both fruits are +cut into small pieces and then cooked in a thick sirup. + +ORANGE-AND-PINEAPPLE MARMALADE + +8 oranges +2 c. hot water +2 pineapples +4 lb. sugar + +Wash the oranges, cut skins and all into small pieces, remove the seeds, +and boil slowly in the water until the skins are soft. Prepare the +pineapples by peeling them, removing the eyes, and then shredding or +cutting into very small pieces. Add the pineapple to the orange, stir in +sugar, and continue to boil until the juice is at the jelly stage. Pour +into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label. + + +JAMS + +75. JAM is similar to preserves, except that the fruit used is made into +a pulp before it is cooked with the sugar or after a part of the cooking +is done. As a rule, only whole small fruits are used for jams, but the +larger fruits can be utilized for this purpose by being cut fine and +made into a pulp. When small fruits are used, part or all of the seeds +are sometimes removed, but generally the seeds are allowed to remain if +they are not too large. Jam is made thick by long boiling, and when done +is usually quite smooth. A precaution, however, that should always be +taken is not to cook it too long, for jam is very unappetizing if it is +too thick. + +Fruit may be purchased purposely for jam, but for the most part, this +form of preserve is made of imperfect or very ripe fruits that are not +suitable for canning, preserves, and other processes that require almost +perfect fruit. If this point is kept in mind, it will be possible, +during the canning season, to make into a delicious jam fruit that would +otherwise be wasted. + +76. STRAWBERRY JAM.--As strawberries have very small seeds, this fruit +makes an excellent jam. + +STRAWBERRY JAM + +4 qt. strawberries +2 lb. sugar + +Wash and hull the strawberries. Then mash them in a preserving kettle +and add the sugar to them. Place over the fire, and boil slowly until +the mixture becomes thick, stirring frequently to prevent the jam from +sticking to the kettle and scorching. When the jam is cooked to the +proper consistency, the juice should test as for jelly. Pour the mixture +into hot sterilized glasses, cool, and then seal and label. + +77. RASPBERRY JAM.--Both red and black raspberries are much used for +jam. Some persons like to remove the seeds from raspberry jam, but as +very little pulp remains after the seeds are taken out, this plan is not +recommended. + +RASPBERRY JAM + +4 qt. raspberries +2 lb. sugar + +Look over the raspberries carefully and then wash. Put them into a +preserving kettle with the sugar. Heat to the boiling point, and cook +slowly for a few minutes. Then mash the berries to a pulp, and continue +to cook until the mixture thickens and the juice tests as for jelly. +Pour into hot sterilized jars, cool, seal, and label. + +78. GREEN-GAGE JAM.--Green gages make a smooth, tart jam that appeals to +most persons. The seeds of the plums are, of course, removed, but the +skins are allowed to remain in the jam. + +GREEN-GAGE JAM + +4 qt. green-gage plums +4 lb. sugar +1-1/2 c. hot water + +Wash the plums, cut them in half, and remove the seeds, but not the +skins. Dissolve the sugar in the water over the fire, and when it comes +to the boiling point, add the plums. Cook slowly until the plums are +mushy and the entire mixture is thick. Pour into sterilized glasses, +cool, seal, and label. If sweet plums are used, decrease the quantity +of sugar. + +79. GOOSEBERRY JAM.--When gooseberries are well ripened, they make very +good jam. As this fruit is rather tart, considerable sugar must be used +if a sweet jam is desired. + +GOOSEBERRY JAM + +4 qt. gooseberries +3 lb. sugar + +Remove the stems and blossom ends from the gooseberries and wash +thoroughly. Add the sugar to the berries in a preserving kettle. Bring +to a rapid boil, cook for a few minutes, and then mash the berries to a +pulp. Cook until the mixture thickens and tests as for jelly. Pour into +hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label. + +80. BLACKBERRY JAM.--Probably no jam is so well liked as that made from +blackberries. Some varieties of these are large in size and contain +considerable pulp in proportion to seeds. These are especially +suitable for jam. + +BLACKBERRY JAM + +4 qt. blackberries +1/2 c. hot water +2 lb. sugar + +Wash the berries thoroughly, and put them over the fire with the water. +Bring to the boiling point, and boil slowly for a few minutes. Then mash +the berries, add the sugar, and cook the mixture until, when tested, it +is of a jelly-like consistency. Pour into hot, sterilized glasses, cool, +and label. + + +BUTTERS + +81. FRUIT BUTTERS are a form of preserves similar to jams, and are used +in the place of preserves, jams, conserves, or marmalades. The fruit +used for this purpose, which may be either large or small, is usually +very ripe and somewhat soft. Therefore, as in the case of jams, +imperfect fruits that are not suitable for other purposes can be used +very well for butters. + +Butters made from fruits differ from jams in that both the skins and +seeds are always removed. The completed mixture is smooth and thick, +having been made thick by long boiling and evaporation, rather than by +the addition of large quantities of sugar. In fact, less sugar is used +for butters proportionately than for any other preserved fruit. Spices +are generally used in butters, so that the mixture is very +highly flavored. + +To prevent butters from scorching, they should be stirred constantly for +a long period of time. This stirring becomes very tiresome, but it +should not be stopped or the mixture is certain to scorch. If they are +properly cooked, butters keep well with very little care in storage. +Crocks are generally used for the storage of butters, but glasses or +jars may be substituted. + +82. APPLE BUTTER.--Apples are very often made into butter, but for this +purpose sour apples that will cook soft should be selected. If the +procedure explained in the accompanying recipe is followed, very good +results may be expected. + +APPLE BUTTER + +4 qt. apples +8 qt. cider +1 lb. sugar +3 tsp. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves +1 tsp. allspice + +Peel the apples and quarter them. Boil the cider until it is reduced +half. Add the apples to the cider, and cook slowly for about 3 hours, or +until they are mushy, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon to prevent +the apples from sticking to the bottom of the kettle. At the end of this +time, the mixture should be thick and smooth and dark in color. If it +gets too thick, more cider can be added. About 1 hour before the cooking +is completed, add the sugar and the spices. Even greater care must be +exercised from this time on to prevent scorching. If, after cooking 3 +hours, the mixture is not sufficiently thick, continue to cook until +more of the moisture is evaporated. Have hot sterilized glasses or +crocks ready, fill them with the butter, cool, and seal. + +83. PEACH BUTTER.--Peaches are especially satisfactory when made into +butter. This fruit does not require such long cooking as apples, as will +be seen in the accompanying recipe. + +PEACH BUTTER + +4 qt. peaches +1 c. hot water +1 lb. sugar +1 tsp. cinnamon +1/2 tsp. cloves + +Wash the peaches, rub them to remove the fuzz, cut them in half, and +take out the seeds. Measure the peaches and put them with the water +into the preserving kettle, bring them to a boil, and cook until they +are thoroughly softened. Then press them through a sieve or a colander, +return the pulp to the preserving kettle, and add the sugar and the +spices. Cook slowly for 1 or 2 hours, or until it has become a rich +dark, clear color. Pour the butter into hot sterilized glasses or +crocks, cool, and seal. + +84. PEAR BUTTER.--An appetizing fruit butter can be made from pears in +the same way that peach butter is made. + +PEAR BUTTER + +4 qt. pears, quartered +2 c. hot water +1 lb. sugar +2 tsp. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves + +Wash, cut, and core the pears, but do not peel them. Cut them into +quarters, and put the quarters into a preserving kettle with the water. +Bring to the boiling point, and boil until soft or mushy. Remove from +the kettle and force through a sieve or a colander. To the pulp, add the +sugar and spices, return to the kettle, and cook slowly for about 2 +hours, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. If 2 hours is not +sufficient to cook the mixture dry, cook a little longer. Pour into hot +sterilized glasses or jars, cool, and seal. + +85. PLUM BUTTER.--Another very good way in which to preserve plums for +future use is to make butter of them. The accompanying recipe explains +the correct procedure for butter of this kind. + +PLUM BUTTER + +4 qt. plums +1 c. hot water +3 lb. sugar +2 tsp. cinnamon +1/2 tsp. cloves + +Wash the plums, cut them in half, and remove the seeds. Put the plums +with the water into a preserving kettle, and boil until they are soft. +Press them through a sieve or a colander, return to the preserving +kettle, and add the sugar and spices. Boil until the mixture is thick +and jelly-like, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. Pour into hot +sterilized crocks or glasses, cool, and seal. If very sour plums are +used, increase the amount of sugar. + + * * * * * + + +PICKLING + +PRINCIPLES OF PICKLING + +86. PICKLING consists in preserving fruits and vegetables in vinegar or +brine. Each of these liquids acts as a preservative, so that the +receptacles, or containers, for the food do not have to be sealed +air-tight, nor does the preserved food require much care in order to +have it keep perfectly. + +The effect of the pickling liquids on both fruits and vegetables is very +similar. The salt in the brine or the vinegar hardens the cellulose of +the foods to such an extent that they are impervious to the action of +bacteria. While this permits the foods to keep well, it also makes them +difficult to digest, a fact that must be remembered when pickled foods +are included in the diet. + +87. The procedure in pickling is simple. After the fruit or vegetable is +cleaned and prepared in the way desired, it is merely a matter of +placing the food in sterilized jars or crocks, pouring the hot +preserving liquid over it, allowing it to cool, and then storing it. In +some cases the food is cooked, and in others it is not. As a rule, +spices of some kind or other are added, both to aid in preserving and to +impart flavor. + +88. Practically all large fruits and many vegetables are pickled, as is +shown in the recipes that follow. Foods preserved by pickling are known +as either _pickles_ or _relishes_. While both products are similar in +many respects, relishes are distinguished from pickles in that, as a +rule, they are made up from more than one kind of fruit or vegetable and +usually the pieces are cut or chopped and not put up whole. Often the +foods in relishes are chopped or cut so fine as to make it almost +impossible to tell what the fruit or vegetable was originally. + +The food value of both these products is not extremely high, unless a +great quantity of sugar is used in the pickling. This is sometimes the +case with pickled peaches or pears, but seldom if ever with pickled +vegetables. + + * * * * * + + +RECIPES FOR PICKLING + +PICKLES + +89. SMALL CUCUMBER PICKLES.--Perhaps the most common pickles are small +cucumbers pickled according to the accompanying recipe. Such pickles +meet with favor and serve very well as appetizers. The cucumbers +selected should be small, so that they will be solid all the +way through. + +SMALL CUCUMBER PICKLES + +1 gal. water +4 c. coarse salt +200 small cucumbers +1/2 gal. vinegar +1-1/2 tsp. celery seed +1 lb. light-brown sugar +1/2 tsp. mustard seed +1 tsp. salt +1 oz. stick cinnamon +1 tsp. whole cloves + +Make a brine of the water and the coarse salt, pour it over the +cucumbers, and allow them to stand for 24 hours. At the end of this +time, pour off the brine, wash the pickles in cold water, and place them +into crocks. Heat the vinegar, add the celery seed, sugar, mustard seed, +salt, cinnamon, and cloves, and bring the mixture to the boiling point. +Pour this over the pickles in the crocks, cover closely while hot, and +place in storage. If the pickles are desired sweet, add more brown sugar +to the mixture. + +90. SLICED-CUCUMBER PICKLES.--Large cucumbers cut into slices may be +pickled in practically the same way as small cucumbers. At times, when +small cucumbers are hard to get, large cucumbers will take their place +very well. In fact, some housewives prefer sliced cucumber pickles to +the small ones. + +SLICED-CUCUMBER PICKLES + +1 gal. sliced cucumbers +1 c. coarse salt +1-1/2 qt. vinegar +1 pt. water +1 tsp. pepper +3 tsp. mustard +1 tsp. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves +4 onions, chopped +1 c. brown sugar +1 Tb. salt + +Select rather large cucumbers. Wash and peel them and cut into 1/4-inch +slices. Sprinkle well with salt, and mix the salt among the layers of +cucumbers. Allow this to stand for 24 hours; then drain and wash in +clear cold water. To the vinegar and water add the spices, onion, +sugar, and salt. Heat this to the boiling point, pour over the sliced +cucumbers, and pack them into jars or crocks. Seal while hot and store. + +91. CUCUMBERS IN BRINE.--Cucumbers may also be preserved in brine, +stored, and pickled in vinegar later in any quantity, as desired. + +Pour 1 gallon of boiling water over 4 cupfuls of coarse salt. This +should make brine that is heavy enough to support an egg. Wash cucumbers +of any desired size, put them into a sterilized crock, in layers, and +pour the brine, which has been allowed to cool, over the cucumbers until +they are entirely covered. Cover the top of the crock well and store. +Cucumbers preserved in this way may be taken from the brine at any time +and pickled. To do this, soak them in fresh water to remove the salty +taste. The fresh water may have to be poured off and replaced several +times. After they have been freshened sufficiently, pickle them in +vinegar and season them in any desirable way. + +92. PICKLED BEANS.--String beans that are pickled make a good relish to +serve with meals. Unlike cucumbers that are pickled, the beans are +cooked before the preserving liquid is added. The accompanying recipe is +for either wax or green beans. + +PICKLED BEANS + +4 qt. beans +1-1/2 qt. vinegar +1 c. brown sugar +1 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. pepper +1 tsp. allspice +1 tsp. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves + +Select large, firm, tender wax or green beans. Cover them with water to +which has been added 1 level teaspoonful of salt to each quart and put +them over the fire to cook. Boil the beans until they can be pierced +with a fork, remove from the fire, drain, and pack into jars or crocks. +To the vinegar add the sugar, salt, and spices. Bring this mixture to +the boiling point, and pour it over the beans in the jars or crocks, +filling them completely or covering the beans well. Close tight +and store. + +93. PICKLED BEETS.--Pickled beets meet with much favor as a relish. Like +pickled beans, they must be cooked before they can be pickled; also, +unless they are very small, they should be sliced before pickling as the +recipe points out. + +PICKLED BEETS + +4 qt. red beets +2 qt. vinegar +2 c. brown sugar +1 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. pepper +1 tsp. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves +1 tsp. allspice + +Cut the tops from the red beets, leaving 1 inch of the stems and the +roots attached. Scrub well with a vegetable brush, and put to cook in +boiling water. Cook until the beets are tender enough to be pierced with +a fork. Pour off the hot water and run cold water over them. Remove the +roots and stems, and cut into slices of any desired thickness or into +dice, if preferred. Pack into jars or crocks. Then bring the vinegar to +a boil, and to it add the sugar, salt, and spices. Pour this hot mixture +over the beets. Seal the beets while hot, cool, and store. + +94. PICKLED CAULIFLOWER.--Cauliflower is another vegetable that lends +itself well to pickling. This food must be cooked, too, before pickling; +and to have it just right for packing into the containers, it requires +particular attention in cooking. + +PICKLED CAULIFLOWER + +4 qt. cauliflower broken into pieces +2 c. brown sugar +1 Tb. salt +1/2 tsp. pepper +1 qt. vinegar +1 pt. water + +Select firm heads of cauliflower and break them into sections or +flowerets. Immerse these in cold water to which has been added 1 +teaspoonful of salt to the quart. Allow the cauliflower to stand for 1 +hour in the salt water. Remove from the water, and put over the fire to +cook in salt water of the same proportion as that used for soaking. Cook +until the cauliflower is quite tender, but not so tender as it would be +cooked to serve at the table. If this is done, the cauliflower will +darken and break into pieces. It should be firm enough not to crush or +break easily when it is packed into the jars. When properly cooked, pack +closely into jars, add the sugar, salt, and pepper to the vinegar and +water, heat to the boiling point, and pour this liquid over the +cauliflower, completely covering it. Seal while hot, allow to cool, +and store. + +95. PICKLED ONIONS.--Pickled onions are well liked by many. For pickling +purposes, medium small onions of uniform size are most suitable. Owing +to their nature, onions cannot be pickled so quickly as some of the +vegetables mentioned, but, otherwise, the work is done in practically +the same way. + +PICKLED ONIONS + +4 qt. onions +2 qt. spiced vinegar + +Select onions that are as nearly the same size as possible. Peel them +and let them stand in fresh water for 24 hours. Pour off this water, and +over the onions pour a brine made by adding 2 cupfuls of salt to each +gallon of water. Allow them to stand in this brine for 3 days, changing +the brine once during this time. Remove the onions from the brine, and +freshen in cold water for 2 hours. Drain the onions and cook them in the +spiced vinegar for 1/2 hour. Any of the spiced vinegars given for the +other vegetables may be used. After cooking, pack the onions with the +liquid into jars, seal, cool, and store. + +96. PICKLED PEACHES.--Among the fruits that may be pickled, peaches seem +to meet with great favor. They, as well as pickled pears and pickled +crab apples, make a relish that adds variety to the foods that are +served in the home from day to day. The pickling process does not differ +materially from that applied to vegetables, as the accompanying +recipe shows. + +PICKLED PEACHES + +2 lb. brown sugar +1 qt. vinegar +1 oz. stick cinnamon +4 qt. peaches +2 Tb. cloves + +Boil the sugar, vinegar, and cinnamon together until they begin to look +sirupy. Wash the peaches and rub off the fuzz. Stick one or two cloves +into each peach, and drop the peaches into the sirup. Cook them until +they may be easily pierced with a fork. Put them into jars, pour the +sirup over them, filling each jar, and seal while hot. Allow the jars to +cool and store. The peaches may be peeled if desired. It may also be +more convenient to cook only part of the peaches in the sirup at one +time, cooking the remainder after these have been taken out and put +into jars. + +97. PICKLED PEARS.--Pears also lend themselves readily to pickling. +Specific directions are not given here, because they are pickled in +exactly the same way as peaches. The pears may be peeled or not, +as desired. + +98. PICKLED CRAB APPLES.--Crab apples that are to be pickled should +preferably be of a large variety. The directions given for pickling +peaches apply also to this fruit. The crab apples should be examined +carefully to make certain that they contain no worms. Also, the stems +should be left on, and they should be washed thoroughly with the blossom +ends cut out. + + +RELISHES + +99. MUSTARD PICKLES.--Among the relishes, mustard pickles are very +popular. This relish is made up of a large number of vegetables, namely, +cucumbers, string beans, green peppers, red sweet peppers, onions, green +tomatoes, cauliflower, and green Lima beans. + +MUSTARD PICKLES + +1 pt. small cucumbers +1 qt. string beans +4 green peppers +4 red sweet peppers +1 pt. small onions +1 pt. green tomatoes +1 pt. cauliflower +1 c. green Lima beans +3/4 c. flour +2 c. sugar +4 Tb. powdered mustard +2 tsp. tumeric +1 Tb. celery seed +1 Tb. salt +1/2 tsp. pepper +1 qt. vinegar +1 pt. water + +Wash all the vegetables and prepare them by cutting them into the +desired sizes. The onions and cucumbers should be of a size that will +not require cutting. Put all the vegetables together, cover them with +salt water made by adding 1 cupful of salt to each 2 quarts of water, +and allow them to stand in this for 24 hours. At the end of this time, +drain off the brine and freshen the vegetables in clear water for about +2 hours. Mix the dry ingredients together, heat the vinegar and water, +and pour it over all. Bring this mixture to the boiling point, and pour +it over the vegetables. Fill the jars with the hot mixture, seal, cool, +and store. + +100. SPANISH RELISH.--Another satisfactory relish made up of a large +number of vegetables and spices is Spanish relish. In its preparation, +however, the vegetables are not chopped very fine. + +SPANISH RELISH + +12 green sweet peppers +12 red sweet peppers +12 medium-sized onions +12 green tomatoes +2 medium-sized heads of cabbage +1 tsp. salt +1 lb. brown sugar +1/2 tsp. black pepper +1/4 tsp. Cayenne pepper +1 Tb. mustard seed +1 tsp. celery seed +1-1/2 qt. vinegar + +Wash the vegetables and chop them into coarse pieces. Cover them with +salt water made by adding 1 cupful of salt to a gallon of water and +allow them to stand in this brine for 6 to 8 hours. At the end of this +time, drain off the salt water and wash with clear water. Add the salt, +sugar, and spices to the vinegar, and bring this mixture to the boiling +point. Then pour it over the mixture of vegetables, pack all into +sterilized crocks or jars, seal, cool, and store. + +101. CHOW CHOW.--Still another relish in which a variety of vegetables +is used is chow chow. This relish is well and favorably known to +housewives for the zest it imparts to meals. + +CHOW CHOW + +2 qt. small green tomatoes +6 green peppers +6 red peppers +1 small head of cabbage +2 bunches celery +1 pt. small onions +1 qt. small cucumbers +3 qt. vinegar +1 Tb. salt +2 c. brown sugar +1/2 tsp. black pepper +2 Tb. mustard seed +2 Tb. tumeric +2 Tb. allspice +1 Tb. cloves +1 Tb. cinnamon + +Wash the vegetables and cut them into very small pieces. Cover them with +salt water made by adding 1 cupful of salt to a gallon of water, and let +them stand in this for 6 to 8 hours. Drain at the end of this time, and +wash with cold water. Heat the vinegar, and to it add the salt, sugar, +and spices. Add this to the vegetables and cook until they are soft. +Pack into sterilized jars, seal while hot, cool, and store. + +102. BEET RELISH.--A relish in which cooked beets are the principal +ingredient may be made up from the accompanying recipe. As pickled beets +in any form are usually well liked, this relish may be put up for the +variety it offers. + +BEET RELISH + +1 qt. cooked beets, chopped +1 c. horseradish root, grated +1 c. vinegar +1 Tb. salt +1/2 c. sugar +1 tsp. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves + +Cook the beets in the usual way. When they are tender, remove the skins +and chop quite fine. Add the grated horseradish to the beets. To the +vinegar, add the salt, sugar, and spices and heat to the boiling point. +Pour this mixture over the vegetable mixture, pack all into hot +sterilized jars, seal, cool, and store. + +103. CHILLI SAUCE.--Chilli sauce is a well-known relish in which ripe +tomatoes, red or green peppers, and onions are combined with spices and +vinegar. Although not so many vegetables are used in this relish as in +those which precede, it merits a place among the canned foods prepared +for future use. + +CHILLI SAUCE + +2 qt. medium-sized ripe tomatoes +2 red or green peppers, finely chopped +2 onions, finely chopped +2 c. vinegar +1/2 c. sugar +1 Tb. salt +1 tsp. ground cloves +2 tsp. ground cinnamon +2 tsp. celery salt + +Blanch the tomatoes in boiling water until the skins loosen. Then remove +the skins and stem ends, chop the tomatoes, and put them into a +preserving kettle with the chopped peppers and chopped onions. Heat +gradually to the boiling point, add the vinegar, sugar, salt, and +spices, and cook slowly until the mixture is quite thick. This will +require from 2 to 3 hours. Then put the hot sauce into sterilized +bottles or jars, seal, allow them to cool, and store. + +104. GREEN-TOMATO PICKLE.--A pleasing relish may be made from green +tomatoes after the frost has come in the fall and tomatoes on the vines +will not mature. + +GREEN-TOMATO PICKLE + +3 qt. green tomatoes, sliced +2 qt. onions, sliced +1 qt. vinegar +1 pt. water +1 Tb. salt +1-1/2 lb. brown sugar +2 Tb. cinnamon +2 tsp. cloves +2 tsp. allspice +3 Tb. celery salt +1 Tb. mustard seed + +Select firm green tomatoes, wash them, and slice them. Peel the onions, +and slice them into slices of the same thickness as the tomatoes, about +1/4 inch being perhaps the most desirable. Mix the tomatoes and onions, +sprinkle them generously with salt, and allow them to stand for 24 +hours. At the end of this time, pour off any excess liquid; then pour a +small quantity of fresh water over them, and drain this off, also. To +the vinegar and water, add the salt, sugar, and spices. Heat this +mixture to the boiling point, pour it over the mixture of tomatoes and +onions, and put into jars. Seal the jars while hot, allow them to cool, +and then store. + +105. RIPE-TOMATO PICKLE.--Ripe tomatoes form the basis of another relish +known as ripe-tomato pickle. Like other relishes in which tomatoes are +used, this relish is very satisfactory for meals in which pickles or +relishes may be served. + +RIPE-TOMATO PICKLE + +2 qt. ripe tomatoes +2 bunches celery +3 red sweet peppers +3 medium-sized onions +1 qt. vinegar +1 Tb. salt +1 c. sugar +1 Tb. mustard seed +1 Tb. ground cloves +1 Tb. ground cinnamon + +Blanch the tomatoes until the skins loosen, and then peel them. Remove +the stem ends, and cut the tomatoes into quite large pieces. Chop the +celery, peppers, and onions coarsely. Cook together until they are +almost tender. Pour off the water. Mix all the vegetables together, and +pack them into a sterilized stone jar. To the vinegar, add the salt, +sugar and spices. Boil and pour this mixture over the vegetables in the +stone jar, cover, and allow this to stand at least 2 weeks before using. + +106. TOMATO CATSUP.--As a condiment to be served with meats, oysters, +fish, baked beans, and other foods high in protein, catsup finds +considerable use. This relish, which is also called _catchup_ and +_ketchup_, may be made from both vegetables and fruits, but that made +from tomatoes seems to be the most desirable to the majority. + +TOMATO CATSUP + +1/2 bu. ripe tomatoes +1/2 c. salt +1 lb. brown sugar +2 qt. vinegar +1 Tb. ground cinnamon +1 tsp. Cayenne pepper +2 Tb. celery salt +2 tsp. ground cloves + +Remove the skins from the tomatoes by blanching and cut out the stem +ends. Then slice the tomatoes, put them into a preserving kettle over +the fire, cook them until they are soft, and force them through a sieve +to remove the seeds. Return the pulp to the preserving kettle, add the +salt, sugar, vinegar, and spices, and cook the mixture until it is +reduced at least half in quantity. Pour into sterilized bottles, seal, +cool, and store. + +107. GRAPE CATSUP.--Perhaps the best-known catsup made from fruit is +grape catsup. Its uses are practically the same as those of tomato +catsup, and it is made in much the same way. + +GRAPE CATSUP + +4 qt. Concord grapes +3 c. vinegar +1 lb. brown sugar +2 Tb. cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves +1 tsp. allspice + +Put the grapes to cook with the vinegar. When they have cooked soft +enough, press through a sieve to remove the seeds and skins. Add the +sugar and spices, and cook until the mixture is rather thick. Stir +constantly to prevent scorching. Pour into sterilized bottles, seal, +cool, and store. + +108. PICKLED WATERMELON RIND.--An unusual, though highly satisfactory, +relish may be made from the rind of melons. The accompanying recipe is +for pickled watermelon rind, but if desired muskmelon rind may be +substituted. In either case, only the white part of the rind should +be used. + +PICKLED WATERMELON RIND + +4 qt. watermelon rind cut into strips or cubes +1 oz. stick cinnamon +1 Tb. cloves +1 c. water +3 lb. sugar +1 qt. vinegar + +Prepare the rind by cutting off the green skin and all the pink flesh on +the inside. Cut this rind into strips 1 inch wide and 1 inch thick, and +then into cubes, if desired. Cook in water until the rind may be easily +pierced with a fork. Add the spices, water, and sugar to the vinegar, +and boil until it becomes sirupy. Add to this sirup the cooked +watermelon rind and bring to the boiling point. Then pack into +sterilized jars, seal, cool, and store. + +109. CRAB-APPLE RELISH.--Among the fruits, crab apples lend themselves +best to the making of relish. By the addition of oranges, raisins, and +spices, as in this recipe, crab-apple relish is made very desirable and +agreeable to the taste. + +CRAB-APPLE RELISH + +4 qt. crab apples +3 c. vinegar +4 oranges +4 lb. brown sugar +2 lb. Sultana raisins +1 Tb. powdered cinnamon +1 tsp. cloves +1 tsp. allspice + +Wash the crab apples, remove the cores, and cut the apples into small +pieces. Put them into a preserving kettle, add the vinegar, the oranges, +peeled and sliced, the sugar, the raisins, and the spices. Cook all +slowly until the apples are soft. Pour into sterilized jars or glasses, +seal, cool, and store. + + * * * * * + + +JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) Give three reasons why the making and use of jelly has value. +(_b_) When are pickles permissible in the diet? + +(2) What is necessary for the making of good jelly? + +(3) Mention some important points to consider in selecting fruit for +jelly making. + +(4) (_a_) What is pectin? (_b_) Why are ripe fruits not so satisfactory +for jelly making as partly green ones? + +(5) Give the test for pectin. + +(6) How may jelly be made from fruit juices that do not contain pectin? + +(7) Give the best method of extracting fruit juice for jelly. + +(8) What material is best for jelly bags? Why? + +(9) What is the general proportion of sugar and juice for making: (_a_) +jelly from very sour fruits? (_b_) jelly from slightly sour fruits? + +(10) Give the method for making jelly by the mean-boiling method. + +(11) What is meant by: (_a_) short boiling? (_b_) long boiling? + +(12) Give two tests for determining when jelly has cooked sufficiently. + +(13) (_a_) How should glasses be prepared before filling them with +jelly? (_b_) How are glasses closed for storing? + +(14) (_a_) What are preserves? (_b_) What kind of fruits should be +selected for preserves? + +(15) Describe the best method of making preserves. + +(16) How do conserves differ from preserves? + +(17) How do marmalades differ from conserves? + +(18) Describe jam. + +(19) How does fruit butter differ from jams? + +(20) What are: (_a_) pickles? (_b_) relishes? + + * * * * * + + + +CONFECTIONS + + * * * * * + +NATURE AND COMPOSITION + +NATURE OF CONFECTIONS + +1. CONFECTIONS are such sweetmeats as candy and similar articles, which +have for their foundation sugar, sirup, honey, and the like. As is well +known, the most important variety of confection is candy, and this is +the one that is usually meant when the term confections is mentioned. +Confections, however, are not so limited as might be imagined upon first +thought, for many delicious dishes whose main ingredient is nuts, +fruits, coconut, or pop corn are also placed in this class. To be sure, +most of these contain sweetening material of some sort in greater or +smaller quantities. Therefore, in its broadest sense, confections may be +regarded as preparations having for their chief ingredient sugar or +substances containing it, such as molasses, honey, etc., usually mixed +with other food materials, such as nuts, fruits, chocolate, starches, +and fats, to give them body and consistency, and flavored and colored in +any desired way. + +2. The making of confections, and of candy in particular, is both a +useful and a delightful pastime that can be indulged in even by those +who are only slightly skilled. In fact, with a certain amount of +knowledge of the methods used and a little practice, surprising results +can be obtained by the amateur candy maker. Then, too, it is a +comparatively simple matter to copy the confectioner's work. A +considerable variety of candies can often be made from a simple +foundation material if a little originality or ingenuity is applied. + +Since it is an easy matter to prepare foods of this kind and since they +can be made at home more cheaply and of more tasty and wholesome +materials, it is a decided advantage to make them rather than buy them, +particularly if they are used extensively in the home. However, not so +much fear need be felt now as formerly with regard to commercially made +candies, for much has been done in recent years to compel the use of +wholesome materials in candies, especially the cheaper ones that +children are apt to buy. The pure-food laws require that no such +adulterants as are not food materials and no harmful flavorings, +colorings, nor alcoholic beverages be used in making confections. As can +well be understood, this is a valuable protection. Consequently, at the +present time, the harm, if any, resulting from eating candy comes from +either the excessive or the wrong use of it. + +3. The taste for confections of all kinds is one that is acquired, and +it is often developed to harmful extremes. Therefore, these foods, like +most others, should be indulged in only in moderation. They will then +prove not only valuable, but entirely unharmful. The greatest precaution +that should be observed in their use is in giving them to children. Very +young children should not have candy at all, it being much too +concentrated for digestive organs that are used to handling only diluted +food materials. As they grow older and their diet begins to include more +foods, a small quantity of wholesome sweets will not be harmful if it is +given at meal time. Adults with normal digestion may eat a reasonable +amount of candy and other confections without injury. + +4. To assist in the making of confections in the home, the principles of +candy making, as well as those which must be understood for the making +of such other foods as are commonly called confections, are given in +this Section. In addition, there are included explicit directions for +the making of simple candies and confections and of some of the +varieties that are more difficult to make. The various operations are +not hard to perform, and good results may be expected if each step is +carried out as directed. The operations requiring skill and dexterity, +such as the coating of bonbons and chocolates, must be repeated several +times if results that approach those of the professional confectioner +are to be attained. Still, surprisingly good results may be obtained the +first time the work is done if directions are followed explicitly. + + +COMPOSITION OF CONFECTIONS + +5. CARBOHYDRATE IN CONFECTIONS.--So far as their composition is +concerned, confections are largely carbohydrate in the form of sugar. +This food material may be one of several different varieties. As is well +understood, the high percentage of carbohydrate, which in some cases may +be very close to 100 per cent., greatly increases the food value of this +variety of foods. Where the percentage is very high, the candies are +necessarily hard, for all or nearly all the moisture is driven off in +the making. In this case, as in other foods, the more water there is +present, the more reduced is the total food value. + +6. FAT IN CONFECTIONS.--To a certain extent, fat is found in these +high-carbohydrate foods. It is supplied largely by the use of milk, +condensed milk, cream, butter or butter substitutes, nuts, and +chocolate. While these materials are usually added to produce a certain +flavor or consistency, they form at the same time an ingredient that +greatly increases the food value of the finished product. + +7. PROTEIN IN CONFECTIONS.--Protein is not found extensively in +confections unless nuts, chocolate, milk, or other foods containing it +are used in their preparation. But, even then, sweets are usually eaten +in such small quantities that the protein in them does not figure to any +great extent, so that, at best, confections are not considered as a +source of protein at any time. However, chocolate-coated nuts, as will +readily be seen, are a rather high-protein food. + +8. MINERAL SALTS IN CONFECTIONS.--Refined sugar does not contain mineral +salts, so that unless other ingredients containing this food substance +are added, no mineral salts will be present in confections. It is true +that some of the ingredients used, such as milk, fruits, nuts, molasses, +honey, maple sirup, etc., contain certain minerals; but just as +confections are not taken as a source of protein, so they are not +characterized by the minerals in them. + + * * * * * + + +CONFECTION MAKING + +INGREDIENTS USED IN CONFECTIONS + +FOUNDATION MATERIALS + +9. SUGAR.--The most important ingredient used in the making of +confections is sugar. It is therefore well that the nature of this +ingredient be thoroughly understood. Its chief commercial varieties are +_cane sugar_ and _beet sugar_, both of which produce the same results in +cookery operations. When sugar is mentioned as an ingredient, plain +granulated sugar is meant unless it is otherwise stated. Whether this is +cane or beet sugar makes no difference. The fineness and the color of +sugar are due to its refinement and the manufacturing processes through +which it is put, and these are indicated by various terms and trade +names, such as _granulated, pulverized_, and _soft_ sugars. + +The grading of granulated sugar is based on the size of its crystals, +this sugar coming in three qualities. The coarsest is known as _coarse +granulated_; the next finer, as _standard granulated_; and the finest, +as _fine granulated_. There is also a fourth grade known as _fancy +fine_, or _extra-fine, granulated_, and often called _fruit_, or +_berry, sugar_. + +10. So far as candy is concerned, the coarseness of the sugar does not +make a great deal of difference, although the finer sugars are perhaps a +little better because they dissolve more quickly in the liquid and are a +trifle less likely to crystallize after cooking. When sugar is to be +used without cooking, however, its fineness makes a decided difference. +Sugars finer than granulated are known as _pulverized sugars_ and are +made by grinding granulated sugar in a mill that crushes the crystals. +These pulverized sugars are known on the market as _coarse powdered, +standard powdered_, and _XXXX powdered_, the last being the one that +should always be purchased for the making of confectionery where the use +of uncooked sugar is required. One of the chief characteristics of +sugars of this kind is that they lump to a great extent, the finer the +sugar the larger and harder being the lumps. Before sugar that has +become lumpy can be used, it must be reduced to its original condition +by crushing the lumps with a rolling pin and then sifting the sugar +through a fine wire sieve. As explained in _Cakes, Cookies, and +Puddings_, Part 1, sugars of this kind are not suitable for cooking +purposes, such as the preparation of cooked icings, etc. These are made +from granulated or other coarse sugar, while the uncooked ones are made +from XXXX, or _confectioners', sugar_, as it is sometimes called. Then, +too, fine sugars cost more than do the granulated sugars, so it is well +to remember that nothing is gained by their use. + +11. The third variety of sugars, which are known as _soft sugars_, are +purchased by the retail dealer by number. There are fifteen grades of +this sugar, ranging from 1 to 15, and the number indicates the color of +the sugar. No. 1 is practically white, while No. 15 is very dark, and +the intervening numbers vary in color between these two shades. The +lightness of the color indicates the amount of refinement the sugars +have had. The dark-brown sugars are stronger in flavor and indicate less +refinement than the light ones. When brown sugar is required for any +purpose, it is usually advisable to use one of the lighter shades, +because they are more agreeable in taste than the very dark ones. + +12. MOLASSES.--The liquid that remains after most of the sugar has been +refined out of the cane juice is known as molasses. The juice from beets +does not produce molasses; therefore, all of the molasses found on the +market is the product of cane juice. A molasses known as _sorghum +molasses_ is made by boiling the sap of sorghum, which is a stout cereal +grass, but this variety is seldom found on the general market, it being +used locally where it is manufactured. The dark color and the +characteristic flavor of molasses are due to the foreign materials that +remain in the juice after the removal of the sugar. Molasses is not so +sweet as sugar, but it is much used as an ingredient in the making of +many delicious confections. As in the case of soft sugars, the lighter +the molasses is in color, the more agreeable is the flavor of the +confections made from it. + +13. GLUCOSE.--Another substance much used in the making of confections +is glucose. It is usually manufactured from the starch of corn and is +put on the market under various trade names, but generally it is called +_corn sirup_. Many persons have long considered glucose a harmful food, +but this belief has been proved untrue. Glucose has come to be +absolutely necessary in some candy making in order to produce certain +results. The glucose that the confectioners use is a heavier, stickier +substance than the sirups that can be purchased for table use or for +cooking, but these do very well for most candy-making purposes. However, +none of the glucose preparations are so sweet as sugar, maple sirup, +or honey. + +14. Glucose will not crystallize nor make a creamy substance; neither +will it permit any substance that contains more than a very little of it +to become creamy. A creamy candy containing a small amount of it will +remain soft longer than that made without it; also, it will cream +without danger of the formation of large crystals. Because of these +characteristics, which are responsible for its use in candy making, a +mixture containing glucose will not "go to sugar." Taffy-like +confections and clear candies contain a large proportion of glucose, +while any that are intended to be creamy, such as bonbons and the +centers for chocolates, have only a small amount, if any, glucose +in them. + +15. MAPLE SIRUP AND MAPLE SUGAR.--Maple sirup and maple sugar, because +of their pleasing flavor, are used extensively for candy making. Maple +sirup is, of course, the basis for maple sugar, for by boiling the sirup +to evaporate the water and then stirring it, maple sugar results. When +the sirup is used for candy making, it must be boiled, but it seldom +requires any liquid other than that which it already contains. On the +other hand, maple sugar requires liquid in some form, for it must first +be dissolved in a liquid and then boiled with it. + +16. HONEY.--Honey that has been pressed from the comb and is in the form +of a heavy sirup is used in the making of various confections. It +provides a delightful flavor much different from that of sugar, and when +it is cooked it acts in much the same way as glucose. + + +FLAVORINGS + +17. KINDS OF FLAVORINGS.--Flavorings are very important in the making of +confections, for it is on them that much of the appetizing effect of +these foods depends. In fact, unless good flavorings are secured and +then used discreetly, tasty results cannot be expected. + +The flavorings used in candy making are in reality divided into two +classes--_natural_ and _artificial_. + +18. NATURAL FLAVORINGS.--Under the head of natural flavorings come those +which are made from the fruit or the plant that produces the desired +flavor. They are known as _oils_ and _extracts_. + +19. The oils are obtained by pressing out the natural flavoring +substance from the material containing it. They are usually very strong, +so that only a little is needed to flavor a comparatively large quantity +of food. Peppermint, wintergreen, and cinnamon are the oils that are +used the most. + +20. EXTRACTS are prepared by using alcohol to extract the flavoring +substances from certain materials. The alcohol acts as a preservative, +so that the finished extract nearly always contains a high percentage of +this material. Vanilla and such flavorings as lemon and orange are +examples of extracts that are usually made in this way. A few companies +manufacture a product in which glycerine instead of alcohol is used as +the preservative. Flavorings so prepared are in the form of a thick, +sirupy substance rather than a liquid and are usually sold in a tube. + +21. ARTIFICIAL FLAVORINGS.--Flavorings classified as artificial +flavorings are of two kinds: those having for their basis substances +extracted from coal tar and those prepared by various chemical +combinations. They are also known as _synthetic flavors_. With regard to +both healthfulness and taste, they are not so desirable as the natural +flavorings. + +22. ADULTERATION OF FLAVORINGS.--As it is a common practice to +adulterate flavorings, every manufacturer of these materials is obliged +to state on the label of each bottle or tube of flavoring just what its +contents consist of. Therefore, when the purchase is made, the label +should be carefully examined. Without doubt, vanilla is adulterated more +often than any other flavoring, a pure extract of vanilla being seldom +found. The beans from which the flavor is extracted are very expensive, +so the Tonka bean and other cheaper flavoring substances are often +resorted to in the making of this flavoring. However, when large amounts +of such things are used, the price of the extract should be less than +that charged for the pure extract of the vanilla bean. Many chefs and +professional cooks overcome this difficulty by purchasing the vanilla +beans and using them for flavoring purposes by soaking or cooking small +pieces of them in the material that is to be flavored or grinding the +bean in a mortar and using it in the ground form. + + +COLORINGS + +23. COLORINGS are used in the making of confections, candy in +particular, for two purposes: to make them attractive and to indicate +certain flavors. For instance, candies flavored with wintergreen are +usually colored pink, while those containing peppermint are colored pale +green or are left white. Strawberry and rose flavors are also colored +pink; orange and lemon, their respective shades of yellow; violet, +lavender; and pistachio and almond, green. + +24. The substances used for coloring confections are of two general +classes: _vegetable_ and _mineral_, or _chemical_. The vegetable +colorings, like the natural flavorings, are considered to be the most +healthful ones. Some of the chemical colorings are derivatives of coal +tar, just as are the coal-tar flavorings. Cochineal, a red color +extracted from the bodies of cochineal insects, is a coloring matter +much used in the preparation of confections. These coloring materials +may be purchased in several forms. The ones most commonly used come in +the form of liquid or paste, but frequently colorings are to be had in +powder or tablet form. + +25. Discretion must always be observed in the use of colorings. Because +of their concentration, they must be greatly diluted and used in only +very small amounts. As is well known, pale colors in candies are always +more attractive than deep ones. Then, too, when candies contain much +color, most persons are likely to consider them harmful to eat. To get +the best results, only a little coloring should be added at a time, and +each amount added should be mixed in thoroughly. Then the danger of +getting too much coloring will be avoided. It should be remembered, +however, that if colored candies are kept for any length of time or are +exposed to the light, they will fade to a certain extent; consequently, +these may be colored a little more deeply than those which are to be +used at once. + + +ACIDS + +26. To prevent the creaming or the crystallizing of such candy as taffy, +an acid of some kind is generally used with the cane sugar in the making +of this variety of confection. The acid, upon being boiled with the +sugar, changes a part of the cane sugar to invert sugar, and as this +does not crystallize, the candy will not become sugary. A similar effect +is obtained by adding glucose in sufficient amounts; since it does not +crystallize, the cane sugar is prevented from becoming sugary. + +27. The acids most commonly used for this purpose are cream of tartar, +acetic acid, vinegar, which has acetic acid for its basis, and lemon +juice, which has citric acid for its basis. With each pound of sugar, it +will be necessary to use 1/8 teaspoonful of cream of tartar, 1 or 2 +drops of acetic acid, or 1 tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice in +order to prevent crystallization. Lemon juice and vinegar are much more +likely to flavor the candy than are cream of tartar and acetic acid. +Often, if a fine-grained creamy candy is desired, a small amount of one +of these acids is used. Even in small quantities, they will prevent the +coarse-grained crystallization that is the natural result of the cooking +and stirring of the cane sugar when nothing is done to prevent it. + + +FOOD MATERIALS + +28. In addition to the ingredients already mentioned, there are a number +of materials that may be used in the making of candy to provide food +value and at the same time give variety and improve the flavor and +appearance of the candy. Chief among these materials are coconut, cocoa, +chocolate, nuts, candied and dried fruits, milk, cream, butter, etc. +Their value in candy depends on their use, so it is well to understand +their nature and the methods of using them. + +29. COCONUT.--Either shredded or ground coconut is often used in candy +to give it flavor or variety. Coconut for this purpose may be secured in +a number of forms. A coconut itself may be purchased, cracked open to +remove the flesh, and then prepared either by grating it or by grinding +it. This will be found to be very delicious and preferable to any other +kind. However, if it is not desired to prepare the coconut in the home, +this material may be purchased shredded in boxes or in cans. That which +comes in boxes is usually somewhat dry and is often found to be quite +hard. The canned varieties remain soft, since the shredded coconut is +mixed with the milk of the coconut, but these have the disadvantage of +not keeping very well. Any coconut that becomes too dry for use may be +softened by steaming it. + +30. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--In the making of confections, cocoa and +chocolate are used extensively for both flavoring and coating. Either of +them may be used for flavoring purposes, but chocolate is always +preferable, because it has a richer, deeper flavor than cocoa. Bitter +chocolate should be used in preference to any kind of sweet chocolate. +When it is to be cooked with candy for flavoring, it may be added to the +other ingredients in pieces and allowed to melt during the cooking. It +is often used without cooking, however, as when it is added to material +that is to be used as centers for bonbons or opera creams. In such an +event, it is first melted over steam or hot water and then worked into +the candy. + +31. When desired for coating, chocolate that is sweetened is usually +employed, although many persons are fond of creams that have a bitter +coating. Sometimes a bitter-sweet coating, that is, a slightly sweetened +chocolate, is used, and for most purposes a coating of this kind is +preferred. Such chocolate must usually be purchased from a store where +confectioner's supplies are sold or from a candy-making establishment. +Milk chocolate and very sweet coatings may also be purchased for +coating, but the eating chocolate that is sold in bars will not produce +satisfactory results, and so should never be used for coating purposes. + +32. CANDIED AND DRIED FRUITS.--Many varieties of candied or crystallized +fruits and flowers find a place in the making of confections. Sometimes +they are used as an ingredient, while other times they are added to +bonbons and chocolates merely for decorative purposes. Again, they are +often used in boxes of fancy candies that are packed to sell at some +special event or to give away. They are somewhat expensive to purchase, +but if they are properly used they add such an appetizing touch and +produce such gratifying and delightful results that the expenditure for +them is well justified. Many of these may be prepared in the home with a +certain degree of satisfaction. + +33. The two candied fruits most frequently used are candied pineapple +and candied cherries, but, in addition to these candied apricots, +peaches, pears, limes, lemons, and oranges are often found in the +market. Cherries preserved in maraschino wine and creme de menthe add +attractive touches of color to candies and make delicious confections +when coated with bonbon cream or chocolate. + +34. Crystallized violets, rose petals, and mint leaves are used +frequently in the preparation of confections. They are added merely for +decoration and make very attractive candies. They can usually be +purchased in confectionery stores. + +35. Several varieties of dried fruits, chief among which are dates, +figs, and raisins, are useful in the making of confections. They have +the advantage of not requiring complicated manipulation, and at the same +time they lend themselves to a number of delicious confections that may +often be eaten by persons who cannot eat anything so rich as candy. +Children can usually partake of confections made of these fruits without +harm when candy would disagree with them. + +36. NUTS.--Nuts of various kinds probably have more extensive use in the +making of confections than any other class of foods. In fact, there are +few kinds of candy that cannot be much improved by the addition of nuts. +Halves of such nuts as English walnuts and pecans are frequently used by +being pressed into the outside of bonbons and chocolates. Then, too, +pieces of various kinds of nuts are used with a filling for coated +candies. Such nuts as almonds, filberts, walnuts, and peanuts are often +covered singly or in clusters with the same chocolate coating that is +used to coat creams. Pistachio nuts, which are light green in color, are +either chopped or used in halves on chocolates or bonbons. + +37. When nuts are not desired whole for confections, they should never +be put through a food chopper; rather, they should always be broken up +by being cut or chopped with a knife. The simplest way in which to cut +them is to spread the nuts in a single layer on a board and then with a +sharp knife press down on them, having one hand on the back of the knife +near the point and the other on the handle and rocking the knife back +and forth across the nuts until they are as fine as desired. They may +also be chopped in a chopping bowl or cut one at a time with a small, +sharp knife. + +38. Salted nuts, while not a confection in the true sense of the word, +are closely related to confections, since they are used for the same +purpose. For this reason, it seems advisable to give the methods of +preparing them in connection with the preparation of confections. + +39. POP CORN.--An excellent confection and one that always appeals to +children may be made from pop corn. This variety of Indian corn has +small kernels with or without sharp points. To prepare it for +confections; the kernels, or grains, are removed from the ears and then +exposed to heat in a corn popper or a covered pan. When they become +sufficiently hot, they pop, or explode; that is, they rupture their +yellow coat and turn inside out. The popped kernels may be eaten in this +form by merely being salted or they may be treated with various sugar +preparations in the ways explained later. + +40. MILK, CREAM, AND BUTTER.--Milk is extensively used in the making of +candy, both to obtain a certain flavor and to secure a particular +consistency. Skim milk may be used for this purpose, but the richer the +milk, the better will be the flavor of the finished candy. Cream, of +course, makes the most delicious candy, but as it is usually expensive, +it greatly increases the cost of the confection. Butter may be used with +milk to obtain a result similar to that secured by the use of cream. If +skim milk is used, butter should by all means be added, for it greatly +improves the flavor of the candy. In any recipe requiring milk, +condensed or evaporated milk may be substituted with very satisfactory +results. These milks may be diluted as much as is desired. + +Besides providing flavor, milk, cream, and butter add food value to the +confections in which they are used. Most of this is in the form of fat, +a food substance that is not supplied by any other ingredients, except +perhaps chocolate and nuts. They are therefore particularly valuable and +should always be used properly in order that the most good may be +derived from them. + +41. The chief problem in the use of milk is to keep it from curding and, +if curding takes place, to prevent the curds from settling and burning +during the boiling. When maple sirup, molasses, or other substances that +are liable to curdle milk are to be cooked with the milk, a little soda +should be added or, if possible, the milk should be heated well before +it is put in. When it can be done, the milk should be cooked with the +sugar before the ingredients likely to make it curdle are added. + +In case the milk does curdle, the mixture should be treated at once, or +the result will be very unsatisfactory. The best plan consists in +beating the mixture rapidly with a rotary egg beater in order to break +up the curds as fine as possible, and then stirring it frequently during +the boiling to keep the milk from settling and burning. As this stirring +is a disadvantage in the making of candy, every precaution should be +taken to prevent the curding of the milk. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR CONFECTION MAKING + +42. The utensils for candy making are few in number and simple in +nature. As with all of the more elaborate foods, the fancy candies +require slightly more unusual equipment, and even for the more ordinary +kinds it is possible to buy convenient utensils that will make results a +little more certain. But, as illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the +general equipment for confection making, practically all the utensils +required are to be found in every kitchen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +43. To boil the confectionery ingredients, a saucepan or a kettle is +required. This may be made of copper or aluminum or of any of the +various types of enamelware that are used for cooking utensils. One +important requirement is that the surface of the pan be perfectly +smooth. A pan that has become rough from usage or an enamelware pan that +is chipped should not be used for the boiling of candy. + +The size of the utensil to use depends on the kind and the amount of the +mixture to be boiled. A sugar-and-water mixture does not require a pan +much larger in size than is necessary to hold the mixture itself, for it +does not expand much in boiling. However, a mixture containing milk, +condensed milk, cream, or butter should be cooked in a pan much larger +than is needed for the same quantity of sugar and water, for such a +mixture expands greatly and is liable to boil over. The necessary size +of the pan to be used should be overestimated rather than +underestimated. In the cooking of candy, just as in the cooking of other +foods, the surface exposed to the heat and the depth of the material to +be cooked affect the rapidity of cooking and evaporation. Consequently, +if rapid evaporation and quick cooking are desired, a pan that is broad +and comparatively shallow should be used, rather than one that is +narrow and deep. + +44. Measuring cups and spoons, a spoon for stirring, and a knife are, of +course, essential in making confections. Then, too, it is often +convenient to have a metal spatula and a wooden spoon or spatula. When +these utensils are made of wood, they are light in weight and +consequently excellent for stirring and beating. If egg whites are used +in the preparation of a confection, an egg whip is needed. When candy +must be poured into a pan to harden, any variety of pan may be used, but +generally one having square corners is the most satisfactory. Then if +the candy is cut into squares, none of it will be wasted in the cutting. + +45. A thermometer that registers as high as 300 or 400 degrees +Fahrenheit is a valuable asset in candy making when recipes giving the +temperature to which the boiling must be carried are followed. A degree +of accuracy can be obtained in this way by the inexperienced candy maker +that cannot be matched with the usual tests. A small thermometer may be +used, but the larger the thermometer, the easier will it be to determine +the degrees on the mercury column. A new thermometer should always be +tested to determine its accuracy. To do this, stand the thermometer in a +small vessel of warm water, place the vessel over a flame, and allow the +water to boil. If the thermometer does not register 212 degrees at +boiling, the number of degrees more or less must be taken into account +whenever the thermometer is used. For instance, if the thermometer +registers 208 degrees at boiling and a recipe requires candy to be +boiled to 238 degrees, it will be necessary to boil the candy to 234 +degrees because the thermometer registers 4 degrees lower than +it should. + +46. The double boiler also finds a place in candy making. For melting +chocolate, coating for bonbons, or fondant for reception wafers, a +utensil of this kind is necessary. One that will answer the purpose very +well may be improvised by putting a smaller pan into a larger one +containing water. In using one of this kind, however, an effort should +be made to have the pans exactly suited to each other in size; +otherwise, the water in the lower pan will be liable to splash into the +pan containing the material that is being heated. + +For the coating of bonbons, a coating fork, which is merely a thin wire +twisted to make a handle with a loop at one end, is the most convenient +utensil to use. However, this is not satisfactory for coating with +chocolate, a different method being required for this material. + +47. A number of candies, such as fondant, bonbon creams, and cream +centers for chocolates, can be made much more satisfactorily if, after +they are boiled, they are poured on a flat surface to cool. Such +treatment permits them to cool as quickly as possible in a comparatively +thin layer and thus helps to prevent crystallization. When only a small +amount of candy is to be made, a large platter, which is the easiest +utensil to procure, produces fairly good results. For larger amounts, +as, for instance, when candy is being made to sell, some more convenient +arrangement must be made. The most satisfactory thing that has been +found for cooling purposes is a marble slab such as is found on an +old-fashioned table or dresser. If one of these is not available, and +the kitchen or pastry table has a vitrolite or other heavy top +resembling porcelain, this will make a very good substitute. + +48. To prevent the hot candy from running off after it is poured on a +slab or any similar flat surface, a device of some kind should be +provided. A very satisfactory one consists of four metal bars about 3/4 +to 1 inch in width and thickness and as long as desired to fit the slab, +but usually about 18 inches in length. They may be procured from a +factory where steel and iron work is done, or they may be purchased from +firms selling candy-making supplies. These bars are merely placed on top +of the slab or flat surface with the corners carefully fitted and the +candy is then poured in the space between the bars. When it is desired +to pour out fudge, caramels, and similar candies to harden before +cutting, the metal bars may be fitted together and then placed on the +slab in such a way as to be most convenient. Fudge, however, may be +cooled satisfactorily in the pan in which it is cooked if the cooling is +done very rapidly. + +49. A satisfactory cooling slab may be improvised by fastening four +pieces of wood together so as to fit the outside edge of the slab and +extend an inch or more above the surface. If such a device is used, +plaster of Paris should be poured around the edge of the slab to fill +any space between the wood and the slab. In using a slab or similar +surface for purposes of this kind, a point that should be remembered is +that a part of it should never be greased, but should be reserved for +the cooling of fondant and certain kinds of center creams, which require +only a moistened surface. + +50. Many of the candies that are turned out on a flat surface must be +worked to make them creamy. For this purpose, nothing is quite so +satisfactory as a putty knife or a wallpaper scraper. If a platter is +used, a putty knife is preferable, for it has a narrower blade than a +wallpaper scraper; but where candy is made in quantity and a large slab +is used, the larger scraper does the work better. For use with a +platter, a spoon is perhaps the best utensil when a putty knife is not +in supply. + +51. Scales are valuable in candy making because they permit exact +measurements to be made. However, they are not an actual necessity, for +almost all recipes give the ingredients by measure, and even if this is +not done, they may be purchased in the desired weight or transposed into +equivalent measure. Scales, of course, are required if it is desired to +weigh out candy in small amounts or in boxes after it is made. + +52. Waxed paper is a valuable addition to candy-making supplies, there +being many occasions for its use. For instance, caramels and certain +other candies must be wrapped and waxed paper is the most suitable kind +for this purpose. Then, too, chocolate-coated candies and bonbons must +be placed on a smooth surface to which they will not stick. Waxed paper +is largely used for this purpose, although candy makers often prefer +white oilcloth, because its surface is ideal and it can be cleansed and +used repeatedly. Often a candy- or cracker-box lining that has been +pressed smooth with a warm iron may be utilized. For such purposes, as +when reception wafers are to be dropped, it is necessary that the +surface of the paper used be absolutely unwrinkled. + + * * * * * + +PROCEDURE IN CONFECTION MAKING + +COOKING THE MIXTURE + +53. WEATHER CONDITIONS.--If uniformly good results are desired in candy +making, certain points that determine the success or failure of many +candies, although seemingly unimportant, must be observed. Among these, +weather conditions form such a large factor that they cannot be +disregarded. A cool, clear day, when the atmosphere is fairly dry, is +the ideal time for the making of all kinds of candies. Warm weather is +not favorable, because the candy does not cool rapidly enough after +being cooked. Damp weather is very bad for the making of such candies as +the creamy ones that are made with egg white and that are desired to be +as soft as possible and still in condition to handle. In view of these +facts, candy should be made preferably on days when the weather is +favorable if the element of uncertainty, so far as results are +concerned, would be eliminated. + +54. COMBINING THE SUGAR AND LIQUID.--The proportion of liquid and sugar +to use in making candy varies to some extent with the kind of +ingredients used and with the quantity of candy being made. In the +making of quantities up to several pounds, the usual proportion is +_one-third as much liquid as sugar_, but with larger amounts of sugar +the quantity of liquid may be slightly decreased. + +With the quantities decided on, mix the sugar and liquid and put them +over the fire to boil. Stir at first to prevent the sugar from settling +and burning, continuing the stirring either constantly or at intervals +until the boiling begins. At this point, discontinue the stirring if +possible. Mixtures that do not contain milk usually require no further +stirring, and many times stirring is unnecessary even in those which do +contain milk; but whenever any stirring is required, as little as +possible should be done. The rule that applies in this connection is +that the sugar should be entirely dissolved before the boiling begins +and that all unnecessary agitation should then cease. + +55. BOILING THE MIXTURE.--When the mixture begins to boil, wash down the +sides of the kettle with a small cloth wet with clean water. This +treatment should not be omitted if especially nice candy is desired, for +it removes all undissolved sugar and helps to prevent crystallization +later. In case merely sugar and water make up the ingredients, a cover +may be placed on the kettle; then the steam that is retained will keep +any sirup that may splash on the sides from crystallizing. This cannot +be done, however, with mixtures containing milk and butter, for they +will in all probability boil over. + +56. The boiling of candy should be carried on quickly, for slow boiling +often proves a disadvantage. A sugar-and-water mixture may, of course, +be boiled more rapidly than any other kind, because there is not the +danger of its boiling over nor of burning before the water is evaporated +that there is with a mixture containing material that may settle and +burn. It should be remembered that candy does not begin to burn until +the water has entirely evaporated. + +57. The length of time candy should boil is also a matter to which +attention should be given. This depends somewhat on the kind that is +being made, but largely on the rapidity with which the boiling is +carried on. Thus, to time the boiling of candy is the most uncertain way +of determining when the boiling has continued long enough. The +inaccuracy of measurement, the size and shape of the pan, and the rate +of speed in boiling cause a variation in the time required. +Consequently, it would be rather difficult for the same person to get +identical conditions twice and much more difficult for two persons to +produce the same results. + +58. TESTING CANDY.--Since accurate results cannot be obtained by timing +the boiling of candy, other tests must be found that will be reliable. +As has already been stated, a thermometer is perhaps the most accurate +means that can be adopted for this purpose. However, if one is not +available, the testing of a small quantity of the hot mixture by cooling +it in cold water will be found to be fairly accurate. Ice water is not +necessary nor particularly desirable for this kind of testing. In fact, +water just as it comes from the faucet is the best, as it is quickly +obtained and its temperature will not vary greatly except in very hot or +very cold weather. Of course, to make an extremely accurate test of this +kind, it would be necessary always to have the water at the same +temperature, a condition that can be determined only by testing the +temperature, but such accuracy is not usually required. + +If the thermometer is used, all that need be done is to insert it into +the candy and allow it to remain there until the temperature is +registered. In case it does not reach the right temperature the first +time, keep the mixture boiling until it registers the temperature that +is decided on as the correct one. + +59. To test the mixture by the water method, allow it to boil almost +long enough to be done, and then try it at close intervals when it is +nearing the end of the boiling. Dip a little of the sirup into a spoon +and drop it slowly into a cup containing a little water. Not much sirup +is needed for the test, a few drops being sufficient. Gather the drops +together with the tips of the fingers and judge from the ball that forms +whether the candy has boiled sufficiently or not. If the ball is not of +the right consistency, boil the candy a little longer, and test again. +Be sure, however, to get fresh water for each test. When the candy is +nearing the final test, and it is thought that the mixture has boiled +enough, remove the pan from the heat while the test is being made so +that the boiling will not be continued too long. + +60. To assist in making the tests for candy properly, Table I is given. +This table shows both the water test and the corresponding temperature +test for the representative variety of the leading classes of candies. +In each one of these classes there are, of course, a number of varieties +which may cause a slight variation in some of the tests, but on the +whole these tests are uniform and can be relied on for practically +all candies. + +TABLE I + +TESTS FOR REPRESENTATIVE CLASSES OF CANDY + +Classes Water Test Temperature Test + Degrees Fahrenheit +Center Cream......Soft ball 234 to 236 +Fudge.............Firm ball 238 to 240 +Caramels..........Hard ball 246 to 248 +Taffies..........Brittle ball 256 to 260 + +When candy is cooked long enough to form a _soft ball_, it can just be +gathered together and held in the fingers. If it is held for any length +of time, the warmth of the fingers softens it greatly and causes it to +lose its form. This test is used for candies, such as soft-center +cream. It will be found that when candy boiled to this degree is +finished, it can scarcely be handled. + +The _firm ball_ is the stage just following the soft ball. It will keep +its shape when held in the fingers for some time. This is the test for +fudge, bonbon creams, and similar candies that are creamed and are +expected to be hard and dry enough to handle when they are finished. + +To form a _hard ball_, candy must be cooked longer than for the firm +ball. At this stage, the ball that is formed may be rolled in the finger +tips. It is not so hard, however, that an impression cannot be made in +it with the fingers. It is the test for caramels, soft butter scotch, +sea foam, and many other candies. + +A _brittle ball_ is the result of any temperature beyond 256 degrees up +to the point where the sugar would begin to burn. It is hard enough to +make a sound when struck against the side of the cup or to crack when an +attempt is made to break it. This is the test that is made for taffy and +other hard candies. + + +POURING AND COOLING THE MIXTURE + +61. After the testing of the mixture proves that it is boiled +sufficiently, there are several procedures that may be followed. The one +to adopt depends on the kind of candy that is being made, but every +candy that is cooked should be cooled by one of the following methods. + +62. The first treatment consists in pouring the mixture at once from the +pan to be finished without cooling, as, for instance, caramels and +butter scotch, which are poured at once into a buttered pan to be cooled +and cut; or, the hot sirup may be poured upon beaten egg whites, as in +the case of sea foam or penuchie. In the making of either of these +kinds, the sirup may be allowed to drip as completely as possible from +the pan without injury to the finished product. + +63. The second method by which the mixture is cooled calls for cooling +the sirup in the pan in which it was cooked, as, for instance, in the +case of fudge. When this is done, the pan should be carried from the +stove to the place where the mixture is to be cooled with as little +agitation as possible. Also, during the cooling, it should not be +disturbed in any way. Stirring it even a little is apt to start +crystallization and the candy will then be grainy instead of creamy. + +64. In the third form of treatment, the sirup is poured out and then +cooled before it is stirred to make it creamy, as in opera creams or +bonbon creams. To accomplish this, the pan should be tipped quickly and +all its contents turned out at once. It should not be allowed to drip +even a few drops, for this dripping starts the crystallization. Candies +that contain milk or butter, or sticky materials, such as taffies, +should always be poured on a buttered surface. Those which are cooked +with water but are to be creamed should be poured on a surface moistened +with cold water. + +65. When candy mixtures are cooled before being completed, the cooling +should be carried to the point where no heat is felt when the candy is +touched. To test it, the backs of the fingers should be laid lightly on +the surface of the candy, as they will not be so likely to stick as the +moist tips on the palm side. It should be remembered that the surface +must not be disturbed in the testing, as this is also apt to bring about +crystallization. + +Every precaution should be taken to prevent even the smallest amount of +crystallization. Any crystals that may have formed can be easily +detected when the stirring is begun by the scraping that can be felt by +the spoon or paddle used. If a little crystallization has taken place +before the candy has cooled completely, it being easily seen in the +clear sirup, the mixture should be cooled still further, for nothing is +gained by stirring it at once. + +A point that should always be kept in mind in the cooling of candy is +that it should be cooled as quickly as possible. However, a refrigerator +should not be used for cooling, for the warm mixture raises the +temperature of the refrigerator and wastes the ice and at the same time +the moist atmosphere does not bring about the best results. As has +already been learned, a platter or a slab is very satisfactory. If +either of these is used, it should be as cold as possible when the sirup +is poured on it. Cold weather, of course, simplifies this matter +greatly, but if no better way is afforded, the utensil used should be +cooled with cold water. + + +FINISHING CANDIES + +66. The treatment through which candy mixtures are put after being +cooled varies with the kind of candy being made. Some mixtures, as +fudge, are beaten until creamy in the pan in which they are cooked. +Others are worked on a platter or a slab with the proper kind of +utensil. These are usually treated in a rather elaborate way, being +often coated with bonbon cream or with chocolate. Still others, such as +taffy, are pulled until light in color and then cut into small pieces +with a pair of scissors. Again, certain candies, after being poured into +a pan, are allowed to become hard and then cut into squares or broken +into pieces. Usually candies made in the home are served without being +wrapped, but when certain varieties are to be packed, it is advisable to +wrap them. Directions for finishing confections in these different ways +are here given. + +67. MARKING AND CUTTING CANDIES.--Much of the success of certain candies +depends on their treatment after being cooled. Those which must be +beaten in the pan until they are creamy should be beaten just as long as +possible. Then, if the surface is not smooth when they are poured out, +pat it out with the palm of the hand after the candy has hardened a +little. As soon as it has hardened sufficiently to remain as it is +marked and not run together, mark it in pieces of the desired size, +using for this purpose a thin, sharp knife. Be careful to have the lines +straight and the pieces even in size. Generally, candy that is treated +in this manner is cut into squares, although it may be cut into other +shapes if desired. + +68. COATING CANDIES WITH BONBON CREAM.--When especially nice candy is +desired for a special occasion, it is often made into small pieces and +then coated with bonbon cream. A large number of the centers to be +coated should be made up before the coating is begun. In fact, if it is +possible, all the centers should be made first and then the coating can +proceed without interruption. The cream to be used for coating may be +flavored or colored in any desirable way. Any flavoring or coloring that +is to be used, however, should be added while the cream is melting. + +69. To coat with bonbon cream, put the cream in a double boiler without +any water and allow it to melt with as little stirring as possible. It +is best to use a small double boiler for this purpose and not to melt +too much of the cream at one time, as it is apt to become grainy if it +is used too long for dipping. When it has melted to the extent that the +coating will not be too thick after it has cooled, the dipping of the +candies may begin. As soon as it is found that no more centers can be +dipped in the cream, melt some fresh cream for the remaining centers, +but do not add it to that which has been used before. Instead, use the +first up as closely as possible and then drop the remainder by spoonfuls +on waxed paper. With all of it used, wash and dry the inner pan of the +double boiler and start again with a fresh lot of the cream. + +70. To coat the centers, drop one at a time into the melted cream and +turn over with a coating fork or an ordinary table fork. When the +surface is entirely covered, lift out of the cream with the fork and +allow any superfluous coating to drip off. Then drop the coated bonbons +on waxed paper, to cool. While this work may prove a little difficult at +first, it can be done with dexterity after a little practice. If an +effort is made to have the centers uniform in size and shape, the +finished candies will have the same appearance. While the cream is soft, +tiny pieces of candied fruit or nuts may be pressed into the coating to +decorate the bonbons. + +71. COATING WITH CHOCOLATE.--Candies coated with chocolate are always +desirable; so it is well for any one who aspires toward confection +making to become proficient in this phase of the work. The centers +should, of course, be prepared first and put in a convenient place on +the table where the coating is to be done. They may be made in any +desired size and shape. + +If it is possible to secure a regular coating chocolate, this should be +obtained, for it produces better results than does a chocolate that can +be prepared. However, unless one lives in a place where confectioner's +supplies are on sale, it is almost impossible to purchase a chocolate of +this kind. In such an event, a substitute that will prove very +satisfactory for candy to be eaten in the home and not to be sold may be +made as follows: + +COATING CHOCOLATE + +4 oz. milk chocolate +2 oz. bitter chocolate +1/2 oz. paraffin + +To prepare the chocolate, put all the ingredients in a double boiler and +allow them to melt, being careful that not a single drop of water nor +other foreign substance falls into the mixture. Do not cover the boiler, +for then the steam will condense on the inside of the cover and fall +into the chocolate. As this will spoil the chocolate so that it cannot +be used for coating, the pan in which the chocolate is melted should +always be allowed to remain open. The paraffin used helps to harden the +chocolate after it is put on the centers; this is a particular +advantage at any time, but especially when chocolates are made in +warm weather. + +72. When the chocolate HAS COMPLETELY MELTED, dip some of it into a +small bowl or other dish or utensil having a round bottom and keep the +rest over the heat so that it will not harden. With a spoon, beat that +which is put into the bowl until it is cool enough to permit the fingers +being put into it. Then work it with the fingers until all the heat is +out of it and it begins to thicken. It may be tested at this point by +putting one of the centers into it. If it is found to be too thin, it +will run off the candy and make large, flat edges on the bottom. In such +an event, work it and cool it a little more. When it is of the proper +thickness, put the centers in, one at a time, and, as shown in Fig. 2, +cover them completely with the chocolate and place them on waxed paper +or white oilcloth to harden. As they harden, it will be found that they +will gradually grow dull. No attempt whatever should be made to pick up +these candies until they are entirely cold. This process is sometimes +considered objectionable because of the use of the bare hands, but +chocolate coating cannot be so successfully done in any other way as +with the fingers. Therefore, any aversion to this method should be +overcome if good results are desired. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +73. When the chocolate begins to harden in the bowl and consequently is +difficult to work with, add more of the hot chocolate from the double +boiler to it. It will be necessary, however, to beat the chocolate and +work it with the fingers each time some is added, for otherwise the +coating will not be desirable. So as to overcome the necessity of doing +this often, a fairly large amount may be cooled and worked at one time. +Care should be taken to cover each center completely or its quality will +deteriorate upon standing. With conditions right, the centers of +chocolates and bonbons should soften and improve for a short time after +being made, but chocolate-coated candies will keep longer than bonbons, +as the coating does not deteriorate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +74. WRAPPING CANDIES.--Such candies as caramels, certain kinds of +taffies, and even chocolates are often wrapped in waxed paper, +especially if they are to be packed in boxes. When this is to be done, +cut the paper into pieces of the proper size and then wrap each piece +separately. The best way to prepare the paper is to fold several sheets +until they are the desired size and then, as in Fig. 3, cut them with a +sharp knife. If a pair of scissors is used for this purpose, they are +apt to slip and cut the paper crooked. The method of wrapping depends on +the candy itself. Caramels are wrapped in square pieces whose ends are +folded in neatly, as in Fig. 4, while taffy in the form of kisses is +rolled in the paper and the ends are twisted to fasten the wrapping. + + * * * * * + +VARIETIES OF CONFECTIONS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +TAFFIES AND SIMILAR CANDIES + +NATURE OF TAFFIES + +75. TAFFY is probably one of the simplest candies that can be made. +Indeed, if candy of this kind is boiled long enough, it is almost +impossible to have unsatisfactory results. Taffies are usually made from +white sugar, but a variety of flavors may be obtained by the use of +different ingredients and flavors. For instance, molasses is used for +some taffies, maple sirup for others, and brown sugar for others, and +all of these offer an opportunity for variety. Then, again, taffy made +from white sugar may be varied by means of many delightful colors and +flavors. Melted chocolate or cocoa also makes a delightful +chocolate-flavored taffy. Recipes for all of these varieties are here +given, together with a number of recipes for closely related +confections, such as butter scotch, glacé nuts and fruits, peanut +brittle, and nut bars. + +76. METHODS OF TREATING TAFFY.--Taffy may be poured out in a pan, +allowed to become entirely cold, and then broken into irregular pieces +for serving, or it may be pulled and then cut in small pieces with a +pair of scissors. If it is to be pulled, it should be poured from the +pan in which it is cooked into flat pans or plates and set aside to +cool. As soon as it is cool enough to handle, it may be taken from the +pans and pulled. It will be found that the edges will cool and harden +first. These should be pulled toward the center and folded so that they +will warm against the center and form a new edge. If this is done two or +three times during the cooling, the candy will cool evenly and be ready +to take up into the hands. The pulling may then begin at once. If it has +been cooked enough, it will not stick to the hands during the pulling. +It is usually wise, however, to take the precaution of dusting the hands +with corn starch before starting to pull the candy. Grease should never +be used for this purpose. When taffy is made in quantities, the work of +pulling it is greatly lessened by stretching it over a large hook +fastened securely to a wall. + + +RECIPES FOR TAFFY + +77. VANILLA TAFFY.--The taffy explained in the accompanying recipe is +flavored with vanilla and when pulled is white in color. However, it may +be made in different colors and flavors by merely substituting the +desired flavor for the vanilla and using the coloring preferred. This +recipe may also be used for chocolate taffy by adding melted chocolate +just before the taffy has finished boiling. + +VANILLA TAFFY + +4 c. sugar +1/4 tsp. cream of tartar +1 Tb. vinegar +1 c. boiling water +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. vanilla + +To the sugar, add the cream of tartar, vinegar, and boiling water. Place +over the fire and boil until it will form a brittle ball when tested in +cold water or will register at least 260 degrees on a thermometer. Just +before the boiling is completed, add the butter. Remove from the fire, +add the vanilla, pour in a shallow layer in a buttered pan or plate. +Cool and pull. When the taffy has been pulled until it is perfectly +white and is hard enough to retain its shape, twist it into a long, thin +rope and cut with a pair of scissors into inch lengths. + +78. BUTTER TAFFY.--Another variety of taffy flavored with vanilla is the +one given in the accompanying recipe. It is called butter taffy because +butter is used in a rather large amount for flavoring. It will be noted, +also, that brown sugar and corn sirup are two of the ingredients. These, +with the butter, give the taffy a very delightful flavor. + +BUTTER TAFFY + +2 c. light-brown sugar +1 c. white sugar +1/2 c. corn sirup +1 Tb. vinegar +3/4 c. boiling water +1/4 butter +1 tsp. vanilla + +Mix all the ingredients except the butter and vanilla. Place over the +fire and boil until a brittle ball will form in cold water or a +temperature of 260 degrees is reached. Just before the boiling has been +completed, add the butter. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla, and +pour in a thin layer into greased pans or plates. Cool, pull, and cut. + +79. MOLASSES TAFFY.--Of all the taffies, that made with molasses is +nearly always the favorite. A light cane molasses that is not very +strong in flavor is the preferred kind for this candy. When cut into +round flat pieces and wrapped in waxed paper, molasses taffy appeals to +both old and young. + +MOLASSES TAFFY + +2 c. light cane molasses +1 c. sugar +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 c. boiling water +2 Tb. butter + +Mix all the ingredients except the butter. Cook until a brittle ball +will form or a temperature of 264 degrees is reached on the thermometer. +Add the butter just before the boiling is completed. Remove from the +fire, pour into greased pans or plates, and allow it to become cool +enough to handle. Then pull and cut. + +80. CHEWING TAFFY.--A taffy that is hard enough not to be sticky and +still soft enough to chew easily is often desired. Chewing taffy, which +is explained in the accompanying recipe, is a candy of this kind. After +being pulled, it may be cut as other taffy is cut or it may be piled in +a mass and chopped into pieces. + +CHEWING TAFFY + +1/2 Tb. unflavored gelatine +2 c. sugar +1-1/2 c. corn sirup +1-1/4 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +Vanilla and lemon + +Put the gelatine to soak in a few tablespoonfuls of cold water. Cook the +sugar, sirup, and milk until the mixture will form a hard ball that may +be dented with the fingers or it reaches a temperature of 252 degrees. +Stir the mixture gently to prevent burning. Remove from the fire and add +the butter. Take the gelatine from the water, squeeze it as dry as +possible, and add it to the hot mixture, stirring until it is entirely +dissolved. Pour on a greased surface, cool, and pull until it is a +light-cream color. While pulling, flavor with vanilla and a few drops of +lemon. Stretch into a long thin rope and cut into inch lengths or pile +in a mass and chop into pieces. + +81. BUTTER SCOTCH.--Closely related to taffies so far as ingredients are +concerned is candy known as butter scotch. This variety, however, is +not pulled as are the taffies, but is allowed to become cool and then +marked in squares which are broken apart when the candy is +entirely cold. + +BUTTER SCOTCH + +2 c. white sugar +2 c. brown sugar +1/4 c. corn sirup +1 Tb. vinegar +1/4 tsp. cream of tartar +1/4 c. butter +1 tsp. lemon extract + +Mix all the ingredients except the butter and the lemon extract. Boil +until a hard ball will form or 256 degrees register on the thermometer. +Just before the boiling is completed, add the butter, and when the +mixture has been removed from the fire, add the lemon extract. Pour into +a greased pan, and before it has entirely cooled, cut into squares with +a knife. When cold and desired for serving, remove from the pan and +break the squares apart. If desired, candy of this kind may be allowed +to become entirely cold without cutting and then broken into irregular +pieces just before being served. + +82. MARSHMALLOWS COATED WITH BUTTER SCOTCH.--A delightful confection may +be made by covering marshmallows with hot butter scotch. To accomplish +this, drop the marshmallows with a coating fork or an ordinary table +fork into hot butter scotch that has just finished cooking. Remove them +quickly, but see that the marshmallows are entirely covered. Drop on a +buttered pan or plate and set aside to cool. + +83. GLACÉ NUTS AND FRUITS.--Nuts and fruits covered with a clear, hard +candy are known as glacé nuts and fruits. These are a very delightful +confection, and can easily be made if the accompanying directions are +carefully followed. Nuts of any variety may be used for this purpose, +and such nuts as almonds need not be blanched. Candied cherries, candied +pineapple, pressed figs, dates, and raisins are the fruits that are +usually glacéd. Confections of this kind should be eaten while fresh or +kept in a closed receptacle in a dry place. + +GLACÉ NUTS AND FRUITS + +Fruits and nuts +2 c. granulated sugar +1/8 tsp. cream of tartar +3/4 c. water +1 tsp. vanilla + +Prepare the nuts by shelling them and, if necessary, roasting them, and +the fruits by cutting them into small strips or cubes. Mix the sugar and +cream of tartar and add the water. Cook until it will form a very +brittle ball in water, will spin hair-like threads when drops of it fall +from the spoon, or registers 290 degrees on the thermometer. Remove from +the fire and put in a convenient place for the dipping of the fruit and +nuts. Drop these into the hot sirup, one at a time, with a coating fork +or an ordinary table fork. When entirely covered with the sirup, remove +and drop on greased plates or pans. + +84. PEANUT BRITTLE.--Peanuts are often used in confection making and are +very much liked by the majority of persons. They come in two general +varieties, which may be roasted before use or used unroasted, and it is +well for the housewife to understand the difference between them. One +variety is the large, oblong peanut generally sold at peanut stands and +used for the salted peanuts sold in confectionery stores. The other is +the variety known as Spanish peanuts, which are small and round. For +some candies, it is necessary that the peanuts be roasted and the skins +removed, while for others unroasted peanuts with the skins on are +desirable. To remove the skins from unroasted peanuts, they must be +blanched by immersing them in boiling water until the skins will slip +off easily, but in the case of roasted peanuts, the skins may be removed +without blanching. + +85. Peanut brittle is one of the candies in which peanuts are used. As +its name implies, it is very thin and brittle and it usually contains a +great many peanuts. Two recipes for candy of this kind are here given, +one requiring peanuts that are roasted and blanched and the other, +peanuts that are unroasted and not blanched. + +PEANUT BRITTLE NO. 1 + +2 c. sugar +1/2 lb. shelled, roasted peanuts + +Put the sugar in a saucepan without any water. Place it over a slow fire +and allow it to melt gradually until a clear, reddish-brown liquid is +formed, taking care not to allow it to burn. Have a pan greased and +covered with a thick layer of a large variety of roasted peanuts. Pour +the melted sugar over them and allow it to become hard. Then break into +pieces and serve. + +PEANUT BRITTLE NO. 2 + +3 c. sugar +1 c. corn sirup +1 c. water +1/4 c. butter +1 lb. raw Spanish peanuts +1 tsp. vanilla +1 Tb. soda + +Mix the sugar, sirup, and water and place it over the fire. Boil until +a hard ball will form or a temperature of 250 degrees is reached on the +thermometer. Add the butter and the peanuts without removing their brown +skins. Allow to cook, stirring all the time, until the mixture begins to +turn a light brown and the skins of the peanuts pop open, showing that +the peanuts are roasted. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla and the +soda and stir rapidly. Then pour the mixture, which will become thick +upon the addition of the soda, on a flat, greased surface. A slab is +better for this purpose than anything else, but if this cannot be +obtained a metal or other hard table top may be used. When the candy +begins to get stiff, loosen it from the surface on which it was poured, +cut it into two pieces, and turn each over; or, if it can be handled +without cutting, turn the entire piece over. Then stretch the candy +until it is just as thin as possible, beginning around the edge. As it +becomes colder, stretch even thinner. When entirely cool, break into +pieces and serve. + +86. NUT BARS.--Another excellent nut candy can be made by pouring a +sirup made of sugar, corn sirup, and water over a thick layer of nuts. +Such fruits as dates and figs or coconut, or a combination of these, may +be used with the nuts, if desired. + +NUT BARS + +2 c. sugar +3/4 c. corn sirup +1/4 c. water +1-1/2 c. shelled nuts + +Put the sugar, sirup, and water over the fire and stir until it boils. +Cover and cook until a hard ball will form or a temperature of 254 or +256 degrees is reached. Spread the nuts on a buttered slab or pan, and +to them add fruit or coconut if it is desired to use either of these. +Pour the hot sirup over this until it is about 1 inch in thickness. When +sufficiently cool, cut in pieces of any desirable size, using a quick, +sliding motion of the knife and pressing down at the same time. Break +into pieces when entirely cold and serve. + + +CARAMELS + +87. NATURE OF CARAMELS.--Caramels are included among the popular +candies, and they may be made in many varieties. To plain vanilla +caramels, which are the simplest kind to make, may be added any +desirable color or flavor at the time they are removed from the fire. To +keep caramels from crystallizing after they are boiled, glucose in some +form must be used, and the most convenient kind to secure is corn sirup. +Then, too, caramels will cut more easily and will have less of a sticky +consistency if a small piece of paraffin is boiled with the mixture. The +addition of this material or any wax that is not a food is contrary to +the pure-food laws, and such candy cannot be sold. However, paraffin is +not harmful, but is merely a substance that is not digested, so that the +small amount taken by eating candy in which it is used cannot possibly +cause any injury. + +88. In the making of caramels, it should be remembered that good results +depend on boiling the mixture to just the right point. If they are not +boiled enough, they will be too soft to retain their shape when cut, and +if they are cooked too long, they will be brittle. Neither of these +conditions is the proper consistency for caramels. To be right, they +must be boiled until a temperature of 246 to 248 degrees is reached. +However, chocolate caramels need not be boiled so long, as the chocolate +helps to harden them. + +89. PLAIN CARAMELS.--The accompanying recipe for plain caramels may be +made just as it is given, or to it may be added any flavoring or +coloring desired. A pink color and strawberry flavor are very often +found in caramels and are considered to be a delicious combination. As +will be noted, white sugar is called for, but if more of a caramel +flavor is preferred, brown sugar may be used instead of white. Maple +sugar may also be used in candy of this kind. Nuts, fruits, or coconut, +or any mixture of these materials, improves plain caramels wonderfully. +If they are used, they should be stirred into the mixture at the time it +is removed from the fire. + +PLAIN CARAMELS + +3 c. milk +3 c. sugar +1-1/2 c. corn sirup + +The milk used for making caramels should be as rich as possible; in +fact, if cream can be used, the candy will be very much better. Add half +of the milk to the sugar and sirup and put over the fire to cook. Allow +this mixture to boil until a soft ball will form when dropped in water, +stirring when necessary to prevent burning. Then gradually add the +remaining milk without stopping the boiling if possible. Cook again +until a temperature of 248 degrees will register on the thermometer or a +fairly hard ball will form when tried in water. In the water test, the +ball, when thoroughly cold, should have exactly the same consistency as +the finished caramels. Toward the end of the boiling, it is necessary to +stir the mixture almost constantly to prevent it from burning. When +done, pour it out on a buttered slab or some other flat surface and +allow it to become cool. Then cut the candy into squares from 3/4 to 1 +inch in size, cutting with a sliding pressure, that is, bearing down and +away from you at the same time. + +If the caramels are to be packed or kept for any length of time, it is +well to wrap them in waxed paper. Before attempting to use caramels, +however, they should be allowed to stand overnight in a cool, dry place, +but not in a refrigerator. + +90. CHOCOLATE CARAMELS.--When chocolate caramels are made, the chocolate +should be added just before the cooking is finished. The amount of +chocolate to be used may be varied to suit the taste, but 2 squares are +usually considered sufficient for the quantities given in the +accompanying recipe. + +CHOCOLATE CARAMELS + +1 c. molasses or 1 c. maple sirup +1/2 c. corn sirup +2 c. sugar +1 pt. milk +2 Tb. butter +2 sq. chocolate +Pinch of salt +1 tsp. vanilla + +Cook the molasses or maple sirup, the corn sirup, and the sugar with 1 +cupful of the milk until the mixture will form a soft ball in cold +water. Then add the remainder of the milk and cook until the mixture is +thick. Add the butter, chocolate, and salt, and cook until a hard ball +will form in cold water or a temperature of 248 degrees is reached, +stirring constantly to prevent burning. Add the vanilla, pour on a +buttered surface, cool, cut, and serve. + + * * * * * + +CREAM CANDIES + +NATURES OF CREAM CANDIES + +91. There are numerous varieties of cream candies, some of which must be +made with great care while others may be made quickly and easily. For +instance, fudge, penuchie, divinity, and sea foam are examples of cream +candies that do not require long preparation, but these must generally +be used up quickly, as they do not stay soft upon exposure to the air +unless it is very moist. On the other hand, such cream candies as opera +cream, fondant, center cream, and orientals require both care and time +in their preparation. If these are properly looked after, they may be +kept for some time. In fact, it is necessary that some of them stand for +several days before they can be made into the numerous varieties to +which they lend themselves. + +The main point to consider in the preparation of all cream candies is +that crystallization of the sugar, which is commonly called _graining_, +must be prevented if a creamy mixture is to be the result. Candies of +this kind are not palatable unless they are soft and creamy. However, no +difficulty will be experienced in preparing delicious cream candies if +the principles of candy making previously given are applied. + + +FUDGES AND RELATED CANDIES + +92. FUDGE NO. 1.--Probably no other candy is so well known and so often +made as fudge. Even persons little experienced in candy making have +success with candy of this kind. Another advantage of fudge is that it +can be made up quickly, very little time being required in its +preparation. Several varieties of fudge may be made, the one given in +the accompanying recipe being a chocolate fudge containing a small +quantity of corn starch. + +FUDGE No. 1 + +3 c. sugar +1-1/4 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +Pinch of salt +2 sq. chocolate +1 Tb. corn starch +3 Tb. water +1 tsp. vanilla + +Mix the sugar, milk, butter, and salt and boil until a very soft ball +will form in water. Then add the chocolate and the corn starch, which +has been moistened with the cold water. Boil to a temperature of 236 +degrees or until a ball that will hold together well and may be handled +is formed in cold water. Remove from the fire and allow the mixture to +cool until there is practically no heat in it. Add the vanilla, beat +until thick, pour into a buttered pan, cut into squares, and serve. + +93. FUDGE NO. 2.--A fudge containing corn sirup is liked by many +persons. It has a slightly different flavor from the other variety of +fudge, but is just as creamy if the directions are carefully followed. + +FUDGE No. 2 + +3/4 c. milk +2 c. sugar +1/4 c. corn sirup +2 Tb. butter +Pinch of salt +2 sq. chocolate +1 tsp. vanilla + +Cook the milk, sugar, corn sirup, butter, and salt until the mixture +will form a very soft ball when tried in water. Add the chocolate and +cook again until a soft ball that can be handled will form or the +thermometer registers 236 degrees. Remove from the fire, cool without +stirring until entirely cold, and then add the vanilla. Beat until +creamy, pour into buttered pans, cut into squares, and serve. + +94. TWO LAYER FUDGE.--A very attractive as well as delicious fudge can +be had by making it in two layers, one white and one dark. The dark +layer contains chocolate while the white one is the same mixture, with +the exception of the chocolate. The layers may be arranged with either +the white or the dark layer on top, as preferred. + +TWO-LAYER FUDGE + +4 c. sugar +1-1/2 c. milk +6 Tb. corn sirup +2 Tb. butter +Pinch of salt +2 sq. chocolate +1 tsp. vanilla + +Mix the sugar, milk, corn sirup, butter, and salt, and cook until a very +soft ball will form. Transfer half of the mixture to another pan and add +to it the chocolate, which has been melted. Boil each mixture until it +tests 238 degrees with the thermometer or a soft ball that can be +handled well will form in cold water. Upon removing it from the fire, +add the vanilla, putting half into each mixture. Set aside to cool and +when all the heat is gone, beat one of the mixtures until it becomes +creamy and pour it into a buttered pan. Then beat the other one and +pour it over the first. Cut into squares and serve. + +95. BROWN-SUGAR FUDGE.--Fudge in which brown sugar is used for the +largest part of the sweetening is explained in the accompanying recipe. +Peanuts are added, but if desired nuts of any other kind may be used. + +BROWN-SUGAR FUDGE + +2 c. brown sugar +1 c. white sugar +1 c. milk +1 Tb. butter +1 tsp. vanilla +3/4 c. chopped peanuts + +Mix the sugar, milk, and butter and boil until a soft ball will form in +cold water or a temperature of 238 degrees is reached on the +thermometer. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla, and cool until the +heat is out of the mixture. Beat, and when the candy begins to grow +creamy, add the chopped nuts. When sufficiently thick, pour into a +buttered pan, cut, and serve. + +96. MAPLE PENUCHIE.--Almost any kind of maple candy finds favor with the +majority of persons, but maple penuchie is especially well liked. Nuts +and coconut are used in it, and these improve the flavor very much. + +MAPLE PENUCHIE + +3 c. maple sirup +1/4 tsp. soda +1 c. milk +Few grains of salt +1 tsp. vanilla +1/2 c. chopped nuts +1/2 c. shredded coconut + +Into the maple sirup, stir the soda, and add the milk and salt. Place +over the fire and boil until a soft ball that can be easily handled will +form in cold water or a temperature of 238 degrees is reached on the +thermometer. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla, and allow the +mixture to become entirely cold. Beat, and when it begins to get thick, +add the nuts and coconut. Continue beating until the candy grows stiff +but can be poured out. Pour in a buttered pan, cut, and serve. + +97. DIVINITY.--An excellent confection known as divinity can be made +with very little difficulty if the accompanying recipe is carefully +followed. Nuts and raisins are used in this confection, but if desired +they may be omitted. As divinity is dropped from a spoon on oiled paper, +care should be taken not to boil the mixture too long, or it will be +necessary to work very rapidly in order to drop all of it before it +becomes too dry. + +DIVINITY + +1/3 c. corn sirup +1/2 c. water +2 c. sugar +1 egg white +1 tsp. vanilla +1/4 c. nuts +1/4 c. raisins + +Boil the sirup, water, and sugar together until a fairly hard ball will +form in cold water or the mixture registers 240 degrees on the +thermometer, which is a trifle harder than the fudge mixture. Beat the +egg white until it is stiff but not dry. Over this pour the hot mixture +a drop at a time until it can be added faster without cooking the egg +white. Beat rapidly until all the sirup is added, stir in the vanilla, +and when fairly stiff add the nuts and raisins. Continue beating until +the mixture will stand alone, and then drop by spoonfuls on oiled paper +or a buttered surface. When dry enough to handle, divinity may +be served. + +98. SEA FOAM.--Another candy in which a cooked sirup is poured over +beaten egg white is known as sea foam. Candies of this kind should be +served at once, for they are apt to become dry and hard if they are +allowed to stand. + +SEA FOAM + +2 c. light-brown sugar +1/2 c. water +Pinch of salt +1 egg white +1 tsp. vanilla + +Boil the sugar, water, and salt until a fairly hard ball will form or +the thermometer registers 240 degrees. Beat the egg white stiff, but not +dry. Pour the hot sirup over the egg white, a drop at a time at first, +and then as fast as possible without cooking the egg white. Add the +vanilla and continue beating the mixture until it will stand alone. Drop +by spoonfuls on a buttered surface or oiled paper. When sufficiently +dry, remove from the surface and serve. + + +FONDANT AND RELATED CREAMS + +99. NATURE OF FONDANT.--Fondant is the foundation cream out of which +bonbons and various other fancy candies are made. It is also used for +stuffing dates, taking the place of the pit. While it is not so +desirable for the centers of chocolate creams as for most of the other +candies for which it is used, it can, of course, be coated with +chocolate if desired. Some persons have an idea that fondant and related +candies are difficult to make, but if directions are followed +carefully this will not be the case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +100. In the first place, it should be remembered that the weather is an +important factor in the success of candy of this kind. A clear, cold day +should be selected, for it is difficult to make fondant successfully on +a warm or a damp day. Then, too, it is an excellent plan to make more +than can be used at one time, for no greater labor will be involved in +the making of a large amount than a small amount and better results may +be expected. If the fondant material is cared for properly, small +quantities of it may be made up as desired. Therefore, if convenient +equipment is on hand for making candies of this type, no less than 2-1/2 +pounds should be made at one time. Five pounds is a preferable amount, +but, if desired, 10 pounds may be made up at one time, although this +amount is about as much as one person can handle and even this is +somewhat difficult for some to work up. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +A little ingenuity on the part of the person making up the fondant will +result in many delightful bonbons. Candied fruits, nuts, coconut, and +numerous varieties of flavoring and coloring may be utilized very +successfully with fondant. It should be remembered, however, that +bonbons do not keep fresh for more than a few days or a week at the most +if they are exposed to the air. If it is desired to keep them for any +length of time, they should be packed in a tin box, but when stored in +this way, different colors should not be placed next to each other or +they will mix. + +101. FONDANT.--As will be noted, the accompanying recipe for fondant +calls for 5 pounds of sugar. It is not necessary that all of the fondant +be worked up at once. Indeed, it is suggested that this amount be +prepared and then stored so that the fondant may be used as needed. If a +smaller amount should be desired, half of each ingredient may be used. + +FONDANT + +5 lb. sugar +1 qt. water +6 drops acetic acid or 1/4 tsp. cream tartar + +Mix the sugar, water, and acetic acid or cream of tartar. Place over the +fire and, as in Fig. 5, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Just before +the mixture begins to boil, wash down the sides of the kettle with a wet +cloth, as shown in Fig. 6. Then place a lid over the kettle and cook +until almost ready to test. Remove the cover and, as in Fig. 7, insert a +thermometer, which should register 238 degrees. If the fondant is to be +stored for some time, it may be boiled to 240 degrees, but for general +use a mixture that reaches a temperature of 238 degrees will be the most +satisfactory. If the water test is applied, as in Fig. 8, the mixture +should form a firm ball that can be easily held in the fingers. Just +before the boiling is completed, cool a large platter or a slab and +moisten it by wetting it with a damp cloth. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +No time should intervene between the end of the boiling and the removal +of the sirup from the stove, for every second that the sirup is allowed +to stand over the hot burner before it is poured out will raise the +temperature. Pour quickly on the platter, as in Fig. 9, and do not allow +it to drip. If some sirup is left in the pan, utilize it for something +else, rather than allow it to drop on the surface of the candy in the +platter or slab. It is at this point that crystallization begins, and +the fondant, instead of being creamy, will become grainy. Cool as +quickly as possible, so as to lessen the chances for crystallization to +begin, and do not disturb the sirup in any way during the cooling. The +best way in which to accomplish this is to put the platter in a cool +place and make it perfectly level before the sirup is poured into it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +When the mixture has cooled to the extent that it no longer retains any +heat, it is ready to be stirred. As already explained, a putty knife or +a wallpaper scraper is the most satisfactory utensil to use for this +purpose, especially if a large batch is being made. However, a small +batch may be stirred very successfully with a case knife. With whatever +utensil is selected, scrape the fondant up into a heap, and then, as in +Fig. 10, start the working. See that all parts are worked alike. +Continue the operation, occasionally scraping off the knife or the +paddle used. The first indication of the creaming stage will be a cloudy +look in the mixture and a slight thinning of it, so that the work will +be easier for a few minutes. It will then gradually begin to harden, and +when the end of the work is reached the hardening will progress rapidly. +At this stage, try to get the mass together, see that no loose fragments +cling to the platter, and pile all into a heap. By the time the working +is completed, the candy will be rather hard and will look as if it can +never be worked into a soft, creamy candy. It will become soft, however, +by the proper treatment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +Wring a clean towel or napkin out of cold water, and, as in Fig. 11, +place it tightly over the mass of fondant and tuck it in securely around +the edges. Allow the candy to stand for an hour in this way. At the end +of this time it will be sufficiently moist to work in any desired way. +With a knife or a scraper, break it off into pieces of a size that can +be handled well at one time and work each one of these soft by squeezing +it in the manner shown in Fig. 12. When all of the pieces have been +worked soft, pack them into a bowl and continue working until all the +fondant has been worked together and is soft. Over the top of the bowl, +as shown in Fig. 13, place a damp cloth and cover this with a plate or +an earthen cover. Set away in some place where it will remain cool, but +will not become too moist, until it is desired for further use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +The four recipes that follow show how fondant can be made up into +attractive as well as delicious confections. They will doubtless give +the housewife other ideas as to ways of preparing candies from this +foundation material. + +102. BONBONS.--In a broad sense, bonbons mean candy or confections in +general, but it is also the name of candies made out of colored and +flavored fondant. Sometimes they are made small and dainty and are +decorated with a nut meat or a piece of maraschino or candied cherry or +candied pineapple. Again, centers may be made that contain coconut, +nuts, figs, dates, raisins, etc., and these then dipped in some of the +fondant that has been colored, flavored, and melted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +103. When bonbons are to be made, remove fondant in pieces from the +utensil in which it has been stored. Work it with the hands as it was +worked when put away and add the desired coloring and flavoring at this +time. If simple bonbons are to be made, form the colored and flavored +fondant into tiny balls, place them on oiled paper, and press a nut or a +piece of maraschino or candied cherry or candied pineapple on top. + +104. To make more elaborate bonbons, form, as in Fig. 14, small round +centers out of the fondant to which have been added such materials as +dates, figs, raisins, nuts, or coconut, or any combination of these. +Only enough fondant should be used to make the other materials stick +together. Then, in a double boiler, color, flavor, and melt some of the +fondant and, with a coating or other fork, drop the centers into this +melted cream. When thoroughly coated, remove, and place on waxed paper. +While warm, a piece of nut or candied fruit may be placed on the top of +each one. If it is desired not to use fondant in the centers, the nuts +or candied fruits themselves may be dipped into the melted bonbon cream +and then placed on waxed paper to harden. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] [Illustration: FIG. 15] + +105. RECEPTION WAFERS.--Thin wafers made of fondant are a confection +much used at parties, receptions, and similar social gatherings. One +variety of these is colored pink and flavored with wintergreen, while +another is flavored with peppermint and not colored in any way. Other +colors and flavors may also be made if desired, but the usual kinds are +the pink and white ones. + +Divide the mass of fondant to be used into two parts and color one of +these a pale pink. Flavor the pink mass with wintergreen and the white +one with peppermint. Put one of these in a double boiler and allow it to +melt until it is soft enough to pour. Then, as in Fig. 15, with a +dessert spoon or a tablespoon, drop the melted fondant on a smooth +surface in sufficient amounts to make wafers about the size of a +quarter. Drop quickly and as accurately as possible so that the wafers +will be the same size and shape. Allow them to stand until cold and set. + +Sometimes it will be found that two wafers can be dropped from the same +spoonful before the material becomes too cold to pour, but usually it is +necessary to dip a fresh spoonful for each wafer. As the fondant hardens +on the back of the spoon it should be scraped off and put back into the +double boiler. A comparatively small amount of fondant should be melted +at one time in order to provide against its becoming sugary, but if it +shows any signs of this condition the double boiler should be emptied +and thoroughly cleaned before more of the fondant is melted in it. + +106. RAINBOW DELIGHT.--An especially attractive candy that has fondant +for its foundation is rainbow delight. As may be inferred from its name, +candy of this kind is in several colors. + +To make rainbow delight, divide fondant into three parts. Flavor one +with vanilla and to it add chopped nuts. Flavor the second with +strawberry, color it pink, and, if desired, add shredded coconut. To the +third, add melted bitter chocolate until it is as dark as preferred. +Line a small bread pan or a box as smoothly as possible with waxed +paper, place the white fondant in the bottom, and press it down into a +layer. Over this put the chocolate fondant, press this into a layer, and +on top of it place the pink candy. After making the mass smooth and +even, allow it to remain where it will be cold until it is set. Then +remove it from the pan or box by turning it out on a surface that has +been slightly dusted with confectioner's sugar. Have coating chocolate +melted and cover the surface of three sides of the candy with a thick +layer of the chocolate. If, when the chocolate becomes dry and hard, it +seems a little thin, give it a second coating. + +When it is entirely cold, turn the candy over and coat the remaining +side. To serve, cut into slices and cut each slice into pieces. + +107. TUTTI-FRUTTI ROLLS.--Another very good candy that can be made from +fondant is tutti-frutti roll. Secure nuts, cherries, candied pineapple, +and citron, chop them fine, and to them add shredded coconut. Work these +in any quantity desired into the fondant until all are worked through +evenly and then flavor with vanilla. Shape the mass into a roll and let +it stand until it is well set. Then coat it with coating chocolate. When +it has become cold, turn it over and coat the bottom. To serve +tutti-frutti roll, cut it into slices. + +108. OPERA CREAM.--No more delicious cream candy can be made than that +known as opera cream. This may be colored and flavored in many different +ways or made up in various forms. When chocolate is added to it, a +better fudge than the ordinary kinds is the result. Sufficient time +should be allowed for the making of opera cream, for it is necessary +that this candy stand for several hours before it is worked up. + +OPERA CREAM + +4 c. sugar +1/8 tsp. cream of tartar +2 Tb. corn sirup +1 pt. thin cream +Vanilla + +Mix the sugar and the cream of tartar, add the sirup and cream, and cook +over a hot fire. Watch closely to see whether the cream looks as if it +might curd, and if it does, beat rapidly with a rotary beater. Do not +stir after the boiling has begun unless it is necessary to keep the +mixture from sticking to the pan. Boil until a very hard ball will form +in water or until it registers 240 degrees on the thermometer. Moisten a +large, flat platter or a marble slab, pour the mixture on it, and allow +it to remain until it is entirely cool, disturbing it in no way during +this cooling. When cool, work up with a putty knife or a similar utensil +in the same manner as for fondant until it becomes hard and creamy. +Place all in a heap in the center of the slab or platter and cover +closely with a damp cloth, a clean towel being desirable for this +purpose. Allow it to stand for about 2 hours, and then work it with the +hands, being careful to remove any lumps that it might contain. + +The cream is now ready to be worked up in any desirable way. Divide it +into small batches, and then flavor and color it or work melted +chocolate into it. Press it into a layer about 1 inch thick in a shallow +box lined with waxed paper or a pan that has been buttered, cut it into +squares, and allow it to stand for a few hours. Then remove and serve. + +109. CENTER CREAM.--An excellent cream candy for the centers of +chocolates is given in the accompanying recipe. As molds are necessary +in its preparation, it is more difficult to make than fondant, but +success can be had with this as well as with other candies. + +The cream used for these centers may be colored and flavored in any +desirable way. It is somewhat firm while being handled, but will be +found to soften after it has been made up and coated. It can be handled +better if it is made 3 or 4 days before it is desired for use. As will +be noted, the recipe is given in a fairly large quantity, for it is +preferable to make a good-sized amount of the cream at a time; but it +need not all be used up at once. + +CENTER CREAM + +8 c. sugar +2 c. glucose or corn sirup +3 c. water + +Mix the sugar, glucose or corn sirup, and water and proceed in the same +way as for fondant. Boil until the thermometer registers 234 or 236 +degrees or a ball that is not quite so firm as for fondant will form in +cold water. Pour on a moistened platter or slab to cool. Then cream in +the same manner as for fondant, but allow more time for this part of the +work, as the glucose does not cream rapidly. Just before it hardens, +pour it into a crock or a bowl, place a damp cloth over the top of the +bowl, and put away for a couple of days. + +110. The molds for shaping center creams are formed in a thick layer of +corn starch by means of a device that may be bought from a candy-making +supply house or made at home. This device consists of a long strip with +projections that may be pushed into the corn starch to make neatly +shaped holes, or molds. These projections are spaced about 1 inch apart, +so that the walls between the corn-starch molds will not fall down when +the center-cream mixture is poured into them. A long stick, such as a +ruler or a yardstick, and either corks of different sizes or plaster of +Paris may be employed to make such a device. If corks are to be used, +simply glue them to the stick, spacing them about 1 inch apart. If +plaster of Paris is to be used, fill small receptacles about the size +and shape of chocolate creams with a thin mixture of plaster of Paris +and water and allow it to set. When hard, remove the plaster-of-Paris +shapes and glue them to the stick, spacing them the same distance as +mentioned for the corks. The home-made device will answer the same +purpose as one that is bought, and is much less expensive. + +111. When it is desired to make up the creams, sift corn starch into a +pan to form a thick layer, making it perfectly level on top with the +straight edge of a knife. Then make depressions, or molds, in the corn +starch by pressing into it the device just described. Make as many rows +of molds as the space will permit, but do not make them so close +together as to weaken the walls between the molds. Melt some of the +center cream in a double boiler, color and flavor as desired, and pour +into the molds made in the corn starch. Allow the centers to remain +until they become hard in the molds. Then pick them out, blow off the +corn starch, and set aside until ready to coat. Continue making centers +in this way until all the cream is used up, resifting the corn starch +and making new molds each time. Then coat with chocolate in the +usual way. + +112. ORIENTALS.--Delicious chocolate creams known as orientals can be +made by the amateur if a little care is exercised. It should be +remembered, however, that these cannot be made successfully on a damp +day and that it is somewhat difficult to make them in warm weather. A +clear, cold day is required for satisfactory results. Unlike fondant, +these creams must be made up at once, so it will be necessary to allow +sufficient time not only for the cooking and creaming processes, but +also for the making and coating as well. After being made up, however, +they should be allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days, as they, like many +other cream candies, improve upon standing. + +Since these centers are very sweet, a slightly bitter chocolate is the +best kind with which to coat them. Confectioner's bitter-sweet chocolate +will be found to be the most satisfactory, but if this cannot be +procured, bitter chocolate may be mixed with sweet coating chocolate. + +ORIENTALS + +5 c. granulated sugar +2 c. water +1 tsp. glycerine +6 drops acetic acid +2 egg whites +Vanilla + +Put the sugar, water, and glycerine over the fire and stir until the +sugar is dissolved. Wash down the sides of the kettle with a cloth, and +just as the mixture begins to boil, add the acetic acid. Place a cover +over the pan and allow the mixture to boil until a temperature of 238 +degrees is reached on the thermometer or a firm ball that can be easily +held in the fingers will form. Pour out on a slab or a platter to cool, +and when perfectly cool begin to work it as for fondant, but first beat +the egg whites until they are stiff. As soon as the candy is collected +into a mass, pour the egg whites over it, as shown in Fig. 16. Continue +to work the candy until all of the egg white is worked in. Add the +vanilla during this process. If the mixture seems stiff and the eggs do +not work in, continue with a little patience, for they will eventually +combine with the candy. Because of the eggs, oriental cream is whiter +than bonbon cream, and so it is a little difficult to tell just when it +is beginning to get creamy. However, it softens a little as it begins to +set, just as fondant does. At this point work slowly, and as it hardens +get it into a mass in the center of the slab. When completely worked, it +will not be so hard as fondant. Make it up at once into small, round +centers, and as they are made place them on pieces of oiled paper to +become dry. Chopped nuts may be added to the filling if desired before +it is made up. As soon as it is possible to handle the centers, coat +them with chocolate in the usual way. Be careful to cover the entire +surface with chocolate, for otherwise the quality of the center will +deteriorate. A good plan is to wrap candies of this kind in waxed paper, +especially if they are to be packed in boxes, for then they will not be +so likely to crush. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +113. UNCOOKED FONDANT.--A fairly satisfactory substitute for fondant +can be made by moistening confectioner's sugar with egg white or sweet +cream. A very fine sugar must be secured for this purpose or the candy +will be granular, and even then the result will not be so satisfactory +as in the case of cooked fondant properly made. Uncooked fondant, too, +is more limited in its uses than cooked fondant, for it cannot be melted +and used for bonbons. + +UNCOOKED FONDANT + +XXXX sugar +Egg white or sweet cream + +Roll and sift the sugar if it is lumpy, making it as fine as possible. +Beat the egg white just enough to break it up or pour into a bowl the +desired amount of sweet cream, remembering that very little liquid will +moisten considerable sugar. Add the sugar a little at a time, beating +all the while, until a sufficient amount has been used to make the +mixture dry enough to handle with the fingers. Then flavor and color in +any desired way and make up as if it were fondant. + + +MISCELLANEOUS CONFECTIONS + +114. STUFFED DATES.--Dates from which the seeds have been removed and +which have been filled with nuts or fondant or a combination of both are +a confection that meets with much favor. The uncooked fondant is +entirely satisfactory for this purpose, but if some of the other is on +hand it will make an especially fine confection. Regardless of what is +used for a filling, though, the preparation of such dates is the same. + +First wash the dates in warm water and rinse them in cold water. Then, +if there is time, spread them out in a single layer on a cloth and let +them remain until they are entirely dry. Cut a slit in the side of each +one with a knife and remove the seed. If nuts, such as English walnuts, +are to be used for the filling, place half a nut meat in the cavity left +by the seed and press the date together over it. In case fondant and +nuts are to be used, chop the nuts and mix them with the fondant. +Coconut may be used in place of the nuts if desired or the fondant may +be used alone. Shape the fondant into tiny balls, press one tightly into +the cavity left by the seed, and close the date partly over the filling. +When all the dates have been stuffed, roll them in sugar, preferably +granulated, and serve. + +115. SALTED NUTS.--Nuts to which salt has been added are an excellent +contrast to the sweet confections that have been described. At social +gatherings, luncheons, dinners, etc., they are often served in +connection with some variety of bonbon and many times they replace the +sweet confection entirely. Peanuts and almonds are the nuts generally +used for salting. If peanuts are to be salted, the unroasted ones should +be purchased and then treated in exactly the same way as almonds. Before +nuts are salted, they must first be browned, and this may be +accomplished in three different ways: on the top of the stove, in the +oven, and in deep fat. Preparing them in deep fat is the most +satisfactory method, for by it all the nuts reach the same degree of +brownness. + +116. First blanch the nuts by pouring boiling water over them and +allowing them to remain in the water until the skins can be removed; +then slip off the skins without breaking the nuts apart if possible. +Spread the nuts out on a towel to dry. + +If the deep-fat method of browning them is to be followed, have in a +small saucepan or kettle a sufficient quantity of cooking fat or oil. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +Allow it to become as hot as for frying doughnuts or croquettes, place +the nuts in a sieve, and fry them in the fat until they become a +delicate brown. Pour them out into a pan, sprinkle them with salt, cool, +and serve. + +To brown nuts on top of the stove, heat a heavy frying pan over a slow +fire and into it put a small amount of fat. Add the nuts and stir +constantly until they are browned as evenly as possible. This part of +the work requires considerable time, for the more slowly it is done the +less likely are the nuts to have burned spots. Salt the nuts before +removing them from the pan, turn them out into a dish, cool, and serve. + +It is more difficult to brown nuts equally by the oven method, but +sometimes it is desired to prepare them in this way. Put the nuts with a +little fat into a pan and set the pan in a hot oven. Stir frequently +until they are well browned, salt, cool, and serve. + +117. ORIENTAL DELIGHT.--An excellent confection that can be prepared +without cooking is known as oriental delight. It is composed of fruit, +nuts, and coconut, which are held together with egg white and powdered +sugar. When thoroughly set and cut into squares, oriental delight +appears as in Fig. 17. + +ORIENTAL DELIGHT + +1/2 lb. dates +1/2 lb. raisins +1/2 lb. pressed figs +1/2 c. shredded coconut +1/2 c. English walnuts +1 egg white +Powdered sugar + +Wash all the fruits, put them together, and steam for about 15 minutes. +Then put these with the coconut and nuts through a food chopper or chop +them all in a bowl with a chopping knife. When the whole is reduced to a +pulpy mass, beat the egg white slightly, add sufficient sugar to make a +very soft paste, and mix with the fruit mixture. If it is very sticky, +continue to add powdered sugar and mix well until it is stiff enough to +pack in a layer in a pan. Press down tight and when it is set mark in +squares, remove from the pan, and serve as a confection. + +118. MARSHMALLOWS.--To be able to make marshmallows successfully is the +desire of many persons. At first thought, this seems somewhat of a task, +but in reality it is a simple matter if the directions are carefully +followed. Upon being cut into squares, the marshmallows may be served +plain or they may be coated with chocolate or, after standing several +days, dipped into a warm caramel mixture. + +MARSHMALLOWS + +8 tsp. gelatine +1-1/4 c. water +2 c. sugar +Few grains salt +1 tsp. vanilla +1/2 Tb. corn starch + +Soak the gelatine in one-half of the water for 5 minutes. Cook the sugar +and the remaining water until it will spin a thread when dropped from a +spoon. Remove from the fire and add the gelatine. When partly cold, add +the salt and the flavoring. Beat with an egg whip, cooling the mixture +as rapidly as possible, until it is light and fluffy. When the mixture +is thick, add the corn starch slowly, working it in thoroughly. Then +pour out on a flat surface that is well dusted with confectioner's +sugar. Let stand in a cool place until thoroughly chilled. Cut in +squares by pressing the blade of a knife down through the mass, but do +not slide it along when cutting. Remove the pieces, dust on all sides +with powdered sugar, and serve. + +119. NOUGAT.--The confection known as nougat consists usually of a paste +filled with chopped nuts. Both corn sirup and honey are used in the +preparation of this candy. Generally it is merely flavored with vanilla, +but if chocolate flavoring is preferred it may be added. + +NOUGAT + +3 c. sugar +1-1/2 c. corn sirup +1/4 c. strained honey +1 c. water +2 egg whites +1 tsp. vanilla +2 c. nut meats + +Put the sugar, corn sirup, honey, and water together and cook until a +temperature of 260 degrees is reached or a brittle ball will form in +water. Beat the egg whites stiff and pour the mass slowly into them, +beating constantly until the mixture grows stiff and waxy. Then add the +vanilla and nut meats. Mix well and pour into a small box or pan lined +with waxed paper. If chocolate is to be used for flavoring, add the +desired amount just before pouring the mixture into the pan. When it has +cooled sufficiently, cut in squares or slices. + +120. CANDIED PEEL.--Another favorite confection and one that is much +used in connection with candies for social functions is candied orange, +lemon, and grapefruit peel. After being removed from the fruit, the peel +should be well scraped and then cut into thin strips. In this form, it +is ready to coat with sirup. + +CANDIED PEEL + +1/2 doz. lemons, oranges, or grapefruit +1/2 c. water +1 c. sugar + +Remove the skin in quarters from the fruit, scrape off as much of the +white as possible, and cut each piece of skin into narrow strips. Put +these to cook in cold water, boil them until they may be easily pierced +with a fork, and then drain off the water. Add the water to the sugar +and cook until a thread will form when the sirup is dropped from a +spoon. Add the cooked peel to the sirup and cook for 5 to 10 minutes. +Drain and dredge in granulated sugar. Spread in a single layer to dry. + +121. POP-CORN BALLS.--Pop corn in any form is always an attractive +confection, especially to young persons. It is often stuck together with +a sirup mixture and made into balls. In this form, it is an excellent +confection for the holiday season. + +To make pop-corn balls, first shell the corn and pop it. Then make a +sirup with half as much water as sugar and cook it until it will spin a +thread. Have the pop corn in a large bowl and pour the sirup over it, +working quickly so that all the sirup can be used up while it is warm. +To form the balls, take up a large double handful and press firmly +together. If the sirup sticks to the hands, dip them into cold water so +as to moisten them somewhat before the next handful is taken up. Work in +this manner until all the corn is made into balls. + +122. CRACKER JACK.--Another pop-corn confection that is liked by +practically every one is cracker jack. In this variety, pop corn and +peanuts are combined and a sirup made of molasses and sugar is used to +hold them together. + +CRACKER JACK + +4 qt. popped corn +1 c. shelled, roasted peanuts +1 c. molasses +1/2 c. sugar + +Put the popped corn and the peanuts together in a receptacle large +enough to hold them easily. Cook the molasses and the sugar until the +sirup spins a thread. Then pour this over the popped corn and peanuts +and mix well until it becomes cold and hard. + + +SERVING CANDY + +123. The best time to serve candy is when it will interfere least with +the digestion, and this is immediately after meals. A dish of candy +placed on the table with the dessert adds interest to any meal. It +should be passed immediately after the dessert is eaten. + +Various kinds of bonbon dishes in which to serve candies are to be had, +some of them being very attractive. Those having a cover are intended +for candy that is to be left standing for a time, while open dishes +should be used for serving. Fig. 18 shows candy tastefully arranged on a +silver dish having a handle. Dishes made of glass or china answer the +purpose equally as well as silver ones, and if a bonbon dish is not in +supply a small plate will do very well. A paper or a linen doily on the +dish or plate adds to the attractiveness, as does also the manner in +which the candy is arranged. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18: candies arranged on silver dish.] + + * * * * * + +CONFECTIONS + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) What are confections? + +(2) Discuss the use of confections in the diet of children and adults. + +(3) (_a_) What food substance is found in the largest proportion in +candy? (_b_) Are candies high or low in food value? + +(4) Discuss briefly the kinds and qualities of sugar and their uses. + +(5) What is the value of glucose in candy making? + +(6) What kinds of flavorings are the most desirable? + +(7) What care should be exercised in the use of colorings in candy? + +(8) (_a_) What acids are used in candy making? (_b_) Why are these acids +used? + +(9) Of what value are milk, cream, and butter in the making of candy? + +(10) What may be said of the selection of a pan for cooking candy? + +(11) (_a_) What methods are used for testing candies? (_b_) Which of +these methods is the most accurate? + +(12) (_a_) How should the mixture be poured out to cool when a creamy +candy is being made? (_b_) To what point should the sirup be cooled +before the stirring is begun? + +(13) (_a_) How should chocolate be melted? (_b_) How should coating with +chocolate be done? + +(14) How should waxed paper be cut for wrapping candies? + +(15) Discuss the ingredients generally used for taffy. + +(16) On what do good results in caramel making depend? + +(17) What should be guarded against in the making of all cream candies? + +(18) (_a_) What is fondant? (_b_) How may fondant be stored for future +use? + +(19) How should dates be prepared for stuffing? + +(20) What is the best time for the serving of candy? + + * * * * * + + + +BEVERAGES + + * * * * * + +BEVERAGES IN THE DIET + +NATURE AND CLASSES OF BEVERAGES + +1. Throughout the lifetime of every person there is constant need for +solid food to preserve health and prolong life; and, just as such food +is necessary to satisfy the requirements of the body, so, too, is there +need for water. As is well known, the composition of the body is such +that it contains more liquid than solid material, the tissues and the +bones weighing much less than the liquid. A tremendous amount of this +liquid is continually being lost through the kidneys, through each pore +in the skin, and even through every breath that is exhaled, and if +continued good health is to be maintained this loss must be constantly +made up. This loss is greater in very hot weather or in the performance +of strenuous exercise than under ordinary conditions, which accounts for +the fact that more than the usual amount of liquid must be supplied +during such times. So necessary is liquid refreshment that the body +cannot exist without it for any great length of time. In fact, if the +supply were cut off so that no more could be obtained, the body would +begin to use its own fluids and death would soon occur. A person can +live for many days without solid food, but it is not possible to live +for more than a very few days without drink. + +2. Nature's way of serving notice that the body is in need of liquid +refreshment is through the sensation of thirst. Satisfying thirst not +only brings relief, but produces a decidedly pleasant sensation; +however, the real pleasure of drinking is not experienced until one has +become actually thirsty. + +The various liquids by which thirst may be slaked, or quenched, are +known as _beverages_. The first one of these given to man was water, +and it is still the chief beverage, for it is used both alone and as a +foundation for numerous other beverages that are calculated to be more +tasty, but whose use is liable in some cases to lead to excessive +drinking or to the partaking of substances that are injurious to health. + +3. The beverages that are in common use may be placed in three general +classes: _alcoholic_, _stimulating_, and _non-stimulating_. The +alcoholic beverages include such drinks as beer, wine, whisky, etc., +some of which are used more in one country than in another. In fact, +almost every class of people known has an alcoholic beverage that has +come to be regarded as typical of that class. Alcoholic fermentation is +supposed to have been discovered by accident, and when its effect became +known it was recognized as a popular means of supplying a beverage and +some stimulation besides. Under stimulating beverages come tea, coffee, +and cocoa. These are in common use all over the world, certain ones, of +course, finding greater favor in some countries than in others. With the +exception of cocoa, they provide very little food value. In contrast +with these drinks are the non-stimulating beverages, which include fruit +punches, soft drinks, and all the milk-and-egg concoctions. These are +usually very refreshing, and the majority of them contain sufficient +nourishment to recommend their frequent use. + + +WATER IN BEVERAGES + +4. Many persons restrict the term beverages, contending that it refers +to refreshing or flavored drinks. It should be remembered, however, that +this term has a broader meaning and refers to any drink taken for the +purpose of quenching thirst. Water is the simplest beverage and is in +reality the foundation of nearly all drinks, for it is the water in them +that slakes thirst. Flavors, such as fruit juice, tea, coffee, etc., are +combined with water to make the beverages more tempting, and +occasionally such foods as eggs, cream, and starchy materials are added +to give food value; but the first and foremost purpose of all beverages +is to introduce water into the system and thus satisfy thirst. + +5. KINDS OF WATER.--Inasmuch as water is so important an element in the +composition of beverages, every one should endeavor to become familiar +with the nature of each of its varieties. + +SOFT WATER is water that contains very little mineral matter. A common +example of soft water is rainwater. + +HARD WATER is water that contains a large quantity of lime in solution. +Boiling such water precipitates, or separates, some of the lime and +consequently softens the water. An example of the precipitation of lime +in water is the deposit that can be found in any teakettle that has been +used for some time. + +MINERAL WATER is water containing a large quantity of such minerals as +will go in solution in water, namely, sulphur, iron, lime, etc. + +DISTILLED WATER is water from which all minerals have been removed. To +accomplish this, the water is converted into steam and then condensed. +This is the purest form of water. + +CARBONATED WATER is water that has had carbon-dioxide, or carbonic-acid, +gas forced into it. The soda water used at soda fountains is an example +of this variety. Carbonated water is bottled and sold for +various purposes. + +6. NECESSITY FOR PURE WATER.--The extensive use made of water in the +diet makes it imperative that every effort be exerted to have the water +supply as pure as possible. The ordinary city filter and the smaller +household filter can be depended on to remove sand, particles of leaves, +weeds, and such foreign material as is likely to drop into the water +from time to time, but they will not remove disease germs from an +unclean supply. Therefore, if there is any doubt about water being pure +enough to use for drinking purposes, it should be boiled before it is +used. Boiling kills any disease germs that the water may contain, but at +the same time it gives the water a very flat taste because of the loss +of air in boiling. However, as is mentioned in _Essentials of Cookery_, +Part 1, the natural taste may be restored by beating the boiled water +with an egg beater or by partly filling a jar, placing the lid on, and +shaking it vigorously. + + +RELATION OF BEVERAGES TO MEALS + +7. About one-third of all the water required each day is taken in the +form of beverages with the meals. It was formerly thought that liquids +dilute the gastric juice and so should be avoided with meals. However, +it has been learned that beverages, either warm or cold, with the +exception of an occasional case, may be taken with meals without +injury. The chief point to remember is that it is unwise to drink +beverages either too hot or too cold. For the best results, their +temperature should be rather moderate. + +8. Foods that may be dissolved in water can be incorporated in a +beverage to make it nutritious. With many persons, as in the case of +small children and invalids, this is often the only means there is of +giving them nourishment. In serving beverages to healthy persons, the +food value of the meal should be taken into consideration. The beverage +accompanying a heavy meal should be one having very little food value; +whereas, in the case of a light meal, the beverage can be such as will +give additional nutrition. For instance, hot chocolate, which is very +nutritious, would not be a good beverage to serve with a meal consisting +of soup, meat, vegetables, salad, and dessert, but it would be an +excellent drink to serve with a lunch that is made up of light +sandwiches, salad, and fruit. + + +ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES + +9. ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES are made by allowing yeast to ferment the starch +or the sugar in a certain kind of food, thus producing acid and alcohol. +Grains and fruits are used oftenest for this purpose. In some cases, the +fermentation is allowed to continue long enough to use up all the starch +or sugar in the material selected, and in this event the resulting +beverages are sour and contain a great deal of alcohol. In others, the +fermentation is stopped before all the sugar or starch is utilized, and +then the beverage is sweet and contains less alcohol. The higher the +percentage of alcohol a beverage contains, the more intoxicating it is +and the more quickly will a state of intoxication be reached by +drinking it. + +10. HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.--In years past, alcoholic +beverages were considered to be a necessity for medicinal purposes in +hospitals and in homes, but this use of them has been very greatly +decreased. In fact, it is believed by most authorities that often more +harm than good is done by using alcoholic beverages as a medical +stimulant or as a carrier for some drug. As these drinks are harmful in +this respect, so are they detrimental to health when they are taken +merely as beverages. It is definitely known that alcohol acts as a food +when it enters the body, for it is burned just as a carbohydrate would +be and thus produces heat. That this action takes place very rapidly can +be detected by the warmth that is produced almost immediately when the +drink is taken. Some of it is lost through the breath and the kidneys +without producing heat, and it also acts upon the blood vessels near the +skin in such a way as to lose very quickly the heat that is produced. It +is never conserved and used gradually as the heat from food is used. The +taking of alcohol requires much work on the part of the kidneys, and +this eventually injures them. It also hardens the liver and produces a +disease known as hob-nailed, or gin, liver. In addition, if used +continuously, this improper means of nourishing the body produces an +excessive amount of fat. Because of these harmful effects on the various +organs, its too rapid loss from the body, and the fact that it does not +build tissue, alcohol is at best a very poor food and should be avoided +on all occasions. + +11. KINDS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.--In spite of the truth that beverages +containing alcohol are found to be harmful, many of them are in common +use. Following are the names of these, together with a short account of +their preparation: + +BEER is an alcoholic beverage made from certain grains, usually barley, +by malting the grain, boiling the product with hops, and finally +fermenting it with yeast. The malting of grains, it will be remembered, +is explained in _Cereals_. The hops are used to give the beer a +desirable flavor. This beverage is characterized by a low percentage of +alcohol, containing only 2 to 5 per cent., and consequently is not very +intoxicating. + +WINE is a beverage that is usually made from grapes, although berries +and other small fruits are occasionally used. It contains from 7 to 16 +per cent. of alcohol and is therefore more intoxicating than beer. The +wines in which all of the sugar is fermented are known as _sour_, or +_dry, wines_, while those in which not all of the sugar has been +fermented are called _sweet wines_. Many classes of wines are made and +put on the market, but those most commonly used are claret, sherry, +hock, port, and Madeira. + +BRANDY is an alcoholic liquor distilled from wine. It is very +intoxicating, for it consists of little besides alcohol and water, the +percentage of alcohol varying from 40 to 50 per cent. Upon being +distilled, brandy is colorless, but it is then stored in charred wooden +casks, from which it takes its characteristic color. + +GIN is a practically colorless liquor distilled from various grains and +flavored with oil of juniper or some other flavoring substance, such as +anise, orange peel, or fennel. It contains from 30 to 40 per cent. of +alcohol. It is usually stored in glass bottles, which do not impart a +color to it. + +RUM is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting cane sugar, molasses, +cane juice, or the scum and waste from sugar refineries and then +distilling the product. It contains from 45 to 50 per cent. of alcohol, +and has a disagreeable odor when it is distilled. This odor, however, is +removed by storing the rum in wooden receptacles for a long period +of time. + +CORDIALS are beverages made by steeping fruits or herbs in brandy. +_Absinthe_, which is barred from the United States because it contains +wormwood, a very injurious substance, is a well-known cordial. Besides +being extremely intoxicating, it overstimulates the heart and the +stomach if taken in even comparatively small quantities. + +WHISKY is an alcoholic beverage obtained by distilling fermented grain +several times until it has a strength of 40 to 50 per cent. of alcohol. +Then it is flavored and stored in charred casks to ripen and become +mellow, after which it has a characteristic color. As can readily be +understood, distilled liquors contain the highest percentage of alcohol. + + * * * * * + +STIMULATING BEVERAGES + +NATURE OF STIMULATING BEVERAGES + +12. STIMULATING BEVERAGES are those which contain a drug that stimulates +the nervous and the circulatory system; that is, one that acts on the +nerves and the circulation in such a way as to make them active and +alert. Common examples of these beverages are coffee, tea, and cocoa or +chocolate. If the nerves are in need of rest, it is dangerous to +stimulate them with such beverages, for, as the nervous system +indirectly affects all the organs of the body, the effects of this +stimulation are far-reaching. The immediate effect of the stimulant in +these beverages is to keep the drinker awake, thus causing +sleeplessness, or temporary insomnia. If tea and coffee are used +habitually and excessively, headaches, dull brains, and many nervous +troubles are liable to result. + +13. The stimulant that is found in the leaves of tea is known as +_theine_; that found in coffee beans, _caffeine_; and that found in +cacao beans, from which cocoa and chocolate are made, _theobromine_. +Each of these stimulants is extracted by the hot liquid that is always +used to make the beverage. It is taken up by the liquid so quickly that +the method used to prepare the beverage makes little difference as to +the amount obtained. In other words, tea made by pouring water through +the leaves will contain nearly as much of the stimulant as tea made by +boiling the leaves. + +14. In addition to the stimulant, tea and coffee contain _tannin_, or +_tannic acid_, an acid that is also obtained from the bark of certain +trees and used in the tanning of animal hides in the preparation of +leather. Tannin is not taken so quickly from tea and coffee by the hot +liquid used in preparing the beverage as is the stimulant, so that the +longer tea leaves and coffee grounds remain in the liquid, the more +tannic acid will be drawn out. This fact can be detected by the bitter +flavor and the puckery feeling in the mouth after drinking tea that has +been allowed to remain on the leaves or coffee that has stood for some +time on the grounds. Tannic acid has a decidedly bad effect on the +digestion in the stomach, so that if improperly prepared tea or coffee +is indulged in habitually, it may cause stomach disorders. + +TABLE I + +STIMULANT AND TANNIC ACID PRESENT IN STIMULATING BEVERAGES + +------------------------------------------------------------- + Quantity of Quantity of +Beverage Stimulant Stimulant Tannic Acid + Grains Grains +------------------------------------------------------------- +Coffee Caffeine 2 to 3 1 to 2 +Tea Theine 1 to 2 1 to 4 +Cocoa or chocolate Theobromine 1 to 1-1/2 1/2 to 1 +------------------------------------------------------------- + +15. The quantity of stimulant and tannic acid contained in an ordinary +cup of tea, coffee, and cocoa or chocolate is given in Table I. As this +table shows, the quantity, which is given in grains, does not vary +considerably in the different beverages and is not present in such +quantity as to be harmful, unless these beverages are indulged in +to excess. + +To reduce the quantity of caffeine contained in coffee has been the aim +of many coffee producers. As a result, there are on the market a number +of brands of coffee that have been put through a process that removes +practically all the caffeine. The beverage made from coffee so treated +is less harmful than that made from ordinary coffee, and so far as the +flavor is concerned this loss of caffeine does not change it. + +16. Neither tea nor coffee possesses any food value. Unless sugar or +cream is added, these beverages contain nothing except water, flavor, +stimulant, and tannic acid. Chocolate and cocoa, however, are rich in +fat, and as they are usually made with milk and sugar they have the +advantage of conveying food to the system. Because of their nature, tea +and coffee should never be given to children. Cocoa and chocolate +provide enough food value to warrant their use in the diet of young +persons, but they should not be taken in too great quantity because of +the large amount of fat they contain. Any of these beverages used in +excessive amounts produces the same effect as a mild drug habit. +Consequently, when a person feels that it is impossible to get along +without tea or coffee, it is time to stop the use of that beverage. + + * * * * * + +COFFEE + +HISTORY AND PRODUCTION + +17. COFFEE is the seed of the coffee tree, which in its wild state grows +to a height of 20 feet, but in cultivation is kept down to about 10 or +12 feet for convenience in gathering the fruit. Coffee originated in +Abyssinia, where it has been used as a beverage from time immemorial. At +the beginning of the 15th century, it found its way into Arabia, where +it was used by the religious leaders for preventing drowsiness, so that +they could perform religious ceremonies at night. About 100 years later +it came into favor in Turkey, but it was not until the middle of the +17th century that it was introduced into England. Its use gradually +increased among common people after much controversy as to whether it +was right to drink it or not. It is now extensively grown in India, +Ceylon, Java, the West Indies, Central America, Mexico, and Brazil. The +last-named country, Brazil, furnishes about 75 per cent. of the coffee +used in the United States and about 60 per cent. of the world's supply. + +18. Coffee is a universal drink, but it finds more favor in some +countries than others. The hospitality of a Turkish home is never +thought to be complete without the serving of coffee to its guests; +however, the coffee made by the Turks is not pleasant except to those +who are accustomed to drinking it. As prepared in Turkey and the East, a +small amount of boiling water is poured over the coffee, which is +powdered and mixed with sugar, and the resulting beverage, which is very +thick, is served in a small cup without cream. The French make a +concoction known as _café an lait_, which, as explained in _Essentials +of Cookery_, Part 2, is a combination of coffee and milk. These two +ingredients are heated separately in equal proportions and then mixed +before serving. This is a very satisfactory way in which to serve coffee +if cream cannot be obtained. + +19. OBTAINING THE COFFEE SEEDS.--The seeds of the coffee tree are +enclosed in pairs, with their flat surfaces toward each other, in dark, +cherry-like berries. The pulp of the berry is softened by fermentation +and then removed, leaving the seeds enclosed in a husk. They are then +separated from the husks by being either sun-dried and rolled or reduced +to a soft mass in water with the aid of a pulping machine. With the +husks removed, the seeds are packed into coarse cloth bags and +distributed. + +20. ROASTING THE COFFEE BEANS.--The next step in the preparation of +coffee for use is the roasting of the coffee beans. After being +separated from the husks, the beans have a greenish-yellow color, but +during the roasting process, when they are subjected to high temperature +and must be turned constantly to prevent uneven roasting, they turn to a +dark brown. As the roasting also develops the flavor, it must be done +carefully. Some persons prefer to buy unroasted coffee and roast it at +home in an oven, but it is more economical to purchase coffee already +roasted. In addition, the improved methods of roasting produce coffee of +a better flavor, for they accomplish this by machinery especially +devised for the purpose. + +21. GRINDING THE COFFEE BEANS.--During the roasting process there is +developed an aromatic volatile oil, called _caffeol_, to which the +flavor of the coffee is due. This oil is very strong, but upon being +exposed to the air it passes off and thus causes a loss of flavor in the +coffee. For this reason, roasted coffee should be kept in air-tight +cans, boxes, or jars. Before it is used, however, it must be ground. +The grinding of the coffee beans exposes more surface and hence the +flavor is more quickly lost from ground than unground coffee. Because of +this fact and because ground coffee can be adulterated very easily, it +is not wise to buy coffee already ground. If only a small quantity is +bought at a time and it can be used up at once, the grinding may be done +by the grocer, but even in such a case the better plan is to grind it +immediately before using it. + +22. The method by which the coffee is to be prepared for drinking will +determine to a large extent the way in which the coffee beans must be +ground. When coffee is to be made by a method in which the grounds are +not left in the water for any length of time, the beans must be ground +very fine, in fact, pulverized, for the flavor must be extracted +quickly. For other purposes, such as when it is to be made in a +percolator, the beans need not be ground quite so fine, and when it is +to be made in an ordinary coffee pot they may be ground very coarse. + +23. For use in the home, simple coffee mills that will grind coffee as +coarse or as fine as may be desired are to be had. Fig. 1 shows two of +the common types of home coffee mills. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +The one shown in (_a_) is fastened to a board so that it can be attached +to the wall. The coffee to be ground is put in the chamber _a_, from +which it is fed to the grinding rolls, and the ground coffee drops into +the chamber _b_. The grinding rolls are adjusted to the desired fineness +by the notched arrangement on the end of the shaft. + +The coffee mill shown in (_b_) may be placed on a table top or some +other flat surface, but it operates on the same principle as the other. +The coffee beans are placed in the chamber at the top, and the ground +coffee drops into the drawer _a_ at the bottom. The adjustment of the +grinding rolls is regulated by the notched head at the end of the +vertical shaft. + +24. ADULTERATION OF COFFEE.--As in the case of numerous other foods, +attempts are often made to adulterate coffee. Since the Pure Food Laws +have been enforced, there is not so much danger of adulteration in a +product of this kind; still, every housewife should be familiar with the +ways in which this beverage may be reduced in strength or quality, so +that she may be able to tell whether she is getting a good or an +inferior product for her money. + +Coffee may be adulterated in a number of ways. Ground coffee is +especially easy to adulterate with bread crumbs, bran, and similar +materials that have been thoroughly browned. Many of the cheaper coffees +are adulterated with chicory, a root that has a flavor similar to that +of coffee and gives the beverages with which it is used a reddish-brown +color. Chicory is not harmful; in fact, its flavor is sought by some +people, particularly the French. The objection to it, as well as to +other adulterants, is that it is much cheaper than coffee and the use of +it therefore increases the profits of the dealer. The presence of +chicory in coffee can be detected by putting a small amount of the +ground coffee in a glass of water. If chicory is present, the water will +become tinged with red and the chicory will settle to the bottom more +quickly than the coffee. + + +PREPARATION OF COFFEE + +25. SELECTION OF COFFEE.--Many varieties of coffee are to be had, but +Mocha, Java, and Rio are the ones most used. A single variety, however, +is seldom sold alone, because a much better flavor can be obtained from +_blend coffee_, by which is meant two or more kinds of coffee +mixed together. + +It is usually advisable to buy as good a quality of coffee as can be +afforded. The more expensive coffees have better flavor and greater +strength than the cheaper grades and consequently need not be used in +such great quantity. It is far better to serve this beverage seldom and +to have what is served the very best than to serve it so often that a +cheap grade must be purchased. For instance, some persons think that +they must have coffee for at least two out of three daily meals, but it +is usually sufficient if coffee is served once a day, and then for the +morning or midday meal rather than for the evening meal. + +After deciding on the variety of coffee that is desired, it is well to +buy unground beans that are packed in air-tight packages. Upon +receiving the coffee in the home, it should be poured into a jar or a +can and kept tightly covered. + +26. NECESSARY UTENSILS.--Very few utensils are required for coffee +making, but they should be of the best material that can be afforded in +order that good results may be had. A coffee pot, a coffee percolator, +and a drip pot, or coffee biggin, are the utensils most frequently used +for the preparation of this beverage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +27. If a COFFEE POT is preferred, it should be one made of material that +will withstand the heat of a direct flame. The cheapest coffee pots are +made of tin, but they are the least desirable and should be avoided, for +the tin, upon coming in contact with the tannic acid contained in +coffee, sometimes changes the flavor. Coffee pots made of enamelware are +the next highest in price. Then come nickel-plated ones, and, finally, +the highest-priced ones, which are made of aluminum. The usual form of +plain coffee pot is shown in Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +28. PERCOLATORS are very desirable for the making of coffee, for they +produce excellent results and at the same time make the preparation of +coffee easy. Those having an electric attachment are especially +convenient. One form of percolator is shown in Fig. 3. In this +percolator, the ground coffee is put in the filter cup _a_ and the water +in the lower part of the pot _b_. The water immediately passes into the +chamber _c_, as shown by the arrows. In this chamber, which is small, it +heats rapidly and then rises through the vertical tube _d_. At the top +_e_, it comes out in the form of a spray, strikes the glass top, and +falls back on a perforated metal plate _f_, called the spreader. It then +passes through this plate into the filter cup containing the grounds, +through which it percolates and drops into the main chamber. The +circulation of the water continues as long as sufficient heat is +applied, and the rate of circulation depends on the degree of heat. + +29. The DRIP POT, or _coffee biggin_, as it is sometimes called, one +type of which is shown in Fig. 4, is sometimes preferred for the making +of coffee. This utensil is made of metal or earthenware and operates on +the same principle as a percolator. The ground coffee is suspended above +the liquid in a cloth bag or a perforated receptacle and the water +percolates through it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +30. In case a more complicated utensil than any of those mentioned is +used for the making of coffee, the directions that accompany it will +have to be followed. But no matter what kind of utensil is selected for +the preparation of coffee, it should be thoroughly cleaned each time it +is used. To clean it, first empty any coffee it contains and then wash +every part carefully and scald and dry it. If the utensil is not clean, +the flavor of the coffee made in it will be spoiled. + +31. METHODS OF MAKING COFFEE.--Several methods are followed in the +making of coffee, the one to select depending on the result desired and +the kind of utensil to be used. The most common of these methods are: +_boiling_, which produces a decoction; _infusion_, or _filtration_, +which consists in pouring boiling water over very finely ground coffee +in order to extract its properties; and _percolating_, in which boiling +water percolates, or passes through, finely ground coffee and extracts +its flavor. For any of these methods, soft water is better than water +that contains a great deal of lime. Many times persons cannot understand +why coffee that is excellent in one locality is poor in another. In the +majority of cases, this variation is due to the difference in the water +and not to the coffee. From 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of coffee to 1 cupful +of water is the usual proportion followed in making coffee. + +32. BOILED COFFEE.--Without doubt, coffee is more often boiled in its +preparation than treated in any other way. Usually, an ordinary coffee +pot is all that is required in this method of preparation. The amount of +ground coffee used may be varied to obtain the desired strength. + +BOILED COFFEE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. cold water +1/2 c. ground coffee +3 c. boiling water + +After scalding the coffee pot, put 1/2 cupful of the cold water and the +ground coffee into it. Stir well and then add the boiling water. Allow +it to come to the boiling point and boil for 3 minutes. Pour a little of +the coffee into a cup to clear the spout of grounds, add the remaining +cupful of cold water, and put back on the stove to reheat, but not to +boil. When hot, serve at once. Never allow the liquid to stand on the +grounds for any length of time, for the longer it stands the more tannic +acid will be drawn out. + +33. As coffee made by boiling is usually somewhat cloudy, it may be +cleared in one way or another. The last cold water is added for this +purpose, for as it is heavier than the warm liquid it sinks to the +bottom and carries the grounds with it. Coffee may also be cleared by +stirring a small quantity of beaten raw egg, either the white or the +yolk, or both, into the grounds before the cold water is added to them. +One egg will clear two or three potfuls of coffee if care is exercised +in its use. What remains of the egg after the first potful has been +cleared should be placed in a small dish and set away for future use. A +little cold water poured over it will assist in preserving it. If the +egg shells are washed before the egg is broken, they may be crushed and +added to the grounds also, for they will help to clear the coffee. The +explanation of the use of egg for this purpose is that it coagulates as +the coffee heats and carries the particles of coffee down with it as +it sinks. + +34. Another very satisfactory way in which to make boiled coffee is to +tie the ground coffee loosely into a piece of cheesecloth, pour the +boiling water over it, and then let it boil for a few minutes longer +than in the method just given. Coffee prepared in this manner will be +found to be clear and therefore need not be treated in any of the ways +mentioned. + +35. FILTERED COFFEE.--When it is desired to make coffee by the filtering +process, the coffee must be ground into powder. Then it should be made +in a drip, or French, coffee pot. If one of these is not available, +cheesecloth of several thicknesses may be substituted. The advantage of +making coffee by this method is that the coffee grounds may sometimes be +used a second time. + +FILTERED COFFEE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 c. powdered coffee +1 qt. boiling water + +Place the coffee in the top of the drip pot, pour the boiling water over +it, and allow the water to drip through into the vessel below. When all +has run through, remove the water and pour it over the coffee a second +time. If cheesecloth is to be used, put the coffee in it, suspend it +over the coffee pot or other convenient utensil, and proceed as with +the drip pot. + +36. PERCOLATED COFFEE.--The coffee used for percolated coffee should be +ground finer than for boiled coffee, but not so fine as for filtered +coffee. This is perhaps the easiest way in which to prepare coffee and +at the same time the surest method of securing good coffee. + +PERCOLATED COFFEE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 c. finely ground coffee +1 qt. cold water + +Place the coffee in the perforated compartment in the top of the +percolator and pour the cold water in the lower chamber. As the water +heats, it is forced up through the vertical tube against the top. It +then falls over the coffee and percolates through into the water below. +This process begins before the water boils, but the hotter the water +becomes the more rapidly does it percolate through the coffee. The +process continues as long as the heat is applied, and the liquid becomes +stronger in flavor as it repeatedly passes through the coffee. When the +coffee has obtained the desired strength, serve at once. + +37. AFTER-DINNER COFFEE.--After a rather elaborate meal, a small cup of +very strong, black coffee is often served. To prepare after-dinner +coffee, as this kind is called, follow any of the methods already +explained, but make it twice as strong as coffee that is to accompany +the usual meal. Sugar and cream may be added to after-dinner coffee, but +usually this coffee is drunk black and unsweetened. + +38. VIENNA COFFEE.--An especially nice way in which to serve coffee is +to combine it with boiled milk and whipped cream. It is then known as +Vienna coffee. The accompanying directions are for just 1 cup, as this +is prepared a cupful at a time. + +VIENNA COFFEE +(Sufficient to Serve One) + +1/4 c. boiled milk +3 Tb. whipped cream +1/2 c. hot filtered coffee, or coffee prepared by any method + +Place the boiled milk in a cup, add the whipped cream, and fill the cup +with the hot coffee. + +39. ICED COFFEE.--Persons fond of coffee find iced coffee a most +delicious hot-weather drink. Iced coffee is usually served in a glass, +as shown in Fig. 5, rather than in a cup, and when whipped cream is +added an attractive beverage results. + +To prepare iced coffee, make coffee by any desired method, but if the +boiling method is followed be careful to strain the liquid so that it is +entirely free from grounds. Cool the liquid and then pour into glasses +containing cracked ice. Serve with plain cream and sugar or with a +tablespoonful or two of whipped cream. If desired, however, the cream +may be omitted and the coffee served with an equal amount of milk, when +it is known as _iced café au lait_. + +40. LEFT-OVER COFFEE.--The aim of the person who prepares coffee should +be to make the exact quantity needed, no more nor no less, and this can +usually be done if directions are carefully followed. However, if any +coffee remains after all are served, it should not be thrown away, as it +can be utilized in several ways. Drain the liquid from the grounds as +soon as possible so that the flavor will not be impaired. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +If desired, left-over coffee may be added to fresh coffee when it is +prepared for the next meal or, in hot weather, it may be used for iced +coffee. It may also be used to flavor gelatine, which, when sweetened +and served with whipped cream, makes an excellent dessert. Again, +left-over coffee is very satisfactory as a flavoring for cake icing, for +custards, or for whipped cream that is to be served with desserts. When +coffee is desired for flavoring, it should be boiled in order to +evaporate some of the water. Very good cake is made by using left-over +coffee for the liquid and spices for the flavoring. + + +SERVING COFFEE + +41. The serving of coffee may be done in several ways, but, with the +exception of iced coffee, this beverage should always be served as hot +as possible. As can well be imagined, nothing is more insipid than +lukewarm coffee. Therefore, coffee is preferably made immediately before +it is to be served. Sugar and cream usually accompany coffee, but they +may be omitted if they are not desired. + +Coffee may be served with the dinner course, with the dessert, or after +the dessert. When it is served with the dinner course or the dessert, a +coffee cup or a tea cup of ordinary size is used; but when it is served +after the dessert, a demi-tasse, or small cup that holds less than half +the amount of the other size, is preferable. Usually, after-dinner +coffee, or _café noir_, as such black coffee is called, rather than +coffee with cream and sugar, is served after the dessert course of a +heavy dinner because it is supposed to be stimulating to the digestion. + +The pouring of coffee may be done at the table or in the kitchen. If it +is done at the table, the person serving should ask those to be served +whether or not they desire cream and sugar, and then serve accordingly. +If it is done before the coffee is brought to the table, the cream and +sugar should be passed, so that those served may help themselves to the +desired amount. Care should always be taken in the serving of coffee not +to fill the cup so full that it will run over or that it will be too +full to handle easily when the cream and sugar are added. + + * * * * * + +TEA + +HISTORY AND PRODUCTION + +42. TEA consists of the prepared leaves or leaf buds of a plant known as +the tea plant and is used as one of the three stimulating beverages. +This plant is grown in China, Japan, India, Ceylon, and the East Indies, +and to a small extent in South Carolina. There are two distinct +varieties of tea, and each one may be used for the preparation of either +green or black tea. The leaves of the tea plant, which are what is used +for making the beverage, are gathered four times a year from the time +the plants are 4 years old until they are 10 or 12 years old. Then the +plants are pulled up and new ones planted. Upon being gathered, the +leaves are put through a series of processes before they are ready for +use. During this treatment, various modifications of flavor are +developed and the leaves are changed in color to black or green, +depending on the process used. + +43. It is surprising to most persons to learn that tea was known in +China for many years before people began to make a beverage of it. The +first record of its use as a beverage was probably in the 6th century, +when an infusion of tea leaves was given to a ruler of the Chinese +Empire to cure a headache. A century later, tea had come into common use +as a beverage in that country. As civilization advanced and new +countries were formed, tea was introduced as a beverage, and today there +is scarcely a locality in which it is not commonly used. + +44. CLASSIFICATION OF TEA AS TO QUALITY.--The position of the leaf on +the tea plant determines the quality of the tea. The farther from the +top, the coarser are the leaves and the poorer is the quality. On the +other hand, the smaller the leaves and the nearer the top, the better is +the quality. In the very best qualities of tea, the buds of the plant +are included with the tiny top leaves. + +45. Tea that is raised in China is graded in a particular way, and it +will be well to understand this grading. The top buds are used entirely +for a variety known as _flowery pekoe_, but this is seldom found in our +markets. The youngest leaves next to the buds are made into a tea called +_orange pekoe_; the next older leaves are used for _pekoe_; the third, +for _souchong first_; the fourth, for _souchong second_; the fifth, for +_congou_; and if there is another leaf, it is made into a tea known as +_bohea_. Sometimes the first three leaves are mixed, and when this is +done the tea is called _pekoe_. If they are mixed with the next two, the +tea is called _souchong pekoe_. The laws controlling the importation of +tea require that each shipment be tested before it passes the custom +house, to determine whether or not it contains what the label claims +for it. + +46. VARIETIES OF TEA.--The teas that are put on the market are of two +general varieties, _black tea_ and _green tea_. Any quality of tea or +tea raised in any country may be made into these two kinds, for, as has +been mentioned, it is the method of preparation that is accountable for +the difference. A number of the common brands of tea are blends or +mixtures of green and black tea. These, which are often called _mixed +teas_, are preferred by many persons to the pure tea of either kind. + +47. BLACK TEA is made by fermenting the tea leaves before they are +dried. This fermentation turns them black and produces a marked change +in their flavor. The process of preparation also renders some of the +tannin insoluble; that is, not so much of it can be dissolved when the +beverage is made. Some well-known brands of black tea are _China +congou_, or _English breakfast_, _Formosa_, _oolong_, and the various +_pekoes_. The English are especially fond of black tea, and the people +of the United States have followed their custom to the extent that it +has become a favorite in this country. + +48. GREEN TEA is made by steaming the leaves and then drying them, a +process that retains the green color. With tea of this kind, all +fermentation of the leaves is carefully avoided. Some familiar kinds of +green tea are _hyson_, _Japan_, and _gunpowder_. The best of these are +the ones that come from Japan. + + +PREPARATION OF TEA + +49. SELECTION OF TEA.--In the course of its preparation, tea is rolled +either into long, slender pieces or into little balls. Knowing this, the +housewife should be able to detect readily the stems and other foreign +material sometimes found in teas, especially the cheaper varieties. Such +teas should be avoided, for they are lacking not only in flavor but also +in strength. If economy must be practiced, the moderately expensive +grades will prove to be the best ones to buy. + +50. METHODS OF MAKING TEA.--Upon steeping tea in hot water, a very +pleasant beverage results. If this is properly made, a gentle stimulant +that can be indulged in occasionally by normal adults without harmful +results can be expected. However, the value of tea as a beverage has at +all times been much overestimated. When it is served as afternoon tea, +as is frequently done, its chief value lies in the pleasant hospitality +that is afforded by pouring it. Especially is this the case in England, +where the inhabitants have adopted the pretty custom of serving +afternoon tea and feel that guests have not received the hospitality of +the home until tea has been served. Through their continued use of this +beverage, the English have become expert in tea making. + +51. The Russians are also adepts so far as the making of tea is +concerned. They use a very good kind of tea, called _caravan tea_, which +is packed in lead-covered packages and brought to them by caravans. This +method of packing and delivery is supposed to have a ripening effect on +the leaves and to give them an unusually good flavor. For making tea, +the Russians use an equipment called a _samovar_. This is an urn that is +constantly kept filled with boiling water, so that tea can be served to +all visitors or callers that come, no matter what time of day +they arrive. + +52. Most persons, however, make tea into a beverage by steeping it in +boiling water or by placing it in a tea ball or some similar utensil and +then allowing it to stand in boiling water for a short time. Whichever +method of preparation is followed, the water must be at the boiling +point and it must be freshly boiled. Water that has been boiled for any +length of time becomes very insipid and flat to the taste and affects +the flavor of the tea. Tea leaves that have been used once should never +be resteeped, for more tannin is extracted than is desirable and the +good tea flavor is lost, producing a very unwholesome beverage. As a +rule, 1 to 1-1/2 teaspoonfuls of tea to 1 cupful of water is the +proportion followed in tea making. + +53. STEEPED TEA.--When tea is to be steeped, a teapot is used. That the +best results may be secured, the teapot should always be freshly scalded +and the water freshly boiled. + +STEEPED TEA +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. tea +1 qt. boiling water + +Scald the teapot. Put the tea into the teapot and pour the boiling water +over it. Let stand on the back of the stove for 3 minutes, when a +beverage of sufficient strength will be formed. Strain the beverage from +the tea leaves and serve at once. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +54. AFTERNOON TEA.--When tea is desired for afternoon serving or when it +is to be prepared at the table, a _tea ball_ is the most satisfactory +utensil to use. This is a perforated silver or aluminum ball, such as +shown in Fig. 6, which opens by means of a hinge and into which the tea +is placed. For convenience in use, a chain is attached to the ball and +ends in a ring that is large enough to slip over the finger. Some +teapots contain a ball attached to the inside of the lid and suspended +inside the pot. Utensils of this kind are very convenient, for when the +tea made in them becomes strong enough, the leaves may be removed +without pouring off the tea. + +To prepare afternoon tea with a tea ball, put 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of tea +in the ball, fasten it securely, and place it in a cup. Then pour enough +freshly boiled water over the ball to fill the cup to the desired +height. Allow the ball to remain in the water until the desired strength +is attained and then remove it. If more than 2 or 3 persons are to be +served, it will be necessary to refill the ball. + +55. ICED TEA.--Perhaps one of the most refreshing drinks for warm +weather is iced tea. A tea that is especially blended for this purpose +and that is cheaper in price than other tea may be purchased. Slices of +lemon or crushed mint leaves add much to the flavor of the tea and are +often served with it. + +Prepare tea by steeping it, but make it double strength. Strain it from +the leaves and allow it to become cool. Then pour it into glasses +containing cracked ice. Serve with sugar and slices of lemon or +mint leaves. + +56. LEFT-OVER TEA.--Tea that remains after all persons are served need +not be wasted if it is poured off the leaves at once. Such tea is +satisfactory for iced tea, or it may be combined with certain fruit +juices in the preparation of various cold beverages. However, there are +not many satisfactory uses for left-over tea; so it is best to take +pains not to make more than will be required for one time. + + +SERVING TEA + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +57. Tea may be served as an accompaniment to meals or with small +sandwiches, dainty cakes, or macaroons as an afternoon ceremony. If it +is served with meals and is poured at the table, the hostess or the one +pouring asks those to be served whether they desire sugar and cream and +then uses these accompaniments accordingly. In the event that it is +brought to the table poured, the sugar and cream are passed and those +served may help themselves to what they desire. Lemon adds much to the +flavor of tea and is liked by most persons. A dish of sliced lemon may +be passed with the cream and sugar or placed where the hostess may add +it to the tea. The Russians, who are inveterate tea drinkers, prepare +this beverage by putting a slice of lemon in the cup and then pouring +the hot tea over it. If this custom is followed, the lemons should be +washed and sliced very thin and the seeds should be removed from the +slices. The flavor may also be improved by sticking a few cloves in each +slice of lemon; or, if the clove flavor is desired, several cloves may +be put in the teapot when the tea is made. Fig. 7 shows slices of lemons +ready to be served with tea. Some of them, as will be observed, have +cloves stuck in them. + +Lemon is almost always served with iced tea, for it adds a delightful +flavor. If it is not squeezed into the glass, it should be cut into +quarters or eighths lengthwise and then cut across so that small +triangular pieces are formed. These are much easier to handle than +whole slices. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +58. In the serving of afternoon tea, the pouring of the tea is the main +thing, and the remainder of the service simply complements this pleasant +ceremony. Tiny sandwiches, small cakes, or macaroons usually accompany +the tea, while such confections as candied orange peel, stuffed dates, +or salted nuts are often served also. When sandwiches are used, they may +be merely bread-and-butter sandwiches or they may contain marmalade or +any desired filling. The principal requirement is that they be made as +small and thin as possible, so that they will be extremely dainty in +appearance. + +59. A _tea cozy_ is a convenient device to use when tea is served from +the pot. It consists of a padded cap, or cover, that may be slipped over +the teapot to prevent the heat from escaping after the tea is infused. +It is made of several thicknesses of material in a shape and size that +will slip over the teapot easily and can then be removed when the tea +is to be poured. This can be made very attractive by means of a nicely +embroidered cover. + +60. Fig. 8 shows an attractive table that may be used for serving tea. +The top folds over vertically, so that when the table is not in use it +may be disposed of by placing it against the wall of a room. This table +holds nothing except the pot containing the tea, which must be made in +the kitchen and placed in the pot before it is brought to the table, the +sugar and cream, the teacups, and the lemon. Sandwiches, wafers, or +cakes that are to be served with the tea should be passed to the guests. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +61. Fig. 9 shows a tea wagon and the equipment for making tea, with the +sandwiches and cakes to be served arranged on a muffin stand, or Lazy +Susan. When tea is to be made with an equipment of this kind, the water +is heated in the little kettle by means of the alcohol burner. The can +with the long spout contains an extra supply of alcohol with which to +keep the burner filled. The tea ball, which is in the little glass, is +filled with tea and the boiling water is poured over it into each cup. +The ball is allowed to remain until the tea is of the desired strength, +when it is removed and used for another cup, provided sufficient +strength remains in the tea leaves. + +The silver tea caddy at the back of the wagon contains the tea, and +lemon with a fork for serving it is on a small plate near the front of +the wagon. Napkins and plates for the cakes and sandwiches are on the +lower part of the wagon. The napkins and plates are first passed; then +the tea is served with the sandwiches, after which cakes are served. + + * * * * * + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + +NATURE AND SELECTION + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +62. COCOA and CHOCOLATE are made from the fruit of the cacao, or +chocolate, tree. This tree is native to Mexico, where cocoa was first +used as a beverage, but it is also grown in South America and the West +Indies. The fruit of this tree was named _cocoa Theobroma_, which means +"food for the gods," because of its excellent flavor. The original +natives of Mexico and Peru used cocoa in place of money. When the +Spanish invaded these countries, they learned its use and took it back +to Spain, where it is still a popular beverage. In many localities in +Spain it became a fashionable morning drink, but it was also served at +other times. + +63. PRODUCTION OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--The fruit of the cacao tree is +in the form of pods from 6 to 10 inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in +diameter. These pods are filled with a white, pulpy mass in which are +embedded from twenty to forty seeds about twice the size and very much +the shape of kidney beans. Fig. 10 shows the three stages of the +treatment through which the seeds are put before they can be used for a +beverage. After they are removed from the pod, they are fermented and +then dried, when they appear as at _a_. In this form they are packed in +bags and distributed. The beans are then roasted to develop their flavor +and are crushed into small pieces called _cocoa nibs_, as shown at _b_. +The cocoa nibs are then ground fine, when they become almost a liquid +mass because of the very large amount of fat contained in cocoa. To make +the ordinary _bitter chocolate_ used so extensively for cooking +purposes, this mass is run into shallow pans, where it hardens as it +cools. It is often flavored and sweetened and then forms the confection +known as _sweet chocolate_. The application of pressure to bitter +chocolate extracts considerable fat, which is known as _cocoa butter_ +and is used largely in creams and toilet preparations. The remaining +material is ground into a powder, as shown at _c_, and becomes the +_commercial cocoa_. + +To prevent the formation of a large amount of sediment in the bottom of +the cup, cocoa is treated with various kinds of alkali. Some of these +remain in the cocoa and are supposed to be harmful if it is taken in any +quantity. The cocoas that are treated with alkali are darker in color +than the others. The Dutch cocoas are considered to be the most soluble +and also contain the most alkali. + +64. SELECTION OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--Chocolate is usually pure in the +form in which it is sold, because it does not offer much chance for +adulteration. However, the volume of cocoa can be easily increased by +cheaper materials, such as starch, ground cocoa shells, etc. Cocoa so +adulterated should be avoided if possible. Generally the best brands, +although higher in price than others, are free from adulteration, and +from these a selection should be made. The particular brand of chocolate +or cocoa to buy must be governed by the taste of those to whom it is to +be served. + + +PREPARATION OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + +65. As a beverage, cocoa probably has greater use than chocolate; still +there are some who prefer the flavor of chocolate to that of cocoa. +Directions for preparing beverages from both of these materials are +given, with the intention that the housewife may decide for herself +which one she prefers to use. For either one, any ordinary saucepan or +kettle may be used, but those made of enamel or aluminum are best. Of +these two materials, aluminum is the better, for milk is less liable to +scorch in a vessel of this kind than in one of any other material. + +66. When chocolate is to be used for a beverage, the amount required +varies with the strength desired. Recipes for bitter chocolate usually +give the amount in squares, but no difficulty will be experienced in +determining the amount, for the cakes of chocolate are marked in squares +of 1 ounce each. If sweet chocolate is used, less sugar should, of +course, be added to the beverage. + +67. In all but the first of the recipes that follow, it will be observed +that milk is used for a part of the liquid. The quantity given makes an +excellent beverage, but more or less may be used if desired. However, if +the quantity of milk is changed, the quantity of water should be changed +accordingly. Condensed or evaporated milk may be utilized very nicely in +the making of these two beverages. Milk of this kind should, of course, +be diluted, a half-pint can requiring 2 to 3 cupfuls of water. If +condensed milk is used, less sugar than the recipe calls for may be +employed. A few drops of vanilla added just before serving always +improves the flavor of cocoa or chocolate. + +68. PLAIN COCOA.--The quickest and cheapest method of making cocoa is +explained in the recipe that follows. It may be prepared in a saucepan +and poured into the cups or it may be made in the cups themselves. To +improve the flavor of cocoa made in this way, as well as add to its food +value, cream should be served with it. Salt also is used to improve the +flavor of all cocoa and chocolate beverages. + +PLAIN COCOA +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2-1/2 Tb. cocoa +2-1/2 Tb. sugar +Few grains of salt +4 c. boiling water + +Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, form into a paste by stirring in a +little of the water, and then add the remainder of the water. Serve +with cream. + +69. BREAKFAST COCOA.--Delicious cocoa can be made by following the +directions given in the accompanying recipe. Here milk and water are +used in equal amounts. When milk is used in the preparation of this +beverage, a scum of albumin is likely to form on the top of the cups +unless care is taken. To prevent this, the cocoa, as soon as it is +prepared, should be beaten with a rotary egg beater until a fine froth +forms on top. This process is known as _milling_, and should always be +applied whenever milk is used in the preparation of these beverages. + +BREAKFAST COCOA +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. milk +2 Tb. cocoa +2 Tb. sugar +Few grains of salt +2 c. boiling water + +Scald the milk. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, form into a paste by +stirring in a little of the boiling water, and then add the scalded milk +and the remainder of the water. Beat with an egg beater until a froth is +formed and serve at once. + +70. RICH COCOA.--There are times when it is desired to serve rich cocoa, +as, for instance, with a lunch that is not high in food value or with +wafers at afternoon social affairs. The accompanying recipe explains how +to make cocoa that will be suitable for such occasions. + +RICH COCOA +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 c. milk +3 Tb. cocoa +1/4 c. sugar +Few grains of salt +1/2 c. boiling water + +Scald the milk. Stir the cocoa, sugar, and salt into a smooth paste with +the boiling water and boil for 2 or 3 minutes. Add the scalded milk, +mill, and serve. + +71. CREAMY COCOA.--When there is not very much milk on hand and still a +rich, creamy cocoa is desired, the accompanying recipe should be tried. +As will be noted, flour is used in addition to the usual ingredients. +While this is accountable for the creamy consistency of the cocoa, it +should be remembered that the cocoa must be cooked long enough to remove +the raw, starchy flavor of the flour. + +CREAMY COCOA +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 Tb. cocoa +1 Tb. flour +4 Tb. sugar +Few grains of salt +2 c. boiling water +2 c. milk + +Mix the cocoa, flour, sugar, and salt, and stir into a paste with some +of the water. Add the rest of the water, cook for 5 minutes, and then +add the milk, which has been scalded. Mill and serve. + +72. HOT CHOCOLATE.--Very good hot chocolate can be made by following +the directions here given. As will be noted, this recipe is similar to +several of those given for cocoa, except that chocolate is substituted +for the cocoa. It may therefore be used on any occasion when cocoa would +be served. It is especially delicious when served with a tablespoonful +or two of whipped cream. + +HOT CHOCOLATE + +2 c. milk +1-1/2 sq. unsweetened chocolate +1/4 c. sugar +Few grains of salt +2 c. boiling water + +Scald the milk. Melt the chocolate over the fire, add the sugar and +salt, and gradually stir in the boiling water. Place over the fire, let +boil for 2 or 3 minutes, and add the scalded milk. Mill and serve plain +or with whipped cream. + +73. ICED COCOA OR CHOCOLATE.--An excellent warm-weather beverage +consists of cold cocoa or cold chocolate served either with or without +sweetened whipped cream. Prepare the cocoa or chocolate according to any +of the recipes already given and then allow it to cool. Fill glasses +with cracked ice, pour the cocoa or chocolate over it, and serve either +with or without sweetened whipped cream. + +74. LEFT-OVER COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--As the materials used in the +preparation of cocoa and chocolate are rather expensive, not the +slightest quantity of these beverages that remains after serving should +be wasted. However, a small amount of chocolate usually has to be added +so that it will have a stronger flavor. It may then be thickened with +corn starch for chocolate blanc mange or with gelatine for chocolate +jelly. Either of these served with whipped cream or a sauce of some kind +makes an excellent dessert. Chocolate bread pudding may also be flavored +with these left-over beverages. + +It is also a good plan to utilize left-over cocoa or chocolate for +flavoring purposes. However, additional cocoa or chocolate and sugar +should first be added to it, and the mixture should then be boiled to a +sirup. When so prepared it may be used whenever a chocolate flavoring is +desired, such as for flavoring other beverages, cake icings, custards, +sauces for desserts, and ice creams. + + +SERVING COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + +75. When cocoa or chocolate is used to accompany meals, it is served in +the usual sized teacup. However, when either of these beverages is +served at receptions or instead of tea in the afternoon, regular +chocolate cups, which hold only about half as much as teacups, are used. +An attractive chocolate service to use for special occasions is shown in +Fig. 11. The cocoa or chocolate is prepared in the kitchen, but is +served to the guests from a chocolate pot, such as the one shown, in +tall cups that match the chocolate pot in design. If such a service is +not available, the cocoa or chocolate may be poured into the cups in the +kitchen and then brought to the guests on a tray. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +Besides sugar, which is generally added in the preparation of cocoa and +chocolate, cream usually accompanies these beverages, especially when +they are made without milk or with only a little. If the cream is +whipped and slightly sweetened, a spoonful or two will be sufficient to +render the beverage delightful. In case no cream is on hand, +marshmallows make a very good substitute. One of these should be placed +in the bottom of each cup and the hot beverage poured over it. The +marshmallow softens and rises to the top. When marshmallows are to be +added to cocoa, less sugar should be used in its preparation. + + * * * * * + +NON-STIMULATING BEVERAGES + +CEREAL BEVERAGES + +76. NON-STIMULATING BEVERAGES are those which contain neither stimulant +nor alcohol. They are the ones usually depended on to carry nutrition +into the body and to provide the necessary refreshment. In this class of +beverages come the various cereal beverages, fruit drinks, soft drinks, +and milk-and-egg drinks. With the exception of the cereal beverages, +these drinks are of a very refreshing nature, for they are served as +cold as possible and they contain materials that make them very pleasing +to the taste. Most of them can be prepared in the home at much less cost +than they can be purchased commercially prepared or at soda fountains; +so it is well for the housewife to be familiar with their nature and +their preparation. + +77. CEREAL BEVERAGES, as the name implies, are made from cereals. Of +these, the _cereal coffees_ are perhaps the most common. They contain +nothing that is harmful, and are slightly beneficial in that they assist +in giving the body some of the necessary liquid. However, they have +absolutely no food value and are therefore of no importance in the diet +except to take the place of stimulating beverages that are likely to +injure those who drink them. They are made of cereals to which sugar or +molasses is added, and the whole is then baked until the cereals brown +and the sugar caramelizes, the combination producing a flavor much like +that of coffee. Plain roasted wheat or bran can be used very well as a +substitute in the making of these beverages. In the parts of the country +where rye is extensively grown, it is roasted in the oven until it is an +even brown in color. It is then used almost exclusively by some persons +to make _rye coffee_, a beverage that closely resembles coffee +in flavor. + +78. The _instantaneous cereal beverages_ are made by drawing all the +flavor possible out of the material by means of water. The water is then +evaporated and the hard substance that remains is ground until it is +almost a powder. When water is added again, this substance becomes +soluble instantly. _Instantaneous_ coffee is prepared in the same way. +The way in which to use these beverages depends, of course, on the kind +selected, but no difficulty will be experienced in their preparation, +for explicit directions are always found in or on all packages +containing them. + + * * * * * + +FRUIT BEVERAGES + +INGREDIENTS FOR FRUIT BEVERAGES + +79. FRUIT BEVERAGES are those which contain fruit and fruit juices for +their foundation. As there are many kinds of fruit that can be used for +this purpose, almost endless variety can be obtained in the making of +these beverages. One of the important features is that a great deal of +nourishment can be incorporated into them by the materials used. In +addition, the acids of fruits are slightly antiseptic and are +stimulating to the digestion as well as beneficial to the blood. + +80. Lemon juice, when mixed with other fruit juices, seems to intensify +the flavor. Because of this fact, practically all the recipes for fruit +beverages include this juice as one of the ingredients. The combination +of pineapple and lemon yields a greater quantity of flavor for +beverages, ices, etc. than any other two fruit flavors. Juice may be +extracted from all fruits easily. To obtain lemon juice for a fruit +beverage, first soften the fruit by pressing it between the hand and a +hard surface, such as a table top, or merely soften it with the hands. +Then cut it in two, crosswise, and drill the juice out, as shown in Fig. +12, by placing each half over a drill made of glass or aluminum and +turning it around and around until all the juice is extracted. To remove +the seeds and pulp, strain the juice through a wire strainer. The juice +from oranges and grapefruit, if they are not too large, may be extracted +in the same way. + +81. It is not always necessary to extract juices from fresh fruit for +fruit beverages; in fact, juice from canned fruit or juice especially +canned for beverage making is the kind most frequently employed. For +instance, in the canning of fruit there is often a large quantity of +juice left over that most persons use for jelly. It is a good plan to +can this juice just as it is and then use it with lemon juice or other +fruit juices for these beverages. Also, juices that remain after all the +fruit has been used from a can may be utilized in the same way, no +matter what the kind or the quantity. In fact, unless otherwise stated +in the recipes that follow, the fruit juices given, with the exception +of orange and lemon juice, are those taken from canned fruit or juices +canned especially for beverage making. These juices also lend themselves +admirably to various other uses, for, as has already been learned, they +are used in ices, gelatine desserts, salad dressing, pudding sauces, +etc. Therefore, no fruit juice should ever be wasted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +82. The clear-fruit beverages become more attractive when they are +garnished in some way. A slice of lemon, orange, or pineapple, or a +fresh strawberry put into each glass improves the flavor and makes the +beverage more appetizing. Red, yellow, and green cherries may be bought +in bottles and used for such purposes. As these are usually preserved in +wine and are artificially colored, many persons object to their use. A +good substitute for them is candied cherries. These can be bought from +any confectioner and do very well when a red decoration is desired. + + +PREPARATION OF FRUIT BEVERAGES + +83. LEMONADE.--Next to water, no other drink is so refreshing nor +quenches the thirst to so great an extent as lemonade. Lemonade is +suitable for many occasions, and as lemons can be purchased at any time +of the year it can be made at almost any season. The lemon sirup +prepared for this beverage may be used as desired, for if it is put in a +cool place it will keep for a long time. The more the sirup is boiled +down, the better will it keep. A tablespoonful or two of glucose or corn +sirup added to such mixtures when they are boiled will help to keep them +from crystallizing when they stand. + +LEMONADE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. sugar +1 qt. water +1/2 c. lemon juice + +Make a sirup by boiling the sugar and water for a few minutes, and set +aside to cool. Add the lemon juice and then dilute with ice water to +suit the taste. Serve in glasses and garnish each one with a slice of +lemon or a red cherry. + +84. ORANGEADE.--While not so acid in flavor as lemonade, orangeade is +also a delightful drink. On warm days, drinks of this kind should take +the place of the hot ones that are generally used during the +cold weather. + +ORANGEADE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3/4 c. sugar +1 qt. water +1/2 c. orange juice +3 Tb. lemon juice + +Make a sirup of the sugar and 1 cupful of the water. Allow this to +become cool and then add the fruit juices and the remaining water. Pour +into glasses and garnish each glass with a slice of orange, a red +cherry, or a fresh strawberry. + +85. GRAPE LEMONADE.--An excellent combination in the way of a beverage +is lemonade and grape juice. Besides adding flavor to the lemonade, the +grape juice gives it a delightful color. + +GRAPE LEMONADE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. lemonade +1 c. grape juice + +Prepare the lemonade in the manner explained in Art. 83. Add the grape +juice to the lemonade and stir well. Serve ice cold in glasses. + +86. PINEAPPLE LEMONADE.--Another variation of lemonade is produced when +pineapple juice is added to it. To garnish this beverage, a slice of +lemon and a spoonful of grated pineapple are generally used. This +pineapple beverage is delightful with wafers or small cakes as +refreshments for informal social affairs during hot weather. + +PINEAPPLE LEMONADE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. water +3/4 c. sugar +3 c. ice water +1 c. juice from canned pineapple +3 lemons + +Make a sirup of the water and sugar, and set aside to cool. Add the ice +water, the pineapple juice, and the juice of the lemons. Stir well, +strain, and serve. Garnish with a slice of lemon and a spoonful of +grated pineapple added to each glass. + +87. MINT JULEP.--Mint drinks are not served so often as some of the +other fruit beverages, but those with whom they find favor will +undoubtedly be delighted with mint julep prepared according to the +following recipe: + +MINT JULEP +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +4 sprigs mint +1 c. sugar +1 qt. water +1 c. red cherry juice +1/2 c. pineapple juice +1/2 c. orange juice +1/4 c. lemon juice + +Crush the mint with the sugar, using a potato masher or a large spoon. +Add the water and fruit juices and strain. Serve over crushed ice and +garnish the glasses with sprigs of mint. Tall, narrow glasses are +especially attractive for serving this drink. + +88. FRUIT NECTAR.--The term nectar was used by the early Greeks to mean +the drink of the gods. Now it is often applied to an especially +delightful beverage. Pineapple combined with lemon is always good, but +when orange juice is also used, an excellent nectar is the result. + +FRUIT NECTAR +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +3/4 c. sugar +2 c. water +1-1/2 c. orange juice +1 c. pineapple juice +1/2 c. lemon juice + +Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and then cool. Add the fruit +juices, strain, and serve over cracked ice. + +89. RED-RASPBERRY NECTAR.--A beverage that is pleasing to the eye, as +well as delightful to the taste, can be made by combining red-raspberry +juice and lemon juice with the required amount of sugar and water. The +juice from canned raspberries may be used for this drink. + +RED-RASPBERRY NECTAR +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 c. sugar +2 c. water +1/2 c. lemon juice +1-1/2 c. red raspberry juice + +Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and allow the sirup to become +cool. Then add the fruit juices, strain, and serve over cracked ice. + +90. SPICE CUP.--Occasionally a spice drink seems to be just what is +desired. When this is the case, the directions given in the accompanying +recipe for spice cup should be followed. + +SPICE CUP +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1-1/2 c. sugar +1-1/2 pt water +12 cloves +2-in. stick cinnamon +3 lemons +4 oranges +2 drops oil of wintergreen + +Boil the sugar, water, and spices together for 5 minutes and allow the +sirup to become cool. Add the juice of the lemons and oranges and the +wintergreen oil and serve in glasses over cracked ice. Garnish each +glass with slices of orange and lemon or a piece of preserved ginger. + +91. FRUIT PUNCH.--As fruit beverages are very often served at small +receptions, club meetings, or parties, a recipe that will make a +sufficiently large quantity is often desired. The amounts mentioned in +the following recipe will make enough fruit punch to serve thirty to +forty persons if punch glasses are used, or sixteen to twenty if +ordinary drinking glasses are used. + +FRUIT PUNCH + +2-1/2 c. sugar +1 qt. water +2 c. fruit juice (raspberry, strawberry, or cherry) +6 oranges +6 lemons +1 pt. can grated pineapple +1 c. strong black tea (strained) +1 qt. carbonated water + +Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and allow the sirup to become +cool. Then add the fruit juice, the juice of the oranges and lemons, the +pineapple, and the tea. Just before serving, add the carbonated water, +which lends a sparkling appearance and a snappy taste to a beverage of +this kind. Pour over cracked ice into sherbet or punch glasses or into +tall narrow ones. + +92. GINGER-ALE PUNCH.--As most persons like the flavor of ginger ale, +punch containing ginger ale is always a favorite when a large company of +persons is to be served. The quantity that the accompanying recipe makes +will serve twenty to twenty-five persons if punch glasses are used, or +ten to twelve persons if drinking glasses are used. + +GINGER-ALE PUNCH + +1-1/2 c. sugar +1 pt. water +2 lemons +3 oranges +1 pt. grape juice +4 sprigs fresh mint (crushed) +1 lemon sliced thin +1 qt. ginger ale + +Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and allow the sirup to become +cool. Drill the juice from the lemons and oranges and add this with the +grape juice, crushed mint, and sliced lemon to the sirup. Just before +using, add the ginger ale and serve over cracked ice. + + +SOFT DRINKS + +93. A class of very popular non-stimulating beverages are the SOFT +DRINKS sold at the soda fountains. Many of them can also be bought in +bottles and so may be purchased and served at home. These drinks really +consist of carbonated water and a flavoring material that is either +prepared chemically and colored or made of fruit extracts. Sometimes ice +cream is added, and the drink is then called _ice-cream soda_. + +94. Soft drinks include phosphates, ginger ale, coca cola, birch beer, +root beer, and various other drinks called mashes, sours, and freezes. +While these are pleasing to the taste and have the advantage of being +ready to drink when prepared, it is advisable not to indulge in them too +frequently, because excessive use of them is liable to affect the +system. Besides, beverages that are just as satisfactory as these so far +as flavor is concerned and that are made of much better material can be +prepared at home at far less cost. With these drinks, as with other +commercially prepared articles of food, the cost of preparation and +service in addition to the cost of materials must be paid for by +the consumer. + + +NOURISHING BEVERAGES + +95. Many times it is necessary or desirable to administer food in the +form of liquid. When this is to be done, as much nourishment as possible +should generally be incorporated into the beverage. To meet such a need, +the following recipes are presented. In each case, the quantities +mentioned make a drink sufficient for only one person, so that if more +than one are to be served the amounts should be multiplied by the number +desired. The food materials used in these drinks are easily digested, +and the beverages are comparatively high in food value. + +96. At most soda fountains, these nourishing drinks are offered for +sale, so that if one does not desire the work of preparation, they may +be obtained at such places. However, as practically all the ingredients +are materials used in the home and are therefore nearly always on hand +in most households, drinks of this kind may be prepared at home at much +less cost than when purchased already made. The main thing to remember +in their preparation is that the ingredients should be as cold as +possible and that the beverage should be cold when served. + +97. The beverages containing eggs may be made in more than one way. They +may be mixed in a bowl or an enamelware dish with a rounded bottom and +then beaten with a rotary egg beater, or they may be mixed in a metal +shaker designed especially for this purpose and then shaken thoroughly +in that. In drinks of this kind, the point to remember is that the eggs +should be beaten or shaken until they are light and foamy. + +98. CHOCOLATE SIRUP.--While chocolate sirup is not a beverage in itself, +it is used to such an extent in beverages, as well as an accompaniment +to numerous desserts, that it is well for the housewife to know how to +prepare it. It may be kept an indefinite length of time if it is put +into a glass jar and sealed. Here, as in the preparation of other +sirups, a tablespoonful or two of corn sirup or glucose will help to +keep the sirup from crystallizing. + +CHOCOLATE SIRUP + +4 sq. chocolate +1 c. water +3/4 c. sugar + +Melt the chocolate in a saucepan, stir in the water, and add the sugar. +Boil until a thick sirup is formed. + +99. PLAIN MILK SHAKE.--A pleasant variation for milk is the plain milk +shake here given. Even those who are not fond of milk and find it hard +to take like it when it is prepared in this way. + +PLAIN MILK SHAKE + +1 c. milk +2 tsp. sugar +Few drops of vanilla +Dash of nutmeg + +Beat all the ingredients together with an egg beater or shake well in a +shaker and serve in a glass with cracked ice. + +100. EGG MILK SHAKE.--The simplest form of egg drink is the egg milk +shake explained in the accompanying recipe. This is an extremely +nutritious drink and is often served to invalids and persons who must +have liquid nourishment. + +EGG MILK SHAKE + +3/4 c. milk +1 egg +1 Tb. sugar +Pinch of salt +Few drops of vanilla + +Mix all the ingredients and beat the mixture with a rotary beater or +shake it in a shaker. Serve in a glass over cracked ice. + +101. EGG CHOCOLATE.--The addition of chocolate to an egg milk shake +improves it very much and makes a drink called egg chocolate. + +EGG CHOCOLATE + +3/4 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. chocolate sirup +Few drops of vanilla +Pinch of salt + +Mix all the materials and beat with an egg beater or shake thoroughly in +a shaker. Serve in a glass with cracked ice. + +102. CHOCOLATE MALTED MILK.--A preparation that is much used in +nourishing drinks and that furnishes a great deal of nutrition is malted +milk. This is made from cow's milk and is blended by a scientific +process with malted grains. It comes in powder form and may be purchased +in bottles of various sizes. It is well to keep a good brand of malted +milk on hand, as there are various uses to which it can be put. + +CHOCOLATE MALTED MILK + +3/4 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. malted milk +2 Tb. chocolate sirup +Few drops of vanilla +Pinch of salt + +Mix and shake in a shaker or beat with a rotary egg beater. Serve in a +glass with cracked ice. + +103. ORANGE EGG NOG.--The accompanying recipe for egg nog requires +orange for its flavoring, but any fruit juice may be substituted for the +orange if desired. Pineapple and apricot juices are exceptionally good. + +ORANGE EGG NOG + +1/4 c. cream +1/4 c. milk +1 egg +1 Tb. sugar +2 oranges + +Mix the cream, milk, egg, and sugar, beat well with an egg beater, and +continue beating while adding the juice of the oranges. Serve in a glass +over crushed ice. + +104. FOAMY EGG NOG.--An egg nog can be made foamy and light by +separating the eggs and beating the yolks and whites separately. Either +cream or milk may be used for this drink, and it may be flavored with +vanilla or fruit juice, as preferred. A small piece of red jelly beaten +into the egg white makes this drink very attractive; or, jelly may be +used as a flavoring and beaten with the ingredients. + +FOAMY EGG NOG + +2 eggs +1 Tb. sugar +1/2 c. cream or milk +2 Tb. fruit juice or 1/2 tsp. vanilla + +Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Mix the yolks with the sugar, +cream or milk, and the fruit juice or vanilla and beat thoroughly. Beat +the whites stiff and fold into the first mixture, retaining a +tablespoonful of the beaten white. Pour into a tall glass, put the +remaining white on top, and serve. + + * * * * * + +BEVERAGES + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) What is a beverage? + +(2) What does boiling do to: (_a_) hard water? (_b_) impure water? + +(3) What is the value of beverages in the diet? + +(4) Mention and define the three classes of beverages. + +(5) (_a_) What are caffeine, theine, and theobromine? (_b_) Where is +each found? (_c_) What effect do they have on the human body? + +(6) (_a_) Where is tannic acid found? (_b_) What effect does it have on +the human body? + +(7) Tell briefly about the preparation of coffee for the market. + +(8) How should coffee be bought? + +(9) What are the general proportions of coffee and liquid used in the +making of coffee? + +(10) What use can be made of left-over coffee? + +(11) Tell briefly about the preparation of black and green tea for the +market. + +(12) What points should be observed in the selection of tea? + +(13) What general proportions of tea and water are used for the making +of tea? + +(14) Tell briefly about the preparation of cocoa and chocolate for the +market. + +(15) What advantage have cocoa and chocolate over tea and coffee as. +articles of food? + +(16) What use can be made of left-over cocoa and chocolate? + +(17) (_a_) How are cereal coffees made? (_b_) Of what value are they? + +(18) Of what value are fruit beverages? + +(19) What uses can be made of left-over fruit juices? + +(20) What good use can be made of nourishing beverages? + + * * * * * + + + +THE PLANNING OF MEALS + + * * * * * + +NECESSITY FOR CAREFUL MEAL PLANNING + +1. As every housewife realizes, the feeding of the members of her family +places upon her serious and important responsibilities. While she +deserves and receives credit for their good health, the blame for much +of their ill health falls upon her, too. The reason for this is that +illness is due in a greater measure to wrong food than to any other +single factor; and even if improper diet is not directly responsible for +ill health, it certainly lowers the bodily resistance and thus makes a +person susceptible to disease. + +The health of her family is naturally the housewife's first and greatest +consideration, and as this depends so much on correct diet, it should be +the aim of every housewife to plan her meals in the careful, intelligent +way required to supply her household with the food each member needs. + +2. As has already been learned, a knowledge of the selection, care, and +preparation of food is absolutely necessary in providing proper diet. +But correct feeding requires more than this. In addition, the housewife +must have a working knowledge of what foods contain and their effect in +the body. She must also learn what her family needs and then make every +effort to supply this need in the most economical way. The result will +be a sufficient amount of food of the right kind at a minimum +expenditure of funds. + +She should keep in mind, however, that the cost of diet has no direct +relation to its food value, but that economy and proper feeding are +closely connected. For instance, an inexpensive diet may be just as +satisfactory from a food-value standpoint as an expensive one. But in +order to make the inexpensive one adequate and the expensive one +balanced, the housewife must apply her knowledge of the general +composition of food; that is, she must know whether a food predominates +in carbohydrate, fat, or protein, and whether or not it furnishes +minerals. Equipped with such knowledge, she will be able to purchase the +largest amount of nutritive material for the smallest outlay of money. +The cheapest food is not always the one that sells for the lowest price +per pound, quart, or bushel, but the one that furnishes the most +nutritive material at the lowest cost; also, food that is the wrong kind +to serve is not an economical one to purchase. + +3. Many housewives regard it as unnecessary to plan beforehand and +persist in preparing meals without giving any previous thought to them. +But to begin thinking about an hour before meal time what to have for a +meal is neither wise nor economical, for then it is too late to +determine what ought to be served from a diet standpoint and there can +be prepared only those foods which the time will allow. As can well be +understood, this is both a disastrous plan for correct diet and a very +extravagant way in which to feed a family. Quickly broiled steaks and +chops, commercially canned vegetables and fruits, and prepared desserts +should be the occasional treat rather than the daily food. Instead of +using these constantly, time should be allowed for the preparation of +the less expensive meats and vegetables and the home-made desserts. + +To prepare such foods successfully requires that meals should be planned +at least 24 hours before they are to be served, and in reality the main +dishes should be decided on 48 hours ahead of time. Then, sometime +between breakfast and luncheon and before the day's marketing is done, +detailed plans should be made for luncheon and dinner of that day and +for breakfast of the next. Nor should the left-overs be disregarded if +economy would be the watchword in the management of the household. +Rather, they should be included in the plans for each day and used up as +fast as possible. + + * * * * * + +PURCHASE OF FOODS + +SUCCESSFUL MARKETING + +4. The truly economical housewife will find it necessary each day to +determine three things: (1) what is left from yesterday's meals and what +use can be made of it; (2) what is in supply that can be used for that +day; and (3) what must be added to these things to provide satisfactory +meals for the family. Having determined these points, she should make a +list of the articles that she must purchase when she does her marketing. +A pad fastened to the kitchen wall and a pencil on a string attached to +the pad are convenient for this purpose. At the same time, they serve as +a reminder that when all of any article, such as coffee, sugar, baking +powder, etc., has been used, a note should be made of this fact. To her +list of supplies that have become exhausted since her preceding +marketing day should be added the fresh fruits, vegetables, and other +perishable foods needed for the next day or preferably for the next two +days if they can be kept. + +5. It is only with proper preparation that the housewife may expect her +marketing trips to be successful. If she starts to market with merely +two or three items in mind and then tries to think of what she needs as +she orders, not only does she waste the grocer's time, but her marketing +trip will be a failure. After she arrives home, she will find that there +are other things she should have purchased, and the grocer will be +forced to make an extra delivery to bring them to her. This is more than +she has a right to expect, for the grocer should not be obliged to pay +for her lack of planning. + +6. To purchase economically, it is advisable, when possible, to buy at a +cash grocery and to pay cash for what is bought. When this is done, one +is not helping to pay the grocer for accounts he is unable to collect. +It is a fortunate grocer who is able to collect 80 per cent. of his +bills from his patrons when he conducts his business on the credit plan. +However, if it is desired to deal with a credit grocer, all bills +should be paid at least once a month. No customer has a right to expect +the grocer to wait longer than 30 days for his money. + +In many of the cities and large towns, some credit grocers have adopted +what is called the "cash-and-carry plan." All customers, whether they +buy for cash or on credit, must pay the same price for groceries, but +those who wish their goods delivered must pay additional for delivery +and those who buy on credit must pay a certain percentage additional on +each purchase for bookkeeping. It will readily be seen that such a plan +gives the cash customers, especially if they carry their purchases, a +decided advantage over credit customers. Also, the grocer is better able +to sell his wares at a lower price than the credit grocer who makes free +deliveries and no charge for bookkeeping. + + +KEEPING HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS + +7. NECESSITY FOR KEEPING ACCOUNTS.--Practically every family is limited +to a definite sum of money that may be spent for food. The first +consideration, then, while it may not be the most important one, is that +of making each dollar buy all that it possibly can in order that the +income may meet all the demands upon it. Various conditions arise that +affect the proportion of the income to be used for this purpose. For +instance, two women whose husbands have equal incomes would, under the +same conditions, have an equal amount of money to spend for food, but as +a rule there is something to cause this amount to become unequal. One +woman may have two children in her family while the other has none, a +condition that means, of course, that the woman with the children will +have less money to spend for food and with that money she must feed more +persons. Her family must be, if possible, as well nourished as the other +one. In order to accomplish this task, it will be necessary to supply +all the required food material in a form that will cost less than the +food purchased by the woman who has a smaller family to feed and clothe. + +An excellent way in which to keep expenses down and consequently to live +within one's income is to keep a simple record of household expenses. +Such a record will enable every housewife to determine just what each +item of household necessities costs and whether or not the proportion of +cost to income is correct. To keep a record of expenditures will not +prove much of a task if it is done systematically, for a few minutes a +day will be sufficient time in which to keep accounts up to date. +However, if account keeping is attempted, it should not be neglected +even for a day, for it will soon assume the proportions of a large task +and will have a tendency to discourage the housewife with this part +of her work. + +8. EQUIPMENT FOR HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNT KEEPING.--For convenience in keeping +household accounts, a small desk like the one shown in Fig. 1 should, if +possible, be secured and placed in an unoccupied or convenient corner of +the kitchen. Here can be kept cook books, recipes, suitable books or +cards for account keeping, the marketing pad, a file for bills from the +grocer and the butcher, labels for cans and jars, etc. Here may also be +placed an extension telephone, which, by being so convenient, will save +the housewife many steps. A white desk with a chair to match is the most +attractive kind to select for kitchen use, but a dark one may be used if +preferred. The desk illustrated was a simple wooden one that was +enameled white after it was bought, but it is possible to buy white +desks for this purpose. A small, plain table will, of course, answer +very well if no desk is available and it is desired not to buy one. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +9. METHODS OF HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNT KEEPING.--If the housewife runs a +credit account with the grocer, she will learn that different grocers +have different ways of recording her purchases. + +In some cases, she is provided with a "store book," which she takes to +the grocer each time she makes a purchase and in which he records the +date and the items bought by her. Then at the end of a stated time, +usually the end of the month, when a settlement is to be made, the +amounts for the month are totaled and a new account is started. With +such a plan, the housewife does not have to keep any record for herself. +To be certain that the grocer's account is accurate, she simply has to +check the entries each time they are made in the book by the grocer. + +In other cases, the grocer merely makes out a slip, or bill, for each +purchase and at the end of the month presents his statement for the +amount due. In such an event, provided the housewife does not wish to +make entries into a suitable book, she may file the slips as she +receives them in order that she may check the grocer's monthly bill as +to accuracy. A bill file like that shown in Fig. 2 is very convenient +for the filing of bills. However, if she does not wish to save each slip +she receives, she may adopt one of two methods of account keeping, +depending on how much time she has to devote to this matter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +10. If she desires to be very systematic and has sufficient time, it +will prove a good plan to record each purchase in a suitable book in the +manner shown in Fig. 3. Books for this purpose can be purchased in any +store where stationery is sold and are not expensive. In this method of +recording, as a page becomes filled with items, the total is carried +forward to each new page until the bill is paid at the end of the month. +Then, for the next month, a new account may be started. This same method +may also be followed in keeping accounts for meats, milk, and such +household expenses as rent, light, heat, and laundry. All these +accounts, together with an account for clothing and one for +miscellaneous expense, make up a complete expense account. + + +GROCERY ACCOUNT + + With ___John Smith, 420 Fourth Avenue__________ + +===================================================== + 10/15 | 1 pk. Apples......................| $ .45 + | 1 doz. Eggs.......................| .55 + | 1 lb. Butter......................| .53 + | 2 lb. Sweet Potatoes..............| .15 + | 2 cans Duff's Molasses............| .54 + | 1 pt. Vinegar.....................| .10 + 10/17 | 1 cake Yeast......................| .04 + | 6 lb. Crisco......................| 1.98 + | 1 box Coconut.....................| .35 + | 1 can Pineapple...................| .25 + | 1 lb. coffee......................| .40 + | 2 qt. Carrots.....................| .10 + 10/19 | 1 box Matches.....................| .10 + | 2 bars Laundry Soap...............| .12 + | 1 head Lettuce....................| .08 + | 1 can Corn........................| .20 + | 1 bu. Potatoes....................| 2.00 + | 1 qt. Maple Sirup.................| .65 + | |-------- + | Forwarded.......| $8.59 +====================================================== + FIG. 3 + +11. A somewhat simpler plan and one that requires less time is shown in +Fig. 4. When the slips are received, they should be checked to see +whether they are correct and then added to get the total. Only this +total, together with the date, is placed in the book kept for the +purpose, the slips then being discarded. Such a plan will prove very +satisfactory for the various household expenses if care is used in +checking the items of the slips and in adding them. + +Regarding the settlement of her accounts, the housewife who buys on +credit will find it a good plan to pay her bills by check. Then +receipts will not have to be saved, for the returned check is usually +all that is required to prove that a bill has been paid. + +12. The housewife who buys for cash does not necessarily have to keep a +detailed record of her purchases, for by simply filing her purchase +slips in the manner shown in Fig. 2 she can determine at any time what +her money has been used for. Still, in every well-regulated household, +it is advisable to keep a daily record of income and expenditure; that +is, to put down every day how much is spent for food, laundry, cleaning, +and, in fact, all expenditures, as well as how much cash is received. +Indeed, if such an account is kept, the tendency of money to "slip away" +will be checked and a saving of money is bound to result. + +GROCERY ACCOUNT + + With______John Smith, 420 Fourth Avenue_____ +====================================================== + 10/2 | Groceries...........................| $ 2.10 + 10/3 | Groceries...........................| 2.76 + 10/6 | Groceries...........................| .42 + 10/8 | Groceries...........................| 4.12 + 10/10 | Groceries...........................| 1.09 + 10/13 | Groceries...........................| .32 + 10/15 | Groceries...........................| 2.30 + 10/17 | Groceries...........................| 2.13 + 10/20 | Groceries...........................| 1.93 + 10/22 | Groceries...........................| 3.97 + 10/24 | Groceries...........................| 1.69 + 10/27 | Groceries...........................| 4.10 + 10/29 | Groceries...........................| 1.12 + 10/31 | Groceries...........................| 3.35 + | |-------- + | Forwarded..............| $31.40 +====================================================== + FIG. 4 + +13. A simple plan for keeping such a record is illustrated in Fig. 5. +For this record it is possible to buy sheets of paper or cards already +ruled at any stationery store, but it is a simple matter to rule sheets +of blank paper that will answer the purpose very well. As will be +observed, there is a space provided for every day of the month and +columns into which may be placed the expenditures for groceries, +including fruits and vegetables, as well as for meats and fish, milk, +laundry and cleaning, and miscellaneous items, such as ice and other +necessities that are not ordinarily classed as groceries. Of course, the +number of columns to be used can be regulated by the person keeping the +account, the illustration simply showing the general procedure. However, +one column should be devoted to the daily expenditure, the figures here +being the amounts of the total money spent for the different items each +day. In the last column should be recorded the various amounts of money +received by the housewife during the month for the settlement of her +bills. At the end of the month, all of the columns should be totaled. +The total of the daily outlay should equal that of the preceding +columns. The difference between this total and that of the money +received will show the housewife just how she stands with regard to +income and expenditure for foods and kitchen supplies. In this case, +there is an excess of expenditure amounting to $10.68, and this sum +should be forwarded to the June account. On the other hand, should the +housewife find that her expenses exceed her allowance, she will know +that it will be necessary for her to curtail her expenditures in +some way. + + Expenditures and Receipts for the Month of ___May___, 19___ +================================================================ + | | Meats | |Laundry | Miscel-| | +Date| Groc- | and | Milk | and | laneous| Daily | Money + | eries | Fish | |Cleaning| Expend-| Outlay | Rec'vd + | | | | | itures | | +---------------------------------------------------------------- + 1 | $ 2.10| $ .60| $ .28| $ 1.50 | | $ 4.48 | $ 5.70 + 2 | | .40| .28| | | .58 | + 3 | 2.76| 1.90| .28| | $ .35 | 5.29 | 15.00 + 4 | | | .28| | | .28 | + 5 | | | .28| | | .28 | + 6 | .42| | .28| | .35 | 1.05 | + 7 | | .36| .28| | .10 | .74 | + 8 | 4.12| | .28| 2.00 | .40 | 6.80 | + 9 | | | .28| | | .28 | + 10 | 1.09| 1.83| .28| | .38 | 3.60 | 15.00 + 11 | | | .28| | | .28 | + 12 | | | .28| | .35 | .63 | + 13 | .32| .76| .28| | | 1.36 | + 14 | | | .28| | .19 | .47 | + 15 | 2.30| | .28| 1.50 | .12 | 4.20 | + 16 | | .53| .28| | | .81 | + 17 | 2.13| 1.63| .28| | .60 | 4.64 | 15.00 + 18 | | | .28| | | .28 | + 19 | | | .28| | .22 | .50 | + 20 | 1.93| | .28| | .40 | 2.61 | + 21 | | .90| .28| | | 1.18 | + 22 | 3.97| | .28| 2.00 | .40 | 6.65 | + 23 | 2.10| | .28| | | .28 | + 24 | 2.10| 2.24| .28| | .80 | 5.01 | 15.00 + 25 | | | .28| | .10 | .38 | + 26 | | | .28| 1.50 | | 1.78 | + 27 | 4.10| | .28| | .35 | 4.73 | + 28 | | .38| .28| | | .66 | + 29 | 1.12| .46| .28| 1.50 | .40 | 3.76 | + 30 | | | .28| | | .28 | + 31 | 3.35| 1.87| .28| | .55 | 6.05 | 15.00 +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Total $31.40| $13.88| $ 8.68| $10.00 | $ 6.66 | $70.02 | $80.70 +================================================================ + FIG. 5 + +Such a method of record keeping could also be followed with good +results for showing the distribution of the entire income of a family. +It would simply mean the planning of suitable columns for the different +items of expenditure. + +14. Too much cannot be said of the merit of following some such simple +account-keeping method as the ones here outlined, for, as has been +explained, it will enable the housewife to know with a fair degree of +accuracy what she has spent her money for. In addition to the +satisfaction this will give, it will supply a basis from which she can +apportion, or budget, her yearly income if she so desires. By giving +careful consideration to the various items of expense, she may find it +possible to reduce some of them in order to increase her savings account +or to have money for other items that require a larger expenditure. + + * * * * * + +COST OF FOODS + +FACTORS INFLUENCING COST + +15. Certain factors that enter into the production of food add so much +to the cost that they must be taken into consideration when food is +purchased. The housewife who disregards these factors fails in the +purchase of food, for she does not know so well what foods to buy nor +how to buy them in a way to keep down the cost as the woman who is +familiar with these matters. It is possible that the cost of a food may +be out of all proportion to its value because of the profits that must +necessarily be paid to each person through whose hands the food passes. +In the first place, the overhead expenses of the food dealer must be +paid by the housewife, who is regarded as the _consumer_. These expenses +include his rent, light, and heat, his hired help, such as clerks, +bookkeepers, delivery men, and the cost of delivery. In addition, the +cost of transportation figures in prominently if the foods have to be +shipped any distance, the manufacturer's profit must often be counted +in, and the cost of advertising must not be overlooked. With all such +matters, the housewife must acquaint herself if she would buy in the +most economical way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +16. CHART OF FOOD PROBLEM.--To assist the housewife in her mastery of +the purchasing side of the food problem, a chart, Fig. 6, is presented. +This chart shows the various routes through which foods travel before +they reach the housewife, or consumer. The lines used to connect all +dealers from the producer to the consumer represent transportation or +delivery, and the increase in cost due to overhead expense and profit is +indicated by the black spaces, which increase in size as the number of +dealers increase. The _producer_ may be the manufacturer, but in most +cases he is the farmer, the stockman, the dairyman, or the fruit +grower. The dealers handling the food between the producer and the +consumer are known as _middlemen_. They include the wholesaler, the +jobber, and the retailer. The retailer is the grocer, the butcher, or +the green grocer. + +17. So that this chart may be clearly understood, several concrete +examples are given. Thus, the farmer who delivers vegetables directly to +the consumer is an example of plan No. 1. He has very little overhead +expense and consequently can sell cheaper than dealers who have a large +overhead expense. However, when the farmer delivers his vegetables to +the grocer and the grocer sells them to the consumer, an example of plan +No. 2 is afforded. Food bought in this way costs more than that bought +directly from the farmer. In plan No. 3, the farmer, for instance, sells +his vegetables to a wholesaler, who perhaps buys from other farmers and +then sells small quantities of them to the grocer for sale to the +consumer. This plan, as will readily be seen, is more involved than +either No. 1 or No. 2, but a still more roundabout route is that of plan +No. 4. In this case, for instance, the farmer sells his vegetables to a +canning factory, where they are canned and then sold to the grocer, who +sells them in this form to the consumer. Often two wholesalers, the +second one being known as a jobber, are involved in the transaction, as +in plan No. 5. In such an event, the farmer sells to the wholesaler, who +sells to the jobber, who, in turn, sells to the grocer, from whom the +consumer secures the goods. The most complicated route is that shown in +plan No. 6. This illustrates the case of the farmer who sells his cereal +products to a manufacturer, who makes them up into breakfast foods. He +then sells them in large quantities to the wholesaler, who sells them in +50- or 100-case lots to the jobber. From the jobber they go to the +grocer, who delivers them to the consumer. + +From a study of this chart, it can be readily seen that the cost of food +may be reduced if the middlemen can be eliminated. For instance, the +housewife will be able to get fruits and vegetables cheaper if she buys +them from a farmer instead of a grocer, for she will not be called on to +pay any of the grocer's overhead expense or profit. Again, if she buys +her staple groceries in a store that is able to eliminate the wholesaler +or the jobber, she will get them at a lower price than if she deals +where these agencies must receive their share of the profits. + +18. NATIONALLY ADVERTISED GOODS.--Much is said about the fact that the +consumer, in buying package foods that are nationally advertised, must +pay for the package and the advertising. This statement is absolutely +true; but it must be remembered that where large quantities of foods are +handled, the materials can be bought by the manufacturer or the +wholesaler at a lower price than by one who purchases only a small +amount. Then, too, if great quantities are sold, and this condition is +made possible only through advertising, the profit on each package sold +can be much smaller than that which would have to be made when less is +sold. Often, therefore, in spite of the advertising cost, a widely +advertised food can be sold for less than one that is not advertised at +all because a much greater quantity is sold. + +19. CHAIN STORES.--The principle of selling great quantities of food at +a comparatively small profit on each item is put into practice in chain +stores, which are operated by different companies throughout the United +States. Such stores are a boon to the housewife who must practice +economy, for they eliminate a middleman by acting both as wholesaler and +as retailer. Because of this fact, foods that are purchased in large +quantities from the producer or manufacturer can be offered to the +consumer at a lower price than in a retail store not a part of a chain. +Therefore, if foods of the same quality are not lower in price in chain +stores, it must be because the buying is not well done or a greater +profit is made in selling them. In addition, chain stores generally +require cash for all purchases made in them and they do not usually +deliver goods. Consequently, their overhead expense is materially +reduced and they do not need to make such a large profit. + + +ECONOMICAL BUYING + +20. APPORTIONMENT OF INCOME.--When the housewife thoroughly understands +the qualities of foods as well as their comparative food values and is +familiar with the factors that govern food prices, she is well equipped +to do economical buying for her family. Then it remains for her to +purchase the right kind of food and at the same time keep within her +means. A good plan is to apportion the household expenses according to a +_budget_; that is, to prepare a statement of the financial plans for the +year. Then the amount of money that can be used for this part of the +household expenses will be known and the housewife will be able to plan +definitely on what she can buy. If necessary, this amount may be reduced +through the housewife's giving careful attention to the details of +buying, or if she is not obliged to lower her expenses, she may +occasionally purchase more expensive foods, which might be considered +luxuries, to give variety to the diet. The amount of money that may be +spent for food depends, of course, on the income, and the greater the +income, the lower will be the proportion of money required for this item +of the household expense. + +21. To throw some light on the proper proportion of the family income to +spend for food, Table I is given. As the basis of this table, a family +of five is taken and the proportion that may be spent for food has been +worked out for incomes ranging from $600 to $2,400 a year. As will be +noted, an income of $600 permits an expenditure of only 19 cents a day +for each person. When food prices are high, it will be a difficult +matter to feed one person for that amount, and still if the income is +only $600 it will be necessary to do this. To increase the food cost +over 39 cents a day per person, which is the amount allotted for an +income of $2,400, would denote extravagance or at least would provide +more luxury than is warranted. + + +TABLE I + +PROPORTION OF FAMILY INCOME FOR FOOD +================================================================ +Income Per Cent. of Amount Spent Amount Spent Amount Spent + per Income Spent per year for per Day for per Day per + Year for Food Food Five Persons Person +---------------------------------------------------------------- +$ 600 60 $360 $ .98 $ .19 + 800 55 500 1.36 .27 +1,000 50 576 1.57 .31 +1,200 48 576 1.57 .31 +1,500 44 660 1.80 .36 +1,800 39 702 1.92 .38 +2,400 30 720 1.97 .39 +================================================================ + + +Various conditions greatly affect this proportion. One of these is the +rise and fall of the food cost. Theoretically, the buyer should adjust +this difference in the food cost rather than increase her expenditures. +For instance, if in a certain year, the general cost of food is 20 per +cent. greater than it was in the preceding year, the housewife should +adjust her plan of buying so that for the same amount of money spent in +the previous year she will be able to supply her family with what they +need. Of course, if there is an increase in the income, it will not be +so necessary to work out such an adjustment. + +22. ECONOMIES IN PURCHASING FOOD.--Through her study of the preceding +lessons, the student has had an opportunity to learn how to care for +food in order to avoid loss and waste, how to prepare it so that it may +be easily digested and assimilated, and how to make it appetizing and +attractive so that as little as possible is left over and none is +wasted. She should therefore be thoroughly acquainted with the methods +of procedure in regard to all such matters and should have worked out to +her satisfaction the best ways of accomplishing these things to suit her +individual needs. But, in addition to these matters, she must give +strict attention to her food purchases if she would secure for her +family the most wholesome and nourishing foods for the least +expenditure of money. + +23. To purchase food that will provide the necessary food value for a +small outlay is possible to a certain extent, but it cannot be done +without the required knowledge. In the first place, it means that fewer +luxuries can be indulged in and that the family dietary will have to be +reduced to necessities. It may also mean that there will probably be a +difference in the quality of the food purchased. For instance, it may be +necessary to practice such economies as buying broken rice at a few +cents a pound less than whole rice or purchasing smaller prunes with a +greater number to the pound at a lower price than the larger, more +desirable ones. The housewife need not hesitate in the least to adopt +such economies as these, for they are undoubtedly the easiest ways in +which to reduce the food expenses without causing detriment to any one. + +24. Further economy can be practiced if a little extra attention is +given in the purchase of certain foods. As is well known, the packages +and cans containing food are labeled with the contents and the weight of +the contents. These should be carefully observed, as should also the +number of servings that may be obtained from the package or can. For +instance, the housewife should know the weight per package of the +various kinds of prepared cereals she uses and the number of servings +she is able to procure from each package. + +Let it be assumed that she buys two packages of different cereals at +the same time, which, for convenience, may be called package No. 1 and +package No. 2. She finds that No. 1 contains 16 ounces and No. 2, only +12 ounces; so she knows that No. 1 furnishes the greater amount of food +by weight for the money spent. But, on the other hand, No. 2 may go +farther; that is, it may serve a greater number of persons. This, in all +probability, means that the cereals are similar in character, but that +the food value of the servings from No. 2 is greater than that of the +servings from No. 1. No. 2 is therefore the more economical of the two. +Matters of this kind must not be overlooked, especially in the feeding +of children. + +Then, too, the housewife should work out carefully which she can use to +greater advantage, prepared or unprepared cereals. If she finds that +unprepared cereals are the more economical and if she can depend on +their food value as being as high as that of the prepared ones, she +should by all means give them the preference. Of course, she may use +prepared cereals for convenience or for varying the diet, but the more +economical ones should be used with greater regularity. + +25. Canned goods should be carefully observed. A certain brand of +tomatoes, for instance, may have 16 ounces to the can, whereas another +brand that can be bought for the same price may have 24 ounces. There +may be, however, and there probably is, a great difference in the +quality of the tomatoes. The 24-ounce can may have a much greater +proportion of water than the 16-ounce can, and for this reason will not +serve to the same advantage. As it is with canned tomatoes, so is it +with canned corn, peas, and other canned vegetables, for the price +depends altogether on the quality. Therefore, several brands should be +compared and the one should be purchased which seems to furnish the most +food or the best quality of food for the least money, provided the +quality continues. + +26. In the preparation of meat, there is always some waste, and as waste +is a factor that has much to do with the increasing of costs, it should +be taken into consideration each time a piece of meat is purchased. If +there is time for some experimenting, it makes an interesting study to +weigh the meat before and after preparation, for then the amount of +shrinkage in cookery, as well as the waste in bone, skin, and other +inedible material, can be determined. + +An actual experiment made with a 4-pound chicken showed that there was +a loss of 2-3/4 pounds; that is, the weight of the edible meat after +deducting the waste was only 1-1/4 pounds. The following shows how this +weight was determined: + + POUNDS +Weight of chicken, including head, feet, and entrails 4 + Weight of head, feet, and entrails 1-1/4 + Weight of bones after cooking 7/8 + Weight of skin after cooking 1/4 + Shrinkage in cooking 3/8 + ----- + Total amount of waste 2-3/4 + ----- +Actual weight of edible meat 1-1/4 + +It will readily be seen that chicken at 40 cents a pound would make the +cost per pound of edible meat amount to exactly $1.28, a rather +startling result. It is true, of course, that the busy housewife with a +family can hardly spare the time for the extra labor such experiments +require; still the greater the number of persons to be fed, the more +essential is the need for economy and the greater are the possibilities +for waste and loss. + +27. The home production of foods does not belong strictly to economical +buying, still it is a matter that offers so many advantages to the +economical housewife that she cannot afford to overlook it. A small +garden carefully prepared and well cultivated will often produce the +summer's supply of fresh vegetables, with sufficient overproduction to +permit much to be canned for winter. Not only do foods produced in a +home garden keep down the cost of both summer and winter foods, but they +add considerably to the variety of menus. + + * * * * * + + +CORRECT DIET + +SUITABILITY OF FOOD + +28. At the same time the housewife is making a study of economy and +trying to procure as nearly as possible the best quality and the largest +quantity of food for the amount of money she has to spend, she must +consider the suitability of this food for the persons to whom it is to +be served. This matter is undoubtedly of greater importance than +economy, for, regardless of the amount of money that is to be spent, +suitable foods for the nourishment of all the members of the family must +be supplied to them. For instance, a family of two may have $10 a week +to spend for food, whereas one of five may perhaps have no more; but the +larger family must have nourishing food just as the one of two must +have. Therefore, whether the housewife has much or little to spend, her +money must purchase food suited to the needs of her family. Unless she +is able to accomplish this, she fails in the most important part of her +work as a housewife, and as a result, the members of her family are not +properly nourished. + +29. It has long been an established fact that correct diet is the +greatest factor in maintaining bodily health. Food is responsible for +the growth and maintenance of the body tissues, as well as for their +repair. In addition, it supplies the body with heat and energy. +Consequently, taking the right food into the body assists in keeping a +person in a healthy condition and makes work and exercise possible. + +Because so much depends on the diet, the housewife, while considering +what can be bought with the money she has to spend, must also decide +whether the foods she plans to buy are suitable for the needs of her +family. In fact, she should be so certain of this matter that she will +automatically plan her menus in such a way that they will contain all +that is necessary for each person to be fed. But, as every housewife +knows, the appetites of her family must also be taken into +consideration. Theoretically, she should feed her family what the +various members need, regardless of their likes and dislikes. However, +very few persons are willing to be fed in this way; in truth, it would +be quite useless to serve a dish for which no one in the family cared +and in addition it would be one of the sources of waste. + +30. To make the work of the housewife less difficult, children should be +taught as far as possible to eat all kinds of food. Too often this +matter is disregarded, and too often, also, are the kinds of food +presented, to a family regulated by the likes and dislikes of the person +preparing the food. Because she is not fond of certain foods, she never +prepares them; consequently, the children do not learn to like them. On +the other hand, many children develop a habit of complaining about foods +that are served and often refuse to eat what is set before them. Such a +state of affairs should not be permitted. Indeed, every effort should be +made to prevent a spirit of complaint. If the housewife is certain that +she is providing the members of her family with the best that she can +purchase with the money she has to spend and that she is giving them +what they need, complaining on their part should be discouraged. + +31. With a little effort, children can be taught to like a large variety +of foods, especially if these foods are given to them while they are +still young. It is a decided advantage for every one to form a liking +for a large number of foods. The person who can say that he cares for +everything in the way of food is indeed fortunate, for he has a great +variety from which to choose and is not so likely to have served to him +a meal in which there are one or more dishes that he cannot eat because +of a distaste for them. + +Every mother should therefore train her children during their childhood +to care for all the cereals, vegetables, and fruits. Besides affording +the children a well-balanced diet, these foods, particularly vegetables +and fruits, when served in their season, offer the housewife a means of +planning economical menus, for, as every one knows, their price is then +much lower than at any other time and is less than that of most other +foods. During the winter, turnips, carrots, onions, and other winter +vegetables are more economical foods than summer vegetables that must be +canned or otherwise prepared to preserve them for winter use or the +fresh summer vegetables purchased out of season. However, it is +advisable to vary the diet occasionally with such foods. + + +COMPOSITION OF FOOD + +32. To feed her family properly, the housewife should understand that +the daily food must include the five food substances--protein, fat, +carbohydrate, mineral matter, and water. As these are discussed in +_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, they should be clear to the housewife, +but if they are not fully understood, a careful review should be made of +the discussions given there. The ways in which these food principles +contribute to the growth and health of the body, as well as the ordinary +foods that supply them in the greatest number, are tabulated in Table II +for easy reference. This information will assist the housewife +materially in the selection and preparation of food for her family; +consequently, close attention should be given to it and constant +application made of it. + +33. As has already been learned and as will be noted here, a food +substance often has more than one use in the body. For instance, protein +builds tissue and also yields energy, but its chief work is that of +building tissue, and so it is classed first as a tissue-building food +substance. The fats and carbohydrates also have a double use in the +body, that of producing heat and energy and of building fatty tissue. +However, as their chief use is to produce heat and energy, they are +known principally as heat-producing foods. Mineral matter not only is +necessary for the building of bone and muscle, but also enters into the +composition of the blood and all the fluids in the body. Growth and +development are not ideal without an adequate supply of the many kinds +of these salts, which go to make up the tissues, nerves, blood, and +other fluids in the body. + +34. The body regulators must be included in the food given, for they +assist in all processes carried on in the body. Some are necessary to +aid in the stimulation required to carry on the processes of digestion +and in some cases make up a part of the digestive fluids. Consequently, +vegetables and fruits that supply these body regulators and foods that +supply vitamines should be provided. + +Water, the chief body regulator, not only is essential to life itself, +but forms by far a greater proportion of the body than any other single +substance. The largest part of the water required in the body is +supplied as a beverage and the remainder is taken in with the foods that +are eaten. + +TABLE II + +FOOD SUBSTANCES AND THEIR RELATION TO GROWTH AND HEALTH + +I Body-building materials + Proteins. + Meat + Fish and shell fish + Poultry and game + Eggs + Milk and milk products + Legumes (dried beans, peas, lentils) + Wheat and wheat products, as corn starch + Nuts + Mineral matter, or ash + Vegetables + Fruits + Eggs + Milk + Cereals + Meats +II Heat-producing materials + Fats + Animal + Lard + Suet + Tallow + Butter and cream + Vegetable + Olive oil + Corn oil + Cottonseed oil + Coconut oil + Nut oils + Mixed oils + Oleomargarine + Butterine + Nut butter + Crisco, etc. + Carbohydrates + Starch + Cereals and cereal products + Irish and sweet potatoes + Sugar + Cane sugar and molasses + Beet sugar + Maple sugar and sirup + Honey + Corn sirup and other manufactured sirups + Proteins + Same as in I + +III Body regulators + Water + Mineral matter, or ash + Same as in I + Cellulose + Fruits + Vegetables + Covering of cereals and nuts + Food Acids + Sour fruits--citric and malic + Tomatoes--malic + Spinach--oxalic + Rhubarb--oxalic + Vitamines + Fat soluble A + Milk + Butter + Egg yolk + Water soluble B + Green vegetables, as spinach, chard, lettuce, beet greens + Asparagus and stem vegetables, as celery + Fruit vegetables, as tomatoes, peppers, okra + Fruits + +The importance of bulk in foods cannot be emphasized too much. The +indigestible cellulose of fruits, vegetables, and cereals is of such +importance in the body that some of these foods should be supplied with +every meal. Therefore, their incorporation into the diet should be +considered as a definite part of the menu-making plan. + +The acids of fruits are valuable as stimulants both to the appetite and +to the digestion. Then, too, they give a touch of variety to a menu +otherwise composed of rather bland foods. The stimulation they produce +is much more healthful than that of condiments, drugs, or alcoholic +beverages and should receive the preference. + +_Vitamines_ are substances necessary for both growth and health. A child +deprived of the foods containing them is usually not well and does not +grow nor develop normally. These substances are also required in the +diet of adults in order to maintain the body in a healthy condition. The +leafy vegetables and milk are the foods that yield the greatest supply +of vitamines. In fact, it is claimed by those who have experimented most +with this matter that these two sources will supply the required amount +of vitamines under all conditions. + + * * * * * + +BALANCING THE DIET + +QUANTITY AND PROPORTION OF FOODS + +35. FACTORS INFLUENCING FOOD.--Numerous factors affect the kind and +quantity of food necessary for an individual. Chief among these are age, +size, sex, climate, and work or exercise. In addition to determining the +amount of food that must be taken into the body, these factors regulate +largely the suitability of the foods to be eaten. It is true, of course, +that all the food substances mentioned in Table II must be included in +every person's diet after the first few years of his life, but the +quantity and the proportion of the various substances given vary with +the age, sex, size, and work or exercise of the person and the climate +in which he lives. Merely to provide dishes that supply sufficient food +value is not enough. This food material must be given in forms that can +be properly digested and assimilated and it must be in the right +proportion for the person's needs. The aim should therefore be to +provide a _balanced diet_, by which is meant one that includes the +correct proportion of the various food substances to supply the needs of +the individual. + +36. QUANTITY OF FOOD IN CALORIES.--Without doubt, the most intelligent +way in which to feed people is to compute the number of calories +required daily. As will be remembered, the calorie is the unit employed +to measure the amount of work that the food does in the body, either as +a tissue builder or a producer of energy. The composition and food value +of practically all foods are fairly well known, and with this +information it is a simple matter to tell fairly accurately the amount +of food that each person requires. + +As has been stated, the number of calories per day required by a person +varies with the age, size, sex, and occupation of the person, as well as +with the climate in which he lives. For the adult, this will vary from +1,800 to 3,000, except in cases of extremely hard labor, when it may be +necessary to have as high as 4,500 calories. The average number of +calories for the adult, without taking into consideration the particular +conditions under which he lives or works, is about 2,500. Still a small +woman who is inactive might be sufficiently fed by taking 1,800 calories +a day, whereas a large man doing heavy, muscular work might require +3,500 to 4,000 daily. + +37. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER AMOUNT OF FOOD.--Most authorities agree that it +is advisable for adults and children well past the age of infancy to +take all the food required in three meals. The taking of two meals a day +is sometimes advocated, but the possibility of securing in two meals the +same quantity of food that would ordinarily be taken in three is rather +doubtful, since it is assumed that large amounts of food are not so +easily disposed of as are smaller ones. + +On the other hand, to overeat is always a disadvantage in more respects +than one. Taking food that is not required not only is an extravagance +in the matter of food, but overtaxes the digestive organs. In addition, +it supplies the body with material that must be disposed of, so that +extra work on the part of certain organs is required for this activity. +Finally, overeating results in the development of excessive fatty +tissue, which not only makes the body ponderous and inactive, but also +deadens the quickness of the mind and often predisposes a person to +disease or, in extreme cases, is the actual cause of illness. + +38. EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON DIET.--An idea of the way in which the weight of +a person affects the amount of food required can be obtained by a study +of Tables III and IV. As will be observed, Table III gives the number +of calories per pound of body weight required each day by adults engaged +in the various normal activities that might be carried on within 24 hours. +It deals only with activity, the various factors that might alter the +amounts given being taken up later. The figures given are for adults +and the factors mentioned are those which affect the intake of food +to the greatest extent. + +The lowest food requirement during the entire 24 hours is during the +time of sleep, when there is no activity and food is required for only +the bodily functions that go on during sleep. Sitting requires more food +than sleeping, standing, a still greater amount, and walking, still +more, because of the increase in energy needed for these activities. + +In a rough way, the various occupations for both men and women are +classified under three different heads: Light Work, Moderate Work, and +Heavy Work. It is necessary that these be understood in examining +this table. + +TABLE III + +CALORIES PER POUND FOR 24 HOURS FOR ADULTS + Occupation Calories +Sleeping............................... 12 +Sitting................................ 14 +Standing............................... 17 +Walking................................ 20 +Light work............................. 22 +Moderate work.......................... 24 +Heavy work............................. 27 + + +Those considered as doing light work are persons who sit or stand at +their employment without any great degree of activity. They include +stenographers, dressmakers, milliners, teachers, clerks, shoemakers, +tailors, machine operators, elevator operators, and conductors. + +Moderate work involves a little more activity than light work, but not +so much as heavy work. Professional cooks, professional housekeepers, +housekeepers in their own homes, professional chambermaids, waitresses, +masons, drivers, chauffeurs, plumbers, electricians, and machinists come +under this class. + +Persons doing heavy work are the most active of all. They include +farmers, laundresses, excavators, lumbermen, miners, metal workers, and +soldiers on forced march. + +39. To show the variation in the amount of food required according to +body weight, Table IV is given. The scale here presented has been worked +out for two persons who are normal and whose weight is correct, but +different, one weighing 130 pounds and the other 180 pounds. It is +assumed, however, that they are occupied in 24 hours with activities +that are identical, each one sleeping 8 hours, working at moderate labor +for 8 hours, walking 2 hours, standing 2 hours, and sitting 4 hours. + +TABLE IV + +DIFFERENCE IN FOOD REQUIREMENTS THROUGH VARIATION IN WEIGHT + +Number of Calories for 130 Pounds + 8 hours, sleeping ....... 520 + 4 hours, sitting ........ 303 + 2 hours, standing ....... 184 + 2 hours, walking ........ 216 + 8 hours, moderate work 1,040 +-- ----- +24 2,263 + +Number of Calories for 180 Pounds + 8 hours, sleeping ....... 720 + 4 hours, sitting ........ 430 + 2 hours, walking ........ 300 + 2 hours, standing ....... 238 + 8 hours, moderate work 1,440 +-- ----- +24 3,128 + + +To find the total number of calories required for these activities, the +weight, in pounds, is multiplied by the calories per pound for 24 hours +for a certain activity. Thus, as in Table IV, if a person weighing 130 +pounds sleeps for 24 hours, the number of pounds of weight, or 130, +would be multiplied by 12, which is the number of calories required per +pound in 24 hours for sleeping. However, since only 8 hours is occupied +by sleep and 8 is 1/3 of 24, the required number of calories would be +only 1/3 of this number. In this way each item is worked out in the +table, as is clearly shown by the following figures: + +For sleeping .............. 130 X 12 X 1/3 = 520 +For sitting ............... 130 X 14 X 1/6 = 303 +For standing .............. 130 X 17 X 1/12 = 184 +For walking ............... 130 X 20 X 1/12 = 216 +For moderate work ......... 130 X 24 X 1/3 = 1,040 + Total, as in Table IV ..................... 2,263 + +40. In this connection, it may be interesting to know the ideal weight +for persons of a given height. Table V shows the various heights for +both men and women, in inches, and then gives, in pounds, the correct +weight for each height. When, from this table, a person determines how +far he is above or below the ideal weight, he can tell whether he should +increase or decrease the number of calories he takes a day. For persons +who are under weight, the calories should be increased over the number +given in Table III for the normal individual if the ideal weight would +be attained. On the other hand, persons who are overweight should +decrease the number of calories until there is sufficient loss of weight +to reach the ideal. Of course, an adjustment of this kind should be +gradual, unless the case is so extreme as to require stringent measures. +In most cases, a slight decrease or increase in the quantity of food +taken each day will bring about the desired increase or decrease +in weight. + +TABLE V + +CORRECT WEIGHT FOR CERTAIN HEIGHTS + + =================================== + Men | Women + -----------------+----------------- + Height | Weight | Height | Weight + Inches | Pounds | Inches | Pounds + --------+--------+--------+-------- + 61 | 131 | 59 | 119 + 62 | 133 | 60 | 122 + 63 | 136 | 61 | 124 + 64 | 140 | 62 | 127 + 65 | 143 | 63 | 131 + 66 | 147 | 64 | 134 + 67 | 152 | 65 | 139 + 68 | 157 | 66 | 143 + 69 | 162 | 67 | 147 + 70 | 167 | 68 | 151 + 71 | 173 | 69 | 155 + 72 | 179 | 70 | 159 + 73 | 185 | | + 74 | 192 | | + 75 | 200 | | + =================================== + +41. EFFECT OF SEX ON DIET.--The difference in sex does not affect the +diet to any great extent. Authorities claim that persons of opposite sex +but of the same weight and engaged in the same work require equal +quantities of food. But, in most cases, the work of women is lighter +than that of men, and even when this is not the case women seem to +require less food, probably because of a difference in temperament. That +taken by women is usually computed to be about four-fifths of the amount +necessary for a man. The proportion of food substances does not differ, +however, and when individual peculiarities are taken into consideration, +no definite rules can be made concerning it. + +In the case of boys and girls up to the age of young manhood and +womanhood, the same amount of food is required, except for the +difference in activity, boys usually being more active than girls. + +42. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON DIET.--The climate in which a person lives has +much to do with the kind of diet he requires. In the extreme North, the +lack of vegetation makes it necessary for the inhabitants to live almost +entirely upon animal food except during the very short warm season. +Consequently, their diet consists largely of protein and fat. Under some +circumstances, a diet of this kind would be very unfavorable, but it +seems to be correct for the people who live in these regions, for +generations of them have accustomed themselves to it and they have +suffered no hardship by doing so. It is true, however, that races of +people who do not live on a well-balanced diet are not physically such +fine specimens as the majority of persons found in countries where it is +possible to obtain a diet that includes a sufficient supply of all the +food substances. + +43. In hot countries, the diet consists much more largely of vegetables +than any other class of foods. This means that it is very high in +carbohydrate and comparatively low in protein and fat. As can well be +understood, a diet of this kind is much more ideal for a warm climate +than a diet composed to a great extent of animal foods. + +44. In temperate zones, the diet for both summer and winter seasons +varies according to the appetite of the inhabitants themselves. Usually +a light diet consisting of fruits, vegetables, cereals, and a small +amount of meat is found the most desirable for summer weather, while a +similar one with a larger proportion of meat is the usual winter diet. +On the whole, the desire for food, which, to a certain extent, is +regulated by the climate, can be trusted to vary the diet fairly well +for the existing conditions. + +45. EFFECT OF AGE ON DIET.--The proper diet for infancy and childhood is +a matter that must be discussed by itself, for it has practically no +connection with other diet. It is also well understood that up to +maturity there is a difference in the diet because of a difference in +the needs of the body. However, from maturity up to 60 years of age, the +diet is altered by the conditions already mentioned, namely weight, +size, sex, climate, and work or exercise. At the age of 60, the amount +of food required begins to decrease, for as a person grows older, the +body and all of its organs become less active. Then, too, there is a +reduced amount of physical exercise, which correspondingly reduces the +necessity for food. At this time, an oversupply of food merely serves to +overwork the organs, which being scarcely able to handle the normal +quantity of food certainly keep in better condition if the amount of +work they are called upon to do is decreased rather than increased. + +It has been estimated that persons 60 years of age require 10 per cent. +less food than they formerly did; those 70 years old, 20 per cent. less; +and those 80 years old, 30 per cent. less. Usually the appetite +regulates this decrease in food, for the less active a person is, the +less likely is the appetite to be stimulated. However, the fact that +there is also a great difference in persons must not be lost sight of. +Some men and women at 70 years of age are as young and just as active as +others at 50 years. For such persons, the decrease in quantity of food +should not begin so soon, nor should it be so great as that given for +the more usual cases. + +46. As there is a decrease in quantity with advancing years, so should +there be a difference in the quality of the food taken. That which is +easily digested and assimilated is preferable to food that is rich or +highly concentrated. Usually, it is necessary to increase the laxative +food in the diet at this time of life, but this matter is one of the +abnormalities of diet and therefore belongs properly to medical +dietetics rather than to a lesson on normal diet. + + +DIET FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN + +47. From birth until a child has attained full growth, the food +requirement is high in proportion to the size of the child. This is due +to the fact that energy must be supplied for a great deal of activity, +and at the same time new tissue must be manufactured from the food +taken. It should be remembered, too, that all body processes during +growth are extremely rapid. At birth, the average child weighs about 7 +pounds, and for several days after birth there is a normal loss of +weight. In a few days, however, if the diet is correct, the child begins +to increase in weight and should gain about 1/2 pound a week until it is +3 months old. From this time on, its weekly gain should be slightly +less, but it should be constant. If the weight remains the same or there +is a decrease for a number of consecutive days or weeks, it is certain +that the diet is incorrect, that the quantity of food is insufficient, +or that the child is ill. The reason for the loss should be determined +at once and the trouble then corrected. + +Normal diet for the infant is the mother's milk, but if this cannot be +supplied, the next best diet is modified cow's milk, which for the young +child must be greatly diluted. If it is found necessary to give +proprietary, or manufactured, foods, raw food of some kind should be +used in addition, the best way to supply this being with a little orange +juice or other fruit juice. At the age of 3 months, this may be given in +small quantity if it is diluted, and then the amount may be gradually +increased as the child grows older. + +48. EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON CHILDREN'S DIET.--The food requirement in the +case of children is determined by weight. To decide on the proper +amount, it is necessary to know the normal weight at certain ages. At +birth, as has been stated, the normal weight is 7 pounds; at 6 months, +15 pounds; at 1 year, 21 pounds; at 2 years, 30 pounds. The food +requirement for 24 hours per pound of weight is as follows: + + CALORIES + 24 HOURS +Children up to 1 year.......................... 45 +Children from 1 to 2 years..................... 40 +Children from 2 to 5 years..................... 36 + +From a study of these figures, it will be noted that there is a gradual +decrease in the required number of calories per pound as the child +grows older. The decrease continues until maturity is reached, and then +the scale for adults applies. + +49. EFFECT OF AGE ON CHILDREN'S DIET.--A child should not be kept +exclusively on milk for more than 6 or 8 months, and then only in case +it is fed on the mother's milk. Fruit juice, which has already been +mentioned as an additional food, is recommended if the diet requires raw +food or if it is necessary to make the child's food more laxative. When +the child reaches the age of 6 months, it should be taught to take foods +from a spoon or a cup; then when it must be weaned, the task of weaning +will be much easier. At the age of 8 or 9 months, depending on the +condition of the child, small amounts of well-cooked, strained cereals +may be added to the diet, and these may gradually be decreased as the +food is increased in variety. Up to 1-1/2 years of age, a child should +have 8 ounces of milk three times a day, which amounts to 1-1/2 pints. +At this age, half of a soft-cooked egg or a spoonful or two of tender +meat chopped very fine, may be given, and for each such addition 4 +ounces of milk should be taken out of the day's feeding. But from 1-1/2 +years up to 5 years, at least 1 pint of milk a day should be included +in the diet. + +At a little past 1 year of age, a normal child may begin taking a few +well-cooked vegetables, such as a bit of baked potato, a spoonful of +spinach, carrot, celery, green peas, or other vegetables that have been +forced through a sieve or chopped very fine. At 1-1/2 years, the normal +child should be taking each day one vegetable, a cereal, buttered bread +or toast softened with milk, eggs, fruit juice, a little jelly, and +plain custards. However, each of these foods should be added to the diet +with caution and in small amounts, and if it appears to disagree with +the child in any way, it should be discontinued until such time as it +can be tolerated. + +In case a child is being raised on a formula of cow's milk and it is a +strong, normal child, it should be taking whole milk at the age of 8 or +10 months. If the child is not strong, the milk may still be diluted +with a small amount of sterile water, but this should be gradually +decreased until the child is able to tolerate whole milk. + +50. FEEDING SCALE FOR INFANTS.--It is, of course, a difficult matter to +make definite rules for the feeding of all children, for conditions +arise with many children that call for special plans. However, for +children that are normal, a feeding scale may be followed quite closely, +and so the one given in Table VI is suggested. + +TABLE VI + +FEEDING SCALE FOR INFANTS + +First Three Months + + Milk. + +Fourth Month + + Same as for preceding months and orange juice and cereal waters. + +Sixth Month + + Same as for preceding months and well-cooked and strained cereal. + +Eighth Month + + Same as for preceding months and beef juice, beef broth, and yolk of + soft-cooked egg. + +Tenth Month + + Same as for preceding months and unstrained cereal, half of + soft-cooked egg, both white and yolk, chopped or strained cooked + vegetables, such as spinach and other greens, asparagus, carrots, + celery, and squash, stale bread, crackers, toast and butter. + +Eleventh Month + + Same as for preceding months and well-cooked rice, baked potato, + jelly, plain custard, corn-starch custard, and junket. + +Twelfth Month + + Same as for preceding months and whole egg, a tablespoonful of + tender meat, string beans, peas, turnips, onions, chopped or + strained applesauce, stewed prunes, and other fruits. + +Eighteenth Month + + Same as for preceding months and home-made ice cream, plain sponge + cake, milk soups, and cereal puddings. + +This scale is to be used by adding to the diet for one month the foods +suggested for the next month, giving them at the time the child reaches +the age for which they are mentioned. For instance, a child of 8 months +may have everything included in the first three, four, and six months +and, in addition, beef juice, beef broth, and the yolk of a soft-cooked +egg, which is the diet suggested for the eighth month. Then at the tenth +month it may have all of these things together with those given for +this month. + +51. When any of these foods is first added to the diet, much care is +necessary. Each new food should be given cautiously, a teaspoonful or +two at a time being sufficient at first, and its effect should be +carefully observed before more is given. If it is found to disagree, it +should not be repeated. If at any time a child is subject to an attack +of indigestion, its diet should be reduced to simple foods and when it +has recovered, new foods should be added slowly again. In the case of +any of the ordinary illnesses to which children are subject, such as +colds, etc., the diet should be restricted to very simple food, and +preferably to liquids, until the illness has passed. The diet of a baby +still being fed on milk should be reduced to barley water or a very +little skim milk diluted with a large amount of sterile water. When the +illness is over, the child may be gradually brought back to its +normal diet. + + +DIET FOR THE FAMILY + +52. One of the difficulties of every housewife having a family composed +of persons of widely different tastes and ages is the preparation of +meals that will contain sufficient food of the correct kind for all of +them. Children up to 6 years of age usually require something especially +prepared for their meals, except breakfast, but, as a rule, the +selection of the diet for children from 6 years up to 15 or 16 years of +age is merely a matter of taking from the meal prepared for the +remainder of the family the right amount of the various foods. Tea and +coffee should not be included in the diet of growing children, and +should under no circumstances be given to small children. If the proper +method is followed in this matter, no difficulty will result, but where +children expect to eat the food served to the others at the table and +are not content with what is given to them, it is better not to feed +them at the same table with the adults. + +53. The most satisfactory way in which to arrange meals that are to be +served to persons of different ages is to include several foods that may +be fed to all members of the family and then to select certain others +proper only for adults and still others suitable for the children. A +sample of such a menu for supper is the one here given. It is assumed +that the children that are to eat this meal are not infants. + +SUPPER MENU + +ADULTS +Rice Croquettes with Cheese Sauce +Lettuce Salad +Bread, Butter, Jelly +Baked Apples +Plain Cookies +Tea + +CHILDREN + +Steamed Rice +Bread, Butter, Jelly +Baked Apples +Plain Cookies +Milk + +A menu of this kind is not difficult to prepare, and still it meets the +needs of both the children and the adults of the family. The main dish +for each has the same foundation--rice. Enough to serve the entire +family may be steamed. Then some may be retained for the children and +the rest made up into croquettes and served with cheese sauce to the +adults. The remainder of the menu, bread, butter, jelly, baked apples, +and plain cookies, may be eaten by every one. Tea will probably be +preferred by the adults, but milk should be served to the children. +Other suitable menus may be planned without any extra trouble if just a +little thought is given to the matter. + + +PROPORTION OF FOOD SUBSTANCES + +54. The proportion of food substances necessary for building and +repairing the body and for providing it with material necessary for its +various functions is a matter to which much discussion has been given. +Formerly, it was not understood that the protein should be limited to +exactly what the body needed and that its requirements were +comparatively low regardless of conditions or exercise. The standard for +diet very often allowed as much as 25 per cent. in protein. This +percentage has been gradually reduced by the discovery of the actual +body needs, so that now it is believed by the most dependable +authorities that only about 10 per cent. of the entire day's rations for +the adult should be protein. The growing child needs a greater +proportion than this because he is building up muscle tissue. The adult +whose muscles have been entirely constructed requires protein only for +repair, and 10 per cent. of the day's food in protein is sufficient for +this. This means that if the total calories for the day are 2,500, only +250 of them need be protein. + +55. The remainder of the calories are largely made up by fat and +carbohydrate. These, however, need not be in such exact proportion as +the protein, for no real danger lies in having either one in a greater +amount than the ideal proportion. This is usually three-tenths fat and +six-tenths carbohydrate or in a diet of 2,500 calories, 750 fat and +1,500 carbohydrate. The carbohydrate is very much in preponderance +because of its easy digestion and assimilation. As may be imagined, it +is not a simple matter to figure a diet as closely and carefully as +this, and it is only in extreme cases where such planning is necessary. + +56. The required amount of protein for the ordinary daily diet can be +had with about 3 ounces of meat, together with that which is found in +the bread, vegetables, and cereals taken each day. At any rate, the menu +should be planned so as to supply a protein dish for at least one meal +in the day. The fat is supplied largely by the butter taken and the fat +used in the cooking of foods. The carbohydrate is provided by the starch +found in cereals, bread, and vegetables and by the sugar contained in +fruits, as well as that used in the preparation of various foods and in +the sweetening of beverages, cereals, and fruits. + +In addition to providing these food substances, each meal should include +at least one food, and for dinner preferably two foods, that will supply +a large amount of mineral salts, cellulose, and vitamines. As will be +remembered, fruits and vegetables are the foods to be used for +this purpose. + +57. This method of menu planning may seem somewhat difficult at first +thought, but in reality it is not different from that which the +intelligent housewife follows who attempts to provide her family with a +variety of foods and who appreciates the value of that variety. If she +plans her menu in this manner, prepares the food so that it will be +wholesome, easily digested, and given in the proper proportion, and at +the same time watches the weights of the members of the family in the +manner suggested, she need have no fear about the general health of her +family, for it will be well maintained. + + * * * * * + + +MENU MAKING AND TABLE SERVICE + +GENERAL RULES FOR MENU MAKING + +58. Perhaps the greatest problem in the planning of menus for a family +is that of securing sufficient variety. A housewife who uses the same +recipes and the same combinations of food repeatedly is apt to get into +a rut and the members of her family will undoubtedly lose interest in +their meals. This condition results even with the dishes of which those +of the family are extremely fond. However, they will not tire so quickly +of the foods they care for if such foods are served to them less often. +Then, too, there is more chance to practice economy when a larger +variety of food is used. + +The importance of planning menus systematically should not be +overlooked, either, no matter how simple they may be. Even if breakfast +consists of only two or more dishes, luncheon of three or four, and +dinner of no more than four or five, a certain amount of planning should +be done in order that the meal may be properly balanced. If the +suggestions for meal planning already given are applied to this work, +very little difficulty will be experienced in providing meals that are +both attractive and properly balanced. In addition to these suggestions, +a few general rules for menu making ought to be observed. Most of these +are simple and can be followed with very little effort. + +59. Unless the menu is planned for a special occasion, the cost of the +various dishes should be made to balance. For instance, if an expensive +meat is to be served, the vegetables and the salad selected to accompany +it should be of moderate cost. On the other hand, if an expensive salad +is to be served, a dessert of moderate cost, such as a simple rice +pudding, should be used to offset the price of the other dish. Planning +meals in this way is urged for the sake of economy, and if it is +carefully followed, all the meals may be made to average about the +same cost. + +60. Another important point in successful meal planning is the avoidance +of two dishes in the same meal made from the same food. For instance, +tomato soup and tomato salad should not be served in the same meal, for +the combination is undesirable. Corn soup contrasts much better with +tomato salad than does the tomato soup, for it has the bland flavor that +is needed to offset the acid salad. Some housewives, it is true, object +to such planning on the ground that it does not give them opportunity to +utilize all the materials they may have on hand at the same time. But in +nearly every instance the materials can be used to excellent advantage +in meals that are to follow and, in addition, the gain in variety is +sufficient to warrant the adoption of such a method. + +61. As there should be variety in the materials used to make up the +dishes of a meal, so should there be variety in the flavor of the foods +selected. Rice, macaroni, and potato, for instance, make an undesirable +combination. They are too similar because they are all high in starch; +besides, they resemble one another too closely in consistency and they +are all bland in flavor. If a meal contains one or two bland dishes, a +special effort should be made to supply some highly flavored dish in +order to relieve the monotony. The same thing may be said of acid foods; +that is, an oversupply of these is just as distasteful as too many +bland foods. + +62. To have fresh fruit for the daily breakfast would be very +delightful, but such fruit cannot always be secured. When fresh fruit +cannot be had every day, it is better to alternate it with canned fruit +or stewed dried fruit than to have it for several days in succession and +then have to serve the alternative for a number of days. The same is +true of cereals. If use is to be made of both cooked and uncooked +cereals, it is much better to alternate them than to serve the cooked +ones for breakfast for an entire week and then uncooked ones the +next week. + +63. When two vegetables are used in the same meal, they should be +different. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes, although often served +together, do not belong in the same meal. In fact, for most seasons of +the year, two vegetables dissimilar in consistency should be supplied. +For instance, if spinach is included in a meal, some contrasting +vegetable, such as carrots, shell beans, etc., should be served with it. +Beets and carrots would not make a good combination, nor should cabbage +be combined with spinach, especially if both vegetables are prepared +with a sour dressing. + +64. A bland food or one high in fat, such as roast pork, certain kinds +of fish, etc., is much more palatable if a highly seasoned sauce or +another highly seasoned food or, in fact, a food of an entirely +different flavor is served with it. Apple sauce or baked apples are +usually served with roast pork for this purpose, while sour sauces or +pickles of some description are served with fish to relieve its +blandness. + +65. To secure the most successful meals, the main course should be +decided upon first and the additional dishes, such as soup, salad, and +dessert, should be the second consideration. In this method of planning +meals, they can be properly balanced, for if the main course is heavy, +the others can be made light or some of them omitted altogether, while +if the main course is a light one, heavier dishes may be selected to +accompany it. + +Whenever it is possible to do so, the heavy meal of the day should be +served at noon and the lighter one in the evening. This plan should +always be followed for children, and it is preferable for adults. +However, having dinner at noon is often very inconvenient and sometimes +impossible, because frequently one or more members of the family are at +business some distance from home and their coming home at noon for +dinner is impractical. In such an event, the evening meal should be the +heavy one, but it should not be made too hearty and overeating should +be avoided. + +At all meals, tea and coffee should be used sparingly. Especially should +this rule be followed by persons who are nervous, or high strung, or are +troubled with indigestion and insomnia. At any rate, it is advisable not +to drink either of these beverages at night. + + * * * * * + +METHODS OF SECURING VARIETY IN MEALS + +CARD-FILE SYSTEM OF MENU MAKING + +66. With the general rules for meal planning in mind, the housewife is +well prepared to arrange menus that will be properly balanced, as well +as varied and attractive. One means of securing variety in menus, and at +the same time supplying oneself with a very convenient piece of kitchen +equipment, consists in placing the recipes used on small cards and +filing them in a card file under the headings to which they belong, as +shown in Figs. 7 and 8. For instance, a heading should be made for +soups, one for potatoes, and so on. These cards may then be rotated in +order to make up menus. When the first card of each group has been used, +it should be placed at the back of the others in that group; then each +one will come in the order in which it was originally placed in the +file. Of course, when the cards are not filed alphabetically, it is a +little more difficult to find the recipes one needs at a particular +time, and so if desired other means of using the cards for menu making +may be easily devised without changing their position. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +In addition to serving as a basis for menus, this arrangement takes the +place of a cook book. In fact, it is much more convenient, for instead +of a book containing recipes on the table where the work is being done, +a small card, which takes up less space and is much less likely to be in +the way, may be substituted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + + +DINNER MENUS + +67. To assist the housewife materially in planning dinners in great +variety, Table VII, which contains suggestions for dinner menus, is +given. As will be noted, it is intended that each dinner shall consist +of a soup, a meat, potatoes in some form, another vegetable, a salad, +and a dessert. It is not necessary, of course, to include all these +dishes when a simpler meal is desired, but a number of suggestions are +given in each group so that there may be a good selection. In order to +use this table to advantage and to secure a large variety of menus, +different combinations of the various foods may be made. Then, too, the +combinations given may be rotated so that frequent repetition of the +same combination will be avoided. This table therefore has the advantage +over meals planned for 14 or even 21 days, for these must be repeated +once in 2 or 3 weeks. + +TABLE VII SUGGESTIONS FOR DINNER MENUS + +SOUP +1. Tomato Bouillon +2. Rice +3. Cream of Corn +4. Noodle +5. Cream of Pea +6. Julienne +7. Clear Bouillon +8. Oxtail +9. Split-Pea Purée +10. Cream of Tomato +11. Celery +12. Cream of Onion +13. Barley Broth +14. Cream of Asparagus +15. Vegetable +16. Corn Chowder + +MEAT +1. Roast Beef +2. Pork Chops +3. Macaroni and Cheese +4. Broiled Hamburg +5. Baked Fish +6. Broiled Steak +7. Kidney-Bean Loaf +8. Roast Pork +9. Lamb Chops +10. Roast Chicken +11. Baked Beans +12. Meat Loaf +13. Liver and Bacon +14. Roast Mutton +15. Broiled Ham +16. Scalloped Salmon +17. Roast Lamb +18. Lima-Bean Loaf +19. Veal Tongue +20. Fried Oysters + +POTATOES +1. Boiled Potatoes with Butter and Parsley +2. Scalloped Potatoes +3. Hashed-Brown Potatoes +4. Baked Potatoes +5. Potato Puff +6. French Fried Potatoes +7. Potato Patties +8. Roast Potatoes +9. Candied Sweet Potatoes +10. Mashed Potatoes +11. Creamed Potatoes +12. Stuffed Potatoes +13. Baked Sweet Potatoes +14. Potatoes au Gratin +15. Sautéd Potatoes + +VEGETABLES +1. Spinach +2. Green Peas +3. Breaded Tomatoes +4. Squash +5. Red Beets +6. Sweet Corn +7. Buttered Carrots +8. Mashed Turnips +9. Scalloped Eggplant +10. Buttered Cauliflower +11. Hot Slaw +12. Scalloped Tomatoes +13. Carrots and Peas +14. Buttered Kohlrabi +15. Baked Onions +16. Sautéd Eggplant +17. Stuffed Peppers +18. Creamed Turnips +19. Browned Parsnips +20. Sautéd Tomatoes +21. Escalloped Cabbage +22. Creamed Onions +23. String Beans +24. Asparagus +25. Succotash + +SALADS +1. Apple and Celery +2. Lettuce +3. Banana +4. Orange and Coconut +5. Cabbage +6. Tomato +7. Peas and Celery +8. Apple, Date, and Orange +9. Asparagus +10. Pineapple and Nut +11. Green Pepper and Cheese +12. String Bean +13. Fruit +14. Combination +15. Cucumber +16. Waldorf +17. Cabbage and Celery +18. Pineapple and Cream Cheese +19. Humpty Dumpty + +DESSERTS +1. Chocolate Blanc Mange +2. Brown Betty +3. Raisin Pie +4. Crackers and Cheese +5. Fruit Gelatine +6. Cake and Fruit +7. Apricot Fluff +8. Tapioca Pudding +9. Steamed Pudding +10. Short Cake +11. Prunes in Jelly +12. Rice Pudding +13. Custard Pie +14. Baked Apples +15. Peach Cobbler +16. Chocolate Bread Pudding +17. Pineapple Tapioca +18. Ice Cream +19. Jelly Tarts +20. Gingerbread and Whipped Cream +21. Indian Pudding, with Custard Sauce +22. Floating Island +23. Prune Fluff +24. Nuts and Raisins + +68. In the application of Table VII, use should be made of the dishes +numbered 1 in the various groups for the first day's menu. This dinner, +then, will consist of tomato bouillon, roast beef, boiled potatoes with +butter and parsley, spinach, apple-and-celery salad, and chocolate blanc +mange. In this way, the menus should be made by going through the entire +list and combining the dishes whose numbers correspond. Upon coming to +the last of the soups, which is No. 16, and attempting to make up a +menu, it will be discovered that there are only fifteen varieties of +potato dishes. In order to obtain a menu, the rotation must be begun +again, and so No. 1 of the potato dishes is used. This menu would +therefore consist of corn chowder, scalloped salmon, boiled potatoes +with butter and parsley, sautéd eggplant, peach-and-cream-cheese salad, +and chocolate bread pudding. + +In planning menus with the aid of this table, the housewife may not be +able to use a certain dish that is suggested because it is out of +season, cannot be procured, or resembles too closely some of the other +dishes in the menu. In such an event, she should select another dish to +take the place of the one that spoils the combination. Likewise, she +should not hesitate to make any change that will result in producing +properly balanced meals. + + +LUNCHEON MENUS + +69. To aid the housewife in the preparation of suitable luncheons, a +large number of luncheon menus are here given. These menus will serve to +give variety in the preparation of meals if they are rotated properly +and changes are made every once in a while in making up combinations of +food for this important and interesting meal. + +THE PLANNING OF MEALS + +No. 1 + +Rice Croquettes +Bread and Butter +Fruit Salad +Gingerbread and Cream Cheese + +No. 2 + +Cream-of-Corn Soup +Egg Salad +Whole-Wheat Muffins +Baked Bananas +Tea + +No. 3 + +Creamed Chicken on Toast +Sliced Tomatoes +Rolls +Fruit Cake + +No. 4 + +Scalloped Oysters +Apple-and-Celery Salad +Wafers +Tea + +No. 5 + +Cream-of-Tomato Soup +Hashed-Brown Potatoes +Graham Bread and Butter +Baked Apples +Tea + +No. 6 + +Macaroni and Cheese +Cabbage Salad +Wafers +Sugar Cookies +Coffee + +No. 7 + +Eggs à la Goldenrod +Rice with Raisins +Bread and Jam +Tea + +No. 8 + +Omelet +Toast +Prune Whip +Vanilla Wafers +Tea + +No. 9 + +Consommé +Chicken Salad +Rolls +Warm Gingerbread and Whipped Cream + +No. 10 + +Creamed Dried Beef on Toast +Lettuce Salad +Stewed Fruit +Tea + +No. 11 +Scalloped Corn +Brown Bread and Butter +Fruit Salad +Cheese Straws +Coffee + +No. 12 + +Cold Ham +Potato Salad +Graham Bread and Butter +Cookies +Tea + +No. 13 + +Oyster Stew +Wafers +Celery +Pineapple +Sponge Cake + +No. 14 + +Cheese Soufflé +Baked Tomato on Toast +Rice Pudding +Tea + +No. 15 + +Meat Pie +Cranberry Jelly +Table Raisins +Coffee + + +BREAKFAST MENUS + +70. WINTER BREAKFAST MENUS.--To assist the housewife in planning +properly balanced breakfast menus for winter, a number of suggestions +are here given. These necessarily differ from breakfast menus for other +seasons because of the difference in the food that can be obtained. They +are usually of a more hearty nature and contain more heat-producing foods. + +No. 1 + +Oranges +Rolled Oats with Cream +Soft-Cooked Eggs +Toast and Butter +Coffee + +No. 2 + +Stewed Prunes +Cream of Wheat with Cream +Broiled Bacon +Muffins and Butter +Coffee + +No. 3 + +Baked Apples +Griddle Cakes with Maple Sirup +Sausage Patties +Coffee + +No. 4 + +Rolls and Butter +Corn Flakes with Hot Milk +Grapefruit +Coffee + +No. 5 + +Vitos with Dates +French Toast and Butter +Jelly +Hot Chocolate + +No. 6 + +Apple Sauce +Fried Cornmeal Mush with Sirup +Broiled Bacon +Coffee + +No. 7 +Orange Juice +Steamed Rice +Omelet +Cornmeal Muffins and Butter +Coffee + +No. 8 + +California Grapes +Hominy Grits +Waffles and Sirup +Coffee + +No. 9 + +Sliced Bananas +Pearl Barley +Codfish Balls +Marmalade +Toast +Coffee + +No. 10 + +Popovers Filled with Warm Apple Sauce +White Cornmeal Mush +Baked Eggs in Cream +Toast +Coffee + +71. SUMMER BREAKFAST MENUS.--During the summer season, fresh fruits of +various kinds can be obtained, and these are generally used as the first +course for breakfast. As the menus here given show, it is well to vary +the fruit course as much as possible, so that there will be no danger of +tiring the persons to be served. An uncooked breakfast food is +preferable to a cooked one for summer and so several varieties of these +are here suggested. + +No. 1 + +Strawberries and Cream +Scrambled Eggs +Toast +Coffee + +No. 2 + +Raspberries +Puffed Rice +Baking-Powder Biscuits and Honey +Coffee + +No. 3 + +Blackberries +Corn Flakes +Creamed Toast +Coffee + +No. 4 + +Blueberries +Grape Nuts and Cream +Jelly +Omelet +Toast +Coffee + +No. 5 + +Sliced Peaches +Puffed Wheat +Clipped Eggs +Toast +Coffee + +No. 6 + +Cantaloupe +Krumbles with Cream +French Toast and Sirup +Coffee + + +MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS + +72. Special occasions, such as New Year's, Easter, Fourth of July, +Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc., are usually celebrated with a dinner that +is somewhat out of the ordinary. Then, too, on such days as St. +Valentine's, St. Patrick's, Hallowe'en, etc., it is often desired to +invite friends in for a social time of some kind, when dainty, +appetizing refreshments make up a part of the entertainment. To assist +the housewife in planning menus for occasions of this kind, a number of +suggestions are here given. Suitable decorations are also mentioned in +each instance, for much of the attraction of a special dinner or +luncheon depends on the form of decoration used. + +It should not be thought that elaborate, costly decorations are +necessary, for often the most effective results can be achieved with +some very simple decoration. Of course, the decorations should be +suitable for the occasion to be celebrated. Favors of various kinds are +generally on sale in confectioners' and stationers' shops, so that, if +desired, favors may be purchased. However, the ingenious housewife can, +with very little trouble, make favors that will be just as attractive as +those she can buy and that will be much less expensive. She may copy +some she sees in the shops or work out any original ideas she may have +on the most suitable decorations for the occasion. + +NEW YEAR'S DINNERS + +No. 1 + +DECORATION--Ground Pine + +Cream-of-Tomato Soup +Mustard Pickles +Croutons +Baked Ham +Hot Slaw +Candied Sweet Potatoes +String Beans +Orange-and-Pineapple Salad +Maple Parfait +Macaroons +Salted Nuts +Coffee + + +No. 2 + +DECORATION--Potted Jerusalem Cherries + +Crab-Flake Cocktail +Asparagus Broth +Radishes +Wafers +Roast Goose +Hot Baked Apples +Creamed Turnips +Mashed Potatoes +Peas-and-Celery Salad +Vanilla Ice Cream, Apricot Sauce +Table Raisins +Coffee + + + +EASTER DINNERS + +No. 1 + +DECORATION--Daffodils + +Clear Tomato Soup +Mixed Pickles +Croutons +Creamed Mushrooms in Timbale Cases +Roast Spring Chicken +Mint Sauce +Potato Puff +Creamed Peas and Carrots +Grapefruit-and-Celery Salad +Milk Sherbet +Sponge Cake +Coffee + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Chinese Lilies and Iris + +Fruit Cocktail +Bouillon with Whipped Cream and Pimiento +Celery Wafers +Fricassee of Chicken +Riced Potatoes Scalloped Corn +Tomato Salad +Bavarian Cream Salted Nuts +Coffee + + +ST. VALENTINE PARTIES + +DINNER MENU + +DECORATIONS--Red Hearts and Ribbons, Red Candle Shades + +Heart-Shaped Canapes Olives +Clam Bouillon +Creamed Chicken and Mushrooms in Pattie Shells +Potatoes au Gratin +Grapefruit-and-California-Grape Salad +Vanilla Ice Cream Heart-Shaped Cakes +Candies + +LUNCHEON MENU + +DECORATIONS--Red Roses, Heart-Shaped Favors, Cupids + +Tuna-Fish Salad +Heart-Shaped Brown Bread and Marmalade Sandwiches +Nut Sandwiches +Ice Cream in Heart-Shaped Cases +Small Decorated Cakes +Candies Nuts + + +ST. PATRICK'S DAY PARTIES + +DINNER MENU + +DECORATIONS--Shamrocks and Green Ribbon + +Cream-of-Pea Soup +Olives Wafers +Roast Pork Loin Potatoes with Parsley Sauce +Tomatoes au Gratin +Green-Peppers-and-Cheese Salad +Lemon Ice Cakes +Coffee Green Mints + +LUNCHEON MENU + +DECORATIONS--White Narcissus, Green Carnations, Shamrocks + +Chicken Salad +Cheese-and-Green-Pepper Sandwiches +Pistachio Ice Cream Sponge Cake +Mint Punch + +FOURTH-OF-JULY LUNCHEONS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Sweet Peas, Small Flags + +Iced Tomato Bouillon +Wafers +Cold Sliced Ham +Swiss Cheese +Creamed Potatoes and Peas +Strawberry-and-Pineapple Salad +Coconut Cream Pie +Iced Tea + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Cornflowers and Daisies + +Iced Watermelon with Mint +Creamed Chicken and Mushrooms on Toast +Potato Croquettes +Corn on the Cob +Sliced Cucumbers +Vanilla Ice Cream +Chocolate Sauce +Punch + + +HALLOWE'EN LUNCHEONS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Pumpkin Jack o' Lantern, Black-Paper Cats and Witches + +Tongue Sandwiches +Swiss-Cheese Sandwiches +Cider +Doughnuts +Pumpkin Pie +Molasses Taffy + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Tiny Paper Jack o' Lanterns + +Pink Bunny +Brown-Bread-and-Marmalade Sandwiches +Nut Cookies +Gingerbread +Candies +Cider + + +THANKSGIVING DINNERS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Basket of Fruit + +Oyster Cocktail +Consommé with Peas +Celery +Wafers +Roast Turkey +Candied Sweet Potatoes +Asparagus with Drawn-Butter Sauce +Cranberry Frappé +Head Lettuce +Thousand-Island Dressing +Pumpkin Pie +Fruit +Coffee + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Baby Chrysanthemums + +Grapefruit Cocktail +Celery Soup +Olives +Bread Sticks +Roast Chicken +Cranberry Jelly +Mashed Potatoes +Cottage-Cheese Balls +Baked Onions +Stuffed Dates +Mince Pie +Coffee + + +CHRISTMAS DINNERS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Small Christmas Tree + +Oyster Broth +Oyster Crackers +Small Pickles +Olives +Chicken Pie +Pickled Peaches +Baked Sweet Potatoes +Creamed Cauliflower +Fruit Salad +Christmas Pudding +Sauce +Bonbons +Salted Nuts +Coffee + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Poinsettias and Holly + +Grapefruit with Grape Juice +Cream Chicken Bouillon +Stuffed Celery +Wafers +Roast Duck +Currant Jelly +Mashed Potatoes +Baked Squash +Spiced Punch +Cabbage-and-Green-Pepper Salad +Plum Pudding +Sauce +Mints +Almonds +Coffee + + +WEDDING BREAKFASTS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers + +Iced Fruit +Creamed Chicken on Toast +Stuffed Potato +Asparagus with Butter Sauce +Rolls +Marmalade +Butter +Ice +Cake +Coffee + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers + +Orange and Grapefruit Juice +Broiled Sweetbreads +Creamed Potatoes +Lima-Bean Soufflé +Hot Biscuits +Honey +Butter +Pineapple Fritters +Milk Sherbet +Cake +Coffee + + +WEDDING LUNCHEONS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers + +Oyster Cocktail +Chicken Soup +Radishes +Olives +Broiled Squab +Browned Potatoes +Fresh String Beans +Fruit Salad +French Ice Cream +Cake +Candies +Coffee + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers + +Grapefruit Cocktail +Bouillon +Celery +Radishes +Chicken Croquettes +Potato Puff +Stuffed Tomatoes +Bread-and-Butter Sandwiches +Hearts of Lettuce +Mayonnaise +Chocolate Nut Ice Cream +Cake +Mints +Coffee + + +WEDDING DINNERS + +No. 1 + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers + +Fresh Pineapple +Cream-of-Celery Soup +Ripe Olives +Radishes +Broiled Chicken +Candied Sweet Potatoes +Green Peas in Cream +Corn Fritters +Whole-Wheat Rolls +Butter +Grapefruit Salad +Individual Molds of Ice Cream +Cake +Mints +Coffee + +No. 2 + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers + +Crabflake Cocktail +Consommé Julienne +Celery +Olives +Radishes +Roast Young Duck +Mashed Potatoes +Green Lima Beans +Creamed Cauliflower +Rolls +Butter +Waldorf Salad +Vanilla Ice Cream +Chocolate Sauce +Cake +Candies +Coffee + + +BIRTHDAY PARTIES FOR CHILDREN + +BIRTHDAY DINNER + +DECORATIONS--Kewpies with Large Bows of Ribbon To be Used as Favors + +Fruit Cocktail in Orange Basket +Creamed Sweetbreads on Toast +Mashed Potatoes +Asparagus Soufflé +Peach-and-Cream-Cheese Salad +Vanilla Ice Cream with Maple Sirup +Birthday Cakes +Candies +Nuts + + +BIRTHDAY LUNCHEON + +DECORATIONS--Pink Sweet Peas, Maiden-Hair Fern, Pink Favors Filled with +Candy + +Fruit Salad +Wafers +Punch +Chocolate Ice Cream with Marshmallow +Birthday Cake +Stuffed Dates + + +BIRTHDAY PARTIES FOR ADULTS + +BIRTHDAY DINNER + +DECORATIONS--Pink Roses, Pink Candle Shades + +Fruit Cocktail +Cream-of-Pea Soup +Radishes +Olives +Wafers +Chicken Croquettes +Stuffed Potatoes +Asparagus Tips +Pineapple-and-Cream-Cheese Salad +Meringue Glacé +Birthday Cake +Coffee + +BIRTHDAY LUNCHEON + +DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers, Candle Shades, and Favors to Match + +Lobster Cocktail +Clear Soup +Wafers +Stuffed Olives +Chicken à la King +Julienne Potatoes +Stuffed-Tomato Salad +Chocolate Parfait +Birthday Cake +Candies +Nuts +Coffee + + +AFTERNOON TEAS + +No. 1 + +Ribbon Sandwiches +Date-and-Nut Sandwiches +Toasted Pound Cake +Salted Nuts +Tea + + +No. 2 + +Apricot Sandwiches +Cream-Cheese-and-Peanut Sandwiches +Marguerites +Candied Orange Peel +Tea + + +SUPPER PARTIES + +No. 1 + +Welsh Rarebit +Tomato Sandwiches +Chocolate Éclairs +Coffee + +No. 2 + +Club Sandwiches +Bisque Ice Cream +Cakes +Coffee + + +TABLE SERVICE + +73. ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TABLE SERVICE.--Too much cannot be said of the +importance of attractive table service. The simplest kind of meal served +attractively never fails to please, while the most elaborate meal served +in an uninviting way will not appeal to the appetite. Therefore, a +housewife should try never to neglect the little points that count so +much in making her meals pleasing and inviting. It is not at all +necessary that she have expensive dishes and linen, nor, in fact, +anything out of the ordinary, in order to serve meals in a dainty, +attractive way. Some points, however, are really essential and should +receive consideration. + +74. In the first place, there should be absolute cleanliness in +everything used. To make this possible, the dishes should be properly +washed and dried. The glasses should be polished so that they are not +cloudy nor covered with lint. The silver should be kept polished +brightly. The linen, no matter what kind, should be nicely laundered. +Attention given to these matters forms the basis of good table service. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +Close in hand with these points comes a well-arranged and neatly set +table. To this may be added some attractive touches in the way of +flowers or other simple decoration. These need cost little or nothing, +especially in the spring and summer seasons, for then the fields and +woods are filled with flowers and foliage that make most artistic table +decorations. Often, too, one's own garden offers a nice selection of +flowers that may be used for table decoration if a little time and +thought are given to their arrangement. In the winter, a small fern or +some other growing plant will answer. + +75. BREAKFAST, LUNCHEON, AND DINNER SERVICE.--To give an idea of proper +table service for the three meals, breakfast, luncheon, and dinner, +Figs. 9, 10, and 11 are offered. Attention should be given to the +details of each of these, for they show how to arrange meals that are +intended to be served tastily and invitingly. + +76. In Fig. 9 is shown a breakfast cover for one. By a _cover_ is meant +the silver and dishes placed on the table for one person. In a simple +meal, this might consist of a knife, a fork, spoons, a plate, a glass, a +cup and saucer, and a bread-and-butter plate. Here the cover has been +arranged on a breakfast tray for service at a bedside. This meal is not +in the least unusual, but it is very dainty and pleasing. It consists of +strawberries with the stems left on so that they may be dipped into +sugar and eaten, a cereal, a roll with butter, a hot dish of some kind, +such as eggs, and a hot beverage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +77. A luncheon table with covers for six is shown in Fig. 10. The first +course consists of a fruit cocktail, which is placed on the table before +the persons to be served are seated. The silver required up to the +dessert course is also laid beforehand. Just before the dessert is +served, the entire table should be cleared and the silver necessary for +this course laid at each place. + +A point to be remembered in the placing of silver is that the various +pieces should always be placed on the table in the order in which they +are to be used. Here the first spoon is for the cocktail, which is +already on the table, while the second spoon is for the soup, the next +course. The knife, which is the third piece of silver, with the two +forks on the opposite side will be required for the dinner course, while +the third fork is a fork for the salad course. + +As will be noted, doilies have been used in place of a table cloth for +this luncheon. These, which may be as simple or as elaborate as desired, +save laundering and, if they are inexpensive, they are an economy as +well as a convenience. Since they also make a luncheon table very +attractive, they are strongly recommended for meals of this kind. The +luncheon napkin, which is smaller than that used for dinner service, +should always be placed where it is shown here, that is, at the left of +the forks. If only one beverage is to be served, as is usually the case, +the glass is placed at the tip of the knife. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +78. An example of a correctly set dinner table is shown in Fig. 11. A +table cloth, as will be noted, is used, for a cloth is always preferable +to doilies for dinner. At this meal, the first course is soup. This, +with anything that is to be eaten with the soup, such as the wafers used +here, or a relish, should be placed before the guests are seated. The +bread-and-butter plate, which is placed just at the top of the fork, +should also be on the table. Between each two persons, it is well to +have a set of salt-and-pepper shakers. + + * * * * * + +THE PLANNING OF MEALS + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) What knowledge is necessary for the planning of economical and +well-balanced meals? + +(2) Discuss a systematic plan for the purchasing of foods. + +(3) Compare the advantages of buying foods at a cash store and a credit +store. + +(4) Mention the advantages of keeping an account of household +expenditures. + +(5) Tell how economy in the purchase of foods may be practiced. + +(6) Discuss the training of a child's appetite. + +(7) Why is a variety of food necessary in the diet? + +(8) Name the factors that influence the amount and proportion of food +substances required for an adult. + +(9) (_a_) Explain the meaning of calorie as applied to food. (_b_) What +is the average number of calories required by the adult? + +(10) With the aid of Table V, find out how many pounds you are under +weight or over weight. Then tell how you would proceed to acquire your +correct weight. + +(11) Make out menus for breakfast, dinner, and supper for 1 day for a +child 12 months old. + +(12) Plan a dinner menu that contains foods suitable for both adults and +a child 4 years old, and from it select the foods you would give +the child. + +(13) What does a balanced diet include? + +(14) What can be done to balance the cost of foods used in a meal? + +(15) Give several points of importance in selecting the dishes for a +meal. + +(16) Make out menus for the seventeenth and eighteenth days from Table +VII. + +(17) Plan an original menu and decorations for a dinner you can serve +for a special occasion. + +(18) What are the advantages of a nicely arranged table? + +(19) Give a few general rules for the correct serving of food and +setting of tables. + +(20) Why is the following menu undesirable and what changes would you +suggest to make it more nearly correct? + +Cream Soup +Potatoes +Roast Pork +Greens +Bread and Butter +Pudding +Hard Sauce + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + +A + +Absinthe, +Accounts, Equipment for keeping household, + Keeping of household, + Methods of keeping household, +Acids in confections, Use of, + in fruit, +Adulteration of coffee, + of flavorings, +Adults, Birthday parties for, +Advertised goods, Nationally, +After-dinner coffee, +Afternoon tea, + teas, +Age on children's diet, Effect of, + on diet, Effect of, +Alcoholic beverages, + beverages, Harmful effects of, + beverages, Kinds of, +Alligator pear, or avocado, +Apple butter, + sauce, +Apples, + apricots, and peaches, Dried, + Composition and food value of, + Drying of, + Maple, + Porcupine, + Steamed, + Stewed quinces and, +Apportionment of income, +Apricot soufflé, +Apricots, + Drying of, + Food value and composition of, + peaches, and apples, Dried, +Artificial flavorings, +Asparagus, Canning of, +Automatic seal tops, +Avocado, or alligator pear, + +B + +Baked apples, + bananas, + peaches, + pears, +Balancing the diet, +Banana fritters, +Bananas, + Baked, + Food value and composition of, +Beans, Canning of lima and other shelled, + Canning of string, + Drying of string, + Pickled, + Roasting the coffee, +Beer, +Beet relish, + sugar, +Beets, Canning of, + Pickled, +Berries, Miscellaneous, + Nature and care of, +Berry, or fruit, sugar, +Beverage, Definition of, +Beverages, Alcoholic, + Cereal, + Fruit, + Harmful effects of alcoholic, + in the diet, + Ingredients for fruit, + Instantaneous cereal, + Kinds of alcoholic, + Nature and classes of, + Nature of stimulating, + Non-stimulating, + Nourishing, + Preparation of fruit, + Stimulating, + Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in stimulating, +Beverages to meals, Relation of, + Water in, +Birthday-party menus, +Bitter chocolate, +Black tea, +Blackberries, + Composition and food value of, +Blackberry jam, + sponge, +Blanching and scalding foods to be canned, +Blend coffee, +Blueberries, +Blueberry pudding, + pudding, Pressed, +Bohea tea, +Boiled coffee, +Boiling fruit juice and sugar in jelly making, + the confection mixture, +Bonbon cream, Coating candies with, +Bonbons, +Brandy, +Breakfast cocoa, + luncheon and dinner service, + menus, + menus, Summer, + menus, Wedding-, + menus, Winter, +Brown-sugar fudge, +Brussels sprouts, Canning of, +Budget, Household, +Butter, Apple, + Cocoa, + milk, and cream in confections, + Peach, + Pear, + Plum, + scotch, + scotch, Marshmallows coated with, + taffy, +Butters, Fruit, +Buying, Economical, + +C + +Cabbage, Canning of, +Cafe au lait, Iced, + noir, +Caffeine, +Caffeol, +California oranges, +Calories, Quantity of foods in, +Candied and dried fruits in confections, + peel, +Candies, Cream, + Finishing, + Marking and cutting, + Nature of cream, + with bonbon cream, Coating, + with chocolate, Coating, + Wrapping, +Candy, Serving, + Table showing tests for, + Testing, +Cane sugar, +Canned food, Flavor of, + food, General appearance of, + food, Proportion of food to liquid, + food, Score card for, + food, Texture of, + foods from spoiling, Preventing, + foods, Method of sealing, + foods, Scoring, + foods, Spoiling of, + Preparation of food to be, +Canning and drying, + Cold-pack method of, + Commercial, + Definition of, + Equipment for, + fruit juices for jelly, + fruits, Directions for, + fruits, Table of sirups for, + greens, + Measuring devices for, + method, Fractional-sterilization, + method, Oven, + methods, + methods for fruits, + methods, Steam-pressure, + of asparagus, + of beets, + of Brussels sprouts, + of cabbage, + of carrots, + of cauliflower, + of eggplant, + of fish, + of fruits, + of green corn, + of green peppers, + of lima and other shelled beans, + of meat, + of okra, + of parsnips, + of peas, + of pumpkin, + of root and tuber vegetables, + of squash, + of string beans, + of succotash, + of summer squash, + of tomatoes, + of tomatoes and corn, + of tomatoes for soup, + of turnips, + of vegetables, +Canning, Open-kettle method of, + Oven method of, + Preparation of fruits and vegetables for, + preservatives, + Principles of, + Sealing the jars when, + Selection of food for, + Sirups for, + Steam-pressure method of, + Tin cans for, + Utensils for, + Utensils required for open-kettle method of, + vegetables, Directions for, + Vessels for, + with a pressure cooker, + with the water-seal outfit, + with tin cans, +Cans for canning, Tin, +Cantaloupes and muskmelons, + Serving, +Caramels, + Chocolate, + Nature of, + Plain, +Caravan tea, +Carbohydrate in confections, + in fruit, +Carbonated water, +Card-file system for menu making, +Carrot conserve, +Carrots, Canning of, +Casaba melons, +Cash-and-carry plan of marketing, +Catsup, Grape, + Tomato, +Cauliflower, Canning of, + Pickled, +Cellulose in fruit, +Center cream, +Cereal beverages, + beverages, Instantaneous, + coffees, +Chain stores, +Chemical or mineral colorings, +Cherries, + Composition and food value of, + Sour, +Cherry-and-pineapple conserve, + fritters, + preserve, +Chewing taffy, +Children and infants, Diet for, +Children's birthday parties, Menus for, +diet, Effect of age on, +diet, Effect of weight on, +Chilli sauce, +China congou tea, +Chocolate and cocoa, + and cocoa in confections, + and cocoa, Left-over, + and cocoa, Preparation of, + and cocoa, Production of, + and cocoa, Selection of, + and cocoa, Serving, + and cocoa, Source of, + Bitter, + caramels, + Coating candies with, + Egg, + Hot, + malted milk, + or cocoa, Iced, + sirup, + Sweet, + Table showing tannic acid and stimulant in, +Chow chow, +Christmas dinners, +Citric acid, +Citrus fruits, +Classification of fruits, + of tea, + of vegetables, +Climate on diet, Effect of, +Clingstone peaches, +Closing and storing jelly, +Coarse granulated sugar, + powdered sugar, +Coating candies with bonbon cream, + candies with chocolate, +Cocktail, Fruit, + Grapefruit, + Summer, +Cocoa and chocolate, + and chocolate in confections, + and chocolate, Left-over, + and chocolate, Preparation of, + and chocolate, Production of, + and chocolate, Selection of, + and chocolate, Serving, + and chocolate, Source of, + Breakfast, + butter, + Commercial, + Creamy, + Milling of, + nibs, + Plain, + or chocolate, Iced, + Rich, + Table showing tannic acid and stimulant in, + Theobroma, +Coconut in confections, +Coffee, Adulteration of, + After-dinner, + beans, Grinding, +Coffee beans, Roasting, + biggin, + Blend, + Boiled, + Filtered, + History and production of, + Iced, + Instantaneous, + Java, + Left-over, + Mocha, + Percolated, + percolators, + pot, + Preparation of, + Rio, + Rye, + seeds, Obtaining, + Selection of, + Serving, + Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in, + Vienna, +Coffees, Cereal, +Colander and wire strainer for canning, +Cold-dipping, + -pack method of canning, + -pack method, Procedure in one-period, + -pack method, Utensils for, +Color of jelly, +Colorings for confections, + Mineral, or chemical, + Vegetable, +Combination drying methods, +Combining sugar and liquid in confection making, +Commercial canning, + cocoa, +Composition and food value of bananas, + and food value of black raspberries, + and food value of blackberries, + and food value of cherries, + and food value of cranberries, + and food value of currants, + and food value of dates, + and food value of dried apples, + and food value of dried apricots, + and food value of dried figs, + and food value of dried prunes, + and food value of fresh apples, + and food value of fresh apricots, + and food value of fresh figs, + and food value of fresh prunes, + and food value of fruits, + and food value of grapefruit, + and food value of grapes, +Composition and food value of huckleberries, + and food value of lemons, + and food value of muskmelon, + and food value of nectarines, + and food value of oranges, + and food value of peaches, + and food value of pears, + and food value of persimmons, + and food value of pineapple, + and food value of plums, + and food value of pomegranates, + and food value of raisins, + and food value of red raspberries, + and food value of rhubarb, + and food value of strawberries, + and food value of watermelon, + of confections, + of food, + of fruits, +Confection making, + making, Combining sugar and liquid in, + making, Effect of weather on, + making, Equipment for, + making, Procedure in, + mixture, Boiling, + mixture, Pouring and cooling, +Confectioners', or XXXX, sugar, +Confections, + Candied and dried fruits in, + Carbohydrate in, + Chocolate and cocoa in, + Coconut in, + Composition of, + Cooking, + Definition of, + Fat in, + Food materials in, + Ingredients used in, + Milk, cream, and butter in, + Mineral salts in, + Miscellaneous, + Nature of, + Nuts in, + Pop-corn in, + Protein in, + Use of acids in, + Varieties and preparations of, +Congou tea, + tea, China, +Conservation of foods, +Conserve, Carrot, + Cherry-and-pineapple, + Crab-apple-and-orange, + Definition of, + Pineapple-and-apricot, + Plum, + Red-raspberry-and-currant, +Conserve, strawberry-and-pineapple + strawberry-and-rhubarb +Containers for jelly +Cooking and storing of dried foods + confections + fruit in jelly-making + on fruit, effect of +Cooling and pouring the confection mixture +Cordials +Corn, canning of green +Canning of tomatoes and + Drying of + sirup +Correct diet + weights for certain heights, table showing, +Cost of foods +Covers, jar tops, or +Crab-apple-and-orange conserve + -apple jelly + -apple relish + -apples, pickled +Cracker jack +Cranberries + Composition and food value of +Cranberry jelly + sauce +Cream candies + Center + milk, and butter in confections + Opera +Creamy cocoa +Cucumber pickles, Sliced + pickles, small +Cucumbers in brine +Currant jelly +Currants + Food value and composition of +Cutting and marking candies + +D + +Dates + Food value and composition of + Stuffed +Density of sirup for canning +Desserts, fruit +Devices for canning, measuring + for drying +Diet, balancing the + Beverages in the + Correct + Effect of age on + Effect of age on children's + Effect of climate on + Effect of sex on + Effect of weight on + Effect of weight on children's + for infants and children +Diet, Fruit in the + Pickles in the + Preserves and jellies in the +Digestibility of fruits +Dinner, breakfast, and luncheon service + menus + menus, suggestions for +Dinners, Christmas + Easter + New Year's + Thanksgiving + Wedding +Distilled water +Divinity +Dried and candied fruits in confections + apples + apricots + foods, cooking and storing + fruits, varieties of + peaches +Drip pot +Drying and canning + devices for + method, electric-fan + method, stove + method, sun + methods, combination + of apples + of apricots + of corn + of food + of greens + of peaches + of pears + of quinces + of small fruits + of string beans + of tuber and root vegetables + preparation of foods for + vegetables and fruits, directions for + +E + +Easter dinners +Economical food buying +Economies in purchasing food +Economy of food preservation + of jelly making and preserving +Egg chocolate + milk shake + nog, foamy + nog, orange +Eggplant and summer squash, canning of, +Electric-fan drying method +English breakfast tea +Equipment for canning + for confection making + for household accounts +Equipment for jelly making, +Exhausting in canning, Meaning of, +Extra fine, or fancy fine, granulated sugar, +Extracting fruit juice in jelly making, +Extracts, Flavoring, + +F + +Factors influencing cost of foods, + influencing foods, +Family income for food, Table showing proportion of, +Fancy fine, or extra fine, granulated sugar, +Fat in confections, + in fruits, Protein and, +Feeding scale for infants, +Fermentation of fruit juices, +Figs,; + Composition and food value of dried, + Composition and food value of fresh, + Pressed, + Pulled, + Steamed, + Stewed, +Filtered coffee, +Fine granulated sugar, +Fish and meat, Canning of, +Flat sour in canning, +Flavor fruits, + of canned food, + of jelly, +Flavoring extracts, + oils, +Flavorings, Adulteration of, + Artificial, + Natural, +Flavors, Synthetic, +Florida oranges, +Flowery pekoe tea, +Foamy egg nog, +Fondant, + and related creams, + Nature of, + Uncooked, +Food, Composition of, + cost, Chart of factors in, + Drying of, + Economies in purchasing, + Factors influencing, + Factors influencing cost of, + for canning, Selection of, + fruits, + Importance of proper amount of, + in calories, Quantity of, + materials in confections, + Preparation of fruits as, +Food preservation, Economy of, + Principles of drying, + Sterile, + substances to growth and health, Relation of, + Suitability of, + Table showing proportion of family income for, + to be canned, Preparation of, + value and composition of apples, + value and composition of apricots, + value and composition of bananas, + value and composition of black raspberries, + value and composition of blackberries, + value and composition of cherries, + value and composition of cranberries, + value and composition of currants, + value and composition of dates, + value and composition of figs, + value and composition of fruits, + value and composition of grapefruit, + value and composition of grapes, + value and composition of huckleberries, + value and composition of lemons, + value and composition of muskmelon, + value and composition of nectarines, + value and composition of oranges, + value and composition of peaches, + value and composition of pears, + value and composition of persimmons, + value and composition of pineapple, + value and composition of plums, + value and composition of pomegranates, + value and composition of prunes, + value and composition of raisins, + value and composition of red raspberries, + value and composition of rhubarb, + value and composition of strawberries, + value and composition of watermelon, + value of fruits, +Foods, Conservation of, + Cost of, + for drying, Preparation of, + from spoiling, Preventing canned, + Methods for preserving, + Necessity for preserving, + Purchase of, + Quantity and proportion of, +Foods, Scoring canned + Spoiling of canned + Storing and serving canned +Formosa tea +Fourth-of-July luncheons +Fractional-sterilization method of canning +Freestone peaches +Fritters, Banana + Cherry +Fruit, Acids in + and fruit desserts + as food, Preparation of + beverages + beverages, Ingredients for + beverages, Preparation of + butters + Carbohydrate in + Cellulose in + cocktails + cultivation, Advance in + Definition of + desserts, Fruit and + Effect of cooking on + for preserving, Selection of + in jars, Packing + in jelly making, Cooking + in the diet + juice and sugar in jelly making, Boiling the + juice and sugar in jelly making, Combining the + juice for pectin in jelly making, Testing the + juice lacking in pectin in jelly making + Using + Minerals in + nectar + or berry, sugar + Preparing and serving + punch + sugar, or levulose + Water in +Fruits and vegetables, Directions for drying + and vegetables for canning, Preparation of + Canning methods for + Canning vegetables and + Citrus + Classification of + Composition and food value of + Composition of + Digestibility of + Directions for canning + Dried + Drying of small + Effect of ripeness on + Flavor + Food +Fruits, Food value of + Hard + in confections, Candied and dried + Miscellaneous citrus + Miscellaneous tropical + Nature of + Non-tropical + Protein and fat in + Serving + Soft + Sour soft + Special + Sweet soft + Table showing composition and food value of + Tropical + Varieties of dried + Varieties of tropical + Very sour soft + Washing +Fudge, Brown-sugar + recipes + Two-layer +Fudges and related candies + +G + +General appearance of canned food +Gin +Ginger-ale punch +Glacé nuts and fruits +Glass jars +Glasses, Closing and storing jelly + Filling jelly +Glove oranges +Glucose +Goods, Nationally advertised +Gooseberries + Green +Gooseberry jam +Graining of sugar in candy making +Granulated sugar + sugar, Coarse + sugar, Fancy fine, or extra fine + sugar, Fine + sugar, Standard +Grape catsup + jelly + juice, Unfermented + lemonade + marmalade +Grapefruit cocktail + Composition and food value of + or shaddock + Preparation of + Selection of + Serving +Grapes + Food value and composition of +Green corn, Canning of + -gage jam +Green gooseberries + peppers, Canning of okra and + tea + -tomato pickle +Greens + Canning + Drying of +Growth and health, Relation of food substances to +Guavas + Red + White +Gunpowder tea + +H + +Hallowe'en luncheons +Hard fruits + water +Heavy sirup +Honey +Hot chocolate +Household accounts, Equipment for + accounts, Keeping of + accounts, Methods of keeping + budget +Huckleberries + Composition and food value of +Hydrometer, or sirup gauge +Hyson tea + +I + +Ice-cream soda +Iced café au lait + cocoa or chocolate + coffee + tea +Income, Apportionment of +Infants and children, Diet for + Feeding scale for +Ingredients used in confections +Instantaneous cereal beverages + coffee + +J + +Jam + Blackberry + Definition of + Gooseberry + Green-gage + Raspberry + Strawberry +Japan tea +Jar covers or tops + rubbers + tops or covers +Jars, Glass + Wrapping and labeling +Java coffee +Jellies and preserves in the diet + preserves, and pickles, Value of +Jelly bag +Jelly, Canning fruit juices for + Color of + Containers for + Crab-apple + Cranberry + Currant + Flavor of + glasses, Closing and storing + glasses, Filling + Grape + making + making and preserving, Economy of + making, Cooking fruit in + making, Extracting fruit juice in + making, Kettles for + making, Necessary equipment for + making, preserving, and pickling + making, Principles of + making, Procedure in + making, Proportion of sugar in + making, Sheeting in + making, Utensils for + Method of sealing + mixture, Testing the + Peach + Plum + Quince + Raspberry + recipes + Score card for + Scoring + Solidity of + Strawberry + Sugar content of +Juice in jelly making, Extracting fruit +Juices for jelly, Canning fruit +Julep, Mint + +K + +Ketchup, Tomato +Kettles for jelly making, +Kumquats + and loquats + +L + +Left-over cocoa and chocolate + -over coffee + -over tea +Lemonade + Grape + Pineapple +Lemons + Composition and food value of +Levulose, or fruit sugar +Light sirup +Lima and other shelled beans, Canning of +Limes +Liquid and sugar in confection making +Loganberries +Long-boiling process +Loquats and kumquats +Luncheon, breakfast, and dinner service + menus + menus, Fourth-of-July + menus, Hallowe'en + menus, Suggestions for + menus, Wedding + +M + +Malic acid +Malted milk, Chocolate +Mandarins +Mangoes, Tamarinds and +Maple apples + penuchie + sirup and maple sugar +Marketing, Cash-and-carry plan of + Successful +Marking and cutting candies +Marmalade + Grape + Orange + Orange-and-pineapple + Quince +Marshmallows + coated with butter scotch +Meals, Planning of + Relation of beverages to +Mean-boiling process +Measuring devices for canning +Meat and fish, Canning of +Medium sirup +Melons + Casaba +Menu making and table service + making, Card-file system of + making, Rules for +Menus, Breakfast + Dinner + for adults' birthday parties + for afternoon teas + for children's birthday parties + for Christmas dinners + for Easter dinners + for Fourth-of-July luncheons + for Hallowe'en luncheons + for New Year's dinners + for Saint Patrick's day parties + for Saint Valentine's day parties + for special occasions + for supper parties + for wedding breakfasts + for wedding dinners + for wedding luncheons +Menus, Luncheon + Summer breakfast + Winter breakfast +Method of drying foods, Stove + of drying foods, Sun + of sealing canned food + of sealing jelly +Methods of canning + of keeping household accounts + of making tea + of securing variety in meals +Middlemen +Milk, cream, and butter in confections + shake, Egg + shake, Plain +Milling of cocoa +Mineral, or chemical, colorings + salts in confections + water +Minerals in fruit +Mint julep +Miscellaneous berries + citrus fruits + confections + tropical fruits +Mixed teas +Mocha coffee +Molasses + Sorghum + taffy +Muskmelon, Composition and food value of +Muskmelons and cantaloupes + Serving +Mustard pickles + +N + +Nationally advertised goods +Natural flavorings +Nature of confections +Navel oranges +Nectar, Fruit + Red-raspberry +Nectarines + Composition and food value of +New Year's dinners +Non-stimulating beverages + -tropical fruits +Nougat +Nourishing beverages +Nut bars +Nuts in confections + Salted + +O + +Okra and green peppers, Canning of +One-period cold-pack method of canning +Onions, Pickled +Oolong tea +Open-kettle method of canning + -kettle method of canning, Procedure in + -kettle method of canning, Utensils required for +Opera cream +Orange-and-pineapple marmalade + -and-rhubarb marmalade + egg nog + marmalade + pekoe tea +Orangeade +Oranges + California + Composition and food value of + Florida + Glove + Navel + Preparation of +Oriental delight +Orientals +Oven method of canning + +P + +Packing fruit or vegetables in jars +Parsnips, Canning of +Parties for adults, Menus for birthday + for children, Menus for birthday + Menus for Saint Patrick's day + Menus for Saint Valentine + Menus for supper +Peach butter + jelly + pitter + preserve +Peaches + apples, and apricots, Dried + Clingstone + Composition and food value of + Drying of + Freestone + Kinds of + Pickled + Stewed +Peanut brittle +Pear butter +Pears + Baked + Drying of + Food value and composition of + Pickled +Peas, Canning of +Pectin + Testing fruit juice for + Using fruit juice lacking in +Pekoe tea + tea, Flowery + tea, Orange +Penuchie, Maple +Peppers, Canning of okra and green +Percolated coffee +Persimmons + Composition and food value of +Pickle, Green-tomato + Ripe-tomato +Pickled beans + beets + cauliflower + crab apples + onions + peaches + pears + watermelon rind +Pickles in the diet + jellies, and preserves, Value of + Mustard + Sliced-cucumber + Small cucumber +Pickling + Definition of + Principles of + recipes +Pineapple-and-apricot conserve + Food value and composition of + lemonade + Preparation of + pudding +Pineapples + Selecting +Plain caramels + cocoa + milk shake +Planning of meals +Plum butter + conserve + jelly + preserve +Plums + Composition and food value of + Stewed +Pod and related vegetables +Pomegranates + Composition and food value of +Pomelo grapefruit +Pop-corn balls + corn, Preparing +Porcupine apples +Pouring and cooling the candy mixture +Powdered sugar, Coarse + sugar, Standard + sugar, XXXX +Preparation of cocoa and chocolate + of coffee + of confections, Varieties and + of food to be canned + of fruit as food +Preparation of grapefruit + of oranges + of pineapple +Preparing and serving fruit +Preservatives, Canning +Preserve, Cherry + Peach + Plum + Quince + Raspberry + Strawberry +Preserved-fruit recipes + fruits, Varieties of +Preserves and jellies in the diet + jellies, and pickles, Value of + proper +Preserving + foods, Methods for + foods, Necessity for + Methods of + Principles of + Selection of fruit for + Utensils for +Pressed blueberry pudding + figs +Pressure cooker + cooker, Canning with a +Preventing canned goods from spoiling +Principles of canning + of drying food + of preserving +Procedure in confection making + in one-period cold-pack method + in open-kettle method of canning +Processing +Proportion of family income for food, Table showing + of food to liquid in canned food + of foods in balanced diet, Quantity and + of sugar in jelly making +Protein and fat in fruits + in confections +Prune whip +Prunes + Composition and food value of + Stewed + Stuffed +Pudding, Blueberry + Pineapple + Pressed blueberry +Pulled figs +Pulverized sugars +Pumpkin and squash, Canning of +Punch, Fruit + Ginger-ale +Purchase of foods +Purchasing food, Economies in +Pure water, Necessity for + +Q + +Quality of canned food +Quantity and proportion of foods + of foods in calories +Quince jelly + marmalade + preserve +Quinces + and apples, Stewed + Drying of + +R + +Rainbow delight +Raisins + Composition and food value of +Raspberries + Black + Composition and food value of + Red +Raspberry-and-currant conserve, Red-, + jam + jelly + nectar, Red-, + preserve + shortcake + whip, Red +Reception wafers +Red-raspberry-and-currant conserve + -raspberry nectar + -raspberry whip +Relation of beverages to meals + of food substances to growth and health +Relish, Beet + Crab-apple + Spanish +Relishes +Rhubarb + Composition and food value of + Stewed +Rio coffee +Ripe-tomato pickle +Rolls, Tutti-frutti +Root and tuber vegetables + and tuber vegetables, Canning of + and tuber vegetables, Drying of +Rubbers, Jar +Rules for menu making +Rum +Rye coffee + +S + +Saint Patrick's day parties, Menus for + Valentine parties, Menus for +Salted nuts +Samovar +Sauce, Apple + Cranberry +Scalding or blanching in canning +Score card for canned food + card for jelly +Scoring canned foods + jelly +Sea foam +Seal tops, Automatic +Sealing jars when canning +Selection of coffee + of food for canning + of fruit for preserving + of grapefruit +Service, Essentials of good table +Serving candy + canned foods, Storing and + cantaloupes + cocoa and chocolate + coffee + fruit, Preparing and + grapefruit + muskmelons + tea +Sex on diet, Effect of +Shaddock, or grapefruit +Sheeting in jelly making +Short-boiling process +Shortcake, Raspberry + Strawberry +Sirup, Chocolate + Corn + Density of + gauge, or hydrometer + Heavy + Light + Maple + Medium +Sirups for canning + for canning fruits, Table of +Sliced-cucumber pickles +Small cucumber pickles + fruits, Drying of +Soft drinks + drinks, Definition of + fruits + fruits, Sour + fruits, Sweet + fruits, Very sour + sugars + water +Solidity of jelly +Sorghum molasses +Souchong first tea + pekoe tea + second tea +Soufflé, Apricot +Soup, Canning of tomatoes for +Sour cherries + soft fruits + soft fruits, Very +Spanish relish +Special fruits + vegetables +Spice cup +Spoiling of canned foods +Sponge, Blackberry +Spores +Squash and pumpkin, Canning of + Canning of eggplant and summer +Standard granulated sugar + powdered sugar +Steam-pressure methods of canning +Steamed apples + figs +Steeped tea +Sterile food +Sterilizer +Stewed figs + peaches + plums + prunes + quinces with apples + rhubarb +Stimulant and tannic acid in stimulating beverages, Table showing +Stimulating beverages + beverages, Definitions of + beverages, Nature of + beverages, Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in +Stores, Chain +Storing and cooking dried foods + and serving canned foods + jelly glasses, Closing and +Stove-drying method +Strainer for canning, Colander and wire +Strawberries + Composition and food value of +Strawberry-and-pineapple conserve + -and-rhubarb conserve + desserts, Miscellaneous + huller + jam + jelly + preserve + shortcake + whip +String beans, Canning of + beans, Drying of +Stuffed dates + prunes +Successful marketing +Succotash, Canning of +Sugar and fruit juice in jelly making, Boiling the + and fruit juice in jelly making, Combining the + and liquid in confection making +Sugar, Beet + Cane + Coarse granulated + Coarse powdered + content of jelly + Fancy fine, or extra fine, granulated + Fine granulated + Fruit, or berry + Graining of + Granulated + in jelly making, Proportion of + Levulose, or fruit + Maple + Pulverized + Soft + Standard granulated + Standard powdered + XXXX, or confectioners' + XXXX powdered +Suggestions for dinner menus + for luncheon menus +Suitability of food +Summer breakfast menus + cocktail + squash, Canning of eggplant and +Sun-drying method +Supper parties, Menus for +Sweet chocolate + soft fruits +Synthetic flavors +System of menu making, Card-file + +T + +Table of sirups for canning fruits + service + service and menu making + service, Essentials of good + showing composition and food value of fruits + showing correct weight for certain heights + showing proportion of family income for food + showing stimulant and tannic acid in stimulating beverages + showing tests for candy +Tables showing effect of weight on diet +Taffies and similar candies + Nature of +Taffy, Butter + Chewing + Method of treating + Molasses + recipes + Vanilla +Tamarinds and mangoes +Tangerines +Tannic acid in stimulating beverages + Table showing stimulant and + acid, or tannin +Tartaric acid +Tea, Afternoon + ball + Black + Bohea + Caravan + China congou + Classification of + Congou + English breakfast + Flowery pekoe + Formosa + Green + Gunpowder + History and production of + Hyson + Iced + Japan + Left-over + Methods of making + Mixed + Oolong + Orange pekoe + Pekoe + Preparation of + Selection of + Serving + Souchong first + Souchong pekoe + Souchong second + Steeped + Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in + Varieties of +Teas, Afternoon +Testing candy + fruit juice for pectin + the jelly mixture +Tests for candy, Table showing +Texture of canned food +Thanksgiving dinners, Menus for +Theine +Theobromine +Tin cans, Canning with + cans for canning +Tomato catsup + ketchup +Tomatoes and corn, Canning of + Canning of + for soup, Canning of +Tops, Jar covers or +Tropical fruits + fruits, Miscellaneous + fruits, Varieties of +Tuber and root vegetables, Canning of + vegetables, Root and +Tubers and root vegetables, Drying of +Turnips, Canning of +Tutti-frutti rolls +Two-layer fudge + +U + +Uncooked fondant +Unfermented grape juice +Utensils for canning + for coffee making + for confection making + for drying + for jelly making + for preserving + for tea making + required for cold-pack method + required for open-kettle method of canning + +V + +Value of jellies, preserves, and pickles +Vanilla taffy +Varieties and preparation of confections + of tea + of tropical fruits +Variety in meals, Methods for securing +Vegetable colorings +Vegetables and fruits, Canning + and fruits, Directions for drying + Canning of root and tuber + Classification of + Direction for canning + Drying of root and tuber + for canning, Preparation of fruits and + Pod and related +Vegetables, Root and tuber + Special +Very sour soft fruits +Vessels for canning +Vienna coffee +Vitamines + +W + +Washing fruits +Water bath in canning, Preparing jars for the + Carbonated + Distilled + Hard + in beverages + in fruit + Kinds of + Mineral + Necessity for pure + -seal outfit + -seal outfit, Canning with a + Soft +Watermelon, Composition and food value of + rind, Pickled +Watermelons +Wedding-breakfast menus + -dinner menus + -luncheon menus +Weight on children's diet, Effect of + on diet, Effect of +Whip, Prune + Red-raspberry + Strawberry +Whisky +Wine +Winter breakfast menus +Wire strainer, Colander and +Wrapping and labeling jars + candies + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +Vol. 5, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. 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