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diff --git a/old/7loc310.txt b/old/7loc310.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d5087e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7loc310.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10980 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 3 +by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 3 + Volume 3: Soup; Meat; Poultry and Game; Fish and Shell Fish + +Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9937] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on November 2, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, +Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY + +VOLUME THREE + + +SOUP + +MEAT + +POULTRY AND GAME + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc. + + + + +PREFACE + +This volume, which is the third of the Woman's Institute Library of +Cookery, includes soups and the high-protein foods, meat, poultry, game, +and fish. It therefore contains information that is of interest to every +housewife, for these foods occupy an important place in the majority +of meals. + +In her study of _Soup,_ she will come to a thorough appreciation of the +place that soup occupies in the meal, its chief purposes, and its +economic value. All the different kinds of soups are classified and +discussed, recipes for making them, as well as the stocks used in their +preparation, receiving the necessary attention. The correct serving of +soup is not overlooked; nor are the accompaniments and garnishes so +often required to make the soup course of the meal an attractive one. + +In _Meat,_ Parts 1 and 2, are described the various cuts of the +different kinds of meat--beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and pork--and the +part of the animal from which they are obtained, the way in which to +judge a good piece of meat by its appearance, and what to do with it +from the time it is purchased until all of it is used. All the methods +applicable to the cooking of meats are emphasized in this section. +Supplementing the text are numerous illustrations showing the ways in +which meat cuts are obtained. Besides, many of them are so reproduced +that actual cuts of meat may be readily recognized. Equipped with this +knowledge, the housewife need give no concern to the selection, care, +and cooking of every variety of meat. + +In _Poultry and Game,_ the selection and preparation of all kinds of +poultry receive attention. While such food is somewhat of a luxury in a +great many homes, it helps to relieve the monotony of the usual protein +foods, and it often supplies just what is desired for special occasions. +Familiarity with poultry and game is a decided asset to any housewife, +and success with their cooking and serving is assured through a study +of this text, for every step in their preparation is clearly explained +and illustrated. + +In _Fish and Shell Fish,_ the other high-protein food is treated in full +as to its composition, food value, purchase, care, and preparation. Such +interesting processes as the boning, skinning, and filleting of fish are +not only carefully explained but clearly illustrated. In addition to +recipes for fresh, salt, smoked, and canned fish are given directions +for the preparation of all edible shell fish and recipes for the various +stuffings and sauces served with fish. + +Too much cannot be said about the importance of the subjects covered in +this volume and the necessity for a thorough understanding of them on +the part of every housewife. Indeed, a mastery of them will mean for her +an acquaintance with the main part of the meal, and when she knows how +to prepare these foods, the other dishes will prove a simple matter. + + + +CONTENTS + +SOUP + Value of Soup + Classification of Soups + Uses and Varieties of Soup Stock + The Stock Pot + Principal Ingredients in Soup + Processes Involved in Making Stock + Serving Soup + Recipes for Soup and Soup Accompaniments + Stocks and Clear Soups + Heavy Thick Soups + Cream Soups + Purees + Chowders + Soup Accompaniments and Garnishes + +MEAT + Value of Meat as Food + Structure and Composition of Meat + Purchase and Care of Meat + Purposes of Cooking Meat + Methods of Cooking Meat + Time Required for Cooking Meat + Beef--General Characteristics + Cuts of Beef + Steaks and Their Preparation + Roasts and Their Preparation + Preparation of Stews and Corned Beef + Beef Organs and Their Preparation + Making Gravy + Trying Out Suet and Other Fats + Preparation of Left-Over Beef + Veal + Cuts of Veal and Their Uses + Veal Cuts and Their Preparation + Veal Organs and Their Preparation + Preparation of Left-Over Veal + Mutton and Lamb--Comparison + Cuts of Mutton and Lamb + Preparation of Roasts, Chops, and Stews + Preparation of Left-Over Lamb and Mutton + Pork + Cuts of Pork + Fresh Pork and Its Preparation + Cured Pork and Its Preparation + Preparation of Left-Over Pork + Serving and Carving of Meat + Sausages and Meat Preparations + Principles of Deep-Fat Frying + Application of Deep-Fat Frying + Timbale Cases + +POULTRY AND GAME + Poultry as a Food + Selection of Poultry + Selection of Chicken + Selection of Poultry Other Than Chicken + Composition of Poultry + Preparation of Chicken for Cooking + Preparation of Poultry Other Than Chicken for Cooking + Cooking of Poultry + Stuffing for Roast Poultry + Boned Chicken + Dishes from Left-Over Poultry + Serving and Carving of Poultry + Game + Recipes for Game + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + Fish in the Diet + Composition and Food Value of Fish + Purchase and Care of Fish + Cleaning Fish + Boning Fish + Skinning Fish + Filleting Fish + Methods of Cooking Fish + Recipes for Fish Sauces and Stuffings + Recipes for Fresh Fish + Recipes for Salt and Smoked Fish + Recipes for Canned Fish + Recipes for Left-Over Fish + Shell Fish--Nature, Varieties, and Use + Oysters and Their Preparation + Clams and Their Preparation + Scallops and Their Preparation + Lobsters and Their Preparation + Crabs and Their Preparation + Shrimp and Their Preparation + + + + +SOUP + +SOUP AND ITS PLACE IN THE MEAL + +VALUE OF SOUP + +1. SOUP is a liquid food that is prepared by boiling meat or vegetables, +or both, in water and then seasoning and sometimes thickening the liquid +that is produced. It is usually served as the first course of a dinner, +but it is often included in a light meal, such as luncheon. While some +persons regard the making of soup as difficult, nothing is easier when +one knows just what is required and how to proceed. The purpose of this +Section, therefore, is to acquaint the housewife with the details of +soup making, so that she may provide her family with appetizing and +nutritious soups that make for both economy and healthfulness. + +2. It is interesting to note the advancement that has been made with +this food. The origin of soup, like that of many foods, dates back to +practically the beginning of history. However, the first soup known was +probably not made with meat. For instance, the mess of pottage for which +Esau sold his birthright was soup made of red lentils. Later on meat +came to be used as the basis for soup because of the agreeable and +appetizing flavor it provides. Then, at one time in France a scarcity of +butter and other fats that had been used to produce moistness and +richness in foods, brought about such clear soups as bouillon and +consomme. These, as well as other liquid foods, found much favor, for +about the time they were devised it came to be considered vulgar to chew +food. Thus, at various periods, and because of different emergencies, +particular kinds of soup have been introduced, until now there are many +kinds from which the housewife may choose when she desires a dish that +will start a meal in the right way and at the same time appeal to +the appetite. + +3. VALUE OF SOUP IN THE MEAL.--Not all persons have the same idea +regarding the value of soup as a part of a meal. Some consider it to be +of no more value than so much water, claiming that it should be fed to +none but children or sick persons who are unable to take solid food. On +the other hand, many persons believe that soup contains the very essence +of all that is nourishing and sustaining in the foods of which it is +made. This difference of opinion is well demonstrated by the ideas that +have been advanced concerning this food. Some one has said that soup is +to a meal what a portico is to a palace or an overture to an opera, +while another person, who evidently does not appreciate this food, has +said that soup is the preface to a dinner and that any work really worth +while is sufficient in itself and needs no preface. Such opinions, +however, must be reconciled if the true value of this food is to be +appreciated. + +4. Probably the best way in which to come to a definite conclusion as to +the importance of soup is to consider the purposes it serves in a meal. +When its variety and the ingredients of which it is composed are thought +of, soup serves two purposes: first, as an appetizer taken at the +beginning of a meal to stimulate the appetite and aid in the flow of +digestive juices in the stomach; and, secondly, as an actual part of the +meal, when it must contain sufficient nutritive material to permit it to +be considered as a part of the meal instead of merely an addition. Even +in its first and minor purpose, the important part that soup plays in +many meals is not hard to realize, for it is just what is needed to +arouse the flagging appetite and create a desire for nourishing food. +But in its second purpose, the real value of soup is evident. Whenever +soup contains enough nutritive material for it to take the place of some +dish that would otherwise be necessary, its value cannot be +overestimated. + +If soup is thought of in this way, the prejudice that exists against it +in many households will be entirely overcome. But since much of this +prejudice is due to the fact that the soup served is often unappetizing +in both flavor and appearance, sufficient attention should be given to +the making of soup to have this food attractive enough to appeal to the +appetite rather than discourage it. Soup should not be greasy nor +insipid in flavor, neither should it be served in large quantities nor +without the proper accompaniment. A small quantity of well-flavored, +attractively served soup cannot fail to meet the approval of any family +when it is served as the first course of the meal. + +5. GENERAL CLASSES OF SOUP.--Soups are named in various ways, according +to material, quality, etc.; but the two purposes for which soup is used +have led to the placing of the numerous kinds into two general classes. +In the first class are grouped those which serve as appetizers, such as +bouillon, consomme, and some other broths and clear soups. In the second +class are included those eaten for their nutritive effect, such as cream +soups, purees, and bisques. From these two classes of soup, the one that +will correspond with the rest of the meal and make it balance properly +is the one to choose. For instance, a light soup that is merely an +appetizer should be served with a heavy dinner, whereas a heavy, highly +nutritious soup should be used with a luncheon or a light meal. + +6. ECONOMIC VALUE OF SOUP.--Besides having an important place in the +meal of which it forms a part, soup is very often an economy, for it +affords the housewife a splendid opportunity to utilize many left-overs. +With the French people, who excel in the art of soup making chiefly +because of their clever adaptation of seasoning to foods, their +_pot-au-feu_ is a national institution and every kitchen has its stock +pot. Persons who believe in the strictest food economy use a stock pot, +since it permits left-overs to be utilized in an attractive and +palatable way. In fact, there is scarcely anything in the way of fish, +meat, fowl, vegetables, and cereals that cannot be used in soup making, +provided such ingredients are cared for in the proper way. Very often +the first glance at the large number of ingredients listed in a soup +recipe creates the impression that soup must be a very complicated +thing. Such, however, is not the case. In reality, most of the soup +ingredients are small quantities of things used for flavoring, and it is +by the proper blending of these that appetizing soups are secured. + +CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS + +7. The two general classes of soup already mentioned permit of numerous +methods of classification. For instance, soups are sometimes named from +the principal ingredient or an imitation of it, as the names potato +soup, beef soup, macaroni soup, mock-turtle soup testify. Again, both +stimulating and nutritious soups may be divided into thin and thick +soups, thin soups usually being clear, and thick soups, because of their +nature, cloudy. When the quality of soups is considered, they are placed +in still different classes and are called broth, bisque, consomme, +puree, and so on. Another important classification of soups results from +the nationality of the people who use them. While soups are classified +in other ways, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes if the +housewife understands these three principal classes. + +8. CLASSES DENOTING CONSISTENCY.--As has already been pointed out, soups +are of only two kinds when their consistency is thought of, namely, +_clear soups_ and _thick soups._ + +CLEAR SOUPS are those made from carefully cleared stock, or soup +foundation, and flavored or garnished with a material from which the +soup usually takes its name. There are not many soups of this kind, +_bouillon_ and _consomme_ being the two leading varieties, but in order +to be palatable, they require considerable care in making. + +THICK SOUPS are also made from stock, but milk, cream, water, or any +mixture of these may also be used as a basis, and to it may be added for +thickening meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, or grain or some other starchy +material. Soups of this kind are often made too thick, and as such soups +are not appetizing, care must be taken to have them just right in +consistency. + +9. CLASSES DENOTING QUALITY.--When attention is given to the quality of +soup, this food divides itself into several varieties, namely, _broth, +cream soup, bisque, chowder,_ and _puree._ + +BROTHS have for their foundation a clear stock. They are sometimes a +thin soup, but other times they are made quite thick with vegetables, +rice, barley, or other material, when they are served as a substantial +part of a meal. + +CREAM SOUPS are highly nutritious and are of great variety. They have +for their foundation a thin cream sauce, but to this are always added +vegetables, meat, fish, or grains. + +BISQUES are thick, rich soups made from game, fish, or shell fish, +particularly crabs, shrimp, etc. Occasionally, vegetables are used in +soup of this kind. + +CHOWDERS are soups that have sea food for their basis. Vegetables and +crackers are generally added for thickening and to impart flavor. + +PUREES are soups made thick partly or entirely by the addition of some +material obtained by boiling an article of food and then straining it to +form a pulp. When vegetables containing starch, such as beans, peas, +lentils, and potatoes, are used for this purpose, it is unnecessary to +thicken the soup with any additional starch; but when meat, fish, or +watery vegetables are used, other thickening is required. To be right, a +puree should be nearly as smooth as thick cream and of the same +consistency. + +10. CLASSES TYPICAL OF PARTICULAR COUNTRIES.--Certain kinds of soup have +been made so universally by the people of various countries that they +have come to be regarded as national dishes and are always thought of as +typical of the particular people by whom they are used. Among the best +known of these soups are _Borsch,_ a soup much used by the Russian +people and made from beets, leeks, and sour cream; _Daikan,_ a Japanese +soup in which radishes are the principal ingredient; _Kouskous,_ a soup +favored by the people of Abyssinia and made from vegetables; _Krishara_, +a rice soup that finds much favor in India; _Lebaba,_ an Egyptian soup +whose chief ingredients are honey, butter, and raisin water; _Minestra,_ +an Italian soup in which vegetables are combined; _Mulligatawny,_ an +Indian rice soup that is flavored with curry; _Potroka,_ another kind of +Russian soup, having giblets for its foundation; _Soljinka,_ an entirely +different variety of Russian soup, being made from fish and onions; and +_Tarhonya,_ a Hungarian soup containing noodles. + + * * * * * + + +STOCK FOR SOUP + +USES AND VARIETIES OF STOCK + +11. MEANING AND USE OF STOCK.--In order that soup-making processes may +be readily grasped by the housewife, she should be thoroughly familiar +with what is meant by _stock,_ which forms the foundation of many soups. +In looking into the derivation of this term, it will be found that the +word stock comes from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning to stick, and that +while it has many different uses, the idea of fixedness is expressed in +every one of them. As is generally known, a stock of anything means a +reserve supply of that thing stored away for future use. When applied to +soup, stock is similar in meaning, for it refers to material stored or +prepared in such a way that it may be kept for use in the making of +certain kinds of soup. In a more definite sense, soup stock may be +regarded as a liquid containing the juices and soluble parts of meat, +bone, and vegetables, which have been extracted by long, slow cooking +and which can be utilized in the making of soups, sauces, and gravies. + +12. Soups in which stock is utilized include all the varieties made from +beef, veal, mutton, and poultry. If clear stock is desired for the +making of soup, only fresh meat and bones should be used and all +material that will discolor the liquid in any way carefully avoided. For +ordinary, unclarified soups, the trimmings and bones of roast, steak, or +chops and the carcass of fowl can generally be utilized. However, very +strongly flavored meat, such as mutton, or the fat from mutton should be +used sparingly, if at all, on account of the strong flavor that +it imparts. + +13. VARIETIES OF STOCK.--Several kinds of stock are utilized in the +making of soup, and the kind to employ depends on the soup desired. In +determining the kind of stock required for the foundation of a soup, the +housewife may be guided by the following classification: + +FIRST STOCK is made from meat and bones and then clarified and used for +well-flavored, clear soups. + +SECOND STOCK is made from the meat and the bones that remain after the +first stock is strained off. More water is added to the remaining +material, and this is then cooked with vegetables, which supply the +needed flavor. Such stock serves very well for adding flavor to a +nutritious soup made from vegetables or cereal foods. + +HOUSEHOLD STOCK is made by cooking meat and bones, either fresh or +cooked, with vegetables or other material that will impart flavor and +add nutritive value. Stock of this kind is used for ordinary soups. + +BONE STOCK is made from meat bones to which vegetables are added for +flavor, and it is used for making any of the ordinary soups. + +VEGETABLE STOCK is made from either dried or fresh vegetables or both. +Such stock is employed in making vegetable soups. + +GAME STOCK is made from the bones and trimmings of game to which +vegetables are added for flavor. This kind of stock is used for making +game soups. + +FISH STOCK is made from fish or fish trimmings to which vegetables are +added for flavor. Shell fish make especially good stock of this kind. +Fish stock is employed for making chowders and fish soups. + +14. ADDITIONAL USES OF STOCK.--As has already been shown, stock is used +principally as a foundation for certain varieties of soup. This +material, however, may be utilized in many other ways, being especially +valuable in the use of left-over foods. Any bits of meat or fowl that +are left over can be made into an appetizing dish by adding thickened +stock to them and serving the combination over toast or rice. In fact, a +large variety of made dishes can be devised if there is stock on hand to +add for flavor. The convenience of a supply of stock will be apparent +when it is realized that gravy or sauce for almost any purpose can be +made from the contents of the stock pot. + +15. SOUP EXTRACTS.--If a housewife does not have sufficient time to go +through the various processes involved in making soup, her family need +not be deprived of this article of diet, for there are a number of +concentrated meat and vegetable extracts on the market for making soups +quickly. The _meat extracts_ are made of the same flavoring material as +that which is drawn from meat in the making of stock. Almost all the +liquid is evaporated and the result is a thick, dark substance that must +be diluted greatly with water to obtain the basis for a soup or a broth. +Some of the _vegetable extracts,_ such as Japanese soy and English +marmite, are so similar in appearance and taste to the meat extracts as +to make it quite difficult to detect any difference. Both varieties of +these extracts may be used for sauces and gravies, as well as for soups, +but it should be remembered that they are not highly nutritious and are +valuable merely for flavoring. + + +THE STOCK POT + +16. NATURE, USE, AND CARE OF STOCK POT.--Among the utensils used for +cooking there is probably none more convenient and useful than the stock +pot. It is nothing more or less than a covered crock or pot like that +shown in Fig. 1, into which materials that will make a well-flavored +stock are put from time to time. From such a supply, stock can be drawn +when it is needed for soup; then, when some is taken out, more water +and materials may be added to replenish the pot. The stock pot should be +made of either enamel or earthenware, since a metal pot of any kind is +liable to impart flavor to the food. Likewise, its lid, or cover, should +be tight-fitting, for then it will be an excellent utensil in which the +materials may be stored until they are to be heated, when they can be +poured or dipped into a saucepan or a kettle. + +The stock pot, like any other utensil used for making soup, should +receive considerable care, as it must be kept scrupulously clean. No +stock pot should ever be allowed to stand from day to day without being +emptied, thoroughly washed, and then exposed to the air for a while +to dry. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +17. FOOD SUITABLE FOR THE STOCK POT.--Some one has said that nothing +edible is out of place in the stock pot, and, to a great extent, this +statement is true. Here should be put the bones from the cooked roast, +as well as the trimmings cut from it before it went into the oven; the +tough ends and bones of beefsteak; the trimmings or bones sent home by +the butcher; the carcasses of fowls, together with any remains of +stuffing and tough or left-over bits of meat; any left-over vegetables; +the remains of the gravy or any unsweetened sauces used for meats or +vegetables; the spoonful of left-over hash, stew, or stuffing; a +left-over stuffed tomato or pepper; and the water in which rice, +macaroni, or certain vegetables have been cooked. Of course, plain water +can be used for the liquid, but the water in which such vegetables as +cauliflower, carrots, beans, peas, asparagus, celery, and potatoes have +been cooked is especially desirable, for, besides imparting flavor to +the soup, it adds valuable mineral salts. However, when such things as +left-over cereals, rice, macaroni, and green vegetables are to be +utilized in soup, they should not be put in the stock pot; rather, they +should be added to the stock after it is removed from the pot. + + +MAKING OF SOUP + +PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS + +18. The making of the stock that is used in soup is the most important +of the soup-making processes; in fact, these two things--soup and +stock--may be regarded, in many instances, as one and the same. The +housewife will do well, therefore, to keep in mind that whenever +reference is made to the making of soup usually stock making is also +involved and meant. Before the actual soup-making processes are taken +up, however, the nature of the ingredients required should be well +understood; for this reason, suitable meats and vegetables, which are +the principal ingredients in soups, are first discussed. + +19. MEAT USED FOR SOUP MAKING.--With the exception of pork, almost every +kind of meat, including beef, veal, mutton, lamb, game, and poultry, is +used for soup making. Occasionally, ham is employed, but most other +forms of pork are seldom used to any extent. When soup stock is made +from these meats, they may be cooked separately, or, as a combination is +often an improvement over a single variety, several kinds may be +combined. For instance, mutton used alone makes a very strongly flavored +soup, so that it is usually advisable to combine this kind of meat with +another meat that has a less distinctive flavor. On the other hand, veal +alone does not have sufficient flavor, so it must be combined with lamb, +game, fowl, or some other well-flavored meat. + +20. Certain cuts of meats are preferred to others in the making of +soups, because of the difference in their texture. The tender cuts, +which are the expensive ones, should not be used for soups, as they do +not produce enough flavor. The tough cuts, which come from the muscles +that the animal uses constantly and that therefore grow hard and tough, +are usually cheaper, but they are more suitable, because they contain +the material that makes the best soup. The pieces best adapted to soup +making are the shins, the shanks, the lower part of the round, the neck, +the flank, the shoulder, the tail, and the brisket. The parts of the +animal from which these cuts are taken are clearly shown in Fig. 2. +Although beef is obtained from the animal shown, the same cuts come from +practically the same places in other animals. Stock made from one of +these cuts will be improved if a small amount of the fat of the meat is +cooked with it; but to avoid soup that is too greasy, any excess fat +that remains after cooking should be carefully removed. The marrow of +the shin bone is the best fat for soup making. + +If soup is to be made from fish, a white variety should be selected. The +head and trimmings may be utilized, but these alone are not sufficient, +because soup requires some solid pieces of meat. The same is true of +meat bones; they are valuable only when they are used with meat, an +equal proportion of bone and meat being required for the best stock. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +21. VEGETABLES USED FOR SOUP MAKING.--In soup making, the housewife has +also a large number of vegetables from which to select, for any +vegetable that has a decided flavor may be used. Among those from which +soups can be made successfully are cabbage, cauliflower, asparagus, +corn, onions, turnips, carrots, parsnips, tomatoes, beans, peas, +lentils, salsify, potatoes, spinach, celery, mushrooms, okra, and even +sweet potatoes. These vegetables are used for two purposes: to provide +flavoring and to form part of the soup itself as well as to furnish +flavor. When they are used simply for flavoring, they are cooked until +their flavor is obtained and then removed from the stock. When they are +to form part of the soup, as well as to impart flavor, they are left in +the soup in small pieces or made into a puree and eaten with the soup. + +Attention, too, must be given to the condition of the vegetables that +are used in soup. The fresh vegetables that are used should be in +perfect condition. They should have no decayed places that might taint +or discolor the soups, and they should be as crisp and solid as +possible. If they are somewhat withered or faded, they can be freshened +by allowing them to stand in cold water for a short time. When dried +vegetables are to be used for soup making, they should first be soaked +well in cold water and then, before being added to the stock, either +partly cooked or entirely cooked and made into a puree. + + +PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MAKING STOCK + +22. Although the making of stock or soup is a simple process, it must +necessarily be a rather long one. The reason for this is that all flavor +cannot be drawn from the soup materials unless they are subjected to +long, slow cooking at a temperature lower than the boiling point. With +this point definitely understood, the actual work of soup making may +be taken up. + +23. COOKING MEAT FOR SOUP.--When clear stock is to be made from fresh +meat, the required quantity of meat should be cut into small pieces +rather than large ones, so as to expose as much of the surface as +possible from which the flavor of the meat can be drawn. A little more +flavor is obtained and a brown color developed if a small part, perhaps +a fourth, of the pieces of meat are first browned in the frying pan. The +pieces thus browned, together with the pieces of fresh meat, are put +into a kettle and a quart of cold water for each pound of meat is +then added. + +The reason for using cold rather than hot water will be evident when the +action of water on raw meat is understood. The fiber of meat is composed +of innumerable thread-like tubes containing the flavor that is to be +drawn out into the water in order to make the stock appetizing. When the +meat is cut, these tiny tubes are laid open. Putting the meat thus +prepared into cold water and allowing it to heat gradually tend to +extract the contents of the tubes. This material is known as +_extractives_, and it contains in its composition stimulating +substances. On the other hand, plunging the meat into hot water and +subjecting it quickly to a high temperature will coagulate the protein +in the tissue and prevent the extractives from leaving the tubes. + +24. To obtain the most flavor from meat that is properly prepared, it +should be put over a slow fire and allowed to come gradually to the +boiling point. As the water approaches the boiling point, a scum +consisting of coagulated albumin, blood, and foreign material will begin +to rise to the top, but this should be skimmed off at once and the +process of skimming continued until no scum remains. When the water +begins to boil rapidly, either the fire should be lowered or the kettle +should be removed to a cooler part of the stove so that the water will +bubble only enough for a very slight motion to be observed. Throughout +the cooking, the meat should not be allowed to boil violently nor to +cease bubbling entirely. + +The meat should be allowed to cook for at least 4 hours, but longer if +possible. If, during this long cooking, too much water evaporates, more +should be added to dilute the stock. The salt that is required for +seasoning may be added just a few minutes before the stock is removed +from the kettle. However, it is better to add the salt, together with +the other seasonings, after the stock has been drawn off, for salt, like +heat, has a tendency to harden the tissues of meat and to prevent the +flavor from being readily extracted. + +25. Although, as has been explained, flavor is drawn from the fibers of +meat by boiling it slowly for a long time, the cooking of meat for soup +does not extract the nourishment from it to any extent. In reality, the +meat itself largely retains its original nutritive value after it has +been cooked for soup, although a small quantity of protein is drawn out +and much of the fat is removed. This meat should never be wasted; +rather, it should be used carefully with materials that will take the +place of the flavor that has been cooked from it. + +26. FLAVORING STOCK.--It is the flavoring of stock that indicates real +skill in soup making, so this is an extremely important part of the +work. In fact, the large number of ingredients found in soup recipes +are, as a rule, the various flavorings, which give the distinctive +flavor and individuality to a soup. However, the housewife whose larder +will not produce all of the many things that may be called for in a +recipe should not feel that she must forego making a particular kind of +soup. Very often certain spices or certain flavoring materials may be +omitted without any appreciable difference, or something that is on hand +may be substituted for an ingredient that is lacking. + +27. The flavorings used most for soup include cloves, peppercorns, red, +black, and white pepper, paprika, bay leaf, sage, marjoram, thyme, +summer savory, tarragon, celery seed, fennel, mint, and rosemary. While +all of these are not absolutely necessary, the majority of them may well +be kept on the pantry shelf. In addition, a bottle of Worcestershire +sauce should be kept on hand. Celery and parsley, which are also much +used for flavoring, can usually be purchased fresh, but as they are +scarce at times it is advisable to dry some of the leaves during the +season when they can be secured, so as to have a supply when they are +not in the market. A small amount of lemon peel often improves soup, so +some of this should be kept in store. Another group of vegetables that +lend themselves admirably to soup flavoring includes leeks, shallots, +chives, garlic, and onions, all of which belong to the same family. They +must be used judiciously, however, as a strong flavor of any of them is +offensive to most persons. + +28. As many of the flavorings used for soup lose their strength when +they are exposed to the air, every effort should be made to keep them in +good condition. Many of them can be kept an indefinite length of time if +they are placed in tightly closed metal boxes or glass jars. Flavorings +and spices bought from the grocer or the druggist in paper packages +should be transferred to, and enclosed in, a receptacle that will not +allow them to deteriorate. If proper attention is given to these +materials, the supply will not have to be replenished often; likewise, +the cost of a sufficient number to produce the proper flavorings will be +very slight. + +29. In the use of any of the flavorings mentioned or the strongly +flavored vegetables, care should be taken not to allow any one +particular flavor to predominate. Each should be used in such quantity +that it will blend well with the others. A very good way in which to fix +spices and herbs that are to flavor soup is to tie them in a small piece +of cheesecloth and drop the bag thus made into the soup pot. When +prepared in this way, they will remain together, so that, while the +flavor can be cooked out, they can be more readily removed from the +liquid than if they are allowed to spread through the contents of the +pot. Salt, which is, of course, always used to season soup, should be +added in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful to each quart of liquid. + +30. REMOVING GREASE FROM SOUP.--A greasy soup is always unpalatable. +Therefore, a very important feature of soup making, whether a thin or a +thick soup is being made, is the removal of all grease. Various ways of +removing grease have been devised, depending on whether the soup is hot +or cold. In the case of hot or warm soup, all the grease that it is +possible to remove with a spoon may be skimmed from the top, and the +remainder then taken up with a piece of clean blotting paper, +tissue-paper, or absorbent cotton. Another plan, by which the fat may be +hardened and then collected, consists in tying a few small pieces of ice +in a piece of cloth and drawing them over the surface of the soup. A +very simple method is to allow the soup or stock to become cold, and +then remove the fat, which collects on the top and hardens, by merely +lifting off the cake that forms. + +31. CLEARING SOUP.--Sometimes it is desired to improve the appearance of +soup stock, particularly a small amount of soup that is to be served at +a very dainty luncheon or dinner. In order to do this, the stock may be +treated by a certain process that will cause it to become clear. After +being cleared, it may be served as a thin soup or, if it is heavy +enough, it may be made into a clear, sparkling jelly into which many +desirable things may be molded for salad or for a dish to accompany a +heavy course. Clearing soup is rather extravagant; however, while it +does not improve the taste, it does improve the appearance. + +A very satisfactory way in which to clear stock is to use egg whites and +crushed egg shell. To each quart of cold stock should be added the +crushed shell and a slightly beaten egg white. These should be mixed +well, placed on the fire, and the mixture stirred constantly until it +boils. As the egg coagulates, some of the floating particles in the +stock are caught and carried to the top, while others are carried to the +bottom by the particles of shell as they settle. After the mixture has +boiled for 5 or 10 minutes, the top should be skimmed carefully and the +stock then strained through a fine cloth. When it has been reheated, the +cleared stock will be ready to serve. + +32. THICKENING SOUP.--Although thin, clear soups are preferred by some +and are particularly desirable for their stimulating effect, thick soups +find much favor when they are used to form a substantial part of a meal. +Besides giving consistency to soup, thickening usually improves the +flavor, but its chief purpose is to give nutritive value to this food. +In fact, whenever a soup is thickened, its food value is increased by +the ingredient thus added. For this reason, it is advisable to thicken +soups when they are desired for any other purpose than their +stimulating effect. + +33. The substance used to thicken soups may be either a starchy material +or food or a puree of some food. The starchy materials generally used +for this purpose are plain flour, browned flour, corn starch, and +arrowroot flour. Any one of these should be moistened with enough cold +water to make a mixture that will pour easily, and then added to the hot +liquid while the soup is stirred constantly to prevent the formation of +lumps. A sufficient amount of this thickening material should be used to +make a soup of the consistency of heavy cream. + +The starchy foods that are used for thickening include rice, barley, +oatmeal, noodles, tapioca, sago, and macaroni. Many unusual and fancy +forms of macaroni can be secured, or the plain varieties of Italian +pastes may be broken into small pieces and cooked with the soup. When +any of these foods are used, they should be added long enough before the +soup is removed to be cooked thoroughly. + +Purees of beans, peas, lentils, potatoes, and other vegetables are +especially desirable for the thickening of soups, for they not only give +consistency, but add nutritive value and flavor as well. Another +excellent thickening may be obtained by beating raw eggs and then adding +them carefully to the soup just before it is to be served. After eggs +have been added for thickening, the soup should not be allowed to boil, +as it is liable to curdle. + +34. KEEPING STOCK.--Soup stock, like many other foods, spoils quite +readily. Therefore, in order to keep it for at least a few days, it must +receive proper attention. At all times, the vessel containing stock +should be tightly closed and, especially in warm weather, the stock +should be kept as cold as possible. Stock that is heavy enough to +solidify into a jellylike consistency when it is cold will keep better +than stock that remains liquid. The addition of salt or any spicy +flavoring also helps to keep stock from deteriorating, because these +materials act as preservatives and prevent the action of bacteria that +cause spoiling. Bacteria may be kept from entering soup if, instead of +removing the grease, it is allowed to form in a solid cake over the +top. No matter which of these precautions is taken to prevent stock from +spoiling, it should be heated to boiling point once a day when it is to +be kept for several days. + + +SERVING SOUP + +35. Soup may be correctly served in several different ways, the method +to adopt usually depending on the kind of soup. Thin, clear soups are +generally served in bouillon cups, as shown in Fig. 3, which may be +placed on the table immediately before the family assembles or passed +after the members are seated. Heavier soups may be served at the table +from a soup tureen, or each person's portion may be served before the +family comes to the table. For soups of this kind, the flat soup plate, +like that shown in Fig. 4, is found preferable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +The spoon to be served with soup also depends on the kind of soup, but a +larger spoon than a teaspoon is always necessary. When soup is served in +a soup plate, a dessert spoon is used, as will be observed in Fig. 4. A +bouillon spoon is the best kind to use with any thin soup served in +bouillon cups. Such a spoon, as shown in Fig. 3, is about the length of +a teaspoon, but has a round bowl. + +36. To increase the attractiveness of soup and at the same time make it +more appetizing and nutritious, various accompaniments and relishes are +served with it. When the accompaniment is in the form of crackers, +croutons, or bread sticks, they may be passed after the soup is served, +or, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, a few of them may be placed on the +bread-and-butter plate at each person's place. The relishes should be +passed while the soup is being eaten. Plain whipped cream or whipped +cream into which a little mashed pimiento has been stirred adds much to +the flavor and appearance of soup when served on the top of any hot or +cold variety. Then, too, many soups, especially vegetable soups, are +improved in flavor by the addition of a spoonful of grated cheese, which +should be sprinkled into the dish at the time of serving. For this +purpose, a hard, dry cheese, such as Parmesan, which can often be +purchased already grated in bottles, is the most satisfactory. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +37. In summer, clear soups are sometimes served cold, as cold soups are +found more desirable for warm weather than hot ones. However, when a +soup is intended to be hot, it should be hot when it is ready to be +eaten, and every effort should be made to have it in this condition if +an appetizing soup is desired. This can be accomplished if the soup is +thoroughly heated before it is removed from the stove and the dishes in +which it is to be served are warmed before the soup is put into them. + + * * * * * + + +RECIPES FOR SOUP AND SOUP ACCOMPANIMENTS + +NECESSITY FOR CAREFUL WORK + +38. So that the housewife may put into practice the knowledge she has +gained about soup making, there are here given recipes for various kinds +of soup. As will be observed, these recipes are classified according to +the consistency and nature of the soups, all those of one class being +placed in the same group. As it is important, too, for the housewife to +know how to prepare the various accompaniments and garnishes that are +generally served with soup, directions for the making of these are also +given and they follow the soup recipes. + +39. In carrying out these recipes, it will be well to note that +exactness in fulfilling the requirements and care in working out the +details of the recipes are essential. These points cannot be ignored in +the making of soup any more than in other parts of cookery, provided +successful results and excellent appearance are desired. It is therefore +wise to form habits of exactness. For instance, when vegetables are to +be cut for soups, they should be cut into pieces of equal size, or, if +they are to be diced, they should be cut so that the dice are alike. All +the pieces must be of the same thickness in order to insure uniform +cooking; if this precaution is not observed, some of the pieces are +likely to overcook and fall to pieces before the others are done. + +Strict attention should also be given to the preparation of other +ingredients and the accompaniments. The meat used must be cut very +carefully rather than in ragged, uneven pieces. Noodles, which are often +used in soup, may be of various widths; but all those used at one time +should be uniform in width--that is, all wide or all narrow. If +different widths are used, an impression of careless cutting will be +given. Croutons and bread sticks, to be most satisfactory, should be cut +straight and even, and, in order to toast uniformly, all those made at +one time should be of the same size. + + +STOCKS AND CLEAR SOUPS + +40. Stock for Clear Soup or Bouillon.--A plain, but well-flavored, beef +stock may be made according to the accompanying recipe and used as a +basis for any clear soup served as bouillon without the addition of +anything else. However, as the addition of rice, barley, chopped +macaroni, or any other such food will increase the food value of the +soup, any of them may be supplied to produce a more nutritious soup. +When this stock is served clear, it should be used as the first course +in a comparatively heavy meal. + +STOCK FOR CLEAR SOUP OR BOUILLON + +4 lb. beef +4 qt. cold water +1 medium-sized onion +1 stalk celery +2 sprigs parsley + +6 whole cloves +12 peppercorns +1 bay leaf +Salt +Pepper + +Cut the meat into small pieces. Pour the cold water over it, place on a +slow fire, and let it come to a boil. Skim off all scum that rises to +the top. Cover tightly and keep at the simmering point for 6 to 8 hours. +Then strain and remove the fat. Add the onion and celery cut into +pieces, the parsley, cloves, peppercorns, and bay leaf. Simmer gently +for about 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper to taste. Strain through +a cloth. + +41. Household Stock.--If it is desired to make a stock that may be kept +on hand constantly and that may be used as a foundation for various +kinds of soups, sauces, and gravies, or as a broth for making casserole +dishes, household stock will be found very satisfactory. Such stock made +in quantity and kept in a sufficiently cool place may be used for +several days before it spoils. Since most of the materials used in this +stock cannot be put to any other particularly good use, and since the +labor required in making it is slight, this may be regarded as an +extremely economical stock. + +HOUSEHOLD STOCK + +3 qt. cold water +3 lb. meat (trimmings of fresh +meat, bones, and tough pieces +from roasts, steaks, etc.) +1 medium-sized onion +4 cloves +6 peppercorns +Herbs +Salt +Pepper + +Pour the cold water over the meat and bones and put them on the fire to +cook. When they come to a boil skim well. Then cover and simmer 4 to 6 +hours. Add the onion, cloves, peppercorns, and herbs and cook for +another hour. Add salt and pepper to taste. Strain and set aside to +cool. Remove the fat. + +42. White Stock.--An especially nice broth having a delicate flavor and +generally used for special functions when an attractive meal is being +served to a large number of persons is made from veal and fowl and known +as white stock. If allowed to remain in a cool place, this stock will +solidify, and then it may be used as the basis for a jellied meat +dish or salad. + +WHITE STOCK + +5 lb. veal +1 fowl, 3 or 4 lb. +8 qt. cold water +2 medium-sized onions +2 Tb. butter +2 stalks celery +1 blade mace +Salt +Pepper + +Cut the veal and fowl into pieces and add the cold water. Place on a +slow fire, and let come gradually to the boiling point. Skim carefully +and place where it will simmer gently for 6 hours. Slice the onions, +brown slightly in the butter, and add to the stock with the celery and +mace. Salt and pepper to suit taste. Cook 1 hour longer and then strain +and cool. Remove the fat before using. + +43. Consomme.--One of the most delicious of the thin, clear broths is +consomme. This is usually served plain, but any material that will not +cloud it, such as finely diced vegetables, green peas, tiny pieces of +fowl or meat, may, if desired, be added to it before it is served. As a +rule, only a very small quantity of such material is used for +each serving. + +CONSOMME + +4 lb. lower round of beef +4 lb. shin of veal +1/4 c. butter +8 qt. cold water +1 small carrot +1 large onion +2 stalks celery +12 peppercorns +5 cloves +4 sprigs parsley +Pinch summer savory +Pinch thyme +2 bay leaves +Salt +Pepper + +Cut the beef and veal into small pieces. Put the butter and meat into +the stock kettle, and stir over the fire until the meat begins to brown. +Add the cold water, and let come to the boiling point. Skim carefully +and let simmer for 6 hours. Cut the vegetables into small pieces and +add to the stock with the spices and herbs. Cook for 1 hour, adding salt +and pepper to suit taste. Strain and cool. Remove the fat and clear +according to directions previously given. + +44. Tomato Bouillon.--It is possible to make a clear tomato soup without +meat stock, but the recipe here given, which is made with meat stock, +has the advantage of possessing a better flavor. The tomato in this +bouillon lends an agreeable color and flavor and affords a change from +the usual clear soup. Cooked rice, macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli +may be added to tomato bouillon to provide an additional quantity of +nutrition and vary the plain soup. + +TOMATO BOUILLON +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 qt, meat stock +1 tsp. salt +1 Tb. sugar + +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 can tomatoes + +Heat the stock, and to it add the salt, sugar, and pepper. Rub the +tomatoes through a fine sieve, and add them to the stock. Cook together +for a few minutes and serve. + +HEAVY THICK SOUPS + +45. Julienne Soup.--A very good way in which to utilize any small +quantities of vegetables that may be in supply but are not sufficient to +serve alone is to use them in julienne soup. For soup of this kind, +vegetables are often cut into fancy shapes, but this is a more or less +wasteful practice and should not be followed, as tiny strips or dice cut +finely and carefully are quite as agreeable. The vegetables do not add a +large amount of nutriment to this soup, but they introduce into the soup +mineral salts that the soups would otherwise not have and they also add +a variety of flavor. + +JULIENNE SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. mixed vegetables +1/2 tsp. salt +1 qt. stock +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Cut into tiny dice or into strips such vegetables as celery, carrots, +and turnips, making them as nearly the same size and shape as possible. +Put them on to cook in enough boiling salted water to cover well. Cook +until they are soft enough to be pierced with a fork, but do not lose +their shape. Drain off the water and put the vegetables into the stock. +Bring to the boiling point, season with the pepper, and serve. + +46. Ox-Tail Soup.--The use of ox tails for soup helps to utilize a part +of the beef that would ordinarily be wasted, and, as a rule, ox tails +are comparatively cheap. Usually the little bits of meat that cook off +the bones are allowed to remain in the soup. Variety may be obtained by +the addition of different kinds of vegetables. + +OX-TAIL SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +2 ox tails +1 large onion +1 Tb. beef drippings +4 qt. cold water +1 Tb. mixed herbs +4 peppercorns +1 Tb. salt + +Wash and cut up the ox tails, separating them at the joints. Slice the +onion and brown it and half of the ox tails in the beef drippings. When +they are browned, put them and the remainder of the ox tails into a +kettle. Add the water and the herbs and peppercorns tied in a little +piece of cheesecloth. Bring to the boiling point, and then simmer for 3 +to 4 hours or until the meat separates from the bones. Add the salt an +hour before serving the soup. Remove the fat and serve some of the +nicest joints with the soup. If vegetables are desired, they should be +diced and added 20 minutes before serving, so that they will be +cooked soft. + +47. Mulligatawny Soup.--If a highly seasoned soup is desired, +mulligatawny, although not a particularly cheap soup, will be found very +satisfactory. The curry powder that is used adds an unusual flavor that +is pleasing to many people, but if it is not desired, it may be omitted. + +MULLIGATAWNY SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +3 lb. chicken +1 lb. veal +4 qt. cold water +2 onions +1 Tb. butter +4 peppercorns +4 cloves +1 stalk celery +1 Tb. curry powder +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 lemon + +Cut up the chicken and veal, add the cold water to them, and place over +a slow fire. Slice the onions and brown them in the butter. Add them and +the peppercorns, cloves, chopped celery, and curry powder stirred to a +smooth paste with a little water to the meat. Simmer together slowly +until the chicken is tender. Remove the meat from the bones and cut it +into small pieces. Put the bones into the kettle and simmer for another +hour. Strain the liquid from the veal and bones and remove the fat. Add +the salt, pepper, chicken, and the juice of the lemon. Return to the +fire and cook for a few minutes. Serve with a tablespoonful or two of +cooked rice in each soup dish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +48. Noodle Soup.--The addition of noodles to soup increases its food +value to a considerable extent by providing carbohydrate from the flour +and protein from the egg and flour. Noodle soup is a very attractive +dish if the noodles are properly made, for then they will not cause the +soup to become cloudy when they are put into it. Little difficulty will +be experienced if the directions here given for making noodles are +followed explicitly. + +NOODLE SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 egg +1 Tb. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +Flour +1 qt. household stock +3 sprigs parsley +1 small onion + +To make noodles, beat the egg slightly, add to it the milk, and stir in +the salt and enough flour to make a stiff dough. Toss upon a floured +board and roll very thin. Allow the dough to dry for hour or more, and +then, as shown in Fig. 5, cut it into strips about 4 inches wide. Place +several strips together, one on top of the other, and roll them up +tight, in the manner indicated. Cut each roll into thin slices with a +sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 6. When the slices are separated the +noodles should appear as shown in the pile at the right. If it is +desired not to follow this plan, the dough may be rolled into a thin +sheet and cut into strips with a noodle cutter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +Such a supply of noodles may be used at once, or they may be dried +thoroughly and sealed tightly in a jar for future use. The very dry +ones, however, require a little longer cooking than those which are +freshly made. With the noodles prepared, heat the stock with the parsley +and onion chopped very fine. Add the noodles and cook for 15 or 20 +minutes or until the noodles are thoroughly cooked. + +Rice, barley, macaroni, and other starchy materials may be added to +stock in the same way as the noodles. + +49. Vegetable Soup With Noodles.--The combination of noodles and +vegetables in soup is a very excellent one, since the vegetables add +flavor and the noodles add nutritive value. If the vegetables given in +the accompanying recipe cannot be readily obtained, others may be +substituted. + +VEGETABLE SOUP WITH NOODLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 carrot +1 onion +1 turnip +1 stalk celery +1 c. boiling water +1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 c. noodles +2 sprigs parsley +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 qt. household stock + +Dice the vegetables and put them on to cook with the boiling water and +the salt. Cook for a few minutes or until partly soft. Add the noodles, +parsley, pepper, and stock and cook for 15 minutes longer. Serve. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +CREAM SOUPS + +50. Soups classed as cream soups consist of a thin white sauce to which +is added a vegetable in the form of a puree or cut into small pieces. +Because of their nature, cream soups are usually high in food value; but +they are not highly flavored, so their use is that of supplying +nutrition rather than stimulating the appetite. Considerable variety can +be secured in cream soups, for there are scarcely any vegetables that +cannot be used in the making of them. Potatoes, corn, asparagus, +spinach, peas, tomatoes, and onions are the vegetables that are used +oftenest, but cream soups may also be made of vegetable oysters, okra, +carrots, watercress, celery, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, lentils, and +dried peas. The vegetables may be cooked especially for the soup, or +left-over or canned vegetables may be utilized. It is an excellent plan +to cook more than enough of some vegetables for one day, so that some +will be left over and ready for soup the next day. + +If the vegetable is not cut up into small pieces, it must be put through +a sieve and made into the form of a puree before it can be added to the +liquid. Two kinds of sieves for this purpose are shown in Fig. 7. It +will be observed that with the large, round sieve, a potato masher must +be used to mash the vegetables, the pulp of which is caught by the +utensil in which the sieve is held. In making use of the smaller sieve, +or ricer, the vegetable is placed in it and then mashed by pressing the +top down over the contents with the aid of the handles. + +51. THIN WHITE SAUCE.--The liquid for cream soups should be thin white +sauce made entirely of milk or of milk and cream. The flavor of the soup +will be improved, however, by using with the milk some meat stock, or +the stock that remains from cooking celery, asparagus, or any vegetables +that will lend a good flavor to the soup. The recipe here given makes a +sauce that may be used for any kind of cream soup. + +THIN WHITE SAUCE + +1 pt. milk, or milk and cream or stock +1 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour + +Heat the liquid, salt, and butter in a double boiler. Stir the flour and +some of the cold liquid that has been reserved to a perfectly smooth, +thin paste and add to the hot liquid. Stir constantly after adding the +flour, so that no lumps will form. When the sauce becomes thick, it is +ready for the addition of any flavoring material that will make a +palatable soup. If thick material, such as any vegetable in the form of +a puree, rice, or potato, is used without additional liquid, only half +as much flour will be required to thicken the sauce. + +52. CREAM-OF-POTATO SOUP.--Because of the large quantity of carbohydrate +derived from the potato, cream-of-potato soup is high in food value. For +persons who are fond of the flavor of the potato, this makes a delicious +soup and one that may be served as the main dish in a light meal. + +CREAM-OF-POTATO SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +2 slices of onion +1 sprig parsley +2 medium-sized potatoes +1 c. milk +1 c. potato water +1 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Cook the onion and parsley with the potatoes, and, when cooked soft, +drain and mash. Make a sauce of the milk, potato water, flour, and +butter. Season with the salt and pepper, add the mashed potato, +and serve. + +53. CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP.--The flavor of corn is excellent in a cream +soup, the basis of the soup being milk, butter, and flour. Then, too, +the addition of the corn, which is comparatively high in food value, +makes a very nutritious soup. + +CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +1 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +1 c. canned corn +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make a white sauce of the milk, butter, and flour. Force the corn +through a colander or a sieve, and add the puree to the white sauce. +Season with the salt and pepper, and serve. + +54. Cream-of-Asparagus Soup.--The asparagus used in cream-of-asparagus +soup adds very little besides flavor, but this is of sufficient value to +warrant its use. If a pinch of soda is used in asparagus soup, there is +less danger of the curdling that sometimes occurs. In making this soup, +the asparagus should be combined with the white sauce just +before serving. + +CREAM-OF-ASPARAGUS SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1 c. asparagus puree +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Add to it the cup of +puree made by forcing freshly cooked or canned asparagus through a +sieve. Season with the salt and pepper, and serve. + +55. Cream-of-Spinach Soup.--Although cream-of-spinach soup is not +especially attractive in appearance, most persons enjoy its flavor, and +the soup serves as another way of adding an iron-containing food to the +diet. Children may often be induced to take the soup when they would +refuse the spinach as a vegetable. + +CREAM-OF-SPINACH SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. spinach puree +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Add the spinach puree, +made by forcing freshly cooked or canned spinach through a sieve. Season +with the salt and pepper, heat thoroughly, and serve. + +56. Cream-of-Pea Soup.--Either dried peas or canned green peas may be +used to make cream-of-pea soup. If dried peas are used, they must first +be cooked soft enough to pass through a sieve. The flavor is quite +different from that of green peas. With the use of green peas, a fair +amount of both protein and carbohydrate is added to the soup, but more +protein is provided when dried peas are used. + +CREAM-OF-PEA SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +1 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. pea puree +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Put enough freshly +cooked or canned peas through a sieve to make 1/2 cupful of puree. Then +add the pea puree, the salt, and the pepper to the white sauce. Heat +thoroughly and serve. + +57. CREAM-OF-TOMATO SOUP.--As a rule, cream-of-tomato soup is popular +with every one. Besides being pleasing to the taste, it is comparatively +high in food value, because its basis is cream sauce. However, the +tomatoes themselves add very little else besides flavor and +mineral salts. + +CREAM-OF-TOMATO SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 c. canned tomatoes +1 pt. milk +3 Tb. flour +3 Tb. butter +1/8 tsp. soda +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Force the tomatoes through a sieve and heat them. Make white sauce of +the milk, flour, and butter. Add the soda to the tomatoes, and pour them +slowly into the white sauce, stirring rapidly. If the sauce begins to +curdle, beat the soup quickly with a rotary egg beater. Add the salt and +pepper and serve. + +58. CREAM-OF-ONION SOUP.--Many persons who are not fond of onions can +often eat soup made of this vegetable. This is probably due to the fact +that the browning of the onions before they are used in the soup +improves the flavor very decidedly. In addition, this treatment of the +onions gives just a little color to the soup. + +CREAM-OF-ONION SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +4 medium-sized onions +4 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +2-1/2 c. milk +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Slice the onions and brown them in a frying pan with 2 tablespoonfuls of +the butter. Make white sauce of the flour, the remaining butter, and the +milk. Add to this the browned onions, salt, and pepper. Heat thoroughly +and serve. + +PUREES + +59. CHESTNUT PUREE.--There are many recipes for the use of chestnuts in +the making of foods, but probably none is any more popular than that for +chestnut puree. The chestnuts develop a light-tan color in the soup. The +very large ones should be purchased for this purpose, since chestnuts of +ordinary size are very tedious to work with. + +CHESTNUT PUREE +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 c. mashed chestnuts +1 c. milk +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/8 tsp. celery salt +1 c. white stock + +Cook Spanish chestnuts for 10 minutes; then remove the shells and skins +and mash the chestnuts. Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. +Add to this the mashed chestnuts, salt, pepper, celery salt, and stock. +Heat thoroughly and serve. + +60. SPLIT-PEA PUREE.--Dried peas or split peas are extremely high in +food value, and their addition to soup stock makes a highly nutritious +soup of very delightful flavor. Such a puree served in quantity does +nicely for the main dish in a light meal. Instead of the peas, dried +beans or lentils may be used if they are preferred. + +SPLIT-PEA PUREE +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +3/4 c. split peas +1 pt. white stock +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour + +Soak the peas overnight, and cook in sufficient water to cover well +until they are soft. When thoroughly soft, drain the water from the peas +and put them through a colander. Heat the stock and add to it the pea +puree, salt, and pepper. Rub the butter and flour together, moisten with +some of the warm liquid, and add to the soup. Cook for a few minutes +and serve. + +CHOWDERS + +61. CLAM CHOWDER.--The flavor of clams, like that of oysters and other +kinds of sea food, is offensive to some persons, but where this is not +the case, clam chowder is a popular dish of high food value. This kind +of soup is much used in localities where clams are plentiful. + +CLAM CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. water +1 qt. clams +1 small onion +1 c. sliced potatoes +1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1/2 c. diced carrots +1/2 c. diced celery +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Add the water to the clams, and pick them over carefully to remove any +shell. Strain the liquid through cheesecloth, and then scald the clams +in it. Remove the clams and cook the vegetables in the liquid until they +are soft. Add the milk, butter, salt, and pepper and return the clams. +Heat thoroughly and serve over crackers. + +62. FISH CHOWDER.--An excellent way in which to utilize a small quantity +of fish is afforded by fish chowder. In addition, this dish is quite +high in food value, so that when it is served with crackers, little of +anything else need be served with it to make an entire meal if it be +luncheon or supper. Cod, haddock, or fresh-water fish may be used in the +accompanying recipe. + +FISH CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 lb. fish +1 small onion +1 c. sliced potatoes +1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 c. milk + +Skin the fish, remove the flesh, and cut it into small pieces. Simmer +the head, bones, and skin of the fish and the onion in water for 1/2 +hour. Strain, and add to this stock the fish, potatoes, tomatoes, salt, +and pepper. Simmer together until the potatoes are soft. Add the butter +and milk. Serve over crackers. + +63. POTATO CHOWDER.--A vegetable mixture such as the one suggested in +the accompanying recipe is in reality not a chowder, for this form of +soup requires sea food for its basis. However, when it is impossible to +procure the sea food, potato chowder does nicely as a change from the +usual soup. This chowder differs in no material way from soup stock in +this form. + +POTATO CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1-1/2 c. sliced potatoes +1 small onion, sliced +1 c. water +1-1/2 c. milk +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter + +Cook the potatoes and onion in the water until they are soft, but not +soft enough to fall to pieces. Rub half of the potatoes through a sieve +and return to the sliced ones. Add the milk, salt, pepper, and butter. +Cook together for a few minutes and serve. + +64. CORN CHOWDER.--The addition of corn to potato chowder adds variety +of flavor and makes a delicious mixture of vegetables. This dish is +rather high in food value, especially if the soup is served over +crackers. A small amount of tomato, although not mentioned in the +recipe, may be added to this combination to improve the flavor. + +CORN CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. sliced potatoes +1 small onion, sliced +1 c. water +1 c. canned corn +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Cook the potatoes and onions in the water until they are soft. Add the +corn, milk, butter, salt, and pepper, and cook together for a few +minutes. Serve over crackers. + + +SOUP ACCOMPANIMENTS AND GARNISHES + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +65. The soup course of a meal is a more or less unattractive one, but it +may be improved considerably if some tempting thing in the way of a +garnish or an accompaniment is served with it. But whatever is selected +to accompany soup should be, in a great measure, a contrast to it in +both consistency and color. The reason why a difference in consistency +is necessary is due to the nature of soup, which, being liquid in form, +is merely swallowed and does not stimulate the flow of the gastric +juices by mastication. Therefore, the accompaniment should be something +that requires chewing and that will consequently cause the digestive +juices, which respond to the mechanical action of chewing, to flow. The +garnish may add the color that is needed to make soup attractive. The +green and red of olives and radishes or of celery and radishes make a +decided contrast, so that when any of these things are served with soup, +an appetizing first course is the result. It is not necessary to serve +more than one of them, but if celery and radishes or celery, radishes, +and olives can be combined in the same relish dish, they become more +attractive than when each is served by itself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +66. RADISHES AND CELERY.--Before radishes and celery are used on the +table, whether with soup or some other part of a meal, they should be +put into cold water and allowed to stand for some time, so that they +will be perfectly crisp when they are served. In the case of radishes, +the tops and roots should first be cut from them, and the radishes then +scrubbed thoroughly. They may be served without any further treatment, +or they may be prepared to resemble flowers, as is shown in Fig. 8. This +may be done by peeling the red skin back to show the white inside, and +then cutting the sections to look like the petals of a flower. Little +difficulty will be experienced in preparing radishes in this artistic +way if a sharp knife is used, for, with a little practice, the work can +be done quickly and skilfully. + +67. Celery that is to be served with soup may be prepared in two ways, +as Fig. 9 illustrates. The stems may be pulled from the stalk and served +separately, as in the group on the right, or the stalk may be cut down +through the center with a knife into four or more pieces, as shown at +the left of the illustration. The first of these methods is not so good +as the second, for by it one person gets all of the tender heart and the +coarse outside stems are left for all the others. By the second method, +every piece consists of some of the heart and some of the outside stems +attached to the root and makes a similar serving for each person. +Whichever way is adopted, however, the celery should be scrubbed and +cleansed thoroughly. This is often a difficult task, because the dirt +sticks tightly between the stems. Still, an effort should be made to +have the celery entirely free from dirt before it goes to the table. A +few tender yellow leaves may be left on the pieces to improve the +appearance of the celery. + +68. CRACKERS.--Various kinds of wafers and crackers can be purchased to +serve with soup, and the selection, as well as the serving of them, is +entirely a matter of individual taste. One point, however, that must not +be overlooked is that crackers of any kind must be crisp in order to be +appetizing. Dry foods of this sort absorb moisture from the air when +they are exposed to it and consequently become tough. As heat drives off +this moisture and restores the original crispness, crackers should +always be heated before they are served. Their flavor can be improved by +toasting them until they are light brown in color. + +69. CROUTONS.--As has already been learned, croutons are small pieces of +bread that have been fried or toasted to serve with soup. These are +usually made in the form of cubes, or dice, as is shown in the front +group in Fig. 10; but they may be cut into triangles, circles, ovals, +hearts, or, in fact, any fancy shape, by means of small cutters that can +be purchased for such purposes. The bread used for croutons should not +be fresh bread, as such bread does not toast nor fry very well; +left-over toast, stale bread, or slices of bread that have been cut from +the loaf and not eaten are usually found more satisfactory. If the +croutons are not made from slices already cut, the bread should be cut +into slices 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick, and, after the crusts have been +closely trimmed, the slices should be cut into cubes. When the cubes +have been obtained, they may be put into a shallow pan and toasted on +all sides quickly, placed in a frying basket and browned in deep fat, or +put into a frying pan and sauted in butter. If toast is used, it should +merely be cut in the desired shape. + +Various methods of serving croutons are in practice. Some housewives +prefer to place them in the soup tureen and pour the soup over them, +while others like to put a few in each individual serving of soup. A +better plan, however, and one that is much followed, is to serve a +number of croutons on a small plate or dish at each person's place, as +shown in Figs. 3 and 4, for then every one may eat them in the way +preferred. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +70. BREAD STICKS.--A soup accompaniment similar in nature to croutons, +and known as _bread sticks_, is made of pieces of bread 1/2 inch wide, +1/2 inch thick, and several inches long. These are toasted on each side +and are served in place of crackers. A number of them are shown in the +back row in Fig. 10. Variety in bread sticks may be secured by spreading +butter over them before the toasting is begun or by sprinkling grated +cheese over them a few minutes before they are removed from the oven. +Bread sticks are usually served on a bread-and-butter plate to the left +of each person's place at the table. + +71. PASTRY STRIPS.--A very appetizing addition to soup may be made by +cutting pastry into narrow strips and then baking these strips in the +oven until they are brown or frying them in deep fat and draining them. +Strips prepared in this way may be served in place of crackers, +croutons, or bread sticks, and are considered delicious by those who are +fond of pastry. Details regarding pastry are given in another Section. + +72. SOUP FRITTERS.--If an entirely different kind of soup accompaniment +from those already mentioned is desired, soup fritters will no doubt +find favor. These are made by combining certain ingredients to form a +batter and then dropping small amounts of this into hot fat and frying +them until they are crisp and brown. The accompanying recipe, provided +it is followed carefully, will produce good results. + +SOUP FRITTERS + +1 egg +2 Tb. milk +3/4 tsp. salt +1/2 c. flour + +Beat the egg, and to it add the milk, salt, and flour. Drop the batter +in tiny drops into hot fat, and fry until brown and crisp. Drain on +paper and serve with the soup. + +73. EGG BALLS.--To serve with a soup that is well flavored but not +highly nutritious, egg balls are very satisfactory. In addition to +supplying nutrition, these balls are extremely appetizing, and so they +greatly improve a course that is often unattractive. Careful attention +given to the ingredients and the directions in the accompanying recipe +will produce good results. + +EGG BALLS + +3 yolks of hard-cooked eggs +1/2 tsp. melted butter +Salt and pepper +1 uncooked yolk + +Mash the cooked yolks, and to them add the butter, salt, and pepper, and +enough of the uncooked yolk to make the mixture of a consistency to +handle easily. Shape into tiny balls. Roll in the white of egg and then +in flour and saute in butter. Serve in the individual dishes of soup. + +74. FORCEMEAT BALLS.--Another delicious form of accompaniment that +improves certain soups by adding nutrition is forcemeat balls. These +contain various nutritious ingredients combined into small balls, and +the balls are then either sauted or fried in deep fat. They may be +placed in the soup tureen or in each person's soup. + +FORCEMEAT BALLS + +1/2 c. fine stale-bread crumbs +1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +White of 1 egg +1/4 tsp. salt +Few grains of pepper +2/3 c. breast of raw chicken or raw fish + +Cook the bread crumbs and milk to form a paste, and to this add the +butter, beaten egg white, and seasonings. Pound the chicken or fish to a +pulp, or force it through a food chopper and then through a puree +strainer. Add this to the first mixture. Form into tiny balls. Roll in +flour and either saute or fry in deep fat. Serve hot. + +75. AMERICAN FORCEMEAT BALLS.--A simple kind of forcemeat balls may be +made according to the accompanying recipe. The meat used may be sausage +provided especially for the purpose or some that is left over from a +previous meal. If it is not possible to obtain sausage, some other +highly seasoned meat, such as ham first ground very fine and then +pounded to a pulp, may be substituted. + +AMERICAN FORCEMEAT BALLS + +1 Tb. butter +1 small onion +1-1/2 c. bread, without crusts +1 egg +1 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. pepper +Dash of nutmeg +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1/2 c. sausage meat + +Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the onion finely chopped. Fry for +several minutes over the fire. Soak the bread in water until thoroughly +softened and then squeeze out all the water. Mix with the bread the egg, +salt, pepper, nutmeg, parsley, and meat, and to this add also the butter +and fried onion. Form small balls of this mixture and saute them in +shallow fat, fry them in deep fat, or, after brushing them over with +fat, bake them in the oven. Place a few in each serving of soup. + + +SOUP + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) Mention the two purposes that soups serve in a meal, (_b_) +What are the qualities of a good soup? + +(2) (_a_) Mention the two general classes of soup. (_b_) Explain and +illustrate how to choose a soup. + +(3) Why is soup an economical dish? + +(4) (_a_) Explain in full the meaning of stock as applied to soup. (_b_) +For what purposes other than soup making is stock used? + +(5) (_a_) What is the value of the stock pot? (_b_) What care should be +given to it? + +(6) Mention some of the materials that may be put into the stock pot. + +(7) (_a_) Why are the tough cuts of meat more suitable for soup than the +tender ones? (_b_) Name the pieces that are best adapted to soup making. + +(8) (_a_) What proportion of bone to meat should be used in making soup +from fresh meat? (_b_) For what two purposes are vegetables used +in soup? + +(9) Explain briefly the making of stock from meat. + +(10) (_a_) Why should the cooking of the meat for stock be started with +cold water rather than with hot water? (_b_) What disposal should be +made of meat from which stock is made? + +(11) (_a_) Of what value are flavorings in the making of soups? (_b_) +What precaution should be taken in the use of flavorings? + +(12) Explain how grease may be removed from soup. + +(13) How may soup be cleared? + +(14) (_a_) For what purposes is thickening used in soups? (_b_) Mention +the materials most used to thicken soups. + +(15) What precaution should be taken to keep soup or stock from +spoiling. + +(16) What point about the serving of soup should be observed if an +appetizing soup is desired? + +(17) What kind of dish is used for serving: (_a_) thin soup? (_b_) thick +soup? + +(18) (_a_) What is a cream soup? (_b_) Give the general directions for +making soup of this kind. + +(19) (_a_) How may the soup course of a meal be made more attractive? +(_b_) In what ways should soup accompaniments be a contrast to the soup? + +(20) (_a_) Explain the making of croutons. (_b_) What is the most +satisfactory way in which to prepare celery that is to be served +with soup? + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Plan and prepare a dinner menu from the recipes given in the lessons +that you have studied. Submit the menu for this dinner and give the +order in which you prepared the dishes. In addition, tell the number of +persons you served, as well as what remained after the meal and whether +or not you made use of it for another meal. Send this information with +your answers to the Examination Questions. + + * * * * * + + + + +MEAT (PART 1) + + * * * * * + +MEAT IN THE DIET + +VALUE OF MEAT AS FOOD + +1. In its broadest sense, MEAT may be considered as "any clean, sound, +dressed or properly prepared edible part of animals that are in good +health at the time of slaughter." However, the flesh of carnivorous +animals--that is, animals that eat the flesh of other animals--is so +seldom eaten by man, that the term meat is usually restricted to the +flesh of all animals except these. But even this meaning of meat is too +broad; indeed, as the term is generally used it refers particularly to +the flesh of the so-called domestic animals, and does not include +poultry, game, fish, and the like. It is in this limited sense that meat +is considered in these Sections, and the kinds to which attention is +given are beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and pork. Meat, including these +varieties, forms one of the principal sources of the family's food +supply. As such, it is valuable chiefly as a food; but, in the form of +broths and extracts made from it, meat stimulates the appetite and +actually assists the flow of gastric juice. Therefore, so that the +outlay for meat will not be greater than it should be and this food will +provide the greatest amount of nourishment, every housewife should be +thoroughly familiar with the place it occupies in the dietary. + +2. In the first place, it should be remembered that the food eaten by +human beings comes from two sources--animal and vegetable. The foods of +animal origin, which include milk, eggs, and meat, have a certain +similarity that causes them to be classed together and this is the fact +that they are high-protein foods. Milk is the first protein food fed to +the young, but a little later it is partly replaced by eggs, and, +finally, or in adult life, meat largely takes the place of both. For +this reason, meat has considerable importance in the dietary. In +reality, from this food is obtained the greatest amount of protein that +the average person eats. However, it will be well to note that milk and +eggs, as well as cheese and even cereals and vegetables, can be made to +take the place of meat when the use of less of this food is deemed +advisable. + +3. As the work of protein foods is to build and repair tissue, it is on +them that the human race largely depends. Of course, protein also yields +energy; but the amount is so small that if one variety of protein food, +such as meat, were eaten simply to supply energy to the body, huge +quantities of it would be needed to do the same work that a small amount +of less expensive food would accomplish. Some persons have an idea that +meat produces the necessary strength and energy of those who perform +hard work. This is entirely erroneous, because fats and carbohydrates +are the food substances that produce the energy required to do work. +Some kind of protein is, of course, absolutely necessary to the health +of every normal person, but a fact that cannot be emphasized too +strongly is that an oversupply of it does more harm than good. + +Scientists have been trying for a long time to determine just how much +of these tissue-building foods is necessary for individuals, but they +have found this a difficult matter. Nevertheless, it is generally +conceded that most persons are likely to use too much rather than too +little of them. It is essential then, not only from the standpoint of +economy, but from the far more important principle of health, that the +modern housewife should know the nutritive value of meats. + +4. In her efforts to familiarize herself with these matters, the +housewife should ever remember that meat is the most expensive of the +daily foods of a family. Hence, to get the greatest value for the money +expended, meat must be bought judiciously, cared for properly, and +prepared carefully. Too many housewives trust the not over-scrupulous +butcher to give them the kind of meat they should have, and very often +they do not have a clear idea as to whether it is the best piece that +can be purchased for the desired purpose and for the price that is +asked. Every housewife ought to be so familiar with the various cuts of +meat that she need not depend on any one except herself in the purchase +of this food. She will find that both the buying and the preparation of +meats will be a simple matter for her if she learns these three +important things: (1) From what part of the animal the particular piece +she desires is cut and how to ask for that piece; (2) how to judge a +good piece of meat by its appearance; and (3) what to do with it from +the moment it is purchased until the last bit of it is used. + +5. Of these three things, the cooking of meat is the one that demands +the most attention, because it has a decided effect on the quality and +digestibility of this food. Proper cooking is just as essential in the +case of meat as for any other food, for a tender, digestible piece of +meat may be made tough and indigestible by improper preparation, while a +tough piece may be made tender and very appetizing by careful, +intelligent preparation. The cheaper cuts of meat, which are often +scorned as being too tough for use, may be converted into delicious +dishes by the skilful cook who understands how to apply the various +methods of cookery and knows what their effect will be on the +meat tissues. + +6. Unfortunately, thorough cooking affects the digestibility of meat +unfavorably; but it is doubtless a wise procedure in some cases because, +as is definitely known, some of the parasites that attack man find their +way into the system through the meat that is eaten. These are carried to +meat from external sources, such as dust, flies, and the soiled hands of +persons handling it, and they multiply and thrive. It is known, too, +that some of the germs that cause disease in the animal remain in its +flesh and are thus transmitted to human beings that eat such meat. If +there is any question as to its good condition, meat must be thoroughly +cooked, because long cooking completely eliminates the danger from +such sources. + + +STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT + +7. An understanding of the physical structure of meat is essential to +its successful cooking. Meat consists of muscular tissue, or lean; +varying quantities of visible fat that lie between and within the +membranes and tendons; and also particles of fat that are too small to +be distinguished except with the aid of a microscope. The general nature +of the lean part of meat can be determined by examining a piece of it +with merely the unaided eye. On close observation, it will be noted +that, especially in the case of meat that has been cooked, innumerable +thread-like fibers make up the structure. With a microscope, it can be +observed that these visible fibers are made up of still smaller ones, +the length of which varies in different parts of the animal. It is to +the length of these fibers that the tenderness of meat is due. Short +fibers are much easier to chew than long ones; consequently, the pieces +containing them are the most tender. These muscle fibers, which are in +the form of tiny tubes, are filled with a protein substance. They are +held together with a tough, stringy material called _connective tissue_. +As the animal grows older and its muscles are used more, the walls of +these tubes or fibers become dense and tough; likewise, the amount of +connective tissue increases and becomes tougher. Among the muscle fibers +are embedded layers and particles of fat, the quantity of which varies +greatly in different animals and depends largely on the age of the +animal. For instance, lamb and veal usually have very little fat in the +tissues, mutton and beef always contain more, while pork contains a +greater amount of fat than the meat of any other domestic animal. + +8. The composition of meat depends to a large extent on the breed of the +animal, the degree to which it has been fattened, and the particular cut +of meat in question. However, the muscle fibers are made up of protein +and contain more protein, mineral salts, or ash, and certain substances +called _extractives_, all of which are held in solution by water. The +younger the animal, the greater is the proportion of water and the lower +the nutritive value of meat. It should be understood, however, that not +all of meat is edible material; indeed, a large part of it is made up of +gristle, bones, cartilage, nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue. +The amount of these indigestible materials also varies in different +animals and different cuts, but the average proportion in a piece of +meat is usually considered to be 15 per cent. of the whole. Because of +the variation of both the edible and inedible material of meat, a +standard composition for this food cannot readily be given. However, an +idea of the average composition of the various kinds can be obtained +from Fig. 1. + +[Illustration: Fig 1.] + +BEEF Fuel value per pound + Chuck, medium fat 735 + Loin, medium fat 1040 + Ribs, medium fat 1155 + Round, very lean 475 + Round, medium fat 895 + Round, very fat 1275 + Rump, medium fat 1110 + +VEAL + Breast, medium fat 740 + Leg, medium fat 620 + Loin, medium fat 690 + +LAMB + Leg, medium fat 870 + +MUTTON + Leg, medium fat 900 + +PORK + Ham, fresh, medium fat 1345 + Ham, smoked 1675 + Loin 1455 + Bacon, medium fat 2795 + +9. PROTEIN IN MEAT.--The value of meat as food is due to the proteins +that it contains. Numerous kinds of protein occur in meat, but the +chief varieties are myosin and muscle albumin. The _myosin_, which is +the most important protein and occurs in the greatest quantity, hardens +after the animal has been killed and the muscles have become cold. The +tissues then become tough and hard, a condition known as _rigor +mortis_. As meat in this condition is not desirable, it should be used +before rigor mortis sets in, or else it should be put aside until this +condition of toughness disappears. The length of time necessary for this +to occur varies with the size of the animal that is killed. It may be +from 24 hours to 3 or 4 days. The disappearance is due to the +development of certain acids that cause the softening of the tissues. +The _albumin_, which is contained in solution in the muscle fibers, is +similar in composition to the albumen of eggs and milk, and it is +affected by the application of heat in the cooking processes in much +the same way. + +10. GELATINE IN MEAT.--The gelatine that is found in meat is a substance +very similar in composition to protein, but it has less value as food. +It is contained in the connective tissue and can be extracted by +boiling, being apparent as a jellylike substance after the water in +which meat has been cooked has cooled. Use is made of this material in +the preparation of pressed meats and fowl and in various salads and +other cold-meat dishes. Some kinds of commercial gelatine are also made +from it, being first extracted from the meat and then evaporated to form +a dry substance. + +11. FAT IN MEAT.--All meat, no matter how lean it appears, contains some +fat. As already explained, a part of the fat contained in meat occurs in +small particles so embedded in the muscle fibers as not to be readily +seen, while the other part occurs in sufficient amounts to be visible. +In the flesh of some animals, such as veal and rabbit, there is almost +no visible fat, but in very fat hogs or fowls, one-third or one-half of +the weight may be fat. Meats that are very fat are higher in nutritive +value than meats that contain only a small amount of this substance, as +will be observed on referring to the table of meat compositions in Fig. +1. However, an excessive amount of fat prevents the protein materials +from digesting normally. + +The quality of fat varies greatly, there being two distinct kinds of +this material in animals. That which covers or lies between the muscles +or occurs on the outside of the body just beneath the skin has a lower +melting point, is less firm, and is of a poorer grade for most purposes +than that which is found inside the bony structure and surrounds the +internal organs. The suet of beef is an example of this internal fat. + +Fat is a valuable constituent of food, for it is the most concentrated +form in which the fuel elements of food are found. In supplying the body +with fuel, it serves to maintain the body temperature and to yield +energy in the form of muscular and other power. Since this is such a +valuable food material, it is important that the best possible use be +made of all drippings and left-over fats and that not even the smallest +amount of any kind be wasted. + +12. CARBOHYDRATE IN MEAT.--In the liver and all muscle fibers of animals +is stored a small supply of carbohydrate in a form that is called +_glycogen_, or _muscle sugar_. However, there is not enough of this +substance to be of any appreciable value, and, so far as the methods of +cookery and the uses of meat as food are concerned, it is of no +importance. + +13. WATER IN MEAT.--The proportion of water in meat varies from +one-third to three-fourths of the whole, depending on the amount of fat +the meat contains and the age of the animal. This water carries with it +the flavor, much of the mineral matter, and some food material, so that +when the water is removed from the tissues these things are to a great +extent lost. The methods of cookery applied to meat are based on the +principle of either retaining or extracting the water that it contains. +The meat in which water is retained is more easily chewed and swallowed +than that which is dry. However, the water contained in flesh has no +greater value as food than other water. Therefore, as will be seen in +Fig. 1, the greater the amount of water in a given weight of food, the +less is its nutritive value. + +14. MINERALS IN MEAT.--Eight or more kinds of minerals in sufficient +quantities to be of importance in the diet are to be found in meat. Lean +meat contains the most minerals; they decrease in proportion as the +amount of fat increases. These salts assist in the building of hard +tissues and have a decided effect on the blood. They are lost from the +tissues of meat by certain methods of cookery, but as they are in +solution in the water in which the meat is cooked, they need not be lost +to the diet if use is made of this water for soups, sauces, and gravies. + +15. EXTRACTIVES IN MEAT.--The appetizing flavor of meat is due to +substances called _extractives_. The typical flavor that serves to +distinguish pork from beef or mutton is due to the difference in the +extractives. Although necessary for flavoring, these have no nutritive +value; in fact, the body throws them off as waste material when they are +taken with the food. In some methods of cookery, such as broiling and +roasting, the extractives are retained, while in others, such as those +employed for making stews and soups, they are drawn out. + +Extractives occur in the greatest quantity in the muscles that the +animal exercises a great deal and that in reality have become tough. +Likewise, a certain part of an old animal contains more extractives than +the same part of a young one. For these reasons a very young chicken is +broiled while an old one is used for stew, and ribs of beef are roasted +while the shins are used for soup. + +Meat that is allowed to hang and ripen develops compounds that are +similar to extractives and that impart additional flavor. A ripened +steak is usually preferred to one cut from an animal that has been +killed only a short time. However, as the ripening is in reality a +decomposition process, the meat is said to become "high" if it is +allowed to hang too long. + + +PURCHASE AND CARE OF MEAT + +16. PURCHASE OF MEAT.--Of all the money that is spent for food in the +United States nearly one-third is spent for meat. This proportion is +greater than that of any European country and is probably more than is +necessary to provide diets that are properly balanced. If it is found +that the meat bill is running too high, one or more of several things +may be the cause. The one who does the purchasing may not understand the +buying of meat, the cheaper cuts may not be used because of a lack of +knowledge as to how they should be prepared to make them appetizing, or +more meat may be served than is necessary to supply the needs of +the family. + +Much of this difficulty can be overcome if the person purchasing meat +goes to the market personally to see the meat cut and weighed instead of +telephoning the order. It is true, of course, that the method of cutting +an animal varies in different parts of the country, as does also the +naming of the different pieces. However, this need give the housewife no +concern, for the dealer from whom the meat is purchased is usually +willing to supply any information that is desired about the cutting of +meat and the best use for certain pieces. In fact, if the butcher is +competent, this is a very good source from which to obtain a knowledge +of such matters. + +Another way in which to reduce the meat bill is to utilize the trimmings +of bone and fat from pieces of meat. In most cases, these are of no +value to the butcher, so that if a request for them is made, he will, as +a rule, be glad to wrap them up with the meat that is purchased. They +are of considerable value to the housewife, for the bones may go into +the stock pot, while the fat, if it is tried out, can be used for +many things. + +17. The quantity of meat to purchase depends, of course, on the number +of persons that are to be served with it. However, it is often a good +plan to purchase a larger piece than is required for a single meal and +then use what remains for another meal. For instance, a large roast is +always better than a small one, because it does not dry out in the +process of cookery and the part that remains after one meal may be +served cold in slices or used for making some other dish, such as meat +pie or hash. Such a plan also saves both time and fuel, because +sufficient meat for several meals may be cooked at one time. + +In purchasing meat, there are certain pieces that should never be asked +for by the pound or by the price. For instance, the housewife should not +say to the butcher, "Give me 2 pounds of porterhouse steak," nor should +she say, "Give me 25 cents worth of chops." Steak should be bought by +the cut, and the thickness that is desired should be designated. For +example, the housewife may ask for an inch-thick sirloin steak, a 2-inch +porterhouse steak, and so on. Chops should be bought according to the +number of persons that are to be served, usually a chop to a person +being quite sufficient. Rib roasts should be bought by designating the +number of ribs. Thus, the housewife may ask for a rib roast containing +two, three, four, or more ribs, depending on the size desired. Roasts +from other parts of beef, such as chuck or rump roasts, may be cut into +chunks of almost any desirable size without working a disadvantage to +either the butcher or the customer, and may therefore be bought by the +pound. Round bought for steaks should be purchased by the cut, as are +other steaks; or, if an entire cut is too large, it may be purchased as +upper round or lower round, but the price paid should vary with the +piece that is purchased. Round bought for roasts, however, may be +purchased by the pound. + +18. CARE OF MEAT IN THE MARKET.--Animal foods decompose more readily +than any other kind, and the products of their decomposition are +extremely dangerous to the health. It is therefore a serious matter when +everything that comes in contact with meat is not clean. Regarding the +proper care of meat, the sanitary condition of the market is the first +consideration. The light and ventilation of the room and the cleanliness +of the walls, floors, tables, counters, and other equipment are points +of the greatest importance and should be noted by the housewife when she +is purchasing meat. Whether the windows and doors are screened and all +the meat is carefully covered during the fly season are also matters +that should not be overlooked. Then, too, the cleanliness and physical +condition of the persons who handle the meat should be of as great +concern as the sanitary condition of the market. The housewife who +desires to supply her family with the safest and cleanest meat should +endeavor to purchase it in markets where all the points pertaining to +the sanitary condition are as ideal as possible. If she is at all +doubtful as to the freshness and cleanliness of what is sold to her, she +should give it thorough cooking in the process of preparation so that no +harm will be done to the persons who are to eat it. + +19. CARE OF MEAT IN THE HOME.--Because of the perishable nature of meat, +the care given it in the market must be continued in the home in order +that no deterioration may take place before it is cooked. This is not +much of a problem during cold weather, but through the summer months a +cool place in which to keep it must be provided unless the meat can be +cooked very soon after it is delivered. Meat that must be shipped long +distances is frozen before it is shipped and is kept frozen until just +before it is used. If such meat is still frozen when it enters the home, +it should not be put into a warm place, for then it will thaw too +quickly. Instead, it should be put in the refrigerator or in some place +where the temperature is a few degrees above freezing point, so that it +will thaw slowly and still remain too cold for bacteria to +become active. + +Even if meat is not frozen, it must receive proper attention after it +enters the home. As soon as it is received, it should be removed from +the wrapping paper or the wooden or cardboard dish in which it is +delivered. If the meat has not been purchased personally, it is +advisable to weigh it in order to verify the butcher's bill. When the +housewife is satisfied about the weight, she should place the meat in +an earthenware, china, or enameled bowl, cover it, and then put it away +in the coolest available place until it is used. Some persons put salt +on meat when they desire to keep it, but this practice should be +avoided, as salt draws out the juices from raw meat and hardens the +tissues to a certain extent. + +If such precautions are taken with meat, it will be in good condition +when it is to be cooked. However, before any cooking method is applied +to it, it should always be wiped with a clean, damp cloth. In addition, +all fat should be removed, except just enough to assist in cooking the +meat and give it a good flavor. Bone or tough portions may also be +removed if they can be used to better advantage for soups or stews. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF MEAT + +PURPOSES OF COOKING MEAT + +20. It is in the preparation of food, and of meat in particular, that +one of the marked differences between uncivilized and civilized man is +evident. Raw meat, which is preferred by the savage, does not appeal to +the appetite of most civilized persons; in fact, to the majority of them +the idea of using it for food is disgusting. Therefore, civilized man +prepares his meat before eating it, and the higher his culture, the more +perfect are his methods of preparation. + +While it is probably true that most of the methods of cookery render +meat less easy to digest than in its raw condition, this disadvantage is +offset by the several purposes for which this food is cooked. Meat is +cooked chiefly to loosen and soften the connective tissue and thus cause +the muscle tissues to be exposed more fully to the action of the +digestive juices. Another important reason for cooking meat is that +subjecting it to the action of heat helps to kill bacteria and +parasites. In addition, meat is cooked to make it more attractive to the +eye and to develop and improve its flavor. + + +METHODS OF COOKING MEAT + +21. The result desired when meat is cooked has much to do with the +method of cookery to choose, for different methods produce different +results. To understand this, it will be necessary to know just what the +action of cooking is on the material that meat contains. When raw meat +is cut, the tiny meat fibers are laid open, with the result that, in the +application of the cooking process, the albuminous material either is +lost, or, like the albumen of eggs, is coagulated, or hardened, and thus +retained. Therefore, before preparing a piece of meat, the housewife +should determine which of these two things she wishes to accomplish and +then proceed to carry out the process intelligently. + +The methods of cookery that may be applied to meat include broiling, pan +broiling, roasting, stewing or simmering, braizing, frying, sauteing, +and fricasseeing. All of these methods are explained in a general way in +_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, but explanations of them as they apply +to meat are here given in order to acquaint the housewife with the +advantages and disadvantages of the various ways by which this food can +be prepared. + +22. BROILING AND PAN BROILING.--Only such cuts of meats as require short +cooking can be prepared by the methods of broiling and pan broiling. To +carry out these methods successfully, severe heat must be applied to the +surface of the meat so that the albumin in the ends of the muscle fibers +may be coagulated at once. This presents, during the remainder of the +preparation, a loss of the meat juices. + +Meat to which either of these methods is applied will be indigestible on +the surface and many times almost uncooked in the center, as in the case +of rare steak. Such meat, however, is more digestible than thin pieces +that are thoroughly cooked at the very high temperature required +for broiling. + +23. ROASTING.--The process of roasting, either in the oven or in a pot +on top of the stove, to be properly done, requires that the piece of +meat to be roasted must first be seared over the entire surface by the +application of severe heat. In the case of a pot roast, the searing can +be done conveniently in the pot before the pot-roasting process begins. +If the meat is to be roasted in the oven, it may be seared first in a +pan on top of the stove. However, it may be seared to some extent by +placing it in a very hot oven and turning it over so that all the +surface is exposed. Then, to continue the roasting process, the +temperature must be lowered just a little. + +The roasting pan may be of any desirable size and shape that is +convenient and sufficiently large to accommodate the meat to be +prepared. A pan like that shown in Fig. 2 is both convenient and +satisfactory. It is provided with a cover that fits tight. In this +cover, as shown, is an opening that may be closed or opened so as to +regulate the amount of moisture inside the pan. In the bottom of the pan +is a rack upon which the meat may rest. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +24. To prepare meat for roasting, flour should be sprinkled or rubbed +over its lean surface before it is put in the pan. This forms a paste +that cooks into a crust and prevents the loss of juices from the meat. +In roasting, the heat is applied longer and more slowly than in broiling +or frying, so that there is more possibility for the connective tissue +beneath the surface to soften. The surface is, however, as indigestible +as that of broiled meat. + +An important point for every housewife to remember in this connection is +that the larger the roast the slower should be the fire. This is due to +the fact that long before the heat could penetrate to the center, the +outside would be burned. A small roast, however, will be more delicious +if it is prepared with a very hot fire, for then the juices will not +have a chance to evaporate and the tissues will be more moist and tasty. + +25. FRYING AND SAUTEING.--When meat is fried or sauted, that is, brought +directly in contact with hot fat, it is made doubly indigestible, +because of the hardening of the surface tissues and the indigestibility +of the fat that penetrates these tissues. This is especially true of +meat that is sauted slowly in a small quantity of hot fat. Much of this +difficulty can be overcome, however, if meat prepared by these methods, +like that which is broiled or roasted, is subjected quickly to intense +heat. In addition, the fat used for cooking should be made hot before +the meat is put into it. + +26. BOILING.--To boil meat means to cook it a long time in water at a +temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit. This method of preparing meat is +not strongly advocated, for there is seldom a time when better results +cannot be obtained by cooking meat at a lower temperature than boiling +point. The best plan is to bring the meat to the boiling point, allow +it to boil for a short time, and then reduce the temperature so that the +meat will simmer for the remainder of the cooking. + +In cooking meat by boiling, a grayish scum appears on the surface just +before the boiling point is reached. This scum is caused by the gradual +extraction of a part of the soluble albumin that is present in the +hollow fibers of the muscle tissue. After its extraction, it is +coagulated by the heat in the water. As it coagulates and rises, it +carries with it to the top particles of dirt and other foreign material +present in the water or on the surface of the meat. In addition, this +scum contains a little blood, which is extracted and coagulated and +which tends to make it grayish in color. Such scum should be skimmed +off, as it is unappetizing in appearance. + +27. Whether the meat should be put into cold water or boiling water +depends on the result that is desired. It is impossible to make a rich, +tasty broth and at the same time have a juicy, well-flavored piece of +boiled meat. If meat is cooked for the purpose of making soup or broth, +it should be put into cold water and then brought to a boil. By this +method, some of the nutritive material and much of the flavoring +substance will be drawn out before the water becomes hot enough to +harden them. However, in case only the meat is to be used, it should be +plunged directly into boiling water in order to coagulate the surface at +once, as in the application of dry heat. If it is allowed to boil for 10 +minutes or so and the temperature then reduced, the coating that is +formed will prevent the nutritive material and the flavor from being +lost to any great extent. But if the action of the boiling water is +permitted to continue during the entire time of cooking, the tissues +will become tough and dry. + +28. STEWING OR SIMMERING.--The cheap cuts of meat, which contain a great +deal of flavor and are so likely to be tough, cannot be prepared by the +quick methods of cookery nor by the application of high temperature, for +the result would be a tough, indigestible, and unpalatable dish. The +long, slow cooking at a temperature lower than boiling point, which is +known as stewing or simmering, should be applied. In fact, no better +method for the preparation of tough pieces of meat and old fowl can be +found than this process, for by it the connective tissue and the muscle +fibers are softened. If the method is carried out in a tightly closed +vessel and only a small amount of liquid is used, there is no +appreciable loss of flavor except that carried into the liquid in which +the meat cooks. But since such liquid is always used, the meat being +usually served in it, as in the case of stews, there is no actual loss. + +To secure the best results in the use of this method, the meat should be +cut into small pieces so as to expose as much surface as possible. Then +the pieces should be put into cold water rather than hot, in order that +much of the juices and flavoring materials may be dissolved. When this +has been accomplished, the temperature should be gradually raised until +it nearly reaches the boiling point. If it is kept at this point for +several hours, the meat will become tender and juicy and a rich, tasty +broth will also be obtained. + +29. BRAIZING.--Meat cooked by the method of braizing, which is in +reality a combination of stewing and baking, is first subjected to the +intense dry heat of the oven and then cooked slowly in the steam of the +water that surrounds it. To cook meat in this way, a pan must be used +that will permit the meat to be raised on a rack that extends above a +small quantity of water. By this method a certain amount of juice from +the meat is taken up by the water, but the connective tissue is well +softened unless the cooking is done at too high a temperature. + +30. FRICASSEEING.--As has already been learned, fricasseeing is a +combination of sauteing and stewing. The sauteing coagulates the surface +proteins and prevents, to some extent, the loss of flavor that would +occur in the subsequent stewing if the surface were not hardened. To +produce a tender, tasty dish, fricasseeing should be a long, slow +process. This method is seldom applied to tender, expensive cuts of meat +and to young chickens, but is used for fowl and for pieces of meat that +would not make appetizing dishes if prepared by a quicker method. + + +TIME REQUIRED FOR COOKING MEAT + +31. The length of time required for cooking various kinds of meat is +usually puzzling to those inexperienced in cookery. The difference +between a dry, hard beef roast and a tender, moist, juicy one is due to +the length of time allowed for cooking. Overdone meats of any kind are +not likely to be tasty. Therefore, it should be remembered that when dry +heat is used, as in baking, roasting, broiling, etc., the longer the +heat is applied the greater will be the evaporation of moisture and the +consequent shrinkage in the meat. + +A general rule for cooking meat in the oven is to allow 15 minutes for +each pound and 15 minutes extra. If it is to be cooked by broiling, +allow 10 minutes for each pound and 10 minutes extra; by boiling, 20 +minutes for each pound and 20 minutes extra; and by simmering, 30 +minutes for each pound. In Table I is given the number of minutes +generally allowed for cooking 1 pound of each of the various cuts of +beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork by the different cookery methods. +This table should be referred to in studying the two Sections +pertaining to meat. + +TABLE I + +TIME TABLE FOR COOKING MEATS + +NAME OF CUT COOKERY METHOD TIME PER POUND + MINUTES + BEEF +Round Roasting 12 to 15 +Ribs Roasting, well done 12 to 15 +Ribs Roasting, rare 8 to 10 +Rump Roasting 12 to 15 +Sirloin Roasting, rare 8 to 10 +Rolled roast Roasting 12 to 15 +Steaks Broiling, well done 12 to 15 +Steaks Broiling, rare 8 to 10 +Fresh beef Boiling 20 to 25 +Corned beef Boiling 25 to 30 +Any cut Simmering 30 +Chuck Braizing 25 to 30 + + VEAL +Leg Roasting 20 +Chops or steak Broiling 8 to 30 +Shoulder Braizing 30 to 40 + + MUTTON +Leg Roasting 15 to 20 +Shoulder Roasting 15 to 20 +Leg Braizing 40 to 50 +Leg Boiling 15 to 25 +Chops Broiling 10 to 12 + + LAMB +Loin or saddle Roasting 15 to 20 +Leg Roasting 15 to 20 +Chops Broiling 8 to 10 + + PORK +Shoulder or ribs Roasting 20 to 25 +Ham Boiled 20 to 30 +Chops Broiled 8 to 10 + + * * * * * + + +BEEF + +GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF + +32. As is generally known, BEEF is the flesh of a slaughtered steer, +cow, or other adult bovine animal. These animals may be sold to be +slaughtered as young as 1-1/2 to 2 years old, but beef of the best +quality is obtained from them when they are from 3 to 4 years of age. +Ranging from the highest quality down to the lowest, beef is designated +by the butcher as prime, extra fancy, fancy, extra choice, choice, good, +and poor. In a market where trade is large and varied, it is possible to +make such use of meat as to get a higher price for the better qualities +than can be obtained in other markets. + +33. When the quality of beef is to be determined, the amount, quality, +and color of the flesh, bone, and fat must be considered. The surface of +a freshly cut piece of beef should be bright red in color. When it is +exposed to the air for some time, the action of the air on the blood +causes it to become darker, but even this color should be a good clear +red. Any unusual color is looked on with suspicion by a person who +understands the requirements of good meat. To obtain beef of the best +quality, it should be cut crosswise of the fiber. In fact, the way in +which meat is cut determines to a great extent the difference between +tender and tough meat and, consequently, the price that is charged. This +difference can be readily seen by examining the surface of a cut. It +will be noted that the tender parts are made up of short fibers that are +cut directly across at right angles with the surface of the meat, while +the tougher parts contain long fibers that run either slanting or almost +parallel to the surface. + +34. The amount of bone and cartilage in proportion to meat in a cut of +beef usually makes a difference in price and determines the usefulness +of the piece to the housewife. Therefore, these are matters that should +be carefully considered. For instance, a certain cut of beef that is +suitable for a roast may cost a few cents less than another cut, but if +its proportion of bone to meat is greater than in the more expensive +piece, nothing is gained by purchasing it. Bones, however, possess some +value and can be utilized in various ways. Those containing _marrow_, +which is the soft tissue found in the cavities of bones and composed +largely of fat, are more valuable for soup making and for stews and +gravies than are solid bones. + +In young beef in good condition, the fat is creamy white in color. +However, as the animal grows older, the color grows darker until it +becomes a deep yellow. + +Besides the flesh, bone, and fat, the general shape and thickness of a +piece of beef should be noted when its quality is to be determined. In +addition, its adaptability to the purpose for which it is selected and +the method of cookery to be used in its preparation are also points that +should not be overlooked. + + * * * * * + +CUTS OF BEEF + +METHOD OF OBTAINING CUTS + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +35. With the general characteristics of beef well in mind, the housewife +is prepared to learn of the way in which the animal is cut to produce +the different pieces that she sees in the butcher shop and the names +that are given to the various cuts. The cutting of the animal, as well +as the naming of the pieces, varies in different localities, but the +difference is not sufficient to be confusing. Therefore, if the +information here given is thoroughly mastered, the housewife will be +able to select meat intelligently in whatever section of the country she +may reside. An important point for her to remember concerning meat of +any kind is that the cheaper cuts are found near the neck, legs, and +shins, and that the pieces increase in price as they go toward the back. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4 *divisions of a cow into cuts*] + +36. The general method of cutting up a whole beef into large cuts is +shown in Fig. 3. After the head, feet, and intestines are removed, the +carcass is cut down along the spine and divided into halves. Each half +includes an entire side and is known as a _side of beef_. Then each side +is divided into _fore_ and _hind quarters_ along the diagonal line that +occurs about midway between the front and the back. It is in this form +that the butcher usually receives the beef. He first separates it into +the large pieces here indicated and then cuts these pieces into numerous +smaller ones having names that indicate their location. For instance, +the piece marked _a_ includes the _chuck_; _b_, the _ribs_; _c_, the +_loin_; _d_, the _round_; _e_, the _flank_; _f_, the _plate_; and _g_, +the _shin_. + +37. The cuts that are obtained from these larger pieces are shown in +Fig. 4. For instance, from the chuck, as illustrated in (_a_), are +secured numerous cuts, including the neck, shoulder clod, shoulder, and +chuck ribs. The same is true of the other pieces, as a careful study of +these illustrations will reveal. Besides indicating the various cuts, +each one of these illustrations serves an additional purpose. From +(_a_), which shows the skeleton of the beef, the amount and the shape of +the bone that the various cuts contain can be readily observed. From +(_b_), which shows the directions in which the surface muscle fibers +run, can be told whether the cutting of the pieces is done across the +fibers or in the same direction as the fibers. Both of these matters are +of such importance to the housewife that constant reference to these +illustrations should be made until the points that they serve to +indicate are thoroughly understood. + + +NAMES AND USES OF CUTS + +38. So that a still better idea may be formed of the pieces into which a +side of beef may be cut, reference should be made to Fig. 5. The heavy +line through the center shows where the side is divided in order to cut +it into the fore and hind quarters. As will be observed, the fore +quarter includes the chuck, prime ribs, and whole plate, and the hind +quarter, the loin and the round, each of these large pieces being +indicated by a different color. + +To make these large pieces of a size suitable for sale to the consumer, +the butcher cuts each one of them into still smaller pieces, all of +which are indicated in the illustration. The names of these cuts, +together with their respective uses, and the names of the beef organs +and their uses, are given in Table II. + +TABLE II + +CUTS OBTAINED FROM A SIDE OF BEEF AND THEIR USES + +NAME OF NAME OF CUT USES OF CUTS +LARGE PIECE + +Chuck........Neck Soups, broths, stews + Shoulder clod Soups, broths, stews, + boiling, corning + Ribs (11th, 12th, Brown stews, braizing, + and 13th) poor roasts + Ribs (9th and 10th) Braizing, roasts + Shoulder Soups, stews, corning, roast + Cross-ribs Roast + Brisket Soups, stews, corning + Shin Soups + +Prime Ribs...Ribs (1st to 8th, Roasts + inclusive) + +Whole Plate..Plate Soups, stews, corning + Navel Soups, stews, corning + +Loin.........Short steak Steaks, roasts + Porterhouse cuts Steaks, roasts + Hip-bone steak Steaks, roasts + Flat-bone steak Steaks, roasts + Round-bone steak Steaks, roasts + Sirloin Steaks + Top sirloin Roasts + Flank Rolled steak, braizing, boiling + Tenderloin Roast + +Round........Rump Roasts, corning + Upper round Steaks, roasts + Lower round Steaks, pot roasts, stews + Vein Stews, soups + Shank Soups + +Beef Organs..Liver Broiling, frying + Heart Baking, braizing + Tongue Boiling, baking, braizing + Tail Soup + +39. As will be observed from Fig. 5, the ribs are numbered in the +opposite direction from the way in which they are ordinarily counted; +that is, the first rib in a cut of beef is the one farthest from the +head and the thirteenth is the one just back of the neck. The first and +second ribs are called the _back ribs_; the third, fourth, fifth, and +sixth, the _middle ribs_. To prepare the ribs for sale, they are usually +cut into pieces that contain two ribs, the first and second ribs being +known as the first cut, the third and fourth as _the second_ cut, etc. +After being sawed across, the rib bones are either left in to make a +_standing rib roast_ or taken out and the meat then rolled and fastened +together with skewers to make a _rolled roast_. _Skewers,_ which are +long wooden or metal pins that may be pushed through meat to fasten it +together, will be found useful to the housewife in preparing many cuts +of meat for cooking. They may usually be obtained at a meat market or a +hardware store. + +40. Certain of the organs of beef are utilized to a considerable extent, +so that while they cannot be shown in Fig. 5, they are included in Table +II. The heart and the tongue are valuable both because they are +economical and because they add variety to the meat diet of the family. +The tongue, either smoked or fresh, may be boiled and then served hot, +or it may be pickled in vinegar and served cold. The heart may be +prepared in the same way, or it may be stuffed and then baked. The tail +of beef makes excellent soup and is much used for this purpose. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF BEEF + +STEAKS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +41. Steaks Obtained From the Loin.--The way in which a loin of beef is +cut into steaks is shown in Fig. 6. From _a_ to _b_ are cut _Delmonico +steaks;_ from _b_ to _c_, _porterhouse steaks;_ from _c_ to _d_, +_hip-bone steaks;_ from _d_ to _e_, _flat-bone steaks;_ and from _e_ to +_f_, _sirloin steaks_. The _loin_ is cut from the rump at _f_ and from +the flank and plate at _h_ to _j_. When steaks are cut from the flesh of +animals in good condition, they are all very tender and may be used for +the quick methods of cookery, such as broiling. A very good idea of what +each of these steaks looks like can be obtained from Figs. 7 to 11, +inclusive. Each of these illustrations shows the entire section of +steak, as well as one steak cut from the piece. + +DELMONICO STEAK, which is shown in Fig. 7, is the smallest steak that +can be cut from the loin and is therefore an excellent cut for a small +family. It contains little or no tenderloin. Sometimes this steak is +wrongly called a club steak, but no confusion will result if it is +remembered that a _club steak_ is a porterhouse steak that has most of +the bone and the flank end, or "tail," removed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +Porterhouse steak, which is illustrated in Fig 8, contains more +tenderloin than any other steak. This steak also being small in size is +a very good cut for a small number of persons. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +_Hip-bone steak_, shown in Fig. 9, contains a good-sized piece of +tenderloin. Steak of this kind finds much favor, as it can be served +quite advantageously. + +Flat-bone steak, as shown in Fig. 10, has a large bone, but it also +contains a considerable amount of fairly solid meat. When a large +number of persons are to be served, this is a very good steak to select. + +Sirloin steak is shown in Fig. 11. As will be observed, this steak +contains more solid meat than any of the other steaks cut from the loin. +For this reason, it serves a large number of persons more advantageously +than the others do. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +42. Steaks Obtained From the Round.--While the steaks cut from the loin +are usually preferred because of their tenderness, those cut from the +upper round and across the rump are very desirable for many purposes. If +these are not so tender as is desired, the surface may be chopped with +a dull knife in order to make tiny cuts through the fibers, or it may be +pounded with some blunt object, as, for instance, a wooden potato +masher. In Fig. 12, the entire round and the way it is sometimes +subdivided into the upper and lower round are shown. What is known as a +round steak is a slice that is cut across the entire round. However, +such a steak is often cut into two parts where the line dividing the +round is shown, and either the upper or the lower piece may be +purchased. The upper round is the better piece and brings a higher price +than the whole round or the lower round including the vein. The quick +methods of cookery may be applied to the more desirable cuts of the +round, but the lower round or the vein is generally used for roasting, +braizing, or stewing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +43. Broiled Beefsteak.--As has already been explained, the steaks cut +from the loin are the ones that are generally used for broiling. When +one of these steaks is to be broiled, it should never be less than 1 +inch thick, but it may be from 1 to 2-1/2 inches in thickness, according +to the preference of the persons for whom it is prepared. As the flank +end, or "tail," of such steaks is always tough, it should be cut off +before cooking and utilized in the making of soups and such dishes as +require chopped meats. In addition, all superfluous fat should be +removed and then tried out. Beef fat, especially if it is mixed with +lard or other fats, makes excellent shortening; likewise, it may be used +for sauteing various foods. + +When a steak has been prepared in this manner, wipe it carefully with a +clean, damp cloth. Heat the broiler very hot and grease the rack with a +little of the beef fat. Then place the steak on the rack, expose it +directly to the rays of a very hot fire, and turn it every 10 seconds +until each side has been exposed several times to the blaze. This is +done in order to sear the entire surface and thus prevent the loss of +the juice. When the surface is sufficiently seared, lower the fire or +move the steak to a cooler place on the stove and then, turning it +frequently, allow it to cook more slowly until it reaches the desired +condition. The broiling of a steak requires from 10 to 20 minutes, +depending on its thickness and whether it is preferred well done or +rare. Place the broiled steak on a hot platter, dot it with butter, +season it with salt and pepper, and serve at once. + +44. Pan-Broiled Steak.--If it is impossible to prepare the steak in a +broiler, it may be pan-broiled. In fact, this is a very satisfactory way +to cook any of the tender cuts. To carry out this method, place a heavy +frying pan directly over the fire and allow it to become so hot that the +fat will smoke when put into it. Grease the pan with a small piece of +the beef fat, just enough to prevent the steak from sticking fast. Put +the steak into the hot pan and turn it as soon as it is seared on the +side that touches the pan. After it is seared on the other side, turn it +again and continue to turn it frequently until it has broiled for about +15 minutes. When it is cooked sufficiently to serve, dot it with butter +and season it with salt and pepper. Serve hot. + +45. ROLLED STEAK, OR MOCK DUCK.--To have a delicious meat, it is not +always necessary to secure the tender, expensive cuts, for excellent +dishes can be prepared from the cheaper pieces. For instance, steaks cut +from the entire round or thin cuts from the rump can be filled with a +stuffing and then rolled to make rolled steak, or mock duck. This is an +extremely appetizing dish and affords the housewife a chance to give her +family a pleasing variety in the way of meat. The steak used for this +purpose should first be broiled in the way explained in Art. 43. Then it +should be filled with a stuffing made as follows: + +STUFFING FOR ROLLED STEAK + +1 qt. stale bread crumbs +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1 small onion +1 Tb. salt +2 Tb. butter +1/4 Tb. pepper +1 c. hot water + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] Mix all together. Pile on top of the broiled +steak and roll the steak so that the edges lap over each other and the +dressing is completely covered. Fasten together with skewers or tie by +wrapping a cord around the roll. Strips of bacon or salt pork tied to +the outside or fastened with small skewers improve the flavor of the +meat. Place in a roasting pan and bake in a hot oven until the steak is +thoroughly baked. This will require not less than 40 minutes. Cut into +slices and serve hot. + +46. SKIRT STEAK.--Lying inside the ribs and extending from the second +or third rib to the breast bone is a thin strip of muscle known as a +skirt steak. This is removed before the ribs are cut for roasts, and, as +shown in Fig. 13, is slit through the center with a long, sharp knife to +form a pocket into which stuffing can be put. As a skirt steak is not +expensive and has excellent flavor, it is a very desirable piece +of meat. + +To prepare such a steak for the table, stuff it with the stuffing given +for rolled steak in Art. 45, and then fasten the edges together with +skewers. Bake in a hot oven until the steak is well done. Serve hot. + +47. SWISS STEAK.--Another very appetizing dish that can be made from the +cheaper steaks is Swiss steak. To be most satisfactory, the steak used +for this purpose should be about an inch thick. + +Pound as much dry flour as possible into both sides of the steak by +means of a wooden potato masher. Then brown it on both sides in a hot +frying pan with some of the beef fat. When it is thoroughly browned, +pour a cup of hot water over it, cover the pan tight, and remove to the +back of the stove. Have just enough water on the steak and apply just +enough heat to keep it simmering very slowly for about 1/2 hour. As the +meat cooks, the water will form a gravy by becoming thickened with the +flour that has been pounded into the steak. Serve the steak with +this gravy. + +48. HAMBURGER STEAK.--The tougher pieces of beef, such as the flank ends +of the steak and parts of the rump, the round, and the chuck, may be +ground fine by being forced through a food chopper. Such meat is very +frequently combined with egg and then formed into small cakes or patties +to make Hamburger steak. Besides providing a way to utilize pieces of +meat that might otherwise be wasted, this dish affords variety to +the diet. + +HAMBURGER STEAK +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 lb. chopped beef +1 small onion, chopped +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1 egg (if desired) +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Mix the ingredients thoroughly and shape into thin patties. Cook by +broiling in a pan placed in the broiler or by pan-broiling in a hot, +well-greased frying pan. Spread with butter when ready to serve. + +49. PLANKED STEAK.--A dish that the housewife generally considers too +complicated for her, but that may very readily be prepared in the home, +is planked steak. Such a steak gets its name from the fact that a part +of its cooking is done on a hardwood plank, and that the steak, together +with vegetables of various kinds, is served on the plank. Potatoes are +always used as one of the vegetables that are combined with planked +steak, but besides them almost any combination or variety of vegetables +may be used as a garnish. Asparagus tips, string beans, peas, tiny +onions, small carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, stuffed peppers, and +stuffed tomatoes are the vegetables from which a selection is usually +made. When a tender steak is selected for this purpose and is properly +cooked, and when the vegetables are well prepared and artistically +arranged, no dish can be found that appeals more to the eye and +the taste. + +To prepare this dish, broil or pan-broil one of the better cuts of steak +for about 8 minutes. Butter the plank, place the steak on the center of +it and season with salt and pepper. Mash potatoes and to each 2 cupfuls +use 4 tablespoonfuls of milk, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and one egg. +After these materials have been mixed well into the potatoes, arrange a +border of potatoes around the edge of the plank. Then garnish the steak +with whatever vegetables have been selected. Care should be taken to see +that these are properly cooked and well seasoned. If onions, mushrooms, +or carrots are used, it is well to saute them in butter after they are +thoroughly cooked. With the steak thus prepared, place the plank under +the broiler or in a hot oven and allow it to remain there long enough to +brown the potatoes, cook the steak a little more, and thoroughly heat +all the vegetables. + +50. VEGETABLES SERVED WITH STEAK.--If an attractive, as well as a tasty, +dish is desired and the housewife has not sufficient time nor the +facilities to prepare a planked steak, a good plan is to saute a +vegetable of some kind and serve it over the steak. For this purpose +numerous vegetables are suitable, but onions, small mushrooms, and +sliced tomatoes are especially desirable. When onions are used, they +should be sliced thin and then sauted in butter until they are soft and +brown. Small mushrooms may be prepared in the same way, or they may be +sauted in the fat that remains in the pan after the steak has been +removed. Tomatoes that are served over steak should be sliced, rolled in +crumbs, and then sauted. + +ROASTS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +51. FILLET OF BEEF.--A large variety of roasts can be obtained from a +side of beef, but by far the most delicious one is the tenderloin, or +fillet of beef. This is a long strip of meat lying directly under the +chine, or back bone. It is either taken out as a whole, or it is left in +the loin to be cut as a part of the steaks that are obtained from this +section. When it is removed in a whole piece, as shown in Fig. 14, the +steaks that remain in the loin are not so desirable and do not bring +such a good price, because the most tender part of each of them +is removed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +Two different methods of cookery are usually applied to the tenderloin +of beef. Very often, as Fig. 14 shows, it is cut into slices about 2 +inches thick and then broiled, when it is called _broiled fillet_, or +_fillet_ mignon. If it is not treated in this way, the whole tenderloin +is roasted after being rolled, or larded, with salt pork to supply the +fat that it lacks. Whichever way it is cooked, the tenderloin always +proves to be an exceptionally tender and delicious cut of beef. However, +it is the most expensive piece that can be bought, and so is not +recommended when economy must be practiced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +52. CHUCK ROASTS.--While the pieces cut from the chuck are not so +desirable as those obtained from the loin or as the prime ribs, still +the chuck yields very good roasts, as Figs. 15 and 16 show. The roast +shown in Fig. 15 is the piece just back of the shoulder, and that +illustrated in Fig. 16 is cut from the ribs in the chuck. These pieces +are of a fairly good quality and if a roast as large as 8 or 10 pounds +is desired, they make an economical one to purchase. + +53. RIB ROASTS.--Directly back of the chuck, as has already been +learned, are the prime ribs. From this part of the beef, which is shown +in Figs. 17 and 18, the best rib roasts are secured. Fig. 17 shows the +ribs cut off at about the eighth rib and Fig. 18 shows the same set +turned around so that the cut surface is at about the first rib, where +the best cuts occur. To prepare this piece for roasting, it is often cut +around the dark line shown in Fig. 18, and after the back bone and ribs +have been removed, is rolled into a roll of solid meat. The thin lower +part that is cut off is used for boiling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +54. When only a small roast is wanted, a single rib, such as is shown in +Fig. 19, is often used. In a roast of this kind, the bone is not +removed, but, as will be observed, is sawed in half. Such a roast is +called a _standing rib roast_. Another small roast, called a +_porterhouse roast_, is illustrated in Fig. 20. This is obtained by +cutting a porterhouse steak rather thick. It is therefore a very tender +and delicious, although somewhat expensive, roast. Other parts of the +loin may also be cut for roasts, the portion from which sirloin steaks +are cut making large and very delicious roasts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +55. RUMP ROASTS.--Between the loin and the bottom round lies the rump, +and from this may be cut roasts of different kinds. The entire rump with +its cut surface next to the round is shown in Fig. 21, and the various +pieces into which the rump may be cut are illustrated in Figs. 22 to 25. +These roasts have a very good flavor and are very juicy, and if beef in +prime condition can be obtained, they are extremely tender. Besides +these advantages, rump roasts are economical, so they are much favored. +To prepare them for cooking, the butcher generally removes the bone and +rolls them in the manner shown in Fig. 26. + +56. ROAST BEEF.--The usual method of preparing the roasts that have just +been described, particularly the tender ones, is to cook them in the +oven. For this purpose a roasting pan, such as the one previously +described and illustrated, produces the best results, but if one of +these cannot be obtained, a dripping pan may be substituted. When the +meat is first placed in the oven, the oven temperature should be 400 to +450 degrees Fahrenheit, but after the meat has cooked for about 15 +minutes, the temperature should be lowered so that the meat will cook +more slowly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25] + +Before putting the roast in the oven, wipe it thoroughly with a damp +cloth. If its surface is not well covered with a layer of fat, place +several pieces of salt pork on it and tie or skewer them fast. Then, +having one of the cut sides up so that it will be exposed to the heat of +the oven, set the piece of meat in a roasting pan or the utensil that is +to be substituted. Dredge, or sprinkle, the surface with flour, salt, +and pepper, and place the pan in the oven, first making sure that the +oven is sufficiently hot. Every 10 or 15 minutes baste the meat with the +fat and the juice that cooks out of it; that is, spoon up this liquid +and pour it over the meat in order to improve the flavor and to prevent +the roast from becoming dry. If necessary, a little water may be added +for basting, but the use of water for this purpose should generally be +avoided. Allow the meat to roast until it is either well done or rare, +according to the way it is preferred. The length of time required for +this process depends so much on the size of the roast, the temperature +of the oven, and the preference of the persons who are to eat the meat, +that definite directions cannot well be given. However, a general idea +of this matter can be obtained by referring to the Cookery Time Table +given in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, and also to Table I of this +Section, which gives the time required for cooking each pound of meat. +If desired, gravy may be made from the juice that remains in the pan, +the directions for making gravy being given later. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +57. BRAIZED BEEF.--An excellent way in which to cook a piece of beef +that is cut from the rump or lower round is to braize it. This method +consists in placing the meat on a rack over a small quantity of water in +a closed pan and then baking it in the oven for about 4 hours. +Vegetables cut into small pieces are placed in the water and they cook +while the meat is baking. As meat prepared in this way really cooks in +the flavored steam that rises from the vegetables, it becomes very +tender and has a splendid flavor; also, the gravy that may be made from +the liquid that remains adds to its value. In serving it, a spoonful of +the vegetables is generally put on the plate with each piece of meat. + +BRAIZED BEEF +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 lb. beef from rump or lower round +Flour +Salt +Pepper +2 thin slices salt pork +1/4 c. diced carrots +1/4 c. diced turnips +1/4 c. diced onions +1/4 c. diced celery +3 c. boiling water + +Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, and dredge, or sprinkle, it with the +flour, salt, and pepper. Try out the pork and brown the entire surface +of the meat in the fat thus obtained. Then place the meat on a rack in a +deep granite pan, an earthen bowl, or a baking dish, and surround it +with the diced vegetables. Add the boiling water, cover the dish tight, +and place in a slow oven. Bake for about 4 hours at a low temperature. +Then remove the meat to a hot platter, strain out the vegetables, and +make a thickened gravy of the liquid that remains, as explained later. + +58. POT-ROASTED BEEF.--The usual, and probably the most satisfactory, +method of preparing the cheaper cuts of beef is to cook them in a heavy +iron pot over a slow fire for several hours. If the proper attention is +given to the preparation of such a roast, usually called a pot roast, it +will prove a very appetizing dish. Potatoes may also be cooked in the +pot with the meat. This is a good plan to follow for it saves fuel and +at the same time offers variety in the cooking of potatoes. + +When a piece of beef is to be roasted in a pot, try out in the pot a +little of the beef fat. Then wipe the meat carefully and brown it on all +sides in the fat. Add salt, pepper, and 1/2 cupful of boiling water and +cover the pot tightly. Cook over a slow fire until the water is +evaporated and the meat begins to brown; then add another 1/2 cupful of +water. Continue to do this until the meat has cooked for several hours, +or until the entire surface is well browned and the meat tissue very +tender. Then place the meat on a hot platter and, if desired, make gravy +of the fat that remains in the pan, following the directions given +later. If potatoes are to be cooked with the roast, put them into the +pot around the meat about 45 minutes before the meat is to be removed, +as they will be cooked sufficiently when the roast is done. + +59. BEEF LOAF.--Hamburger steak is not always made into small patties +and broiled or sauted. In fact, it is very often combined with cracker +crumbs, milk, and egg, and then well seasoned to make a beef loaf. Since +there are no bones nor fat to be cut away in serving, this is an +economical dish and should be used occasionally to give variety to the +diet. If desired, a small quantity of salt pork may be combined with the +beef to add flavor. + +BEEF LOAF +(Sufficient to Serve Ten) + +3 lb. beef +2 Tb. salt +1/4 lb. salt pork +1/4 Tb. pepper +1 c. cracker crumbs +1 small onion +1 c. milk +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 egg + +Put the beef and pork through the food chopper; then mix thoroughly with +the other ingredients. Pack tightly into a loaf-cake pan. Bake in a +moderate oven for 2 1/2 to 3 hours. During the baking, baste frequently +with hot water to which a little butter has been added. Serve either hot +or cold, as desired. + + +PREPARATION OP STEWS AND CORNED BEEF + +60. Cuts Suitable for Stewing and Corning.--Because of the large variety +of cuts obtained from a beef, numerous ways of cooking this meat have +been devised. The tender cuts are, of course, the most desirable and the +most expensive and they do not require the same preparation as the +cheaper cuts. However, the poorer cuts, while not suitable for some +purposes, make very good stews and corned beef. The cuts that are most +satisfactory for stewing and coming are shown in Figs. 27 to 30. A part +of the chuck that is much used for stewing and coming is shown in Fig. +27, _a_ being the upper chuck, _b_ the shoulder, and _c_ the lower +chuck. Fig. 28 shows a piece of the shoulder cut off just at the leg +joint, Fig. 29, the neck, and Fig. 30, a piece of the plate called a +flat-rib piece. Besides these pieces, the brisket, the lower part of the +round, and any of the other chuck pieces that do not make good roasts +are excellent for this purpose. In fact, any part that contains bone and +fat, as well as lean, makes well-flavored stew. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +[Illustration: FIG. 28] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30] + +61. Beef Stew.--Any of the pieces of beef just mentioned may be used +with vegetables of various kinds to make beef stew. Also left-over +pieces of a roast or a steak may be utilized with other meats in the +making of this dish. If the recipe here given is carefully followed, a +very appetizing as well as nutritious stew will be the result. + +BEEF STEW +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +4 lb. beef +2/3 c. diced carrots +2 Tb. salt +1 small onion, sliced +1/4 Tb. pepper +3 c. potatoes cut into 1/4 in. slices +2/3 c. diced turnips +2 Tb. flour + +Wipe the meat and cut it into pieces about 2 inches long. Try out some +of the fat in a frying pan and brown the pieces of meat in it, stirring +the meat constantly so that it will brown evenly. Put the browned meat +into a kettle with the remaining fat and the bone, cover well with +boiling water, and add the salt and pepper. Cover the kettle with a +tight-fitting lid. Let the meat boil for a minute or two, then reduce +the heat, and allow it to simmer for about 2 hours. For the last hour, +cook the diced turnips, carrots, and onions with the meat, and 20 +minutes before serving, add the potatoes. When the meat and vegetables +are sufficiently cooked, remove the bones, fat, and skin; then thicken +the stew with the flour moistened with enough cold water to pour. Pour +into a deep platter or dish and serve with or without dumplings. + +62. When dumplings are to be served with beef stew or any dish of this +kind, they may be prepared as follows: + +DUMPLINGS + +2 c. flour +2 Tb. fat +1/2 Tb. salt +3/4 to 1 c. milk +4 tsp. baking powder + +Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop in the fat with a +knife. Add the milk gradually and mix to form a dough. Toss on a floured +board and roll out or pat until it is about 1 inch thick. Cut into +pieces with a small biscuit cutter. Place these close together in a +buttered steamer and steam over a kettle of hot water for 15 to 18 +minutes. Serve with the stew. + +If a softer dough that can be cooked with the stew is preferred, 1 1/2 +cupfuls of milk instead of 3/4 to 1 cupful should be used. Drop the +dough thus prepared by the spoonful into the stew and boil for about 15 +minutes. Keep the kettle tightly covered while the dumplings +are boiling. + +63. CORNED BEEF.--It is generally the custom to purchase corned beef, +that is, beef preserved in a brine, at the market; but this is not +necessary, as meat of this kind may be prepared in the home. When the +housewife wishes to corn beef, she will find it an advantage to procure +a large portion of a quarter of beef, part of which may be corned and +kept to be used after the fresh beef has been eaten. Of course, this +plan should be followed only in cold weather, for fresh meat soon spoils +unless it is kept very cold. + +To corn beef, prepare a mixture of 10 parts salt to 1 part saltpeter and +rub this into the beef until the salt remains dry on the surface. Put +the meat aside for 24 hours and then rub it again with some of the same +mixture. On the following day, put the beef into a large crock or stone +jar and cover it with a brine made by boiling 2-1/2 gallons of water +into which have been added 2 quarts salt, 2 ounces saltpeter, and 3/4 +pound brown sugar. Be careful to cool the brine until it entirely cold +before using it. Allow the beef to remain in the brine for a week before +attempting to use it. Inspect it occasionally, and if it does not appear +to be keeping well, remove it from the brine, rub it again with the salt +mixture, and place it in fresh brine. Beef that is properly corned will +keep an indefinite length of time, but it should be examined, every 2 or +3 days for the first few weeks to see that it is not spoiling. + +64. BOILED CORNED BEEF.--The usual way to prepare beef corned in the +manner just explained or corned beef bought at the market is to boil it. +After it becomes sufficiently tender by this method of cooking, it may +be pressed into a desired shape and when cold cut into thin slices. Meat +of this kind makes an excellent dish for a light meal such as luncheon +or supper. + +To boil corned beef, first wipe it thoroughly and roll and tie it. Then +put it into a kettle, cover it with boiling water, and set it over the +fire. When it comes to the boiling point, skim off the scum that forms +on the top. Cook at a low temperature until the meat is tender enough to +be pierced easily with a fork. Then place the meat in a dish or a pan, +pour the broth over it, put a plate on top that will rest on the meat, +and weight it down with something heavy enough to press the meat into +shape. Allow it to remain thus overnight. When cold and thoroughly set, +remove from the pan, cut into thin slices, and serve. + +65. BOILED DINNER.--Corned beef is especially adaptable to what is +commonly termed a boiled dinner. Occasionally it is advisable for the +housewife to vary her meals by serving a dinner of this kind. In +addition to offering variety, such a dinner affords her an opportunity +to economize on fuel, especially if gas or electricity is used, for all +of it may be prepared in the same pot and cooked over the same burner. + +BOILED DINNER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 lb. corned beef +1 c. sliced turnips +1 small head of cabbage cut into eighths +1 c. sliced potatoes +Pepper and salt +1 c. sliced carrots + +Cook the corned beef in the manner explained in Art. 64. When it has +cooked sufficiently, remove it from the water. Into this water, put the +cabbage, carrots, turnips, and potatoes; then add the salt and pepper, +seasoning to taste. Cook until the vegetables are tender. Remove the +vegetables and serve them in vegetable dishes with some of the meat +broth. Reheat the meat before serving. + + +BEEF ORGANS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +66. BOILED TONGUE.--The tongue of beef is much used, for if properly +prepared it makes a delicious meat that may be served hot or cold. It is +usually corned or smoked to preserve it until it can be used. In either +of these forms or in its fresh state, it must be boiled in order to +remove the skin and prepare the meat for further use. If it has been +corned or smoked, it is likely to be very salty, so that it should +usually be soaked overnight to remove the salt. + +When boiled tongue is desired, put a fresh tongue or a smoked or a +corned tongue from which the salt has been removed into a kettle of cold +water and allow it to come to a boil. Skim and continue to cook at a low +temperature for 2 hours. Cool enough to handle and then remove the skin +and the roots. Cut into slices and serve hot or cold. + +67. PICKLED TONGUE.--A beef tongue prepared in the manner just explained +may be treated in various ways, but a method of preparation that meets +with much favor consists in pickling it. Pickled tongue makes an +excellent meat when a cold dish is required for a light meal or meat for +sandwiches is desired. The pickle required for one tongue contains the +following ingredients: + +PICKLE + +1-1/2 c. vinegar +2 c. water +1/4 c. sugar +1 Tb. salt +1/4 Tb. pepper +6 cloves +1 stick cinnamon + +Boil all of these ingredients for a few minutes, then add the tongue, +and boil for 15 minutes. Remove from the stove and let stand for 24 +hours. Slice and serve cold. + +68. BRAIZED TONGUE.--The process of braizing may be applied to tongue as +well as to other parts of beef. In fact, when tongue is cooked in this +way with several kinds of vegetables, it makes a delicious dish that is +pleasing to most persons. + +BRAIZED TONGUE +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 fresh tongue +1/3 c. diced carrots +1/3 c. diced onions +1/3 c. diced celery +1 c. stewed tomatoes +2 c. water in which tongue is boiled + +Boil the tongue as previously directed, and then skin it and remove the +roots. Place it in a long pan and pour over it the carrots, onions, +celery, stewed tomatoes, and the water. Cover tight and bake in a slow +oven for 2 hours. Serve on a platter with the vegetables and sauce. + +69. STUFFED HEART.--If a stuffed meat is desired, nothing more +appetizing can be found than stuffed heart. For this purpose the heart +of a young beef should be selected in order that a tender dish +will result. + +After washing the heart and removing the veins and the arteries, make a +stuffing like that given for rolled beefsteak in Art. 45. Stuff the +heart with this dressing, sprinkle salt and pepper over it, and roll it +in flour. Lay several strips of bacon or salt pork across the top, place +in a baking pan, and pour 1 cupful of water into the pan. Cover the pan +tight, set it in a hot oven, and bake slowly for 2 or 3 hours, depending +on the size of the heart. Add water as the water in the pan evaporates, +and baste the heart frequently. When it has baked sufficiently, remove +to a platter and serve at once. + + +MAKING GRAVY + +70. To meats prepared in various ways, gravy--that is, the sauce made +from the drippings or juices that cook out of steaks, roasts, and stews, +or from the broth actually cooked from the meat as for soup--is a +valuable addition, particularly if it is well made and properly +seasoned. A point to remember in this connection is that gravy should be +entirely free from lumps and not too thick. It will be of the right +thickness if 1 to 2 level tablespoonfuls of flour is used for each pint +of liquid. It should also be kept in mind that the best gravy is made +from the brown drippings that contain some fat. + +To make gravy, remove any excess of fat that is not required, and then +pour a little hot water into the pan in order to dissolve the drippings +that are to be used. Add the flour to the fat, stirring until a smooth +paste is formed. Then add the liquid, which may be water or milk, and +stir quickly to prevent the formation of lumps. Season well with salt +and pepper. Another method that also proves satisfactory is to mix the +flour and liquid and then add them to the fat that remains in the pan in +which the meat has been cooked. + + +TRYING OUT SUET AND OTHER FATS + +71. The suet obtained from beef is a valuable source of fat for cooking, +and it should therefore never be thrown away. The process of obtaining +the fat from suet is called _trying_, and it is always practiced in +homes where economy is the rule. + +To try out suet, cut the pieces into half-inch cubes, place them in a +heavy frying pan, and cover them with hot water. Allow this to come to a +boil and cook until the water has evaporated. Continue the heating until +all the fat has been drawn from the tissue. Then pour off all the liquid +fat and squeeze the remaining suet with a potato masher or in a fruit +press. Clean glass or earthen jars are good receptacles in which to keep +the fat thus recovered from the suet. + +To try out other fats, proceed in the same way as for trying out suet. +Such fats may be tried by heating them in a pan without water, provided +the work is done carefully enough to prevent them from scorching. + + +PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER BEEF + +72. As has been shown, meat is both an expensive and a perishable food. +Therefore, some use should be made of every left-over bit of it, no +matter how small, and it should be disposed of quickly in order to +prevent it from spoiling. A point that should not be overlooked in the +use of left-over meats, however, is that they should be prepared so as +to be a contrast to the original preparation and thus avoid monotony in +the food served. This variation may be accomplished by adding other +foods and seasonings and by changing the appearance as much as possible. +For instance, what remains from a roast of beef may be cut in thin +slices and garnished to make an attractive dish; or, left-over meat may +be made very appetizing by cutting it into cubes, reheating it in gravy +or white sauce, and serving it over toast or potato patties. Then there +is the sandwich, which always finds a place in the luncheon. The meat +used for this purpose may be sliced thin or it may be chopped fine, and +then, to increase the quantity, mixed with salad dressing, celery, +olives, chopped pickles, etc. An excellent sandwich is made by placing +thin slices of roast beef between two slices of bread and serving hot +roast-beef gravy over the sandwich thus formed. Still other appetizing +dishes may be prepared from left-over beef as the accompanying +recipes show. + +73. MEXICAN BEEF--An extremely appetizing dish, known as Mexican beef, +can be made from any quantity of left-over beef by serving it with a +vegetable sauce. Such a dish needs few accompaniments when it is served +in a light meal, but it may be used very satisfactorily as the main dish +in a heavy meal. + +MEXICAN BEEF + +2 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1 onion, chopped +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 red pepper +1 tsp. celery salt +1 green pepper +Thin slices roast beef +3/4 c. canned tomatoes + +Brown the butter, add the chopped onion, and cook for a few minutes. +Then add the chopped peppers, tomatoes, salt, pepper, and celery salt. +Cook all together for a few minutes and add the thinly sliced roast +beef. When the meat has become thoroughly heated, it is ready to serve. + +74. COTTAGE PIE.--A very good way to use up left-over mashed potatoes +as well as roast beef is to combine them and make a cottage pie. In this +dish, mashed potatoes take the place of the crust that is generally put +over the top of a meat pie. If well seasoned and served hot, it makes a +very palatable dish. + +To make a cottage pie, cover the bottom of a baking dish with a 2-inch +layer of well-seasoned mashed potatoes. Over this spread left-over roast +beef cut into small pieces. Pour over the meat and potatoes any +left-over gravy and a few drops of onion juice made by grating raw +onion. Cover with a layer of mashed potatoes 1 inch deep. Dot with +butter and place in a hot oven until the pie has heated through and +browned on top. Serve hot. + +75. BEEF PIE.--No housewife need be at a loss for a dish that will tempt +her family if she has on hand some left-over pieces of beef, for out of +them she may prepare a beef pie, which is always in favor. Cold roast +beef makes a very good pie, but it is not necessary that roast beef be +used, as left-over steak or even a combination of left-over meats, will +do very well. + +Cut into 1-inch cubes whatever kinds of left-over meats are on hand. +Cover with hot water, add a sliced onion, and cook slowly for 1 hour. +Thicken the liquid with flour and season well with salt and pepper. Add +two or three potatoes, cut into 1/4-inch slices, and let them boil for +several minutes. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking dish and cover +it with a baking-powder biscuit mixture. Bake in a hot oven until the +crust is brown. Serve hot. + +76. BEEF HASH.--One of the most satisfactory ways in which to utilize +left-over roast beef or corned beef is to cut it into small pieces and +make it into a hash. Cold boiled potatoes that remain from a previous +meal are usually combined with the beef, and onion is added for flavor. +When hash is prepared to resemble an omelet and is garnished with +parsley, it makes an attractive dish. + +To make beef hash, remove all skin and bone from the meat, chop quite +fine, and add an equal quantity of chopped cold-boiled potatoes and one +chopped onion. Season with salt and pepper. Put the mixture into a +well-buttered frying pan, moisten with milk, meat stock, or left-over +gravy, and place over a fire. Let the hash brown slowly on the bottom +and then fold over as for an omelet. Serve on a platter garnished +with parsley. + +77. FRIZZLED BEEF.--While the dried beef used in the preparation of +frizzled beef is not necessarily a left-over meat, the recipe for this +dish is given here, as it is usually served at a meal when the preceding +left-over beef dishes are appropriate. Prepared according to this +recipe, frizzled beef will be found both nutritious and appetizing. + +FRIZZLED BEEF +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +2 Tb. butter +1/4 lb. thinly sliced dried beef +2 Tb. flour +1 c. milk +4 slices of toast + +Brown the butter in a frying pan and add the beef torn into small +pieces. Allow it to cock until the beef becomes brown. Add the flour and +brown it. Pour the milk over all, and cook until the flour thickens the +milk. Serve over the toast. + + +MEAT (PART 1) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) What is meat? (_b_) What substance in meat makes it a valuable +food? + +(2) (_a_) What do protein foods do for the body? (_b_) How does meat +compare in cost with the other daily foods? + +(3) What harm may occur from eating meat that is not thoroughly cooked? + +(4) (_a_) Describe the structure of meat, (_b_) How do the length and +the direction of the fibers affect the tenderness of meat? + +(5) (_a_) How may gelatine be obtained from meat? (_b_) What use is made +of this material? + +(6) (_a_) Describe the two kinds of fat found in meat, (_b_) What does +this substance supply to the body? + +(7) (_a_) What is the value of water in the tissues of meat? (_b_) How +does its presence affect the cookery method to choose for +preparing meat? + +(8) (_a_) What are extractives? (_b_) Why are they of value in meat? + +(9) (_a_) Name the ways by which the housewife may reduce her meat bill, +(_b_) How should meat be cared for in the home? + +(10) Give three reasons for cooking meat. + +(11) (_a_) Describe the effect of cooking on the materials contained in +meat, (_b_) How does cooking affect the digestibility of meat? + +(12) What methods of cookery are used for: (_a_) the tender cuts of +meat? (_b_) the tough cuts? (_c_) Mention the cuts of meat that have the +most flavor. + +(13) (_a_) How should the temperature of the oven vary with the size of +the roast to be cooked? (_b_) Give the reason for this. + +(14) Describe beef of good quality. + +(15) In what parts of the animal are found: (_a_) the cheaper cuts of +beef? (_b_) the more expensive cuts? + +(16) (_a_) Name the steaks obtained from the loin, (_b_) Which of these +is best for a large family? (_c_) Which is best for a small family? + +(17) Describe the way in which to broil steak. + +(18) (_a_) What is the tenderloin of beef? (_b_) Explain the two ways of +cooking it. + +(19) (_a_) Name the various kinds of roasts, (_b_) Describe the roasting +of beef in the oven. + +(20) (_a_) What cuts of beef are most satisfactory for stews? (_b_) +Explain how beef stew is made. + + * * * * * + + + +MEAT (PART 2) + + * * * * * + +VEAL + +NATURE OF VEAL + +1. Veal is the name applied to the flesh of a slaughtered calf. This +kind of meat is at its best in animals that are from 6 weeks to 3 months +old when killed. Calves younger than 6 weeks are sometimes slaughtered, +but their meat is of poor quality and should be avoided. Meat from a +calf that has not reached the age of 3 weeks is called bob veal. Such +meat is pale, dry, tough, and indigestible and, consequently, unfit for +food. In most states the laws strictly forbid the sale of bob veal for +food, but constant vigilance must be exercised to safeguard the public +from unscrupulous dealers. A calf that goes beyond the age of 3 months +without being slaughtered must be kept and fattened until it reaches the +age at which it can be profitably sold as beef, for it is too old to be +used as veal. + +2. The nature of veal can be more readily comprehended by comparing it +with beef, the characteristics of which are now understood. Veal is +lighter in color than beef, being more nearly pink than red, and it +contains very little fat, as reference to Fig. 1, _Meat_, Part 1, will +show. The tissues of veal contain less nutriment than those of beef, but +they contain more gelatine. The flavor of veal is less pronounced than +that of beef, the difference between the age of animals used for veal +and those used for beef being responsible for this lack of flavor. These +characteristics, as well as the difference in size of corresponding +cuts, make it easy to distinguish veal from beef in the market. + +CUTS OF VEAL, AND THEIR USES + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +3. The slaughtered calf from which veal is obtained is generally +delivered to the butcher in the form shown in Fig. 1; that is, with the +head, feet, and intestines removed and the carcass split into halves +through the spine. He divides each half into quarters, known as the +_fore quarter_ and the _hind quarter_, and cuts these into +smaller pieces. + +4. FORE QUARTER.--The fore quarter, as shown in Fig. 1, is composed of +the neck, chuck, shoulder, fore shank, breast, and ribs. Frequently, no +distinction is made between the neck and the chuck, both of these pieces +and the fore shank being used for soups and stews. The shoulder is cut +from the ribs lying underneath, and it is generally used for roasting, +often with stuffing rolled inside of it. The breast, which is the under +part of the fore quarter and corresponds to the plate in beef, is +suitable for either roasting or stewing. When the rib bones are removed +from it, a pocket that will hold stuffing can be cut into this piece. +The ribs between the shoulder and the loin are called the _rack_; they +may be cut into chops or used as one piece for roasting. + +5. HIND QUARTER.--The hind quarter, as Fig. 1 shows, is divided into the +loin, flank, leg, and hind shank. The loin and the flank are located +similarly to these same cuts in beef. In some localities, the part of +veal corresponding to the rump of beef is included with the loin, and in +others it is cut as part of the leg. When it is part of the leg, the leg +is cut off just in front of the hip bone and is separated from the lower +part of the leg, or hind shank, immediately below the hip joint. This +piece is often used for roasting, although cutlets or steaks may be cut +from it. The hind shank, which, together with the fore shank, is called +a _knuckle_, is used for soup making. When the loin and flank are cut in +a single piece, they are used for roasting. + +6. VEAL ORGANS.--Certain of the organs of the calf, like those of beef +animals, are used for food. They include the heart, tongue, liver, and +kidneys, as well as the thymus and thyroid glands and the pancreas. The +heart and tongue of veal are more delicate in texture and flavor than +those of beef, but the methods of cooking them are practically the same. +The liver and kidneys of calves make very appetizing dishes and find +favor with many persons. The thymus and thyroid glands and the pancreas +are included under the term _sweetbreads_. The thymus gland, which lies +near the heart and is often called the _heart sweetbread_, is the best +one. The thyroid gland lies in the throat and is called the _throat +sweetbread_. These two glands are joined by a connecting membrane, but +this is often broken and each gland sold as a separate sweetbread. The +pancreas, which is the _stomach sweetbread_, is used less often than +the others. + +7. Table of Veal Cuts.--The various cuts of veal, together with their +uses, are arranged for ready reference in Table I. Therefore, so that +the housewife may become thoroughly familiar with these facts about +veal, she is urged to make a careful study of this table. + +TABLE I + +NAMES OF VEAL CUTS AND ORGANS AND THEIR USES + +NAME OF LARGE CUT NAME OF SMALL CUT USES OF CUTS + + / Head Soup, made dishes, gelatine + | Breast Stew, made dishes, gelatine +Fore Quarter | Ribs Stew, made dishes, chops + | Shoulder Stew, made dishes + \ Neck Stew or stock, made dishes + + / Loin Chops, roasts +Hind Quarter | Leg Cutlets or fillet, sauteing, or roasting + \ Knuckle Stocks, stews + + / Brains Made dishes, chafing dish + | Liver Broiling, sauteing +Veal Organs | Heart Stuffed, baked + | Tongue Broiled, braised + | Sweetbreads Made dishes, chafing dish + \ Kidneys Boiled, stew + + +COOKING OF VEAL + +VEAL CUTS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +8. In the preparation of veal, an important point to remember is that +meat of this kind always requires thorough cooking. It should never be +served rare. Because of the long cooking veal needs, together with the +difficulty encountered in chewing it and its somewhat insipid flavor, +which fails to excite the free flow of gastric juice, this meat is more +indigestable than beef. In order to render it easier to digest, since it +must be thoroughly cooked, the long, slow methods of cookery should be +selected, as these soften the connective tissue. Because of the lack of +flavor, veal is not so good as beef when the extraction of flavor is +desired for broth. However, the absence of flavor makes veal a valuable +meat to combine with chicken and the more expensive meats, particularly +in highly seasoned made dishes or salads. Although lacking in flavor, +veal contains more gelatine than other meats. While this substance is +not very valuable as a food, it lends body to soup or broth and assists +in the preparation of certain made dishes. To supply the flavor needed +in dishes of this kind, pork is sometimes used with the veal. + +9. Veal Steaks or Cutlets.--Strictly speaking, veal cutlets are cut from +the ribs; however, a thin slice cut from the leg, as shown in Fig. 2, +while in reality a steak, is considered by most housewives and butchers +as a cutlet. A piece cut from the leg of veal corresponds to a cut of +round steak in beef. + +10. Pan-Broiled Veal Steak or Cutlets.--Several methods of preparing +veal steak or cutlets are in practice, but a very satisfactory one is to +pan-broil them. This method prevents the juices from being drawn out of +the meat and consequently produces a tender, palatable dish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +To pan-broil veal steak or cutlets, grease a hot frying pan with fat of +any desirable kind, place the pieces of meat in it, and allow them to +sear, first on one side and then on the other. When they are completely +seared, lower the temperature, and broil for 15 to 20 minutes, or longer +if necessary. Season well with salt and pepper. When cooked, remove to a +platter and, just before serving, pour melted butter over the meat. + +11. Veal Cutlets in Brown Sauce.--To improve the flavor of veal cutlets, +a brown sauce is often prepared and served with them. In fact, the +cutlets are cooked in this sauce, which becomes thickened by the flour +that is used to dredge the meat. + +To cook cutlets in this way, dredge them with flour, season them with +salt and pepper, and saute them in hot fat until the flour is quite +brown. Then pour 1 cupful of milk and 1 cupful of water over the meat, +cover the pan securely, and allow to cook slowly for about 3/4 hour. The +sauce should be slightly thick and quite brown. Serve the cutlets in the +brown sauce. + +12. Veal Roasts.--Several different cuts of veal make very good roasts. +The most economical one is a 5 or 6-inch slice cut from the leg of veal +in the same way as the steak shown in Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3, Shoulder of veal.] + +Both the loin and the best end of the neck are excellent for roasting. +The shoulder of veal, which is shown in Fig. 3, is sometimes roasted, +but it is more often used for stew. Veal breast from which the ribs have +been removed and veal rack, which is the portion of the ribs attached to +the neck, may also be used for roasting. When they are, they are usually +cut so as to contain a deep slit, or pocket, that may be filled with +stuffing. In fact, whenever it is possible, the bone is removed from a +piece of roasting veal and stuffing is put in its place. + +To roast any of these pieces, wipe the meat, dredge it with flour, and +season it with salt and pepper. Place it in a roasting pan and put it +into a hot oven. Bake for 15 minutes; then lower the temperature of the +oven and continue to bake slowly until the meat is well done, the +length of time depending on the size of the roast. Baste frequently +during the roasting. Remove the roast to a hot platter. Then place the +roasting pan over the flame, and make gravy by browning 2 tablespoonfuls +of flour in the fat that it contains, adding to this 1-1/2 cupfuls of +water, and cooking until the flour has thickened the water. Serve the +gravy thus prepared in a gravy bowl. + +13. Stuffed Veal Breast.--A breast of veal in which a pocket has been +cut for stuffing is shown in Fig. 4. When such a piece is +desired for roasting, it is advisable to have the butcher prepare it. +The stuffing required should be made as follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +STUFFING FOR VEAL + +4 Tb. butter or bacon or ham fat +1/2 Tb. salt +1/8 Tb. pepper +1 Tb. celery salt +2 sprigs of parsley, chopped +1 pimiento, chopped +1-1/2 c. water +1 qt. stale bread crumbs + +Melt the fat, and to it add the salt, pepper, celery salt, parsley, +pimiento, and water. Pour this mixture over the crumbs, and mix all +thoroughly. Stuff into the opening in the breast. Place the meat thus +stuffed in a baking pan and bake in a moderately hot oven for 1 to +1-1/2 hours. + +14. Veal Potpie.--A good way in which to impart the flavor of meat to a +starchy material and thus not only economize on meat, but also provide +an appetizing dish, is to serve meat with dumplings in a veal potpie. +For such a dish, a piece of veal from the shoulder, like that shown in +Fig. 3, is the best cut. To give variety, potatoes may be used, and to +improve the flavor at least one onion is cooked with the meat. + +To prepare a veal potpie, wipe the meat, cut it into pieces of the right +size for serving, and to it add a few pieces of salt pork or bacon. Put +these over the fire in enough cold water to cover the meat well and add +a small onion, sliced. Bring to the boiling point and skim; then simmer +until the meat is tender. Season with salt and pepper a few minutes +before the meat has finished cooking. Next, make a baking-powder biscuit +dough, roll it 1/4 inch thick, and cut it into 1-1/2-inch squares. Then +examine the meat to see how much of the liquid has evaporated. If the +liquid is too thick, add boiling water to thin it. Drop in the squares +of dough, cover the pot tight, and boil for 15 minutes without +uncovering. + +If potatoes are desired in a pie of this kind, cut them into thick +slices and add the slices about 10 minutes before the dough is to be put +into the broth, so that they will have sufficient time in which to cook. + +15. Veal Stew.--The cheaper cuts of veal can be used to advantage for +making veal stew. Such a dish is prepared in the same way as beef stew, +which is explained in _Meat_, Part 1, except that veal is substituted +for the beef. Vegetables of any desired kind may be used in veal stew, +and the stewed or boiled dumplings mentioned in the beef-stew recipe may +or may not be used. As the vegetables and the dumplings, provided +dumplings are used, increase the quantity of meat-flavored food, only +small portions of the meat need be served. + +16. Jellied Veal.--The large amount of gelatine contained in veal may be +utilized in the preparation of jellied veal. The most satisfactory piece +for making jellied veal is the knuckle, or shank. No more attractive +meat dish than this can be found for luncheon or supper, for it can be +cut into thin slices and served on a nicely garnished platter. + +JELLIED VEAL +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +Knuckle of veal +1 Tb. salt +1/4 c. chopped celery +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 Tb. chopped onion + +Put the knuckle in a pot and add enough water to cover it. Add the salt, +celery, parsley, and onion. Cook until the meat is very tender and then +strain off the liquid. Cut the meat from the bones and chop it very +fine. Boil the liquid until it is reduced to 1 pint, and then set aside +to cool. Place the meat in a mold and when cold pour the broth over it. +Keep in a cool place until it has set. Slice and serve cold. + + +VEAL ORGANS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +17. Getting Sweetbreads Ready for Cooking--The throat glands and the +pancreas of calves, which, as has already been learned, are called +sweetbreads, can be cooked in various ways for the table. The first +process in their preparation, however, is the same for all recipes. When +this is understood, it will be a simple matter to make up attractive +dishes in which sweetbreads are used. It is generally advisable to buy +sweetbreads in pairs, as the heart and throat sweetbreads are preferable +to the one that lies near the stomach. Sweetbreads spoil very quickly. +Therefore, as soon as they are brought into the kitchen, put them in +cold water and allow them to remain there for 1/2 hour or more. Then put +them to cook in boiling water for 20 minutes in order to parboil them, +after which place them in cold water again. Unless they are to be used +immediately, keep them in cold water, as this will prevent them from +discoloring. Before using sweetbreads in the recipes that follow, remove +the skin and stringy parts. + +18. Broiled Sweetbreads.--Because of their tenderness, sweetbreads are +especially suitable for broiling. When prepared in this way and served +with sauce of some kind, they are very palatable. + +In order to broil sweetbreads, first parboil them in the manner just +explained. Then split each one lengthwise and broil them over a clear +fire for 5 minutes or pan-broil them with a small amount of butter until +both surfaces are slightly browned. Season with salt and pepper. +Serve hot. + +19. Creamed Sweetbreads.--If an especially dainty dish is desired for a +light meal, sweetbreads may be creamed and then served over toast or in +patty shells or timbale cases, the making of which is taken up later. If +desired, mushrooms may be combined with sweetbreads that are served in +this way. Diced cold veal or calves' brains creamed and served in this +way are also delicious. Instead of creaming sweetbreads and calves' +brains, however, these organs are sometimes scrambled with eggs. + +To prepare creamed sweetbreads, parboil them and then separate them +into small pieces with a fork or cut them into cubes. Reheat them in a +cupful of white sauce, season well, and then serve them in any of the +ways just mentioned. If mushrooms are to be used, cook and dice them +before combining them with the sweetbreads. + +20. Kidneys.--The kidneys of both lamb and veal are used for food. The +cooking of them, however, must be either a quick, short process or a +long, slow one. When a quick method is applied, the tissues remain +tender. Additional cooking renders them tough, so that a great deal more +cooking must be done to make them tender again. Whatever method is +applied, kidneys must always be soaked in water for 1 hour or more so as +to cleanse them, the outside covering then pared off, and the meat +sliced or cut into cubes or strips. After being thus prepared, kidneys +may be broiled or sauted, or, if a long method of cookery is preferred, +they may be boiled or stewed with or without vegetables. + +21. Calves' Liver and Bacon.--Beef liver is sometimes used for food, but +it is not so good as liver from the calf. In fact, calves' liver, +especially when combined with bacon, is very appetizing. The bacon +supplies the fat that the liver lacks and at the same time +provides flavor. + +To prepare calves' liver and bacon, cut the liver into 1/2-inch slices, +cover these with boiling water, and let them stand for 5 minutes. Remove +from the water, dip into flour, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. For +each slice of liver pan-broil a slice of bacon. Remove the bacon to a +hot platter, and then place the slices of liver in the bacon fat and +saute them for about 10 minutes, turning them frequently. Serve the +liver and bacon together. + + +PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER VEAL + +22. Veal Rolls.--The portion of a veal roast that remains after it has +been served hot can be combined with dressing to make veal rolls, a dish +that will be a pleasing change from the usual cold sliced meat. + +To make veal rolls, slice the veal and into each slice roll a spoonful +of stuffing. Tie with a string, roll in flour, and sprinkle with salt +and pepper. Brown the rolls in hot butter. Then pour milk, stock, or +gravy over the rolls and simmer for 10 minutes. Remove the strings and +serve on toast. + +23. Left-Over Jellied Veal.--While jellied veal is usually made from a +piece of veal bought especially for this purpose, it can be made from +the left-overs of a veal roast. However, when the roast is purchased, +some veal bones should be secured. Wash these bones, cover them with +cold water, and to them add 1 onion, 1 bay leaf, and 1 cupful of diced +vegetables, preferably celery, carrots, and turnips. Allow these to +simmer for 2 hours. To this stock add the bones that remain after the +roast has been served and simmer for 1 or 2 hours more. Strain the +stock, skim off the fat, and season well with salt and pepper. Chop fine +the left-over veal and 2 hard-cooked eggs. Put in a loaf-cake pan and +pour the stock over it. When it has formed a mold, slice and serve cold. + +24. Creamed Veal on Biscuits.--A very good substitute for chicken and +hot biscuits is creamed veal served on biscuits. This is an especially +good dish for a light meal, such as luncheon or supper. Any left-over +veal may be chopped or cut up into small pieces and used for this +purpose. After the veal has been thus prepared, reheat it with white +sauce and season it well with paprika, salt, and pepper. Make +baking-powder biscuits. To serve, split the hot biscuits, lay them open +on a platter or a plate, and pour the hot creamed veal over them. + +25. Scalloped Veal with Rice.--A very palatable dish can be prepared +from left-over veal by combining it with rice and tomatoes. To prepare +such a dish, season cooked rice with 1 teaspoonful of bacon fat to each +cupful of rice. Place a layer of rice in a baking dish, and over it put +a layer of chopped veal. Pour a good quantity of stewed tomatoes over +the veal and season well with salt and pepper. Over the tomatoes put a +layer of rice, and cover the top with buttered crumbs. Set in a hot oven +and bake until the crumbs are browned and the ingredients +thoroughly heated. + +26. Veal Salad.--A salad is always a delightful addition to a meal and +so usually finds favor. When it is made of meat, such as veal, it can be +used as the main dish for luncheon or supper. As shown in the +accompanying recipe, other things, such as celery, peas, and hard-cooked +eggs, are usually put in a salad of this kind. + +VEAL SALAD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. cold diced veal +1 c. diced celery +1/2 c. canned peas +3 hard-cooked eggs +4 Tb. olive oil +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Combine the veal, celery, peas, and eggs chopped fine. Mix the olive +oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper to make a dressing. Marinate the +ingredients with this dressing. Serve on lettuce leaves with any salad +dressing desired. + + + +MUTTON AND LAMB + +COMPARISON OF MUTTON AND LAMB + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +27. The term mutton is usually applied to the flesh of a sheep that is 1 +year or more old, while lamb is the flesh of sheep under 1 year of age. +The popularity of these meats varies very much with the locality. In the +United States, a preference for lamb has become noticeable, but in +England mutton is more popular and is more commonly used. Both of these +meats, however, are very palatable and nutritious, so that the choice +of one or the other will always be determined by the taste or market +conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +28. Lamb that is 6 weeks to 3 months old is called _spring lamb_, and +usually comes into the market in January or February. The meat of sheep +1 year old is called _yearling_. Good mutton is cut from sheep that is +about 3 years old. Lamb may be eaten as soon as it is killed, but mutton +requires ripening for 2 or 3 weeks to be in the best condition for food. +Mutton differs from lamb very much as beef differs from veal, or as the +meat of any other mature animal differs from a young one of the same +kind. In mutton there is a smaller percentage of water and a larger +percentage of fat, protein, extractives, and flavoring substances. + +There is also a difference in the appearance of these two meats. Lamb is +pink and contains only small amounts of fat, while mutton is brick red +and usually has considerable firm white fat. The bones of lamb are pink, +while those of mutton are white. The outside of lamb is covered with a +thin white skin that becomes pink in mutton. The size of the pieces of +meat often aids in distinguishing between these two meats, mutton, of +course, coming in larger pieces than lamb. + +29. If there is any question as to whether the meat from sheep is lamb +or mutton, and it cannot be settled by any of the characteristics +already mentioned, the front leg of the dressed animal may be examined +at the first joint above the foot. Fig. 5 shows this joint in both lamb +and mutton. In lamb, which is shown at the left, the end of the bone can +be separated from the long bone at the leg, as indicated, while in +mutton this joint grows fast and looks like the illustration at the +right. The joint is jagged in lamb, but smooth and round in mutton. + + +CUTS OF MUTTON AND LAMB + +METHOD OF OBTAINING CUTS + +30. Mutton and lamb are usually cut up in the same way, the dressed +animal being divided into two pieces of almost equal weight. The line of +division occurs between the first and second ribs, as is indicated by +the heavy middle line in Fig. 6. The back half of the animal is called +the _saddle_ and the front half, the _rack_. In addition to being cut in +this way, the animal is cut down the entire length of the backbone and +is thus divided into the fore and hind quarters. + +The method of cutting up the racks and saddles varies in different +localities, but, as a rule, the method illustrated in Fig. 7 is the one +that is used. As here shown, the rack, or fore quarter, is cut up into +the neck, chuck, shoulder, rib chops, and breast; and the saddle, or +hind quarter, is divided into the loin, flank, and leg. + +The way in which the front and the back of a dressed sheep appear is +shown in Fig. 8. The membrane, which extends from the legs down over the +ribs, is the omentum, or covering of the intestines, and is known as the +_caul_. This must be removed from any part that it covers before the +meat is cooked. The kidneys incased in fat are also shown in the view +at the left. + + +NAMES AND USES OF CUTS + +31. Distinguishing Features of Cuts.--When the uses of the cuts of lamb +and mutton are to be considered, attention must be given to the anatomy +of the animal and the exercise that the different parts have received +during life. This is important, because the continued action of the +muscles tends to make the flesh tough, but, at the same time, it +increases the amount of extractives or flavoring material. Therefore, +meat taken from a part that has been subjected to much muscular action +is likely to need longer cooking than that taken from portions that have +not been exercised so much. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +In lamb and mutton, as in beef and veal, the hind quarter is exercised +less in life than the fore quarter and consequently is, on the average, +more tender. The cuts from this part are therefore more expensive and +more suitable for roasting and broiling. The fore quarter, although +having the disadvantage of containing more bone and being tougher, is +more abundantly supplied with extractives and flavoring materials. Most +of the pieces obtained from this portion are particularly suitable for +broths, soups, stews, etc. The rib is an exception, for this is usually +higher in price than the hind-quarter pieces and is used for chops +and roasts. + +32. Table of Mutton and Lamb Cuts.--The various cuts of mutton and lamb +and the uses to which they can be put are given in Table II, which may +be followed as a guide whenever there is doubt as to the way in which a +cut of either of these meats should be cooked. + +TABLE II + +NAMES AND USES OF MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS + +NAME OF LARGE CUT NAME OF SMALL CUT USES OF CUTS +Fore quarter: + Neck...................Broth, stew + Chuck.................. Stew, steamed + Shoulder................Boiled, steamed, braised, roast + Rack ribs...............Chops, crown roast + Breast.................. Stew, roast, braised, stuffed + +Hind quarter: + Loin.................... Seven chops, roast, boiling + Flank................... Stew + Leg..................... Roast, braising, broiling + Saddle.................. Roast + + +COOKING OF MUTTON AND LAMB + + +PREPARATION OF ROASTS, CHOPS, AND STEWS + +33. The cookery processes applied in preparing mutton and lamb for the +table do not differ materially from those applied in the preparation of +other meats. However, directions for cooking mutton and lamb in the most +practical ways are here given, so that the housewife may become +thoroughly familiar with the procedure in preparing roasts, chops, +and stews. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9 (_a_)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9 (_b_)] + +34. Roast Leg of Mutton or Lamb.--Of all the principal cuts of mutton or +lamb, the leg contains the smallest percentage of waste. It is, +therefore, especially suitable for roasting and is generally used for +this purpose. In Fig. 9 are shown two views of a leg of lamb or mutton. +That in (_a_) illustrates the leg with part of the loin attached, and +that in (_b_), the leg trimmed and ready for cooking. In order to make +the leg smaller, a slice resembling a round steak of beef is sometimes +cut for broiling, as here shown. If desired, the leg may be boned and +then stuffed before roasting. Since these meats are characterized by a +very marked flavor, something tart or acid is generally served +with them. + +To roast a leg of lamb or mutton, remove the caul, the pink skin, and +the superfluous fat. Dredge the leg with flour, salt, and pepper, set in +a roasting pan, and place in a hot oven. After the meat has cooked for +15 minutes, lower the temperature, and bake for 2 hours. Baste +frequently with water to which has been added a small amount of bacon or +ham fat and which should be put in the pan with the meat. Serve hot with +something acid, such as mint sauce, currant or mint jelly, or +spiced fruit. + +A mint sauce that will be found satisfactory for this purpose is made as +follows: + +MINT SAUCE + +2 Tb. powdered sugar +1/2 c. vinegar +1/4 c. finely chopped mint leaves, + or 2 Tb. dried mint + +Add the sugar to the vinegar and heat. Pour this over the mint and steep +on the back of the stove for 30 minutes. + +35. Roast Saddle of Mutton.--While saddle is the name applied to the +hind quarters of lamb and mutton, this term, as used in the cooking of +such meat, refers to the piece that consists of the two sides of the +loin cut off in one piece. It may be cut with or without the flank. In +either form, it is rolled and then skewered or tied into shape. + +To roast such a piece, remove all superfluous fat, dredge with flour, +salt, and pepper, place in a pan, and sear in a hot oven. Then reduce +the heat, place a small quantity of water in the pan, and bake for 2-1/2 +to 3 hours, basting from time to time during this cooking process. Serve +with or without mint sauce, as desired. + +36. Crown Roast of Lamb.--A very attractive roast is made by cutting the +same number of corresponding ribs from each side of the lamb and +trimming back the meat from the end of each rib. Such a roast is called +a crown roast. Fig. 10 shows a crown roast with the ribs trimmed, the +two pieces fastened together, and paper frills placed on the ends of the +bones. Such frills are usually added by the butcher, but they may be +purchased in supply stores and put on in the home. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +To prepare a roast of this kind, cook in the same way as a roast leg or +saddle. When it is sufficiently baked, fill the center with a cooked and +seasoned vegetable. Brussels sprouts, peas, string beans, asparagus, and +cauliflower are especially suitable for this purpose. Just before +serving, cover the ends of the bones with paper frills, as shown in the +illustration. + +37. Lamb and Mutton Chops.--Chops of mutton or lamb are obtained from +two sources. They may be cut from the ribs and have one bone in each cut +or they may be cut from the loin, when they correspond to the steaks +in beef. The loins and ribs of lamb, which are sometimes used for +rolled racks, but from which chops are usually cut, are shown in +Fig. 11. A rib chop cut from this piece has only a small part +of solid lean meat and contains one rib bone. Such a chop can +be made into a French chop, as shown in Fig. 12, by trimming +the meat from the bone down to the lean part, or "eye," of the chop. +Just before being served, a paper frill may be placed over the bone of a +chop of this kind. Chops cut from the loin often have a strip of bacon +or salt pork rolled around the edge and fastened with a skewer, as shown +in Fig. 13. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +38. The most satisfactory way in which to prepare chops is either to +broil them in a broiler or to pan-broil them. Apply to the cooking of +them the same principles that relate to the preparation of steaks; that +is, have the pan or broiler hot, sear the chops quickly on both sides, +and then cook them more slowly until well done, turning them +frequently. The broiling of lamb chops should require only from 8 to 10 +minutes, as they are seldom more than 1 inch thick. + +39. Lamb and Mutton Stews.--The cheaper cuts of lamb and mutton, such as +the neck, chuck, and flank, are used for the making of stews. Mutton, +however, is not so satisfactory as lamb for such dishes, as its flavor +is too strong. If mutton must be used, its flavor can be improved by +adding 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar during the cooking. The chief +object in the making of lamb and mutton stews is, as in the case of beef +and veal stews, to draw from the meat as much as possible of the +flavoring and nutritive materials. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +This can be accomplished by cutting up the meat into small pieces so as +to increase the amount of surface exposed and by keeping the temperature +low enough to prevent the proteins from coagulating. + +With these points in mind, proceed in the making of lamb or mutton stew +in the same way as for beef stew. To improve the flavor of the stew, +cook with it savory herbs and spices, such as bay leaf, parsley, +and cloves. + + +PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER LAMB AND MUTTON + +40. Turkish Lamb.--No left-over meat lends itself more readily to the +preparation of made dishes than lamb. Combined with tomatoes and rice +and flavored with horseradish, it makes a very appetizing dish called +Turkish lamb. The accompanying recipe should be carefully followed in +preparing this dish. + +TURKISH LAMB +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 onion, chopped +1/2 c. rice +1 c. water +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1-1/2 c. diced lamb or mutton +1 Tb. horseradish +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Put the butter in a frying pan and to it add the chopped onion and the +dry rice. Cook until the rice is browned. Then pour in the water and +tomatoes and add the meat, horseradish, salt, and pepper. Simmer gently +until the rice is completely cooked. + +41. MINCED LAMB ON TOAST.--Any lamb that remains after a meal may be +minced by chopping it fine or putting it through the food chopper. If it +is then heated, moistened well with water or stock, and thickened +slightly, it makes an excellent preparation to serve on toast. + +After mincing lean pieces of left-over lamb until they are very fine, +put them in a buttered frying pan. Dredge the meat well with flour and +allow it to brown slightly. Add enough water or stock to moisten well. +Season with salt and pepper, cook until the flour has thickened, and +then serve on toast. + +42. SCALLOPED LAMB OR MUTTON.--As a scalloped dish is usually pleasing +to most persons, the accompanying recipe for scalloped lamb or mutton +will undoubtedly find favor. Both macaroni and tomatoes are combined +with the meat in this dish, but rice could be substituted for the +macaroni, if desired. + +To make scalloped lamb or mutton, arrange a layer of buttered crumbs in +a baking dish, and on top of them place a layer of cooked macaroni, a +layer of meat, and then another layer of macaroni. Over this pour enough +stewed tomato to moisten the whole well. Season each layer with salt, +pepper, and butter. Over the top, place a layer of buttered crumbs. Bake +in a medium-hot oven until the whole is thoroughly heated. + +43. SPANISH STEW.--Left-over pieces of mutton or lamb may also form the +foundation of a very appetizing dish known as Spanish stew. Here +tomatoes are also used, and to give the stew flavor chilli sauce +is added. + +SPANISH STEW +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter. +1 onion, sliced +1 Tb. flour +2 c. lamb or mutton, diced +1-1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1 c. stock or gravy +1 Tb. chilli sauce +1 red pepper, cut fine +2 tsp. salt + +Put the butter in a frying pan and brown the sliced onion in it. Add the +flour and meat, and after browning them pour in the stewed tomatoes and +the stock or gravy. Season with the chilli sauce, the red pepper, and +the salt. Cover and let simmer until the whole is well thickened +and blended. + +44. INDIVIDUAL LAMB PIES.--Individual pies are always welcome, but when +they are made of lamb or mutton they are especially attractive. The +proportions required for pies of this kind are given in the +accompanying recipe. + +INDIVIDUAL LAMB PIES + +2 c. diced lamb or mutton +1/2 c. diced carrots +1/2 c. peas, cooked or canned +1 c. gravy or thickened stock + +Cut into small pieces any left-over lamb or mutton. Cook the carrots +until they are soft, add them, together with the peas, to the meat, and +pour the gravy or thickened stock over all. Simmer gently for a few +minutes. Line patty pans with a thin layer of baking-powder biscuit +dough, fill with the mixture, and cover the top with another thin layer +of the dough. Bake in a quick oven until the dough is baked. + + * * * * * + +PORK + +GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PORK + +45. PORK is the flesh of slaughtered swine used as food. It is believed +to be more indigestible than other meats, but if it is obtained from a +young and properly fed animal, it is not only digestible, but highly +appetizing, and, when eaten occasionally, it is very wholesome. + +The age of the animal from which pork is cut can be determined by the +thickness of the skin; the older the animal, the thicker the skin. To be +of the best kind, pork should have pink, not red, flesh composed of +fine-grained tissues, and its fat, which, in a well-fattened animal, +equals about one-eighth of the entire weight, should be white and firm. +Although all cuts of pork contain some fat, the proportion should not be +too great, or the pieces will not contain as much lean as they should. +However, the large amount of fat contained in pork makes its food value +higher than that of other meats, unless they are excessively fat, and +consequently difficult of digestion. + +46. One of the chief advantages of pork is that about nine-tenths of +the entire dressed animal may be preserved by curing and smoking. +Originally, these processes required a period of 2 to 3 months for their +completion, but they have gradually been shortened until now only a few +days are required for the work. Pork cured and smoked by the new +methods, however, does not possess such excellent flavor and such good +keeping qualities as that so treated by the longer process. Any one who +has the right storage facilities to care for the meat properly will find +it much more economical to purchase a whole carcass or a part of one and +then salt, smoke, or pickle the various pieces that can be treated in +this way than to purchase this meat cut by cut as it is needed +or desired. + + +CUTS OF PORK + +47. NAMES OF PORK CUTS.--The butcher usually buys a whole carcass of +pork. He first divides it into halves by splitting it through the spine, +and then cuts it up into smaller pieces according to the divisions shown +in Fig. 14, which illustrates the outside and the inside of a dressed +hog. As will be observed, the method of cutting up a hog differs greatly +from the cutting of the animals already studied. After the head is +removed, each side is divided into the shoulder, clear back fat, ribs, +loin, middle cut, belly, ham, and two hocks. + +48. USES OF PORK CUTS.--Hogs are usually fattened before they are +slaughtered, and as a result there is a layer of fat under the skin +which is trimmed off and used in the making of lard. The best quality of +lard, however, is made from the fat that surrounds the kidneys. This is +called _leaf lard_, because the pieces of fat are similar in shape to +leaves. Such lard has a higher melting point and is more flaky than that +made from fat covering the muscles. + +49. The head of pork does not contain a great deal of meat, but, as the +quality of this meat is very good, it is valuable for a number of +special dishes, such as headcheese and scrapple. + +The hocks contain considerable gelatine, so they are used for dishes +that solidify, or become firm, after they are made. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +50. A shoulder of pork cut roughly from the carcass is shown in Fig. 15. +This piece provides both roasts and steaks, or, when trimmed, it may +be cured or smoked. The front leg, which is usually cut to include the +lower part of the shoulder, is shown in Fig. 16. The ribs inside this +cut, when cut from underneath, are sold as spareribs. This piece, as +shown in Fig. 17, is generally trimmed to make what is known as +shoulder ham. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +51. The ribs and the loin cut in one piece are shown in Fig. 18. From +this piece are obtained the most desirable chops and roasts. When a +roast is desired, the rib bones are removed from the rib cut, which then +resembles the piece shown in Fig. 19. Directly under the backbone in +these cuts is the tenderest piece of pork to be had. When this is +removed in one piece, it is, as in beef, called the _tenderloin_. Very +often, however, it is left in to be cut up with the rest of the loin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +52. The middle cut is commonly used for bacon, while the belly is most +suitable for salt pork. These two cuts consist of large quantities of +fat and only narrow layers of lean. They are especially valuable for +enriching and flavoring foods, such as beans, that are neither rich in +fat nor highly flavored. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +53. The hind leg, or untrimmed ham, just as it is cut from the carcass, +is shown in Fig. 20. When this piece is trimmed and ready for curing or +for roasting, it appears as shown in Fig. 21. As will be noticed, the +outside skin, or rind, is not removed from either the shoulder or +the ham. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +54. TABLE OF PORK CUTS.--As is done in explaining the meats that have +been considered previously, there is here presented a table, designated +as Table III, that gives the names of the pork cuts and the uses to +which they may be put. This table will assist the housewife materially +in learning the names and uses of the various cuts of pork. + +TABLE III + +NAMES AND USES OF PORK CUTS + +NAMES OF CUTS USES OF CUTS + +Head Headcheese, boiling, baking +Shoulder Steaks, roasting, curing, smoking +Spareribs Roasting, boiling +Belly Salt pork, curing +Middle cut Bacon, curing, smoking +Ribs Chops, roasting +Loin Chops, roasting +Ham Roasting, curing, smoking +Back fat Lard +Hock Boiling, making jelly +Internal organs and trimmings Sausage + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF PORK + +FRESH PORK AND ITS PREPARATION + +55. ROAST PORK.--In the preparation of pork for the table, and a roast +in particular, several points must be taken into consideration. Unlike +beef, which is often served rare, pork must be well done in order to be +satisfactory. Rare pork to most persons is repulsive. Also, as a large +part of the surface of a pork roast, especially one cut from the +shoulder, loin, or ribs, is covered with a layer of fat, pork does not +have to be seared to prevent the loss of juice, nor does it have to be +put into such a hot oven as that required for beef. In fact, if the +temperature of the oven is very high, the outside will finish cooking +before the heat has had a chance to penetrate sufficiently to cook the +center. While this makes no difference with meat that does not need to +be thoroughly cooked, it is a decided disadvantage in the case of pork. + +56. When a shoulder of pork is to be roasted, it makes a very +satisfactory dish if it is boned and stuffed before roasting. To bone +such a piece, run a long, narrow knife all around the bone and cut it +loose; then pick up the bone by one end and shake it until it will pull +out. Fill the opening thus formed with bread or cracker stuffing. + +If an especially inviting roast of pork is desired, a _crown roast_ +should be selected, for this is just as attractive as a crown roast of +lamb. It is made by cutting corresponding pieces from each side of the +rib piece, trimming the bones clean as far back as the lean part of the +chops, and fastening the pieces together. A garnish of fried apple rings +is very attractive for such a roast. + +57. To cook a roast of any of these varieties, wipe the meat thoroughly, +dredge it with flour, salt, and pepper, and place it on a rack in a +dripping pan. Bake about 3 hours, depending on the size of the roast, +and baste every 15 minutes with fat from the bottom of the dripping pan. + +After the roast is removed from the roasting pan, make a gravy as for +any other roast. Serve with apple sauce, baked apples, cranberry sauce, +chilli sauce, pickles, or some other acid dish. Such an accompaniment +aids considerably in the digestion of pork, for it cuts the large amount +of fat that this meat contains and that so often retards the digestion, +and hastens the fat through the stomach. + +58. ROAST PIG.--In some households, roasted pig is the favorite meat for +the Thanksgiving or the Christmas dinner. There is sufficient reason for +its popularity, for when properly prepared and attractively garnished, +roasted pig offers a pleasing change from the meat usually served on +such days. + +To be suitable for roasting, a pig should be not more than 1 month or 6 +weeks old and should not weigh more than 7 or 8 pounds after it is +cleaned. The butcher should prepare it for cooking by scalding off the +hair, washing the pig thoroughly, inside and out, and withdrawing the +entrails of the animal through an incision made in the under part of +the body. + +59. When the pig is received in the home, wash it thoroughly, within and +without, wipe it dry, and fill it with stuffing. To make a stuffing +suitable for this purpose, season 2 quarts of fine bread crumbs with 4 +tablespoonfuls of chopped onion, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoonful +of pepper, and cupful of melted butter. Mix thoroughly and add 3 beaten +eggs. If the stuffing needs moisture, add water or milk. Stuff the pig +firmly with this stuffing, using every effort to restore its original +shape. Then sew up the opening and truss the animal; that is, draw the +hind legs forwards and bend the front legs backwards under the body, and +skewer and tie them into place. + +With the animal in this shape, wipe it off with a damp cloth, dredge it +with flour, and place it in a dripping pan, adding 1 cupful of boiling +water in which 1 teaspoonful of salt has been dissolved. Roast in a +moderate oven for at least 1-1/2 hours, or 20 minutes for each pound of +pig. Baste frequently, first with butter and water and later with +drippings. When the skin begins to brown slightly, rub over it a clean +piece of cloth dipped in melted butter. Repeat this operation every 10 +minutes until the meat is well done. Then remove the pig to a hot +platter and garnish with parsley, lettuce, celery, or fried or baked +apples. If a more ornamental garnishing is desired, place a lemon in the +mouth and use cranberries for the eyes. In carving, cut the head off, +split through the spine lengthwise, remove the legs, and cut the ribs so +as to form chops. + +60. SAUTED OR BROILED PORK.--Slices cut from the ribs and loin of pork +are called chops, and those obtained from the shoulder and hind legs are +called steaks. These, together with the tenderloin, the small piece of +lean, tender meat lying under the bones of the loin and seldom weighing +more than a pound, are especially suitable for sauteing or broiling. +When they are to be prepared by these processes, saute or broil them as +any other meat, remembering, however, that pork must be well done. +Because of this fact, a more moderate temperature must be employed than +that used for beefsteak. + +61. PORK CHOPS IN TOMATO SAUCE.--A slight change from the usual way of +preparing pork chops can be had by cooking them with tomatoes. The +combination of these two foods produces a dish having a very +agreeable flavor. + +First brown the chops in their own fat in a frying pan, turning them +frequently so that the surfaces will become evenly browned. When they +have cooked for 15 minutes, pour enough strained stewed tomatoes over +them to cover them well, and season with salt and pepper. Cover the pan +tight, and allow them to simmer until the tomatoes become quite thick. +Place the chops on a hot platter, pour the tomato sauce over them, and +serve hot. + +62. SAUTED TENDERLOIN OF PORK.--Since the tenderloin of pork is a very +tender piece of meat, it needs no accompaniment to make it a delicious +dish, but sometimes a change of preparation is welcomed in order to give +variety to the diet. The accompanying directions should therefore be +followed when something different from broiled tenderloin is desired. + +Cut the tenderloin into lengthwise slices and brown these slices in +melted butter, turning them several times. Then remove to a cooler part +of the stove, and let them cook slowly in the butter for 15 minutes, +taking care to have them closely covered and turning them once or twice +so that they will cook evenly. At the end of this time, pour enough milk +or cream in the pan to cover the meat well and cook for 15 minutes +longer. With a skimmer, remove the meat, which should be very tender by +this time, from the pan, and put it where it will keep hot. Make a gravy +of the drippings that remain in the pan by thickening it with 1 +tablespoonful of flour, stirring it until it is thick and smooth and +seasoning it to taste with salt and pepper. Pour the gravy over the meat +and serve hot. + +63. PORK SAUSAGE.--The trimmings and some of the internal organs of pork +are generally utilized to make sausage by chopping them very fine and +then highly seasoning the chopped meat. Pork in this form may be bought +fresh or smoked and loose or in casings. It usually contains +considerable fat and therefore shrinks upon being cooked, for the fat is +melted by the heat and runs out of the sausage. + +To cook pork sausages put up in casings, place the required number in a +hot frying pan with a small quantity of hot water. Cover the pan with a +lid and allow the sausages to cook. When they have swelled up and the +skins, or casings, look as if they would burst, remove the cover and +thoroughly prick each one with a sharp fork, so as to allow the fat and +the water to run out. Then allow the water to evaporate and saute the +sausages in their own fat, turning them frequently until they are +well browned. + +To cook loose pork sausage, shape it into thin, flat cakes. Grease a +frying pan slightly, in order to keep the cakes from sticking to the +surface, place the cakes in the pan, and allow them to cook in the fat +that fries out, turning them occasionally until both sides are +well browned. + + +CURED PORK AND ITS PREPARATION + +64. Under the heading of cured pork may be included many of the cuts of +pork, for a large part of a pork carcass can be preserved by curing. +However, this term is usually restricted to include salt pork, bacon, +and ham. As has already been learned, salt pork is obtained from the +belly; bacon, from the middle cut; and ham, from the two hind legs +of pork. + +65. SALT PORK.--As the cut used for salt pork is almost entirely fat, +this piece is seldom used alone for the table. Occasionally, it is +broiled to be served with some special food, such as fried apples, but +for the most part it is used for _larding_; that is, slices of it are +laid across the surface of meat and fish that are lacking in fat and +that therefore cook better and have a more agreeable flavor when fat in +some form is added. Pork of this kind is usually bought by the pound and +then sliced by the housewife as it is needed for cooking purposes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +66. BACON.--The middle cut of pork, upon being cured by smoking, is +regarded as bacon. It is sometimes used for larding purposes, but as it +contains more lean than salt pork, has a very pleasing flavor, and is +the most easily digested fat known, it is much used for food. A piece +that contains the usual proportion of fat and lean is shown in Fig. 22. +The strip of fat that occurs between the rind, or outer coat, and the +first layer of lean is the firmest and the best for larding. The fat +that fries out of bacon is excellent for use in the cooking and +seasoning of other foods, such as vegetables and meats. When bacon is +cooked for the table, its flavor will be improved if it is broiled +rather than fried in its own fat. The rind of bacon should, as a rule, +be trimmed off, but it should never be wasted, for it may be used to +grease a pancake griddle or any pan in which food is to be cooked, +provided the bacon flavor will not be objectionable. + +In purchasing bacon, it is usually more economical to buy the whole +side, or the entire middle cut, but if smaller quantities are desired, +any amount, either in one piece or in slices, may be bought. The +commercially cut bacon, which is very thin and becomes very crisp in its +preparation, may be bought with the rind retained or removed. In both of +these forms, it is often put up in jars or packed neatly in flat +pasteboard boxes. While such bacon is undoubtedly the most popular kind, +it should be remembered that the more preparation that is put on such a +food before it enters the home, the more expensive it becomes. Very +satisfactory results can be obtained from bacon bought in the piece if +care is used in cutting it. To secure very thin, even slices, a knife +having a thin blade that is kept sharp and in good condition should +always be used. + +67. BACON AND EGGS.--There are many combinations in which bacon is one +of the foods, but no more palatable one can be found than bacon and +eggs. This is generally a breakfast dish; still there is no reason why +it cannot be used at times for luncheon or supper to give variety. + +To prepare this combination of foods, first pan-broil the desired number +of slices of bacon in a hot frying pan until they are crisp and then +remove them to a warm platter. Into the fat that has fried out of the +bacon, put the required number of eggs, which have first been broken +into a saucer. Fry them until they reach the desired degree of hardness, +and then remove to the platter containing the bacon. Serve by placing a +slice or two of bacon on the plate with each egg. + +68. BACON COMBINED WITH OTHER FOODS.--Many other foods may be fried in +the same way as eggs and served with bacon. For instance, sliced apples +or sliced tomatoes fried in bacon fat until they become tender, but not +mushy, are delicious when served with crisp pieces of bacon. Also, cold +cereals, such as cream of wheat, oatmeal, corn-meal mush, etc., may be +sliced and fried until crisp and then served with bacon. + +69. HAM.--The hind leg of pork, when cured and smoked, is usually known +as ham. Fig. 23 shows a ham from which the rind has not been removed. In +such a ham, the proportion of fat and lean is about right, but when ham +is bought with the rind removed, much of the fat is also taken off. The +best hams weigh from 8 to 15 pounds, and have a thin skin, solid fat, +and a small, short tapering leg or shank. + +Several ways of cooking ham are in practice. Very often slices +resembling slices of round steak are cut from the whole ham and then +fried or broiled. If a larger quantity is desired, the entire ham or a +thick cut may be purchased. This is boiled or baked and then served hot +or cold. It is a good idea to purchase an entire ham and keep it in +supply, cutting off slices as they are desired. In such an event, the +ham should be kept carefully wrapped and should be hung in a cool, dry +place. In cutting a ham, begin at the large end, as in Fig. 23, and cut +off slices until the opposite end becomes too small to make good slices. +The piece that remains may be cooked with vegetables, may be boiled and +served either hot or cold, or, if it is only a small piece, may be used +for making soup. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +70. BROILED HAM.--The methods of broiling and pan broiling are very +satisfactory when applied to ham that is cut in slices. Ham is +pan-broiled in the same way as other meats. To broil ham, place slices 1 +inch thick on the hot broiler rack and sear quickly on both sides. Then +reduce the temperature and broil for 15 to 18 minutes, turning the ham +every few minutes until done. Remove to a hot platter. Add a little +water to the drippings in the broiler pan, pour this over the meat, and +serve at once. + +71. HAM BAKED IN MILK.--A change from the usual ways of preparing +slices of ham can be had by baking them in milk. A point to remember in +carrying out this method is that the meat must bake slowly in order to +be tender when it is done. + +Secure a 2-inch slice of ham, place it in a dripping pan, and completely +cover it with milk. Put in a moderate oven and cook for 2 or more hours. +When the ham is done, its surface should be brown and the milk should be +almost entirely evaporated. If the liquid added in the beginning is not +sufficient, more may be added during the baking. + +72. BOILED HAM.--Sometimes it is desired to cook an entire ham, +particularly when a large number of persons are to be served. The usual +way to prepare a whole ham is to boil it. When it is sufficiently +cooked, it may be served hot or kept until it is cold and then served in +slices. Nothing is more appetizing for a light meal, as luncheon or +supper, or for picnic lunches than cold sliced ham. Then, too, boiled +ham is very delicious when it is fried until the edges are crisp. + +To prepare boiled ham, first soak the ham in cold water for several +hours and then remove it and scrub it. Place it in a large kettle with +the fat side down and cover well with cold water. Put over a slow fire +and allow to come to the boiling point very slowly. Boil for 15 minutes +and skim off the scum that has risen. Simmer slowly for about 5 hours, +or at least 25 minutes for each pound of ham. Take from the kettle and +remove the skin about two-thirds of the way back. It will be found that +the skin will peel off easily when the ham is cooked enough. Garnish in +any desirable way and serve hot or cold. + +73. BAKED HAM.--Another very appetizing way in which to cook an entire +ham is to bake it. This involves both cooking in water on the top of the +stove and baking in the oven. While this recipe, as well as those +preceding, specifies ham, it should be remembered that shoulder may be +cooked in the same ways. + +For baked ham, proceed in the way just explained for boiled ham, but +boil only 12 minutes for each pound. Take the ham from the kettle and +allow it to cool enough to permit it to be handled. Remove the skin. +Then place the ham in a roasting pan and pour over it 1 cupful of water. +Bake 12 minutes for each pound and baste frequently while baking. Serve +hot or cold. + +PREPARATION OP LEFT-OVER PORK + +74. COLD PORK WITH FRIED APPLES.--A combination that most persons find +agreeable and that enables the housewife to use up left-over pork, is +cold pork and fried apples. To prepare this dish, remove the cores from +sour apples and cut the apples into 1/2-inch slices. Put these in a +frying pan containing hot bacon fat and fry until soft and well browned. +Slice cold pork thin and place in the center of a platter. Arrange the +apples around the pork in a border. + +75. SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE.--If not enough pork remains to serve +alone, it can be combined with cabbage to make a most appetizing +scalloped dish. The accompanying recipe shows just how to prepare such +a dish. + +SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. small thin slices of pork +1-1/2 c. cooked chopped cabbage +1-1/2 c. thin white sauce +1/4 c. buttered crumbs + +Arrange the pork and cabbage in layers in a baking dish, having a layer +of cabbage on top. Pour the white sauce over all and sprinkle the crumbs +on top. Bake until the sauce boils and the crumbs are brown. + +76. MOCK CHICKEN SALAD.--The similarity in appearance of pork to chicken +makes it possible to prepare a salad of cold pork that is a very good +substitute for chicken salad. A salad of this kind can be used as the +main dish in such a meal as luncheon or supper. + +MOCK CHICKEN SALAD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 Tb. vinegar +2 c. diced pork +1-1/2 c. diced celery +Salad dressing + +Heat the vinegar and pour it over the diced pork. Set aside to chill. +When ready to serve, add the diced celery and mix well. Pour the salad +dressing over all and serve on crisp lettuce leaves. + + +SERVING AND CARVING OF MEAT + +77. The manner of carving and serving meat in the home depends to some +extent on the kind of meat that is to be served. A way that is favored +by some is to carve the meat before it is placed on the table and then +serve it according to the style of service used. However, the preferable +way is to place the platter containing the meat on the table, together +with the plates, in front of the person who is to do the carving +and serving. + +The carver should use considerable care in cutting and serving the meat +so that the platter and the surrounding tablecloth will not become +unsightly. To make each portion as attractive as possible, it should be +cut off evenly and then placed on the plate with the best side up. +Furthermore, the carving should be done in an economical way in order +that whatever remains after the first serving may be served later in the +same meal, and what is not eaten at the first meal may be utilized to +advantage for another. To obtain the best results in carving, a good +carving knife should be secured and it should always be kept well +sharpened. + +78. With the general directions clear in mind, the methods of carving +and serving particular kinds of meat may be taken up. Chops, of course, +require no carving. By means of a large fork, one should be placed on +each person's plate. Steaks and roasts, however, need proper cutting in +order that equally good pieces may be served to each person dining. To +carve a steak properly, cut it across from side to side so that each +piece will contain a portion of the tender part, as well as a share of +the tougher part. When cut, the pieces should be strips that are about +as wide as the steak is thick. It is often advisable to remove the bone +from some steaks before placing them on the table. + +79. Roasts require somewhat more attention than steaks. Before they are +placed on the table, any cord used for tying should be cut and removed +and all skewers inserted to hold the meat in shape should be pulled out. +To carve a roast of any kind, run the fork into the meat deeply enough +to hold it firmly and then cut the meat into thin slices across the +grain. In the case of a roast leg that contains the bone, begin to carve +the meat from the large end, cutting each slice down to the bone and +then off so that the bone is left clean. Place round of beef and rolled +roasts on the platter so that the tissue side, and not the skin side, is +up, and then cut the slices off in a horizontal direction. To carve a +rib roast properly, cut it parallel with the ribs and separate the +pieces from the backbone. + + +SAUSAGES AND MEAT PREPARATIONS + +80. In addition to the fresh, raw meats that the housewife can procure +for her family, there are on the market numerous varieties of raw, +smoked, cooked, and partly cooked meats, which are generally included +under the term SAUSAGES. These meats are usually highly seasoned, so +they keep better than do fresh meats. They should not be overlooked by +the housewife, for they help to simplify her labor and at the same time +serve to give variety to the family diet. Still, it should be remembered +that when meats are made ready for use before they are put on the +market, the cost of the labor involved in their manufacture is added to +the price charged for them. For this reason, the housewife must be +prepared to pay more for meats of this kind than she would pay if she +could prepare them at home. However, she need not be concerned regarding +their safety, for the government's inspection and regulations prevent +any adulteration of them. + +81. Among the numerous varieties of these meats, many of them are +typical of certain localities, while others have a national or an +international reputation. They also vary in the kind of meat used to +make them. Some of them are made from beef, as _frankfurters_ and +certain kinds of _bologna_, while others are made from pork and include +the smoked and unsmoked sausages, _Liverwurst_ is made from the livers +of certain animals, and may be purchased loose or in skins. + +Some of these sausages are used so often in certain combinations of +foods that they are usually thought of in connection with the foods that +it is customary for them to accompany. Frankfurters and sauerkraut, pork +sausage and mashed potatoes, liverwurst and fried corn-meal mush are +well-known combinations of this kind. + +82. Closely allied to these sausages, although not one of them, is a +meat preparation much used in some localities and known as _scrapple_, +or _ponhasse_. This is prepared by cooking the head of pork, removing +the meat from the bones, and chopping it very fine. The pieces of meat +are then returned to the broth in which the head was cooked and enough +corn meal to thicken the liquid is stirred in. After the whole has +boiled sufficiently, it is turned into molds and allowed to harden. When +it is cold and hard, it can be cut into slices, which are sauted in +hot fat. + +83. Besides scrapple, numerous other meat preparations, such as _meat +loaves_ of various kinds and _pickled pig's feet_, can usually be +obtained in the market. While the thrifty housewife does not make a +habit of purchasing meats of this kind regularly, there are times when +they are a great convenience and also afford an opportunity to vary +the diet. + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF FOODS BY DEEP-FAT FRYING + +PRINCIPLES OF DEEP-FAT FRYING + +84. Up to this point, all frying of foods has been done by sauteing +them; that is, frying them quickly in a small amount of fat. The other +method of frying, which involves cooking food quickly in deep fat at a +temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit, is used so frequently in +the preparation of many excellent meat dishes, particularly in the use +of left-overs, that specific directions for it are here given, together +with several recipes that afford practice in its use. No difficulty will +be experienced in applying this method to these recipes or to other +recipes if the underlying principles of deep-fat frying are thoroughly +understood and the proper utensils for this work are secured. + +85. In the first place, it should be remembered that if foods prepared +in this way are properly done, they are not so indigestible as they are +oftentimes supposed to be, but that incorrect preparation makes for +indigestibility in the finished product. For instance, allowing the food +to soak up quantities of fat during the frying is neither economical nor +conducive to a digestible dish. To avoid such a condition, it is +necessary that the mixture to be fried be made of the proper materials +and be prepared in the right way. One of the chief requirements is that +the surface of the mixture be properly coated with a protein material, +such as egg or egg and milk, before it is put into the fat or that the +mixture contain the correct proportion of egg so that its outside +surface will accomplish the same purpose. The reason for this +requirement is that the protein material is quickly coagulated by the +hot fat and thus prevents the entrance of fat into the inside material +of the fried food. + +Care must be taken also in the selection of the fat that is used for +deep-fat frying. This may be in the form of an oil or a solid fat and +may be either a vegetable or an animal fat. However, a vegetable fat is +usually preferred, as less smoke results from it and less flavor of the +fat remains in the food after it is cooked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24] + +86. The utensils required for deep-fat frying are shown in Fig. 24. They +consist of a wire basket and a pan into which the basket will fit. As +will be observed, the pan in which the fat is put has an upright metal +piece on the side opposite the handle. Over this fits a piece of wire +with which the basket is equipped and which is attached to the side +opposite the handle of the basket. This arrangement makes it possible to +drain the fat from whatever food has been fried without having to hold +the basket over the pan. + + +APPLICATION OF DEEP-FAT FRYING + +87. With the principles of deep-fat frying well in mind, the actual work +of frying foods by this method may be taken up. Numerous foods and +preparations may be subjected to this form of cookery, but attention is +given at this time to only croquettes and timbale cases. _Croquettes_ +are small balls or patties usually made of some finely minced food and +fried until brown. _Timbale cases_ are shells in which various creamed +foods are served. As these two preparations are representative of the +various dishes that can be cooked by frying in deep fat, the directions +given for these, if carefully mastered, may be applied to many +other foods. + +88. FRYING OF CROQUETTES.--After the mixture that is to be fried has +been prepared, and while the croquettes are being shaped, have the fat +heating in the deep pan, as in Fig. 24. Before the food is immersed, +test the temperature of the fat in the manner shown in Fig. 25, to make +sure that it is hot enough. To do this, put a 1/2-inch cube of bread in +the hot fat and keep it there for 40 seconds. If at the end of this time +it is a golden brown, it may be known that the fat is sufficiently hot +for any mixture. Be careful to regulate the heat so as to keep the fat +as near this temperature as possible, for it should be remembered that +each time a cold food is immersed in hot fat, the temperature is +lowered. Usually, a few minutes' frying is necessary to assure this +regulation of the temperature. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +As soon as the correct temperature is reached, put several of the +croquettes in the basket and set the basket in the pan of hot fat so +that the croquettes are entirely covered. Fry until a good brown color +is secured. Then lift the basket out of the fat and allow it to drain +until all the fat possible has dripped from it. Finally remove the +croquettes from the basket and place them on any kind of paper that will +absorb the excessive fat. Serve at once or keep hot until ready +to serve. + +89. VEAL CROQUETTES.--Veal that remains from a roast after it has been +served once can be utilized in no better way than in the making of +croquettes; or, if desired, veal may be cooked especially for this +purpose. When such croquettes are served with a sauce of any desirable +kind, such as white sauce or tomato sauce, or with left-over gravy, no +more appetizing dish can be found. + +VEAL CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. cold ground veal +1 c. thick white sauce +2 Tb. chopped onion +1 Tb. chopped parsley +Salt and pepper +1 egg +Fine crumbs + +Mix the ground veal with the white sauce, add the onion and parsley, and +salt and pepper to taste. Shape into oblong croquettes. Roll first in +the beaten egg, which, if necessary, may be increased by the addition of +a little milk, and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden +brown. Serve with or without sauce. + +90. SWEETBREAD CROQUETTES.--An extremely palatable dish can be made by +frying in deep fat sweetbreads cut any desirable shape and size. These +are usually served with a vegetable, and often a sauce of some kind is +served over both. + +To prepare the sweetbreads, parboil them according to the directions +given in Art. 17. Cut them into the kind of pieces desired, sprinkle the +pieces with salt and pepper, and dip them into beaten egg and then into +crumbs. Fry in deep fat and serve with a vegetable or a sauce or both. + +91. RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES.--Sometimes not enough meat remains after a +meal to make a tasty dish by itself. In such a case, it should be +combined with some other food, especially a starchy one, so as to extend +its flavor and produce a dish that approaches nearer a balanced ration +than meat alone does. A small amount of any kind of meat combined with +rice and the mixture then formed into patties, or croquettes, provides +both an appetizing and a nutritious dish. + +RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. finely chopped left-over meat +1 c. cold steamed rice +1/2 c. thick white sauce +1 Tb. chopped onion +1 tsp. celery salt +Salt and pepper +1 egg +Fine crumbs + +Mix the meat and rice, stir into them the white sauce, onion, and celery +salt, and salt and pepper to taste. Shape into croquettes, or patties; +roll first in the egg and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until +golden brown and serve with any desirable sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +92. TIMBALE CASES.--Such foods as creamed sweetbreads, creamed +sweetbreads and mushrooms, and other delicate foods that are served in +small quantities can be made very attractive by serving them in timbale +cases. These are made out of a batter by means of a timbale iron and +fried in deep fat until brown. In serving them, place them either on a +small plate or on the dinner plate with the rest of the dinner. To make +them especially attractive, dip the edge into egg white and then into +very finely chopped parsley. Fig. 26 shows creamed sweetbreads served in +a timbale case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +93. To prepare timbale cases, a _timbale iron_, such as is shown in Fig. +27, is required. Such an iron consists of a fluted piece of metal that +is either solid or hollow and that has attached to it a handle long +enough to keep the hand sufficiently far away from the hot fat. + +The batter required for timbale cases and the directions for combining +them are as follows: + +TIMBALE-CASE BATTER +(Sufficient to Make Twenty) + +1 egg +1/2 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1 tsp. sugar +3/4 c. flour + +Beat the egg with a fork just enough to break it up thoroughly. Add the +milk, salt, and sugar. Stir in the flour with as little beating as +possible. After preparing this mixture, allow it to stand for 1/2 hour, +so that any air it contains in the form of bubbles may escape and thus +prevent the formation of holes and bubbles in the finished +timbale cases. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +When about to use the batter, pour it into a cup or some other small +utensil that is just large enough to admit the iron easily. The iron +must be nearly covered with batter, but a large amount of it will not be +needed if a small utensil is used. Place the iron in the hot fat, as +shown in Fig. 27, until it is hot, or for about 4 minutes. Then let it +drip and place it in the batter, as in Fig. 28, being careful not to +permit the batter to come quite to the top of the iron, and remove it at +once. Place it immediately into the hot fat, as in Fig. 29, allowing the +fat to come higher on the iron than the batter does. This precaution +will prevent the formation of a ridge of bubbles around the top of the +timbale case. Fry in the deep fat until the case is nicely browned, as +shown in Fig. 26. Remove the iron from the fat, and allow it to drip. +Then carefully remove the timbale case from the iron with a fork and +place it on paper that will absorb the fat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +If your timbales are soft instead of crisp, you will know that the +mixture is too thick and should be diluted. Too hot or too cold an iron +will prevent the mixture from sticking to it. + + +MEAT (PART 2) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) What is veal? (_b_) From animals of what age is the best veal +obtained? + +(2) Compare veal and beef as to characteristics. + +(3) What cuts of veal are most suitable for: (_a_) roasts? (_b_) +cutlets? (_c_) soup and stews? (_d_) chops? + +(4) (_a_) What organs of veal are used for foods? (_b_) What are +sweetbreads? + +(5) (_a_) Why is veal more indigestible than beef? (_b_) What important +point must be remembered concerning the cooking of veal? + +(6) (_a_) What substance in veal is utilized in the preparation of +jellied veal? (_b_) Explain how this dish is prepared. + +(7) (_a_) At what age is sheep sold as lamb? (_b_) How do lamb and +mutton differ as to food substances? + +(8) Compare the flesh of lamb and mutton as to appearance. + +(9) As they apply to lamb and mutton, explain the terms: (_a_) rack; +(_b_) saddle. + +(10) Explain why some cuts of lamb and mutton are tough and others +tender. + +(11) What is: (_a_) a crown roast of lamb? (_b_) a French chop? + +(12) (_a_) Describe pork of the best kind. (_b_) Why is the food value +of pork higher than that of other meats? + +(13) (_a_) Name the cuts of pork. (_b_) What is meant by leaf lard? + +(14) What important points must be taken into consideration in the +cooking of pork? + +(15) (_a_) Name some of the accompaniments that are usually served with +pork. (_b_) What is the purpose of these accompaniments? + +(16) (_a_) For what purpose is salt pork generally used? (_b_) What is +bacon? (_c_) To what uses is bacon put? + +(17) (_a_) Give the general directions for the carving and serving of +meat. (_b_) Explain how to carve and serve a steak. + +(18) (_a_) What is meant by deep-fat frying? (_b_) Why must a food that +is to be fried in deep fat contain or be coated with a protein material? + +(19) (_a_) What utensils are necessary for deep-fat frying? (_b_) +Explain the procedure in frying croquettes in deep fat. + +(20) (_a_) For what purpose are timbale cases used? (_b_) Explain how to +make a batter for timbale cases. + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Select a cut of beef that you consider most desirable from an economical +standpoint. Buy a quantity that may be used to the greatest advantage +for your family. Prepare it in any way you desire. + +State the number of pounds purchased, the price of the meat, the number +of meals in which it was served, and the number of persons (tell how +many adults and how many children) served at each meal. Estimate the +cost of each portion by dividing the cost of the whole by the number of +persons served. + +Make up an original dish in which left-over meat is used and submit the +recipe to us. + + * * * * * + + + + +POULTRY + + * * * * * + +POULTRY AS A FOOD + +1. POULTRY is the term used to designate birds that have been +domesticated, or brought under the control of man, for two purposes, +namely, the eggs they produce and the flesh food they supply. All the +common species of domestic fowls--chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, +guinea fowls, and pigeons--are known as poultry. However, none of these +species is included under this term unless it is raised for at least one +of the two purposes mentioned. As the term is to be understood in this +Section, poultry includes all domestic fowls that are killed in order +that their flesh may be cooked and used as food for human beings. Of +course, many wild birds are killed for the flesh food they furnish, but +they are classed under the term _game_. + +2. Poultry is probably never a necessity in the ordinary dietary, and +when prices are high it is a decided luxury. Still it does aid +materially in relieving the monotony of the usual protein foods, and it +supplies that "something out of the ordinary" for special occasions. +Then, too, it is often valuable in the diet of an invalid or some person +with a poor appetite. Poultry is, of course, used more in some homes +than in others; yet there is scarcely a home in which it is not served +some time or another. A knowledge of this food and its preparation and +serving will therefore prove to be a valuable asset to any housewife. + +3. To arrive at a knowledge of the use of poultry as a food, the +housewife must necessarily become familiar with its selection and +purchase. Then she must give attention to both its preparation for +cooking and its actual cooking, and, finally, to its serving. In all +these matters she will do well to adhere to the practice of economy, +for, at best, poultry is usually an expensive food. Before entering into +these matters in detail, however, it will be well to look into them in a +general way. + +4. In the selection of poultry, the housewife should realize that +poultry breeders have so developed certain breeds, even of the same +species, that they are better for table use than others. The flesh of +any breed of poultry may be improved by feeding the birds good food and +giving them proper care; and it is by applying these principles that the +breeders are enabled to better the quality of this food. Other things +also influence the quality of poultry flesh as food, as, for example, +the way in which the poultry is prepared for market and the care it +receives in transportation and storage. Unless these are as they should +be, they have a detrimental effect on poultry, because such food is +decidedly perishable. + +It is possible to exercise economy in the purchase of poultry, but +before the housewife can do this she must be able to judge the age of +each kind she may desire. On the age depends to a great extent the +method of cookery to be followed in preparing the poultry for the table. +Likewise, she must know the marks of cold-storage poultry, as well as +those of poultry that is freshly killed; and she must be familiar with +the first marks of deterioration, or decay, that result from storing the +food too long or improperly. + +Economy may also be practiced in preparing poultry for cooking. To bring +this about, however, the housewife should realize that the best method +of preparing any kind of poultry for cooking is always the most +economical. It means, too, that she should understand thoroughly the +methods of drawing and cutting, so that she may either do this work +herself or direct it. + +The way in which poultry is cooked has a bearing on the cost of this +food, too. For example, a young, tender bird prepared by a wrong method +not only is a good dish spoiled, but is a waste of expensive material. +Likewise, an older bird, which has more flavor but tougher tissues, is +almost impossible as food if it is not properly prepared. Both kinds +make appetizing dishes and do not result in waste if correct methods of +cooking are followed in their preparation. + +Even the way in which poultry is served has a bearing on the cost of +this food. For this reason, it is necessary to know how to carve, as +well as how to utilize any of this food that may be left over, if the +housewife is to get the most out of her investment. + + * * * * * + +SELECTION OF POULTRY + +GENERAL INFORMATION + +5. The selection of any kind of poultry to be used as food is a matter +that should not be left to the butcher. Rather, it should be done by +some one who understands the purpose for which the poultry is to be +used, and, in the home, this is a duty that usually falls to the +housewife. There are a number of general facts about poultry, and a +knowledge of them will assist the housewife greatly in performing +her tasks. + +6. CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY.--Poultry breeders and dealers divide the +domestic fowls into three classes. In the first class are included those +which have combs, such as chickens, turkeys, and guinea fowls. Quails +and pheasants belong to this class also, but they are very seldom +domesticated. The birds in this class are distinguished by two kinds of +tissue--light meat on the breast and dark meat on the other parts of the +body. In the second class are included those fowls which swim, such as +ducks and geese. These are characterized by web feet and long thick +bills, and their meat is more nearly the same color over the entire +body. The third class is comprised of birds that belong to the family of +doves. Pigeons, which are called _squabs_ when used as food, are the +only domesticated birds of this class. They stand between the other two +classes with respect to their flesh, which has some difference in color +between the breast and other muscles, but not so much as chicken and +other fowls of the first class. + +7. INFLUENCE OF FEEDING AND CARE ON QUALITY.--To some extent, the breed +affects the quality of poultry as food; still this is a far less +important matter than a number of things that the purchaser is better +able to judge. Among the factors that greatly influence the quality are +the feeding and care that the birds receive up to the time of slaughter. +These affect not only the flavor and the tenderness of the tissue, as +well as the quantity of tissue in proportion to bone, but also the +healthfulness of the birds themselves. To keep the birds in good health +and to build up sufficient flesh to make them plump, with as much meat +as possible on the bones and a fair amount of fat as well, the food they +get must be clean and of the right kind. Likewise, the housing +conditions must be such that the birds are kept dry and sufficiently +warm. The living space, also, must be adequate for the number that are +raised. Domestic fowls are not discriminating as to their food, and when +they are forced to live in dirt and filth they will eat more or less of +it and thus injure the quality of their flesh. Poultry that comes into +the market looking drawn and thin, with blue-looking flesh and no fat, +shows evidence of having had poor living conditions and inadequate +feeding. Such poultry will be found to have a less satisfactory flavor +than that which has received proper care. + +8. EFFECT OF SEX ON QUALITY.--When birds of any kind are young, sex has +very little to do with the quality of the flesh. But as they grow older +the flesh of males develops a stronger flavor than that of females of +the same age and also becomes tougher. However, when birds, with the +exception of mature ones, are dressed, it would take an expert to +determine the sex. The mature male is less plump than the female, and it +is more likely to be scrawny. Likewise, its spurs are larger and its +bones are large in proportion to the amount of flesh on them. + +Very often the reproductive organs of young males are removed, and the +birds are then called _capons_. As the capon grows to maturity, it +develops more of the qualities of the hen. Its body becomes plump +instead of angular, the quality of its flesh is much better than that of +the cock, and the quantity of flesh in proportion to bone is much +greater. In fact, the weight of a capon's edible flesh is much greater +than that of either a hen or a cock. In the market, a dressed capon can +usually be told by the long tail and wing feathers that are left on, as +well as by a ring of feathers around the neck. Female birds that are +spayed are called _poulards_. Spaying, or removing the reproductive +organs, of female birds, however, makes so little improvement that it is +seldom done. + +9. PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR MARKET.--The manner in which poultry is +prepared for market has a great bearing on its quality as food. In some +cases, the preparation falls to the producer, and often, when birds are +raised in quantities, they are sold alive and dressed by the butcher. +However, poultry that is to be shipped long distances and in large +quantities or stored for long periods of time is usually prepared at a +slaughtering place. This process of slaughtering and shipping requires +great care, for if attention is not given to details, the poultry will +be in a state of deterioration when it reaches the consumer and +therefore unfit for food. + +In order to avoid the deterioration of poultry that is slaughtered some +distance from the place of its consumption, each bird is well fed up to +within 24 hours before it is killed. Then it is starved so that its +alimentary tract will be as empty as possible at the time of killing. +Such birds are killed by cutting the large blood vessel running up to +the head. When properly done, this method of killing allows almost all +the blood to be drained from the body and the keeping qualities are much +improved. At practically the same time, the brain is pierced by the +knife thrust, and as soon as the bleeding commences the fowl becomes +paralyzed. As the tissues relax, the feathers may be pulled easily from +the skin without immersing the bird in hot water. This method of +plucking, known as _dry plucking_, is preferable when the skin must be +kept intact and the poultry kept for any length of time. The head and +feet are left on and the entrails are not removed. The poultry is then +chilled to the freezing point, but not below it, after which the birds +are packed ten in a box and shipped to the market in refrigerator cars +or placed in cold storage. Unless the poultry is to be cooked +immediately after slaughter, such measures are absolutely necessary, as +its flesh is perishable and will not remain in good condition for a long +period of time. + +10. COLD-STORAGE POULTRY.--Poultry that has been properly raised, +killed, transported, and stored is very likely to come into the market +in such condition that it cannot be readily distinguished from freshly +killed birds. When exposed to warmer temperatures, however, storage +poultry spoils much more quickly than does fresh poultry. For this +reason, if there is any evidence that poultry has been in storage, it +should be cooked as soon as possible after purchase. + +There are really two kinds of cold-storage poultry: that which is kept +at a temperature just above freezing and delivered within a few weeks +after slaughtering, and that which is frozen and kept in storage a much +longer time. When properly cared for, either one is preferable to +freshly killed poultry that is of poor quality or has had a chance to +spoil. Poultry that has been frozen must be thawed carefully. It should +be first placed in a refrigerator and allowed to thaw to that +temperature before it is placed in a warmer one. It should never be +thawed by putting it into warm water. Thawing it in this way really +helps it to decompose. + +A sure indication of cold-storage poultry is the pinched look it +possesses, a condition brought about by packing the birds tightly +against one another. Storage poultry usually has the head and feet left +on and its entrails are not removed. Indeed, it has been determined by +experiment that poultry will keep better if these precautions are +observed. The removal of the entrails seems to affect the internal +cavity of the bird so that it does not keep well, and as a matter of +safety it should be cooked quickly after this has been done in the home. + + +SELECTION OF CHICKEN + +11. To be able to select chicken properly, the housewife must be +familiar with the terms that are applied to chickens to designate their +age or the cookery process for which they are most suitable. _Chicken_ +is a general name for all varieties of this kind of poultry, but in its +specific use it means a common domestic fowl that is less than 1 year +old. _Fowl_ is also a general term; but in its restricted use in cookery +it refers to the full-grown domestic hen or cock over 1 year of age, as +distinguished from the chicken or pullet. A _broiler_ is chicken from 2 +to 4 months old which, because of its tenderness, is suitable for +broiling. A _frying chicken_ is at least 6 months old, and a _roasting +chicken_ is between 6 months and 1 year old. With these terms +understood, it can readily be seen that if fried chicken is desired a +2-year-old fowl would not be a wise purchase. + +The quality of the bird is the next consideration in the selection of +chicken. A number of things have a bearing on the quality. Among these, +as has already been pointed out, are the feeding and care that the bird +has received during its growth, the way in which it has been prepared +for market, and so on. All of these things may be determined by careful +observation before making a purchase. However, if the bird is drawn, and +especially if the head and feet are removed, there is less chance to +determine these things accurately. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +12. GENERAL MARKS OF GOOD QUALITY.--A chicken older than a broiler that +has been plucked should not be scrawny nor drawn looking like that shown +in Fig. 1, nor should the flesh have a blue tinge that shows through the +skin. Rather, it should be plump and well rounded like the one shown in +Fig. 2. There should be a sufficient amount of fat to give a rich, +yellow color. It should be plucked clean, and the skin should be clear +and of an even color over the entire bird. Tender, easily broken skin +indicates a young bird; tougher skin indicates an older one. The skin +should be whole and unbroken; likewise, when pressed with the fingers, +it should be neither flabby nor stiff, but pliable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +13. The increase of age in a chicken is to some extent an advantage, +because with age there is an increase in flavor. Thus, a year-old +chicken will have more flavor than a broiler. However, after more than +a year, the flavor increases to such an extent that it becomes strong +and disagreeable. With the advance of age there is also a loss of +tenderness in the flesh, and this after 1-1/2 or 2 years becomes so +extreme as to render the bird almost unfit for use. As the age of a +chicken increases, the proportion of flesh to bone also increases up to +the complete maturity of the bird. Hence, one large bird is a more +economical purchase than two small ones that equal its weight, because +the proportion of bone to flesh is less in the large bird than in the +small ones. + +14. DETERMINING THE AGE OF CHICKEN.--An excellent way in which to +determine the age of a chicken that has been dressed consists in feeling +of the breast bone at the point where it protrudes below the neck. In a +very young chicken, a broiler, for instance, the point of this bone will +feel like cartilage, which is firm, elastic tissue, and may be very +easily bent. If the bird is about a year old, the bone will be brittle, +and in a very old one it will be hard and will not bend. + +15. If the head has been left on, the condition of the beak is a means +of determining age. In a young chicken, it will be smooth and unmarred; +in an old one, it will be rough and probably darker in color. If the +feet have been left on, they too will serve to indicate the age. The +feet of a young chicken are smooth and soft; whereas, those of an old +bird are rough, hard, and scaly. The claws of a young one are short and +sharp; but as the bird grows older they grow stronger and become blunt +and marred with use. The spur, which is a projection just above the foot +on the back of each leg, is small in the young chicken, and increases in +size as the age increases. However, the spurs are more pronounced in +males than in females. + +16. Another way of telling the age of dressed chicken is to observe the +skin. After plucking, young birds usually have some pin feathers left in +the skin. _Pin feathers_ are small unformed feathers that do not pull +out with the larger ones. Older birds are usually free from pin +feathers, but have occasional long hairs remaining in the skin after the +feathers have been plucked. These do not pull out readily and must be +singed off when the chicken is being prepared for cooking. + +17. DETERMINING THE FRESHNESS OF CHICKEN.--There are a number of points +that indicate whether or not a chicken is fresh. In a freshly killed +chicken, the feet will be soft and pliable and moist to the touch; also, +the head will be unshrunken and the eyes full and bright. The flesh of +such a chicken will give a little when pressed, but no part of the flesh +should be softer than another. As actual decomposition sets in, the skin +begins to discolor. The first marks of discoloration occur underneath +the legs and wings, at the points where they are attached to the body. +Any dark or greenish color indicates decomposition, as does also any +slimy feeling of the skin. The odor given off by the chicken is also an +indication of freshness. Any offensive odor, of course, means that the +flesh has become unfit for food. + +18. LIVE CHICKENS.--Occasionally chickens are brought to the market and +sold alive. This means, of course, that the birds are subjected to a +certain amount of fright and needless cruelty and that the work of +slaughtering falls to the purchaser. The cost, however, is decreased a +few cents on the pound. Such birds must be chosen first of all by weight +and then by the marks that indicate age, which have already been given. + + +SELECTION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN + +19. The determination of quality, especially freshness, is much the same +for other kinds of poultry as it is for chicken. In fact, the same +points apply in most cases, but each kind seems to have a few +distinguishing features, which are here pointed out. + +20. SELECTION OF TURKEYS.--Turkeys rank next to chickens in popularity +as food. They are native to America and are perhaps better known here +than in foreign countries. Turkey is a much more seasonal food than +chicken, it being best in the fall. Cold-storage turkey that has been +killed at that time, provided it is properly stored and cared for, is +better than fresh turkey marketed out of season. + +21. The age of a turkey can be fairly accurately told by the appearance +of its feet. Very young turkeys have black feet, and as they mature the +feet gradually grow pink, so that at more than 1 year old the feet will +be found to be pink. However, as the bird grows still older, the color +again changes, and a 3-year-old turkey will have dull-gray or blackish +looking feet. The legs, too, serve to indicate the age of turkeys. Those +of a young turkey are smooth, but as the birds grow older they gradually +become rough and scaly. A young turkey will have spurs that are only +slightly developed, whereas an old turkey will have long, sharp ones. + +22. Turkeys are seldom marketed when they are very young. But in spite +of the fact that this is occasionally done, the mature birds are more +generally marketed. Turkeys often reach a large size, weighing as much +as 20 to 25 pounds. A mature turkey has proportionately a larger amount +of flesh and a smaller amount of bone than chicken; hence, even at a +higher price per pound, turkey is fully as economical as chicken. + +23. SELECTION OF DUCKS.--Ducks probably come next to turkeys in +popularity for table use. Young ducks are sold in the market during the +summer and are called _spring duck_. The mature ducks may be purchased +at any time during the year, but they are best in the winter months. + +The flexibility of the windpipe is an excellent test for the age of +ducks. In the young bird, the windpipe may be easily moved; whereas, in +the old one, it is stationary and quite hard. The meat of ducks is dark +over the entire bird, and the greatest amount is found on the breast. +Its flavor is quite typical, and differs very much from turkey and +chicken. However, there is a comparatively small amount of meat even on +a good-sized duck, and it does not carve to very good advantage; in +fact, more persons can be served from a chicken or a turkey of the same +weight. Young ducks are rather difficult to clean, as a layer of fine +down, which is not easily removed, covers the skin. + +24. SELECTION OF GEESE.--Geese are much more commonly used for food in +foreign countries than in America. Their age may be told in the same way +as that of ducks, namely, by feeling of the windpipe. The flesh is dark +throughout and rather strongly flavored. The fat is used quite +extensively for cooking purposes, and even as a butter substitute in +some countries. Because of this fact, geese are generally fattened +before they are slaughtered, and often half the weight of the bird is +fat. The livers of fattened geese reach enormous proportions and are +considered a delicacy. They are used for _pate de fois gras_. Usually, +this is put up in jars and brings a very high price. + +25. SELECTION OF PIGEONS.--Pigeons are raised primarily for their use +as _squabs_. These are young birds about 4 weeks old, and their meat is +tender and agreeable to the taste. The meat of the mature pigeon becomes +quite tough and unpalatable. The breast is the only part of the bird +that has meat on it in any quantity, and this meat is slightly lighter +in color than that which comes from the remainder of the body. Midsummer +is the best season for squabs, but they can be purchased at other times +of the year. The cost of squabs is too high to allow them to be used +extensively as a food in the ordinary household. + + +TABLE I + +GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF POULTRY + +Market Name Weight Age Season + Pounds + +Squab broiler 3/4 to 1-1/4 6 to 8 wk. April to July +Broiler 1-1/2 to 2 2 to 4 mo. May to Sept. +Frying chicken 2-1/2 to 3 6 mo. June to Oct. +Roasting chicken 3 to 6 6 mo. to 1 yr. All Year +Fowl 4 to 5 over 1 yr. All Year +Capon 6 to 10 6 to 8 wk. May to Sept. +Turkey broiler 1-1/2 to 4 2 to 4 mo. June to Sept. +Roasting turkey 8 to 25 6 mo. to 3 yr. Oct. to Jan. +Spring Duck 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 2 to 6 mo. May to Dec. +Roasting Duck 4 to 8 6 mo. to 1 yr. Best in winter +Green goose 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 2 to 6 mo. May to Dec. +Roasting goose 4 to 8 6 mo. to 1 yr. Oct. to Mar. +Squab 1/2 to 3/4 4 wk. June to Sept. +Guinea hen broiler 1 to 2 2 to 4 mo. Aug. to Nov. +Guinea fowl 3 to 5 6 mo. to 1 yr. Oct. to Mar. + + +26. SELECTION OF GUINEA FOWLS.--Guinea fowls are coming into common use +as food. The young birds are preferable to the older ones. They are +ready for the market in early autumn, while the old birds may be +procured at any time. The breast meat of guinea fowls is almost as light +as that of chicken, but all the meat of this bird has a gamy taste, +which is absent in the chicken. If this particular flavor is much +desired, it may be developed to even a greater degree by allowing the +bird to hang after killing until the meat begins to "turn," that is, +become "high." Such meat, however, is not usually desirable in the +ordinary menu. + +27. SELECTION OF PHEASANT, PARTRIDGE, AND QUAIL.--Pheasant, partridge, +and quail are usually considered game birds, but certain varieties are +being extensively domesticated and bred for market. Such birds are small +and are used more in the nature of a delicacy than as a common +article of food. + +28. TABLE OF POULTRY AND GAME.--In Table I are given the market names of +the various kinds of poultry and game birds, as well as the +corresponding age, the weight, and the season of the year when they are +most desirable. This table will serve as a guide in selecting poultry +that is to be used as food. + + +COMPOSITION OF POULTRY + +29. The composition of poultry is very similar to that of meats. In +fact, poultry is composed of protein, fat, water, mineral salts, and +extractives that do not differ materially from those found in meats. The +protein, which usually varies from 15 to 20 per cent., is a much more +constant factor than the fat, which varies from 8 to 40 per cent. This +variation, of course, makes the total food value high in some kinds of +poultry and low in others. For instance, in a young broiler that has not +been fattened, the food value is extremely low; whereas, in a mature +well-fattened bird, such as a goose, which increases very markedly in +fatty tissue after reaching maturity, it is extremely high. A factor +that detracts considerably from the edible portion of poultry is the +waste material, or refuse. This consists of the bones, cartilage, head, +feet, and entrails, or inedible internal organs. The greater the +proportion of such waste material, the more the total nutritive value of +the flesh is reduced. It is claimed that birds that have light-colored +flesh do not become so fat as those which have dark flesh. This, of +course, makes their nutritive value less, because the fat of poultry is +what serves to supply a large part of the nutrition. There is no +particular difference, as is commonly supposed, between the red and +white meat of poultry. The difference in color is due to a difference in +the blood supply, but this does not affect the composition to +any extent. + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR COOKING + +PREPARATION OF CHICKEN + +30. As has been implied, poultry must be properly prepared before it is +ready for cooking; likewise, the method of cookery determines how it +must be prepared. For example, if it is to be roasted, it must be drawn; +if it is to be stewed, it must be drawn and cut into suitable pieces; +and so on. The various steps that must be taken to make poultry suitable +for cooking are therefore considered here in detail. + +31. DRESSING A CHICKEN.--Although, as has been shown, the housewife does +not have to dress the chicken that she is to cook--that is, kill and +pluck it--there may be times when she will be called on to perform this +task or at least direct it. A common way of killing chicken in the home +is simply to grasp it firmly by the legs, lay it on a block, and then +chop the head off with a sharp hatchet or a cleaver. If this plan is +followed, the beheaded chicken must be held firmly until the blood has +drained away and the reflex action that sets in has ceased. Otherwise, +there is danger of becoming splashed with blood. + +32. After a chicken has been killed, the first step in its preparation, +no matter how it is to be cooked, consists in removing the feathers, or +_plucking_ it, as this operation is called. Plucking can be done dry by +simply pulling out the feathers. However, a bird can be plucked more +readily if it is first immersed in water at the boiling point for a few +minutes. Such water has a tendency to loosen the feathers so that they +can be pulled from the skin easily. Unless the chicken is to be used at +once, though, dry plucking is preferable to the other method. Care +should be taken not to tear or mar the skin in plucking, and the +operation is best performed by pulling out the feathers a few at a time, +with a quick jerk. In a young chicken, small feathers, commonly called +pin feathers, are apt to remain in the skin after plucking. These may be +pulled out by pinching each with the point of a knife pressed against +the thumb and then giving a quick jerk. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +33. Whether live poultry is dressed by a local butcher or in the home, +the length of time it should be kept after killing demands attention. +Such poultry should either be cooked before rigor mortis, or the +stiffening of the muscles, has had time to begin, or be allowed to +remain in a cool place long enough for this to pass off and the muscles +to become tender again. Naturally, if this softening, or ripening, +process, as it is sometimes called, goes on too long, decomposition will +set in, with the usual harmful effects if the meat is used as food. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +34. SINGEING A CHICKEN.--On all chickens except very young ones, whether +they are home dressed or not, hairs will be found on the skin; and, as +has been mentioned, the older the bird the more hair will it have. The +next step in preparing a chicken for cooking, therefore, is to singe it, +or burn off these hairs. However, before singeing, provided the head has +not been removed, cut it off just where the neck begins, using a kitchen +cleaver or a butcher knife, as in Fig. 3. To singe a dressed chicken, +grasp it by the head or the neck and the feet and then revolve it over a +gas flame, as shown in Fig. 4, or a burning piece of paper for a few +seconds or just long enough to burn off the hairs without scorching the +skin. After singeing, wash the skin thoroughly with a cloth and warm +water, as shown in Fig. 5. Then it will be ready for drawing and +cutting up. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +35. DRAWING A CHICKEN.--By drawing a chicken is meant the taking out of +the entrails and removing all parts that are not edible. Although this +work will be done by some butchers, the better plan is to do it at home, +for, as has been stated, chicken or any other poultry must be cooked +very soon after the entrails are removed. Chicken that is to be roasted +is always prepared in this way, as the cavity that remains may be filled +with stuffing. Drawing is also necessary when chicken is to be cooked in +any other way, as by stewing or frying, but in addition it must be cut +up. The procedure in drawing a chicken is simple, but some practice is +required before deftness will result. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +36. In order to draw a chicken, carefully cut a lengthwise slit through +the skin on the neck, and slip the fingers down around the _crop_, which +is a small sack that holds the food eaten by the chicken. Then pull +the crop out, and with it the windpipe, as in Fig. 6, taking pains not +to tear the skin nor to break the crop. + +Next, remove the tendons, or thick white cords, from the legs, so as to +improve the meat. These may be easily removed, especially from a chicken +that is freshly killed; that is, one in which the flesh is still moist. +Simply cut through the skin, just above the foot, as in Fig. 7, being +careful not to cut the tendons that lie just beneath the skin; then slip +a skewer or some other small, dull implement, as a fork, under the +tendons, pull down toward the foot until they loosen at the second +joint, and pull them out. This operation is clearly shown in Fig. 8. +With the tendons removed, the feet may be cut off. To do this, cut +through the skin where the two bones join, as shown in Fig. 9. As the +joint separates, cut through the remaining tendons and skin on the back +of the legs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +37. Proceed, next, to cut a crosswise slit through the skin between the +legs at a point above the vent, as in Fig. 10, so that the entrails may +be removed. This slit should be just large enough to admit the hand and +no larger. Insert the fingers of one hand in this slit and gently move +them around the mass of the internal organs, keeping them close to the +framework of the bird. This will loosen the entrails at the points where +they are attached to the body. Then, inserting the hand, slip the +fingers around the mass at the top, near the neck, and with one pull +remove the entire internal contents, as Fig. 11 shows. The lungs, or +lights, as they are sometimes called, do not come out with this mass. +They will be found covered with a membrane and tightly fastened inside +the breast bone, and must be removed by pulling them out with the tips +of the fingers. After the entrails are removed, pour clean cold water +into the cavity, rinse it well several times, and pour the water out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +38. Among the contents drawn from the chicken will be found the heart, +the liver, and the gizzard. These are called the _giblets_. They are the +only edible internal organs, and must be separated from the rest. To do +this, squeeze the blood from the heart, and then cut the large vessels +off close to the top of it. Then cut the liver away. In handling this +part of the giblets extreme care must be taken, for tightly attached to +it, as Fig. 12 shows, is the _gall bladder_, which is a tiny sack filled +with green fluid, called bile. If this sack breaks, anything that its +contents touches will become very bitter and therefore unfit to eat. The +gall bag should be cut out of the liver above the place where it is +attached, so as to be certain that it does not break nor lose any of the +bile. Next, remove the gizzard, which consists of a fleshy part +surrounding a sack containing partly digested food eaten by the +chicken. First trim off any surplus fat, and carefully cut through the +fleshy part just to the surface of the inside sack. Then pull the +outside fleshy part away from the sack without breaking it, as in Fig. +13, an operation that can be done if the work is performed carefully. +After removing the giblets and preparing them as explained, wash them +well, so that they may be used with the rest of the chicken. As a final +step, cut out the _oil sack_, which lies just above the tail, proceeding +in the manner illustrated in Fig. 14. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22] + +39. CUTTING UP A CHICKEN.--When chicken that has been drawn is to be +fried, stewed, fricasseed, or cooked in some similar way, it must be cut +into suitable pieces. In order to do this properly, it is necessary to +learn to locate the joints and to be able to cut squarely between the +two bones where they are attached to each other. To sever the legs from +the body of the chicken, first cut through the skin underneath each leg +where it is attached to the body, as in Fig. 15, bend the leg back far +enough to break the joint, and then cut through it, severing the entire +leg in one piece. When the legs are cut off, cut each one apart at the +joint between the thigh and the lower part, as in Fig. 16, making two +pieces. To sever the wings from the body, cut through the skin where the +wing is attached, as in Fig. 17, and bend it back until the joint +breaks. Then cut it off where the ends of the bones are attached to the +joint. When both legs and both wings are removed, proceed to cut the +body apart. As shown in Fig. 18, place the chicken, neck down, on a +table, and cut down through the ribs parallel with the breast and the +back, until the knife strikes a hard bone that it cannot cut. Then +firmly grasp the breast with one hand and the back with the other and +break the joints that attach these parts by pulling the back and the +breast away from each other, as in Fig. 19. Cut through the joints, as +in Fig. 20, so that the back, ribs, and neck will be in one piece and +the breast in another. [Illustration: Fig. 23] If desired, the breast +may be divided into two pieces by cutting it in the manner shown in Fig. +21; also, as the back will break at the end of the ribs, it may be cut +into two pieces there. Finally, cut the neck from the top piece of the +back, as in Fig. 22. + +The pieces of chicken thus procured may be rinsed clean with cold +water, but they should never be allowed to stand in water, because this +will draw out some of the extractives, or flavoring material, soluble +albumin, and mineral salts. + +40. PREPARING CHICKEN FEET.--Many persons consider that chicken feet are +not worth while for food. This, however, is a mistaken idea, for they +will add to the flavor of soup stock or they may be cooked with the +giblets to make stock for gravy. Chicken feet do not contain much meat, +but what little there is has an excellent flavor and should be removed +for use when creamed chicken or any dish made with left-over chicken is +to be cooked. + +To prepare chicken feet for use as food, scrub the feet well and pour +boiling water over them. After a minute or two, remove them from the +water and rub them with a clean cloth to peel off the scaly skin, as +shown in Fig. 23. Finally remove the nails by bending them back. + +41. UTILIZING THE WING TIPS.--The last joint, or tip, of chicken wings +has no value as food, but, like the feet, it will help to add flavor to +any stock that is made. This small piece of wing may be removed and then +cooked with the feet and giblets. + + +PREPARATION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN + +42. PREPARATION OF TURKEY.--The preparation of a plucked turkey for +cooking is almost identically the same as that of a plucked chicken. +Begin the preparation by singeing it; that is, hold it over a flame and +turn it so that all the hairs on the skin will be burned off. Then look +the skin over carefully, remove any pin feathers that may not have been +removed in plucking, and wash it thoroughly. Next, cut off the head, +leaving as much of the neck as possible. Draw the tendons from the legs +as in preparing chicken; the ease with which this can be done will +depend greatly on the length of time the turkey has been killed. Then +cut off the legs at the first joint above the foot. + +Having prepared the external part of the turkey, proceed to draw it. +First, remove the crop by cutting a slit lengthwise in the neck over the +crop, catching it with the fingers, and pulling it out. Next, cut a slit +between the legs, below the breast bone, and draw out the internal +organs. Clean and retain the giblets. Remove the lungs, wash out the +cavity in the turkey, and cut off the oil bag on the back, just +above the tail. + +Turkey prepared in this way is ready to stuff and roast. It is never cut +into pieces in the ordinary household until it has been cooked and is +ready to serve. Directions for carving are therefore given later. + +43. PREPARATION OF DUCK AND GOOSE.--The preparation of duck and goose +for cooking does not differ materially from that of turkey or chicken. +Like turkey, duck or goose is generally roasted and not cut up until it +is ready to serve. It will be well to note that young ducks are covered +with small feathers, or down, which is very difficult to remove. +However, the down may be removed by pulling it out with a small knife +pressed against the thumb. When the down is removed, proceed with the +preparation. Singe, wash, remove the head and feet, draw, wash the +inside of the bird, and remove the oil sack. Goose may be prepared for +cooking in the same way. + +44. PREPARATION OF SMALL BIRDS.--Squabs, partridge, pheasant, and other +small birds are usually cooked by broiling. To prepare such a bird for +cooking, singe, remove any small feathers that may remain, wash, remove +the head and feet, and draw, following the directions given for drawing +chicken. When it is thus cleaned, lay the bird open. To do this, begin +at the neck and cut down the back along the spine. If desired, however, +the bird may be cut down the back before drawing and the entrails +removed through the cut down the back. Finally, wash the inside and wipe +it dry, when the bird will be ready for broiling. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF POULTRY + +COOKERY METHODS + +45. With poultry, as in the case of meats of any kind, it is the +composition that determines the method of cookery; and, as the structure +and composition of the tissue of poultry do not differ materially from +those of meats, the application of the various cooking methods is +practically the same. Young and tender birds that have comparatively +little flesh, such as young chickens, squabs, and guinea fowl, are +usually prepared by such rapid methods as frying and broiling. +Medium-sized poultry, including chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, +and geese, require more cooking, and this, of course, must be done at a +lower temperature; therefore, such poultry is generally roasted. Old +poultry, particularly old chicken, or fowl, which is apt to be tough, +requires still more cooking, and for this reason is stewed, braized, or +fricasseed. The recipes for the cooking of various kinds of poultry here +given will serve to make clear the cookery method to employ, as well as +how to carry it out to advantage. + + +PREPARATION BY BROILING + +46. The method of broiling in the case of poultry of all kinds does not +differ in any way from the same method applied to cuts of meat. Since +broiling is a rapid method of cookery and heat is applied at a high +temperature, it is necessary that the poultry chosen for broiling be +young and tender and have a comparatively small amount of meat on +the bones. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +Broiled poultry is not an economical dish, neither is it one in which +the greatest possible amount of flavor is obtained, since, as in the +case of the meat of animals used for food, the flavor develops with the +age of the birds. However, broiled poultry has value in the diet of +invalids and persons with poor appetite and digestion, for if it is +properly done it is appetizing and easily digested. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +47. BROILED POULTRY.--Poultry that is to be broiled must first be +dressed, drawn, and cleaned. Then, as has been mentioned for the +preparation of small birds, lay the bird open by cutting down along the +spine, beginning at the neck, as shown in Fig. 24. This will permit the +bird to be spread apart, as in Fig. 25. When it is thus made ready, +washed, and wiped dry, heat the broiler and grease it. Then place the +bird on the broiler in the manner shown in Fig. 26 and expose it to +severe heat. Sear quickly on one side, and turn and sear on the other +side. Then reduce the heat to a lower temperature and broil more slowly, +turning often. To prevent burning, the parts that stand up close to the +flame may be covered with strips of bacon fastened on with skewers; +also, to get the best results, the side of the bird on which the flesh +is thick should be exposed to the heat for a greater length of time than +the other side. If there is any danger of the high places burning in the +broiler, the bird may be removed and the cooking continued in a hot +oven. Broiled poultry should be well done when served. This means, then, +particularly in the case of chickens, that the broiling process should +be carried on for about 20 minutes. When the bird is properly cooked, +remove it from the broiler, place it on a hot platter, dot it with +butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, garnish, and serve. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26] + + +PREPARATION BY FRYING + +48. As has been mentioned, birds slightly older and larger than those +used for broiling should be fried, because frying is a slower method and +gives the flesh a more thorough cooking. However, most of the dishes +commonly known as fried poultry are not fried, but sauted in shallow +fat. The same principles employed in sauteing any food are applied in +the cooking of poultry by this method; that is, the surface is seared as +quickly as possible and the cooking is finished at a lower temperature. +Often in this cooking process, the pieces to be sauted are dipped into +batter or rolled in flour to assist in keeping the juices in the meat. + +49. FRIED CHICKEN.--To many persons, fried chicken--or, rather, sauted +chicken, as it should be called--is very appetizing. Chicken may be +fried whole, but usually it is cut up, and when this is done it serves +to better advantage. Likewise, the method of preparation is one that +adds flavor to young chicken, which would be somewhat flavorless if +prepared in almost any other way. + +Frying is not a difficult cookery process. To prepare chickens, which +should be young ones, for this method of preparation, draw, clean, and +cut them up in the manner previously explained. When they are ready, +wash the pieces and roll them in a pan of flour, covering the entire +surface of each piece. Then, in a frying pan, melt fat, which may be +chicken fat, bacon fat, part butter, lard, or any other frying fat that +will give an agreeable flavor. When the fat is thoroughly hot, place in +it the pieces of floured chicken and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. +As soon as the pieces have browned on one side, turn them over and brown +on the other side. Then reduce the heat, cover the frying pan with a +tight-fitting lid, and continue to fry more slowly. If, after 25 or 30 +minutes, the meat can be easily pierced with a fork, it is ready to +serve; if this cannot be done, add a small quantity of hot water, +replace the cover, and simmer until the meat can be pierced readily. To +serve fried chicken, place the pieces on a platter and garnish the dish +with parsley so as to add to its appearance. + +50. GRAVY FOR FRIED CHICKEN.--If desired, brown gravy may be made and +served with fried chicken. After the chicken has been removed from the +frying pan, provided an excessive amount of fat remains, pour off some +of it. Sprinkle the fat that remains with dry flour, 1 tablespoonful to +each cupful of liquid that is to be used, which may be milk, cream, +water, or any mixture of the three. Stir the flour into the hot fat. +Heat the liquid and add this hot liquid to the fat and flour in the +frying pan. Stir rapidly so that no lumps will form, and, if necessary, +season with more salt and pepper to suit the taste. + +Gravy may also be made in this manner: Stir cold liquid slowly into the +flour in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful of flour to 1 cupful of +liquid, which may be milk, cream, water, or any mixture of the three. +Add the cold liquid and flour to the frying pan containing a small +amount of fat in which the chicken was fried. Stir rapidly until the +gravy has thickened and there are no lumps. + +Very often the giblets, that is, the liver, heart, and gizzard of +chicken, are used in making gravy. For example, the giblets may be +cooked in water until they are tender and then sauted in butter to +serve, and when this is done the water in which they were cooked may be +used for making gravy. Again, if it is not desired to eat them in this +way, they may be chopped fine and added to gravy made from the fat that +remains from frying. + +51. MARYLAND FRIED CHICKEN.--Maryland fried chicken is a popular dish +with many persons. As a rule, corn fritters are used as a garnish and +Served with the chicken, and strips of crisp bacon are placed over the +top of it. Often, too, potato croquettes are served on the same platter, +a combination that makes almost an entire meal. + +To prepare Maryland fried chicken, draw, clean, and cut up young +chickens. Then wash the pieces and dry them with a soft cloth. Sprinkle +the pieces with salt and pepper, and dip each into fine cracker crumbs +or corn meal, then into beaten egg, and again into the crumbs or the +corn meal. Next, melt in a frying pan chicken or bacon fat, part butter, +lard, or any other fat for frying. When it is hot, place the pieces of +chicken in it. Fry them until they are brown on one side; then turn and +brown them on the other side. Lower the temperature and continue to fry +slowly until the meat may be easily pierced with a fork. When the +chicken is done, pour 2 cupfuls of white sauce on a hot platter and +place the chicken in it. Then garnish and serve. + +52. FRIED CHICKEN WITH PAPRIKA SAUCE.--Chickens that are a trifle older +than those used for plain fried chicken may be prepared to make what is +known as fried chicken with paprika sauce. If in preparing this dish the +chicken does not appear to be tender after frying, it may be made so by +simmering it in the sauce. + +To prepare this chicken dish, which is tempting to many, draw, clean, +and cut up a chicken as for frying. Then melt fat in a frying pan, place +the pieces in the hot fat, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and brown +on both sides quickly. When both sides are brown, continue to fry the +pieces until they are tender. Then sprinkle all with 2 level +tablespoonfuls of flour, add 2 cupfuls of milk or thin cream, and allow +this to thicken. Then sprinkle with paprika until the sauce is pink. Let +the chicken simmer slowly until the sauce penetrates the meat a little. +Serve on a platter with a garnish. + + +PREPARATION BY ROASTING + +53. Roasting is the cookery process that is commonly employed for +preparing chickens that are of good size, as well as turkeys, ducks, and +geese. It is also followed at times for cooking guinea fowl, partridges, +pheasants, and similar small birds. As a rule, birds prepared in this +way are filled with stuffing, which may be made in so many ways that +roasted stuffed poultry makes a delightful change in the regular +routine of meals. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27] + +54. ROAST CHICKEN.--Roasting is the best method to employ for the +preparation of old chicken unless, of course, it is extremely old and +tough. Then stewing is about the only method that is satisfactory. +Chicken for roasting should weigh no less than 3 pounds. Chicken +prepared according to the following directions makes a dish that is very +appetizing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +To prepare chicken for roasting, clean and draw it in the manner +previously given. When it is made clean, rub salt and pepper on the +inside of the cavity, and stuff the cavity of the chicken, as shown in +Fig. 27, with any desirable stuffing. Directions for preparing stuffing +are given later. Also, fill with stuffing the space from which the crop +was removed, inserting it through the slit in the neck. Thread a large +darning needle with white cord and sew up the slit in the neck, as well +as the one between the legs, as in Fig. 28, so that the stuffing will +not fall out. Also, force the neck inside of the skin, and tie the skin +with a piece of string, as in Fig. 29. Then, as Fig. 29 also shows, +truss the chicken by forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing +joint, making a triangle; also, tie the ends of the legs together and +pull them down, tying them fast to the tail, as in Fig. 30. Trussing in +this manner will give the chicken a much better appearance for serving +than if it were not so fastened; but, of course, before it is placed on +the table, the strings must be cut and removed. After stuffing and +trussing, put the chicken on its back in a roasting pan, sprinkle it +with flour, and place it in a very hot oven. Sear the skin quickly. Then +reduce the temperature slightly and pour a cupful of water into the +roasting pan. Baste the chicken every 10 or 15 minutes with this water, +until it is well browned and the breast and legs may be easily pierced +with a fork. Remove to a platter and serve. If gravy is desired, it may +be made in the roasting pan in the same way as for fried chicken. The +giblets may be cut into pieces and added or they may be left out and +served after first cooking and then browning them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +55. ROAST TURKEY.--In America, roast turkey is usually considered as a +holiday dish, being served most frequently in the homes on Thanksgiving +day. However, at times when the price is moderate, it is not an +extravagance to serve roast turkey for other occasions. Roasting is +practically the only way in which turkey is prepared in the usual +household, and it is by far the best method of preparation. +Occasionally, however, a very tough turkey is steamed before roasting in +order to make it sufficiently tender. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30] + +The preparation of roast turkey does not differ materially from the +method given for the preparation of roast chicken. After the turkey is +cleaned, drawn, and prepared according to the directions previously +given, rub the inside of the cavity with salt and pepper. Then stuff +with any desirable stuffing, filling the cavity and also the space under +the skin of the neck where the crop was removed. Then sew up the +opening, draw the skin over the neck and tie it, and truss the turkey by +forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing joint in a +triangular shape and tying both ends of the legs to the tail. When thus +made ready, place the turkey in the roasting pan so that the back rests +on the pan and the legs are on top. Then dredge with flour, sprinkle +with salt and pepper, and place in a hot oven. When its surface is well +browned, reduce the heat and baste every 15 minutes until the turkey is +cooked. This will usually require about 3 hours, depending, of course, +on the size of the bird. For basting, melt 4 tablespoonfuls of butter or +bacon fat in 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Pour this into the roasting +pan. Add water when this evaporates, and keep a sufficient amount for +basting. Turn the turkey several times during the roasting, so that the +sides and back, as well as the breast, will be browned. When the turkey +can be easily pierced with a fork, remove it from the roasting pan, cut +the strings and pull them out, place on a platter, garnish, and serve. +Gravy to be served with roast turkey may be made in the manner +mentioned for making gravy to be served with fried chicken. + +56. ROAST DUCK.--While young duck is often broiled, the usual method of +preparing this kind of poultry is by roasting; in fact, roasting is an +excellent way in which to cook duck that is between the broiling age and +full maturity. + +57. Duck is roasted in practically the same way as chicken or turkey. In +the case of a _young duck_, or _spring duck_, however, stuffing is not +used. After it is drawn and cleaned, truss it by folding back the wings +and tying the ends of the legs to the tail, so as to give it a good +appearance when served. Season with salt and pepper and dredge with +flour, and, over the breast, to prevent it from burning, place strips of +bacon or salt pork. When thus made ready, put the duck in a roasting +pan, pour in 1/2 cupful of water, and cook it in a hot oven until it is +very tender, basting it about every 15 minutes during the roasting. +About 15 minutes before the roasting is done, remove the strips of bacon +or pork, so as to permit the breast underneath them to brown. Serve on a +platter with a garnish. Make gravy if desired. + +58. In the case of an _old duck_, proceed as for roasting chicken or +turkey; that is, draw, clean, stuff, and truss it. In addition, place +strips of bacon or salt pork over its breast. Place it in a roasting +pan, pour 1/2 cupful of water into the pan, and put it in a hot oven. +During the roasting baste the duck every 15 minutes; also, as in +roasting a young duck, remove the bacon or salt pork in plenty of time +to permit the part underneath to brown. When the surface is well browned +and the meat may be easily pierced with a fork, place the duck on a +platter, remove the strings used to sew it up, garnish, and serve. Make +gravy if desired. + +59. ROAST GOOSE.--Specific directions for roasting goose are not given, +because the methods differ in no way from those already given for +roasting duck. Very young goose, or green goose, is usually roasted +without being stuffed, just as young duck. Older goose, however, is +stuffed, trussed, and roasted just as old duck. A very old goose may be +placed in a roasting pan and steamed until it is partly tender before +roasting. Apples in some form or other are commonly served with goose. +For example, rings of fried apple may be used as a garnish, or apple +sauce or stewed or baked apples may be served as an accompaniment. Make +gravy if desired. + +60. ROAST SMALL BIRDS.--Such small birds as guinea fowl, partridge, +pheasant, quail, etc. may be roasted if desired, but on account of being +so small they are seldom filled with stuffing. To roast such poultry, +first clean, draw, and truss them. Then lard them with strips of bacon +or salt pork, and place in a roasting pan in a very hot oven. During the +roasting, turn them so as to brown all sides; also, baste every 15 +minutes during the roasting with the water that has been poured into the +roasting pan. Continue the roasting until the flesh is very soft and the +joints can be easily pulled apart. Serve with a garnish. Make gravy +if desired. + +61. STUFFING FOR ROAST POULTRY.--As has been mentioned, stuffing, or +dressing, of some kind is generally used when poultry is roasted. +Therefore, so that the housewife may be prepared to vary the stuffing +she uses from time to time, recipes for several kinds are here given. +Very often, instead of using the giblets for gravy, they are cooked in +water and then chopped and added to the stuffing. Giblets are not +included in the recipes here given, but they may be added if desired. +The quantities stated in these recipes are usually sufficient for a bird +of average size; however, for a smaller or a larger bird the ingredients +may be decreased or increased accordingly. + +BREAD STUFFING + +4 c. dry bread crumbs +1/2 c. butter +1 small onion +1 beaten egg +1 tsp. salt +1 tsp. celery salt, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed +1/4 tsp. powdered sage (if desired) +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Pour a sufficient amount of hot water over the bread crumbs to moisten +them well. Melt the butter and allow it to brown slightly. Add the +onion, chopped fine, to the butter and pour this over the bread crumbs. +Add the beaten egg, salt, celery salt, and other seasonings, mix +thoroughly, and stuff into the bird. + +CRACKER STUFFING + +3 c. cracker crumbs +1 small onion (if desired) +1/3 c. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. powdered sage (if desired) +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Moisten the cracker crumbs with hot milk or water until they are quite +soft. Brown the chopped onion with the butter and pour over the +crackers. Add the seasonings, mix thoroughly, and stuff into the bird. + +OYSTER STUFFING + +3 c. dry bread crumbs +1/4 c. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 c. oysters +| c. chopped celery + +Moisten the bread crumbs with a sufficient amount of hot water to make +them quite soft. Brown the butter slightly and add it, with the +seasonings, to the bread. Mix with this the oysters and chopped celery. +Stuff into the bird. + +CHESTNUT STUFFING + +1 pt. blanched chestnuts +1 pt. bread crumbs +1/4 c. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. chopped parsley + +Blanch the chestnuts in boiling water to remove the dark skin that +covers them. Cook them until they are quite soft, and then chop them or +mash them. Moisten the bread crumbs with hot water and add the +chestnuts. Brown the butter slightly and pour it over the mixture. Add +the seasonings and chopped parsley and stuff. + +GREEN-PEPPER STUFFING + +1 qt. dried bread crumbs +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1/4 c. melted butter +2 Tb. bacon fat +1 small onion, chopped +1/4 c. finely chopped green pepper +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Moisten the bread crumbs with the stewed tomatoes and add a sufficient +amount of hot water to make the crumbs quite soft. Melt the butter and +bacon fat, add the onion, green pepper, and the seasonings, and pour +over the crumbs. Mix thoroughly and stuff. + +RICE STUFFING + +2 c. steamed rice +2 c. bread crumbs +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1/4 c. chopped pimiento +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 small onion, chopped +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1/4 c. butter +4 small strips bacon, diced and fried brown + +Mix the steamed rice with the bread crumbs. Add the stewed tomatoes, +pimiento, chopped parsley, chopped onion, salt, pepper, melted butter, +bacon and bacon fat, and a sufficient amount of hot water to moisten the +whole well. Mix thoroughly and stuff. + +PEANUT STUFFING FOR ROAST DUCK + +1 pt. cracker crumbs +1 c. shelled peanuts, finely chopped +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of Cayenne pepper +1/4 c. butter +Hot milk + +Mix the crumbs and the chopped peanuts. Add the salt, pepper, and +Cayenne pepper, and pour over them the melted butter and a sufficient +amount of hot milk to soften the whole. Stuff into the duck. + +LIVER STUFFING FOR ROAST DUCK + +1 duck liver +1/4 c. butter +1 small onion, chopped +2 c. dry bread crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 egg + +Chop the liver and saute in the butter to which has been added the +chopped onion. Pour over the bread crumbs. Then add the salt, pepper, +finely chopped parsley, and the beaten egg. Pour over all a sufficient +amount of water to moisten well. Stuff into the duck. + + +BONED CHICKEN + +62. To offer variety in the serving of chicken, as well as to present an +easily carved bird, the process known as _boning_ is often resorted to. +Boning, as will be readily understood, consists in removing the flesh +from the bones before the bird is cooked. Boned chicken may be prepared +by roasting or broiling. In either case, the cookery process is the same +as that already given for poultry that is not boned. If it is to be +roasted, the cavity that results from the removal of the bones and +internal organs should be filled with stuffing or forcemeat, so that the +bird will appear as if nothing had been removed. If it is to be broiled, +stuffing is not necessary. Cooked boned chicken may be served either hot +or cold. Of course, other kinds of poultry may be boned if desired, and +if the directions here given for boning chicken are thoroughly learned +no difficulty will be encountered in performing this operation on any +kind. Boning is not a wasteful process as might be supposed, because +after the flesh is removed from the bones, they may be used in the +making of soup. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32] + +[Illustration: FIG. 33] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35] + +[Illustration: FIG. 36] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37] + +63. Before proceeding to bone a chicken, singe it, pull out the pin +feathers, cut off the head, remove the tendons from the legs, and +take out the crop through the neck. The bird may be drawn or not before +boning it, but in any event care must be taken not to break any part of +the skin. With these matters attended to, wash the skin well and wipe it +carefully. First, cut off the legs at the first joint, and, with the +point of a sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 31, loosen the skin and muscles +just above the joint by cutting around the bone. Cut the neck off close +to the body, as in Fig. 32. Then, starting at the neck, cut the skin +clear down the back to the tail, as in Fig. 33. [Illustration: FIG. 38] +Begin on one side, and scrape the flesh, with the skin attached to it, +from the back bone, as in Fig. 34. When the shoulder blade is reached, +push the flesh from it with the fingers, as in Fig. 35, until the wing +joint is reached. Disjoint the wing where it is attached to the body, as +in Fig. 36, and loosen the skin from the wing bone down to the second +joint. Disjoint the bone here and remove it up to this place, as Fig. 37 +illustrates. The remaining bone is left in the tip of the wing to give +it shape. When the bone from one wing is removed, turn the chicken +around and remove the bone from the other wing. Next, start at the back, +separating the flesh from the ribs, as in Fig. 38, taking care not to +penetrate into the side cavity of the chicken, provided it has not +[Illustration: FIG. 39] been drawn. Push the flesh down to the thigh, as +in Fig. 39, disjoint the bone here, and remove it down to the second +joint, as in Fig. 40. Disjoint the bone at the other joint, and +remove the skin and meat from the bone by turning them inside out, as in +Fig. 41. If the bone has been properly loosened at the first joint of +the leg, there will be no trouble in slipping it out. When this is done, +turn the meat and skin back again, so that they will be right side out. +Then proceed in the same way with the other leg. Next, free the flesh +from the collar bone down to the breast bone on both sides, proceeding +as in Fig. 42. When the ridge of the breast bone is reached, care must +be taken not to break the skin that lies very close to the bone. The +fingers should be used to separate the flesh at this place. When the +sides and front have been thus taken care of, free the skin and the +flesh from the bones over the rump. After this is done, the skeleton and +internal organs of the undrawn bird may be removed, leaving the flesh +intact. The skeleton of a chicken will appear as in Fig. 43. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41] + +[Illustration: Fig. 42] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45] + +If the boned chicken is to be roasted, the entire chicken, including the +spaces from which the wing and leg bones were removed, may be filled +with highly seasoned stuffing. When this is done, shape the chicken as +much as possible to resemble its original shape and sew up the back. The +chicken will then be ready to roast. If the boned chicken is to be +broiled, shape it on the broiler as shown in Fig. 44 and broil. When +broiled, boned chicken should appear as in Fig. 45. + + +PREPARATION BY STEWING AND OTHER COOKING METHODS + +64. CHICKEN STEW WITH DUMPLINGS OR NOODLES.--Perhaps the most common way +of preparing chicken is to stew it. When chicken is so cooked, such an +addition as dumplings or noodles is generally made because of the +excellent food combination that results. For stewing, an old chicken +with a great deal of flavor should be used in preference to a young one, +which will have less flavor. + +In order to prepare chicken by stewing, clean, draw, and cut up the bird +according to directions previously given. Place the pieces in a large +kettle and cover them well with boiling water. Bring all quickly to the +boiling point and add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Then remove the scum, +lower the temperature, and continue to cook at the simmering point. Keep +the pieces well covered with water; also, keep the stew pot covered +during the cooking. When the chicken has become tender enough to permit +the pieces to be easily pierced with a fork, remove them to a deep +platter or a vegetable dish. Dumplings or noodles may be cooked in the +chicken broth, as the water in which the chicken was stewed is called, +or they may be boiled or steamed separately. If they are cooked +separately, thicken the broth with flour and serve it over the chicken +with the noodles or dumplings. + +65. FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN.--For chicken that is tough, fricasseeing is an +excellent cooking method to employ. Indeed, since it is a long method of +cookery, a rather old, comparatively tough fowl lends itself best to +fricasseeing. Fricassee of chicken also is a dish that requires a great +deal of flavor to be drawn from the meat, and this, of course, cannot be +done if a young chicken is used. + +To prepare fricassee of chicken, clean and cut the bird into pieces +according to the directions previously given. Put these into a saucepan, +cover with boiling water, add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, bring to the +boiling point quickly, skim, and reduce the temperature so that the meat +will simmer slowly until it is tender. Next, remove the pieces of +chicken from the water in which they were cooked, roll them in flour, +and saute them in butter or chicken fat until they are nicely browned. +If more than 2 or 2 1/2 cupfuls of broth remains, boil it until the +quantity is reduced to this amount. Then moisten 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls +of flour with a little cold water, add this to the stock, and cook until +it thickens. If desired, the broth may be reduced more and thin cream +may be added to make up the necessary quantity. Arrange the pieces of +chicken on a deep platter, pour the sauce over them, season with salt +and pepper if necessary, and serve. To enhance the appearance of this +dish, the platter may be garnished with small three-cornered pieces of +toast, tiny carrots, or carrots and green peas. + +66. CHICKEN PIE.--A good change from the usual ways of serving chicken +may be brought about by means of chicken pie. Such a dish is simple to +prepare, and for it may be used young or old chicken. + +To prepare chicken pie, dress, clean, and cut up a chicken in the usual +manner. Put it into a saucepan, add a small onion and a sprig of +parsley, cover with boiling water, and cook slowly until the meat is +tender. When the meat is cooked, add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and 1/4 +teaspoonful of pepper, and when it is perfectly tender remove it from +the stock. Thicken the stock with 1 tablespoonful of flour to each +cupful of liquid. Next, arrange the chicken in a baking dish. It may be +left on the bones or cut into large pieces and the bones removed. To it +add small carrots and onions that have been previously cooked until +tender and pour the thickened stock over all. Cover this with +baking-powder biscuit dough made according to the directions given in +_Hot Breads_ and rolled 1/4 inch thick. Make some holes through the +dough with the point of a sharp knife to let the steam escape, and bake +in a moderate oven until the dough is well risen and a brown crust is +formed. Then remove from the oven and serve. + +67. CHICKEN CURRY.--Chicken combined with rice is usually an agreeable +food combination, but when flavored with curry powder, as in the recipe +here given, it is a highly flavored dish that appeals to the taste of +many persons. + +CHICKEN CURRY + +1 3 lb. chicken +2 Tb. butter +2 onions +1 Tb. curry powder +2 tsp. salt +2 c. steamed rice + +Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken as for stewing. Put the butter in a +hot frying pan, add the onions, sliced thin, then the pieces of chicken, +and cook for 10 minutes. Parboil the liver, gizzard, and heart, cut them +into pieces and add them to the chicken in the frying pan. Sprinkle the +curry powder and the salt over the whole. Add boiling water or the stock +in which the giblets were cooked, and simmer until the chicken is +tender. Remove the meat from the frying pan and place it on a deep +platter. Surround it with a border of steamed rice. Thicken the stock in +the frying pan slightly with flour and pour the gravy over the chicken. +Serve hot. + +68. CHICKEN EN CASSEROLE.--Food prepared in casseroles always seems to +meet with the approval of even the most discriminating persons; and +chicken prepared in this way with vegetables is no exception to the +rule. For such a dish should be selected a chicken of medium size that +is neither very old nor very young. Any flavor that the bird contains is +retained, so a strong flavor is not desirable. + +In preparing chicken en casserole, first clean, dress, and cut it up in +the manner directed for stewed chicken. Place the pieces in a casserole +dish, together with 1 cupful of small carrots or larger carrots cut into +strips. Fry a finely chopped onion with several strips of bacon, and +cut these more finely while frying until the whole is well browned. Then +add them to the meat in the casserole dish. Also, add 1 cupful of potato +balls or 1 cupful of diced potatoes. Season well with salt and pepper, +add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, and over the whole pour sufficient hot +water to cover. Cover the casserole dish, place it in a moderate oven, +and cook slowly until the chicken is tender. Serve from the dish. + +69. JELLIED CHICKEN.--The housewife who desires to serve an unusual +chicken dish will find that there is much in favor of jellied chicken. +Aside from its food value, jellied chicken has merit in that it appeals +to the eye, especially if the mold used in its preparation has a +pleasing shape. + +JELLIED CHICKEN + +1 3 or 4 lb. chicken +2 tsp. salt +Several slices of onion +1 hard-cooked egg +1 pimiento +Several sprigs of parsley + +Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken. Put it into a saucepan and cover +with boiling water. Season with the salt and add the slices of onion. +Cook slowly until the meat will fall from the bones. Remove the chicken +from the saucepan, take the meat from the bones, and chop it into small +pieces. Reduce the stock to about 1 1/2 cupfuls, strain it, and skim off +the fat. With this done, place slices of the hard-cooked egg in the +bottom of a wet mold. Chop the pimiento and sprigs of parsley and mix +them with the chopped meat. Put the mixture on top of the sliced egg, +and pour the stock over the whole. Keep in a cool place until it is set. +If the stock is not reduced and more jelly is desired, unflavored +gelatine may be dissolved and added to coagulate the liquid. To serve +jellied chicken, remove from the mold, turn upside down, so that the +eggs are on top and act as a garnish, and then cut in thin slices. + +70. CHICKEN BECHAMEL.--Still another chicken dish that may be used to +break the monotony of meals is chicken bechamel, the word bechamel being +the name of a sauce invented by Bechamel, who was steward to Louis XIV, +a king of France. + +CHICKEN BECHAMEL + +1 good-sized chicken +2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 c. small mushrooms +1/4 c. chopped pimiento +3 Tb. flour +1 c. thin cream + +Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken. Place the pieces into a saucepan, +and cover with boiling water. Add the salt and the pepper, and allow to +come to the boiling point. Remove the scum and simmer the chicken slowly +until it is tender. Remove the chicken from the liquid, take the meat +from the bones, and cut it into small pieces. Add to these the mushrooms +and chopped pimiento. Reduce the stock to 1 cupful and thicken it with +the flour added to the thin cream. Cook until the sauce is thickened. +Then add to it the chopped chicken with the other ingredients. Heat all +thoroughly and serve on toast points or in timbale cases, the making of +which is explained in _Meat_, Part 2. + +71. COOKING OF GIBLETS.--As has been pointed out, the giblets--that is, +the liver, heart, and gizzard of all kinds of fowl--are used in gravy +making and as an ingredient for stuffing. When poultry is stewed, as in +making stewed chicken, it is not uncommon to cook the giblets with the +pieces of chicken. The gizzard and heart especially require long, slow +cooking to make them tender enough to be eaten. Therefore, when poultry +is broiled, fried, or roasted, some other cookery method must be +resorted to, as these processes are too rigid for the preparation of +giblets. In such cases, the best plan is to cook them in water until +they are tender and then saute them in butter. When cooked in this way, +they may be served with the poultry, for to many persons they are very +palatable. + + +DISHES FROM LEFT-OVER POULTRY + +72. Left-over poultry of any kind is too valuable to be wasted, but even +if this were not so there are so many practical ways in which such +left-overs may be used to advantage that it would be the height of +extravagance not to utilize them. The bones that remain from roast fowl +after carving are especially good for soup making, as they will yield +quite a quantity of flavor when they are thoroughly cooked. If +sufficient meat remains on the carcass to permit of slicing, such meat +may be served cold. However, if merely small pieces are left or if fried +or broiled poultry remains, it will be advisable to make some other use +of these left-overs. It is often possible for the ingenious housewife to +add other foods to them so as to increase the quantity and thus make +them serve more. For example, a small quantity of pork or veal may be +satisfactorily used with chicken, as may also pieces of hard-cooked +eggs, celery, mushrooms, etc. In fact, salads may be made by combining +such ingredients and salad dressings. To show the use of left-overs +still further, there are here given a number of recipes that may well +be used. + +73. Chicken Salad.--A common way in which to utilize left-over chicken +is in chicken salad. Such salad may be served to advantage for luncheons +and other light meals. + +CHICKEN SALAD + +2 c. cold diced chicken +1 c. chopped celery +1 small onion, chopped +Salad dressing +2 hard-cooked eggs + +Mix the meat with the chopped celery and onion. Marinate with +well-seasoned vinegar or a little lemon juice. French dressing may be +used for this if oil is desired. Just before serving pour off any excess +liquid. Add any desired salad dressing. Heap the salad on lettuce leaves +and garnish with slices of the hard-cooked eggs. + +74. Chicken a la King.--Chicken a la king is not necessarily a left-over +dish, for it may be made from either left-over chicken or, if desired, +chicken cooked especially for it. It makes an excellent dish to prepare +in a chafing dish, but it may be conveniently prepared in a saucepan on +the fire and served in any desirable way. + +CHICKEN A LA KING + +3 Tb. fat (butter or bacon fat or part of each) +2 Tb. flour +3/4 c. chicken stock +1 c. milk or thin cream +1 tsp. salt +1/2 c. mushrooms +1/4 c. canned pimiento +1-1/2 c. cold chicken +2 eggs + +Melt the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, and stir until well mixed. +Heat the stock and the milk or cream, pour this into the mixture, stir +rapidly, and bring to boiling point. Add the salt and the mushrooms, +pimientoes, and cold chicken cut into pieces 1/2 to 1 inch long, allow +the mixture to come to the boiling point again, and add the slightly +beaten eggs. Remove from the fire at once to prevent the egg from +curdling. Serve over pieces of fresh toast and sprinkle with paprika. + +75. Chicken Croquettes.--Left-over chicken may be used to advantage for +croquettes made according to the following recipe. When the ingredients +listed are combined with chicken, an especially agreeable food will be +the result. If there is not sufficient cold chicken to meet the +requirements, a small quantity of cold veal or pork may be chopped with +the chicken. + +CHICKEN CROQUETTES + +3 Tb. fat +1/4 c. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/4 tsp. paprika +1 c. chicken stock or cream +2 c. cold chicken, chopped +1/4. mushrooms, chopped +1 tsp. parsley, chopped +1 egg +Fine bread crumbs + +Melt the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, and stir until well blended. +Add the salt, pepper, and paprika. Heat the stock or cream and add to +the mixture in the saucepan. Stir constantly until the sauce is +completely thickened. Then add the chopped chicken, mushrooms, and +parsley. When cold, shape into oblong croquettes, roll in the egg, +slightly beaten, and then in fine crumbs. Fry in deep fat until brown. +Serve with a garnish or some vegetable, such as peas, diced carrots, or +small pieces of cauliflower, as well as with left-over chicken gravy or +well-seasoned white sauce. + +76. TURKEY HASH.--Possibly the simplest way in which to utilize +left-over turkey meat is to make it up into hash. Such a dish may be +used for almost any meal, and when made according to the recipe here +given it will suit the taste of nearly every person. + +TURKEY HASH + +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. coarse rye-bread crumbs +1 small onion, sliced +2 c. finely chopped cold turkey +1/2 c. finely chopped raw potato +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 pt. milk + +Melt the butter in a saucepan. When brown, add to it the rye-bread +crumbs and mix well. Then add the sliced onion, chopped turkey, potato, +salt, and pepper. Cook for a short time on top of the stove, stirring +frequently to prevent burning. Pour the milk over the whole, and place +the pan in the oven or on the back of the stove. Cook slowly until the +milk is reduced and the hash is sufficiently dry to serve. Serve on +buttered toast. + +77. CHICKEN WITH RICE.--Left-over chicken may be readily combined with +rice to make a nutritious dish. To prepare chicken with rice, add to +left-over gravy any left-over cold chicken cut into small pieces. If +there is not enough gravy to cover the meat, add sufficient white sauce; +if no gravy remains, use white sauce entirely. Heat the chicken in the +gravy or the sauce to the boiling point. Then heap a mound of fresh +steamed or boiled rice in the center of a deep platter or a vegetable +dish and pour the chicken and sauce over it. Serve hot. + +78. Baked Poultry With Rice.--A casserole or a baking dish serves as a +good utensil in which to prepare a left-over dish of any kind of +poultry, because it permits vegetables to be added and cooked +thoroughly. Baked poultry with rice is a dish that may be prepared in +such a utensil. + +Line a casserole or a baking dish with a thick layer of fresh steamed or +boiled rice. Fill the center with chopped cold poultry, which may be +chicken, turkey, duck, or goose. Add peas, chopped carrots, potato, and +a few slices of onion in any desirable proportion. Over this pour +sufficient left-over gravy or white sauce to cover well. First, steam +thoroughly; then uncover the utensil and bake slowly until the +vegetables are cooked and the entire mixture is well heated. Serve from +the casserole or baking dish. + + +SERVING AND CARVING POULTRY + +79. Poultry of any kind should always be served on a platter or in a +dish that has been heated in the oven or by running hot water over it. +After placing the cooked bird on the platter or the dish from which it +is to be served, it should be taken to the dining room and placed before +the person who is to serve. If it is roasted, it will require carving. +If not, the pieces may be served as they are desired by the individuals +at the table. Poultry having both dark and white meat is usually served +according to the taste of each individual at the table. If no preference +is stated, however, a small portion of each kind of meat is +generally served. + +80. The carving of broiled or roast chicken, turkey, duck, or goose may +be done in the kitchen, but having the whole bird brought to the table +and carved there adds considerably to a meal. Carving is usually done by +the head of the family, but in a family in which there are boys each one +should be taught to carve properly, so that he may do the carving in the +absence of another person. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46] + +[Illustration: FIG. 47] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48] + +[Illustration: FIG. 49] + +For carving, the bird should be placed on the platter so that it rests +on its back; also, a well-sharpened carving knife and a fork should be +placed at the right of the platter and the person who is to serve. To +carve a bird, begin as shown in Fig. 46; that is, thrust the fork firmly +into the side or breast of the fowl and cut through the skin where the +leg joins the body, breaking the thigh joint. Cut through this joint, +severing the second joint and leg in one piece. Then, if desired, cut +the leg apart at the second joint. As the portions are thus cut, they +may be placed on a separate platter that is brought to the table heated. +Next, in the same manner, cut off the other leg and separate it at the +second joint. With the legs cut off, remove each wing at the joint where +it is attached to the body, proceeding as shown in Fig. 47. Then slice +the meat from the breast by cutting down from the ridge of the breast +bone toward the wing, as in Fig. 48. After this meat has been sliced +off, there still remains some meat around the thigh and on the back. +This should be sliced off or removed with the point of the knife, as in +Fig. 49, so that the entire skeleton will be clean, as in Fig. 50. If +the entire bird is not to be served, as much as is necessary may be cut +and the remainder left on the bones. With each serving of meat a +spoonful of dressing should be taken from the inside of the bird, +provided it is stuffed, and, together with some gravy, served on +the plate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50] + + * * * * * + +GAME + +GENERAL DESCRIPTION + +81. GAME, which includes the meat of deer, bear, rabbit, squirrel, wild +duck, wild goose, partridge, pheasant, and some less common animals, +such as possum, is not a particularly common food. However, it is +sufficiently common to warrant a few directions concerning its use. Game +can be purchased or caught only during certain seasons, designated by +the laws of various states. Such laws are quite stringent and have been +made for the protection of each particular species. + +82. The meat of wild animals and birds is usually strong in flavor. Just +why this is so, however, is not definitely known. Undoubtedly some of +the strong flavor is due to the particular food on which the animal or +the bird feeds, and much of this flavor is due to extractives contained +in the flesh. + +When game birds and animals have considerable fat surrounding the +tissues, the greater part of it is often rejected because of its +extremely high flavor. By proper cooking, however, much of this flavor, +if it happens to be a disagreeable one, can be driven off. + +The general composition of the flesh of various kinds of game does not +differ greatly from that of similar domestic animals or birds. For +instance, the flesh of bear is similar in its composition to that of fat +beef, as bear is one of the wild animals that is very fat. Venison, or +the meat obtained from deer, contains much less fat, and its composition +resembles closely that of very lean beef. Rabbits and most of the wild +birds are quite lean; in fact, they are so lean that it is necessary in +the preparation of them to supply sufficient fat to make them more +appetizing. + + +RECIPES FOR GAME + +83. Only a few recipes for the preparation of game are here given, +because, in the case of wild birds, the cookery methods do not differ +materially from those given for poultry, and, in the case of such +animals as bears, the directions for preparing steaks and other cuts are +identical with the cooking of similar cuts of beef. Rabbit and squirrel +are perhaps the most common game used as food in the home; therefore, +directions for cleaning and cooking them receive the most consideration. + +84. PREPARING A RABBIT FOR COOKING.--In order to prepare a rabbit for +cooking, it must first be skinned and drawn, after which it may be cut +up or left whole, depending on the cookery method that is to +be followed. + +To skin a rabbit, first chop off the feet at the first joint; then +remove the head at the first joint below the skull and slit the skin of +the stomach from a point between the forelegs to the hind legs. With +this done, remove the entrails carefully, proceeding in much the same +manner as in removing the entrails of a chicken. Then slit the skin from +the opening in the stomach around the back to the opposite side. Catch +hold on the back and pull the skin first from the hind legs and then +from the forelegs. If the rabbit is to be stewed, wash it thoroughly and +separate it into pieces at the joints. If it is to be roasted or +braized, it may be left whole. A rabbit that is left whole presents a +better appearance when it is trussed. To truss a rabbit, force the hind +legs toward the head and fasten them in place by passing a skewer +through the leg on one side, through the body, and into the leg on the +other side. Then skewer the front legs back under the body in the same +way. In such a case, the head may be left on or removed, as desired. + +85. ROAST RABBIT.--Roasting is the cookery process often used to prepare +rabbit. To cook it in this way, first skin and clean the animal and +stuff it. Any of the stuffings previously given may be used for this +purpose. Then skewer the legs in position, place strips of bacon across +the back, put in a roasting pan, and dredge with salt and pepper. Also, +add 1/2 cupful of hot water to which has been added a little butter or +bacon fat. Roast in a quick oven, and baste every 15 minutes during the +roasting. A few minutes before the rabbit is tender enough to be pierced +with a fork, remove the strips of bacon so that the flesh underneath may +brown. Then remove from the pan and serve. + +86. SAUTED RABBIT.--If it is desired to prepare a rabbit by sauteing, +skin and clean it, cut it into pieces, and dry all the pieces with a +soft cloth. Then melt bacon fat in a frying pan, and when it is hot +place the pieces of rabbit in it and allow them to brown. Add several +sprigs of parsley and two small onions, sliced, season with salt and +pepper, add a slice or two of bacon, and pour water over the whole until +it is nearly covered. Place a cover on the frying pan and simmer slowly. +Add water when it is necessary. When the meat is tender, remove it from +the frying pan. Then thicken the fluid that remains with a small amount +of flour so as to make a gravy. Serve hot. + +87. RABBIT PIE.--Rabbit made into pie is also a desirable way in which +to serve rabbit. To prepare such a dish, skin and clean one or more +rabbits and cut them up into as small pieces as possible, removing the +largest bones. Put these pieces into a baking dish, and over them place +bacon cut into small strips. Sprinkle all with chopped parsley, salt, +and pepper, and add a few slices of onion, as well as some strips of +carrot and potato, if desired. Pour a sufficient amount of boiling water +over the whole and allow to simmer slowly until the meat is partly +cooked. Then place in the oven and cook until the meat is tender. Next, +dredge the contents of the baking dish with flour and cover with a +1/4-inch layer of baking-powder biscuit dough. Make several slits +through the dough to allow the steam to escape. Bake until the dough +becomes a well-browned crust. Serve hot in the baking dish. + +88. BROILED SQUIRREL.--For cooking, squirrel is cleaned in practically +the same way as rabbit. Squirrel may be made ready to eat by stewing, +but as it is so small a creature, broiling is the usual method of +preparation. To broil a squirrel, first remove the skin and clean it. +Then break the bones along the spine, so that the squirrel can be spread +out flat. When thus made ready, place it on a well-greased hot broiler +and sear it quickly on one side; then turn it and sear the other side. +Next, sprinkle it with salt and pepper, place strips of bacon across the +back, and allow it to broil slowly until it is well browned. Squirrel +may be served in the same way as rabbit. + +89. CUTS OF VENISON.--The meat obtained from deer, called venison, as +has been mentioned, may be cut up to form cuts similar to those obtained +from beef, such as steaks and roasts. Although such meat is a rarity, it +will be well to be familiar with a few of the methods of cooking it. +These, however, do not differ materially from the methods of cooking +other meats. + +90. BROILED VENISON.--To prepare venison for broiling, cut a steak from +1 to 1-1/2 inches thick. Place this on a well-greased broiler and broil +until well done. Serve on a hot platter. Garnish the broiled venison +with parsley and pour over it sauce made as follows: + +SAUCE FOR BROILED VENISON + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. ground cinnamon +4 Tb. currant jelly +2 tsp. lemon juice +1/4 c. port wine +6 finely chopped Maraschino cherries + +Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, ground cinnamon, +currant jelly, lemon juice, and the port wine, which should be heated +with 1 cupful of water. Cook until the flour has thickened, remove from +the fire, and add the cherries. + +91. ROAST FILLET OF VENISON.--If a fillet of venison is to be roasted, +proceed by larding it with strips of salt pork. Then place it in a pan +with one small onion, sliced, a bay leaf, and a small quantity of +parsley, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and 1/4 teaspoonful of pepper. Dilute +1/4 cupful of vinegar with 3/4 cupful of water and add a teaspoonful of +Worcestershire sauce. Pour this over the fillet and place it in a hot +oven. Cook until the liquid has evaporated sufficiently to allow the +venison to brown. Turn, so as to brown on both sides, and when quite +tender and well browned, serve on a hot platter. + +92. ROAST LEG OF VENISON.--If a leg of venison is to be roasted, first +remove the skin, wipe the meat with a damp cloth, and cover it with a +paste made of flour and water. Then put it into a roasting pan and roast +in a very hot oven. Baste with hot water every 15 minutes for about 1 +1/2 hours. At the end of this time, remove the paste, spread the surface +with butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and continue to roast for 1 +to 1 1/4 hours longer. Baste every 15 minutes, basting during the last +hour with hot water in which has been melted a small quantity of butter. +Then remove the venison from the pan and serve it on a hot platter with +any desired sauce. + + +POULTRY AND GAME + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + + +(1) Of what value is poultry in the diet? + +(2) What effect do the feeding and care of poultry have upon it as food? + +(3) Mention briefly the proper preparation of poultry killed for market. + +(4) (_a_) What are the most important things to consider when poultry is +to be selected? (_b_) Give the points that indicate good quality +of poultry. + +(5) How would you determine the age of a chicken? + +(6) How would you determine the freshness of a chicken? + +(7) (_a_) What are the marks of cold-storage poultry? (_b_) Should +cold-storage poultry be drawn or undrawn? Tell why. + +(8) How should frozen poultry be thawed? + +(9) Tell briefly how turkey should be selected. + +(10) At what age and season is turkey best? + +(11) Discuss the selection of: (_a_) ducks; (_b_) geese. + +(12) (_a_) How does the composition of poultry compare with that of +meat? (_b_) What kind of chicken has a high food value? + +(13) (_a_) How should a chicken be dressed? (_b_) What care should be +given to the skin in plucking? + +(14) Give briefly the steps in drawing a chicken. + +(15) Give briefly the steps in cutting up a chicken. + +(16) How is poultry prepared for: (_a_) roasting? (_b_) frying? (_c_) +broiling? (_d_) stewing? + +(17) (_a_) Describe trussing, (_b_) Why is trussing done? + +(18) Give briefly the steps in boning a chicken. + +(19) Tell briefly how to serve and carve a roasted bird. + +(20) Discuss game in a general way. + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Select a fowl by applying the tests given for selection in the lesson. +Prepare it by what seems to you to be the most economical method. Tell +how many persons are served and the use made of the left-overs. Compute +the cost per serving by dividing the cost of the fowl by the number of +servings it made. + +At another time, select a chicken for frying by applying the tests given +in the lesson. Compute the cost per serving by dividing the cost of the +chicken by the number of servings it made. + +Compare the cost per serving of the fried chicken with that of the fowl, +to find which is the more economical. In each case, collect the bones +after the chicken is eaten and weigh them to determine which has the +greater proportion of bone to meat, the fowl or the frying chicken. +Whether you have raised the poultry yourself or have purchased it in the +market, use the market price in computing your costs. Weigh the birds +carefully before drawing them. + + * * * * * + + + + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + + * * * * * + +FISH + +FISH IN THE DIET + +1. FISH provides another class of high-protein or tissue-building food. +As this term is generally understood, it includes both vertebrate +fish--that is, fish having a backbone, such as salmon, cod, shad, +etc.--and many other water animals, such as lobsters, crabs, shrimp, +oysters, and clams. A distinction, however, is generally made between +these two groups, those having bones being regarded properly as _fish_ +and those partly or entirely encased in shells, as _shell fish_. It is +according to this distinction that this class of foods is considered in +this Section. Because all the varieties of both fish and shell fish are +in many respects similar, the term _sea food_ is often applied to them, +but, as a rule, this term is restricted to designate salt-water products +as distinguished from fresh-water fish. + +2. Fish can usually be purchased at a lower price than meat, and for +this reason possesses an economic advantage over it. Besides the price, +the substitution of fish for meat makes for economy in a number of ways +to which consideration is not usually given. These will become clearly +evident when it is remembered that nearly all land animals that furnish +meat live on many agricultural products that might be used for human +food. Then, too, other foods fed to animals, although not actually human +foods, require in their raising the use of soil that might otherwise be +utilized for the raising of food for human beings. This is not true in +the case of fish. They consume the vegetation that grows in lakes, +streams, and the ocean, as well as various kinds of insects, small fish, +etc., which cannot be used as human food and which do not require the +use of the soil. In addition, much of the food that animals, which are +warm-blooded, take into their bodies is required to maintain a constant +temperature above that of their surroundings, so that not all of what +they eat is used in building up the tissues of their bodies. With fish, +however, it is different. As they are cold-blooded and actually receive +heat from their surroundings, they do not require food for bodily +warmth. Practically all that they take into the body is built up into a +supply of flesh that may be used as food for human beings. + +3. With fish, as with other foods, some varieties are sought more than +others, the popularity of certain kinds depending on the individual +taste or the preference of the people in a particular locality. Such +popularity, however, is often a disadvantage to the purchaser, because a +large demand for certain varieties has a tendency to cause a rise in +price. The increased price does not indicate that the fish is of more +value to the consumer than some other fish that may be cheaper because +it is less popular, although quite as valuable from a food standpoint. +The preference for particular kinds of fish and the persistent disregard +of others that are edible is for the most part due to prejudice. In +certain localities, one kind of fish may be extremely popular while in +others the same fish may not be used for food at all. Such prejudice +should be overcome, for, as a matter of fact, practically every fish +taken from pure water is fit to eat, in the sense that it furnishes food +and is not injurious to health. + +In addition, any edible fish should be eaten in the locality where it is +caught. The transportation of this food is a rather difficult matter, +and, besides, it adds to the cost. It is therefore an excellent plan to +make use of the kind of fish that is most plentiful, as such practice +will insure both better quality and a lower market price. + +4. As is well known, fish is an extremely perishable food. Therefore, +when it is caught in quantities too great to be used at one time, it is +preserved in various ways. The preservation methods that have proved to +be the most satisfactory are canning, salting and drying, smoking, and +preserving in various kinds of brine and pickle. As such methods are +usually carried out in the locality where the fish is caught, many +varieties of fish can be conveniently stored for long periods of time +and so distributed as to meet the requirements of the consumer. This +plan enables persons far removed from the Source of supply to procure +fish frequently. + + * * * * * + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FISH + +COMPOSITION OF FISH + +5. COMPARISON OF FISH WITH MEAT.--In general, the composition of fish is +similar to that of meat, for both of them are high-protein foods. +However, some varieties of fish contain large quantities of fat and +others contain very little of this substance, so the food value of the +different kinds varies greatly. As in the case of meat, fish is lacking +in carbohydrate. Because of the close similarity between these two +foods, fish is a very desirable substitute for meat. In fact, fish is in +some respects a better food than meat, but it cannot be used so +continuously as meat without becoming monotonous; that is to say, a +person will grow tired of fish much more quickly than of most meats. The +similarity between the composition of fish and that of meat has much to +do with regulating the price of these protein foods, which, as has +already been learned, are the highest priced foods on the market. + +6. PROTEIN IN FISH.--In fish, as well as in shell fish, a very large +proportion of the food substances present is protein. This proportion +varies with the quantity of water, bone, and refuse that the particular +food contains, and with the physical structure of the food. In fresh +fish, the percentage of this material varies from 6 to 17 per cent. The +structure of fish is very similar to that of meat, as the flesh is +composed of tiny hollow fibers containing extractives, in which are +dissolved mineral salts and various other materials. The quantity of +extractives found in these foods, however, is less than that found in +meat. Fish extracts of any kind, such as clam juice, oyster juice, etc., +are similar in their composition to any of the extractives of meat, +differing only in the kind and proportions. In addition to the muscle +fibers of fish, which are, of course, composed of protein, fish contains +a small quantity of albumin, just as meat does. It is the protein +material in fish, as well as in shell fish, that is responsible for its +very rapid decomposition. + +The application of heat has the same effect on the protein of fish as it +has on that of meat, fowl, and other animal tissues. Consequently, the +same principles of cookery apply to both the retention and the +extraction of flavor. + +7. FAT IN FISH.--The percentage of fat in fish varies from less than 1 +per cent. in some cases to a trifle more than 14 per cent. in others, +but this high percentage is rare, as the average fish probably does not +exceed from 3 to 6 or 7 per cent. of fat. This variation affects the +total food value proportionately. The varieties of fish that contain the +most fat deteriorate most rapidly and withstand transportation the least +well, so that when these are secured in large quantities they are +usually canned or preserved in some manner. Fish containing a large +amount of fat, such as salmon, turbot, eel, herring, halibut, mackerel, +mullet, butterfish, and lake trout, have a more moist quality than those +which are without fat, such as cod. Therefore, as it is difficult to +cook fish that is lacking in fat and keep it from becoming dry, a fat +fish makes a more palatable food than a lean fish. The fat of fish is +very strongly flavored; consequently, any that cooks out of fish in its +preparation is not suitable for use in the cooking of other foods. + +8. CARBOHYDRATE IN FISH.--Like meat, fish does not contain carbohydrate +in any appreciable quantity. In fact, the small amount that is found in +the tissue, and that compares to the glycogen found in animal tissues, +is not present in sufficient quantities to merit consideration. + +9. MINERAL MATTER IN FISH.--In fish, mineral matter is quite as +prevalent as in meat. Through a notion that fish contains large +proportions of phosphorus, and because this mineral is also present in +the brain, the idea that fish is a brain food has become widespread. It +has been determined, however, that this belief has no foundation. + + +FOOD VALUE OF FISH + +10. FACTORS DETERMINING FOOD VALUE.--The total food value of fish, as +has been shown, is high or low, varying with the food substances it +contains. Therefore, since, weight for weight, the food value of fat is +much higher than that of protein, it follows that the fish containing +the most fat has the highest food value. Fat and protein, as is well +known, do not serve the same function in the body, but each has its +purpose and is valuable and necessary in the diet. Some varieties of +fish contain fat that is strong in flavor, and from these the fat should +be removed before cooking, especially if the flavor is disagreeable. +This procedure of course reduces the total food value of the fish, but +it should be done if it increases the palatability. + +11. RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH AND MEAT.--When fish and meat are +compared, it will be observed that some kinds of fish have a higher food +value than meat, particularly if the fish contains much fat and the meat +is lean. When the average of each of these foods is compared, however, +meat will be found to have a higher food value than fish. To show how +fish compares with meat and fowl, the composition and food value of +several varieties of each food are given in Table I, which is taken from +a United States government bulletin. + + +TABLE I + +COMPARISON OF COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FISH AND MEAT + +---------------------------------------------------------------- + | Composition | Total |Food Value| + |-------------------| Food | per Pound| + Edible Portion | Protein | Fat | Value | Due to | + |Per Cent.|Per Cent.|per Pound | Protein | + | | | Calories | Calories | +---------------------------------------------------------------- +_Fish_: | | | | | + Bass, black........| 20.6 | 1.7 | 443 | 373 | + Bluefish...........| 19.4 | 1.2 | 401 | 352 | + Carp...............| 17.4 | 2.6 | 421 | 315 | + Catfish............| 14.4 | 20.6 | 1,102 | 262 | + Halibut steak......| 18.6 | 5.2 | 550 | 337 | + Lake trout.........| 17.8 | 1.0 | 363 | 323 | + Red snapper........| 19.2 | 1.0 | 389 | 348 | + Salmon (canned)....| 21.8 | 12.1 | 888 | 396 | + Whitefish..........| 22.9 | 6.5 | 680 | 415 | + | | | | | +_Meat_: | | | | | + Beef, round, | | | | | + medium fat.......| 20.3 | 13.6 | 895 | 368 | + Chicken, broilers..| 21.5 | 2.5 | 492 | 390 | + Fowl...............| 19.3 | 16.3 | 1,016 | 350 | + Lamb, leg..........| 19.2 | 16.5 | 870 | 348 | + Pork chops.........| 16.6 | 30.1 | 1,455 | 301 | +---------------------------------------------------------------- + +12. A study of this table will show that on the whole the percentage of +protein in the various kinds of fish is as much as that in meat, while +in a few instances, it is greater. This proves that so far as the +quantity of protein is concerned, these two foods are equally valuable +in their tissue-forming and tissue-building qualities. It will be seen +also that the percentage of fat in fish varies greatly, some varieties +containing more than meat, but most of them containing less. +Furthermore, the total food value per pound, in calories, is for the +most part greater in meat than in fish, whereas the food value per pound +due to protein is equivalent in most cases, but higher in some of the +fish than in the meat. + +13. It must also be remembered that the drying or preserving of fish +does not in any way decrease its food value. In fact, pound for pound, +dried fish, both smoked and salt, contains more nutritive value than +fresh fish, because the water, which decreases the food value of fresh +fish, is driven off in drying. However, when prepared for eating, dried +fish in all probability has more food value than fresh fish, because +water or moisture of some sort must be supplied in its preparation. + +14. The method of preparing dried or preserved fish, as well as fresh +fish, has much to do with the food value obtained from it. Just as +nutritive value is lost in the cooking of meat by certain methods, so it +may be lost in the preparation of fish if the proper methods are not +applied. To obtain as much food value from fish as possible, the various +points that are involved in its cookery must be thoroughly understood. +Certain facts concerning the buying of fish must also be kept in mind. +For instance, in canned fish, almost all the bones, skin, and other +inedible parts, except the tails, heads, and fins of very small fish, +have been removed before packing, indicating that practically all the +material purchased is edible. In the case of fresh fish, a large +percentage of what is bought must be wasted in preparation and in +eating, the percentage of waste varying from 5 to 45 per cent. + +15. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH.--The food value of any food is an important +item when its usefulness as a food is taken into account, but of equal +importance is the manner in which the body uses the food; that is, +whether it digests the food with ease or with difficulty. Therefore, +when the value of fish as a food is to be determined, its digestibility +must receive definite consideration. As has already been explained, much +depends on the cooking of the food in question. On the whole, fish is +found to be more easily digested than meat, with the exception perhaps +of a few kinds or certain cuts. That physicians recognize this +characteristic is evidenced by the fact that fish is often used in the +feeding of invalids or sick people when meat is not permitted. + +16. The ease with which fish is digested is influenced largely by the +quantity of fat it contains, for this fat, acting in identically the +same way as the fat of meat, has the effect of slowing the digestion +that is carried on in the stomach. It follows, then, that with possibly +one or two exceptions the kinds of fish most easily digested are those +which are lean. + +17. In addition to the correct cooking of fish and the presence of fat, +a factor that largely influences the digestibility of this food is the +length of the fibers of the flesh. It will be remembered that the parts +of an animal having long fibers are tougher and less easily digested +than those having short fibers. This applies with equal force in the +case of fish. Its truth is evident when it is known that cod, a lean +fish, is digested with greater difficulty than some of the fat fish +because of the length and toughness of its fibers. This, however, is +comparative, and it must not be thought that fish on the whole is +digested with difficulty. + +18. Another factor that influences the digestibility of fish is the +salting of it. Whether fish is salted dry or in brine, the salt hardens +the fibers and tissues. While the salt acts as a preservative in causing +this hardening, it, at the same time, makes the fish preserved in this +manner a little more difficult to digest. This slight difference need +scarcely be considered so far as the normal adult is concerned, but in +case of children or persons whose digestion is not entirely normal its +effect is likely to be felt. + + +PURCHASE AND CARE OF FISH + + +TABLE II + +NAMES, SEASONS, AND USES OF FRESH FISH + +NAME OF FISH SEASON METHOD OF COOKERY +Bass, black....... All the year........... Fried, baked +Bass, sea......... All the year........... Baked, broiled, fried +Bass, striped..... All the year........... Baked, broiled, fried +Bass, lake........ June 1 to January 1.... Baked, broiled, fried +Bluefish.......... May 1 to November 1.... Baked, broiled +Butterfish........ October 1 to May 1..... Fried, sauted +Carp.............. July 1 to November 1... Baked, broiled, fried +Catfish........... All the year........... Fried, sauted +Codfish........... All the year........... Boiled, fried, sauted, + baked, broiled +Eels.............. All the year........... Fried, boiled, baked +Flounder.......... All the year........... Sauted, fried, baked +Haddock........... All the year........... Steamed, boiled, fried +Halibut........... All the year........... Boiled, fried, creamed +Herring........... October 1 to May 1..... Sauted, fried, broiled +Kingfish.......... May 1 to November 1.... Boiled, steamed, baked +Mackerel.......... April 1 to October 1... Baked, broiled, + boiled, fried +Perch, fresh...... September 1 to June 1.. Fried, broiled + water +Pike, or.......... June 1 to January 1.... Fried, broiled, baked + pickerel, fresh + water +Porgies, salt..... June 15 to October 15.. Fried, sauted + water +Red snapper....... October 1 to April 1... Boiled, steamed +Salmon, Kennebec.. June 1 to October 1.... Broiled, baked, boiled +Salmon, Oregon.... October 1 to June 1.... Broiled, baked, boiled +Shad.............. January 1 to June 1.... Baked, broiled, fried +Shad roe.......... January 1 to June 1.... Broiled, fried +Sheepshead........ June 1 to September 15. Boiled, fried +Smelts............ August 15 to April 15.. Fried, sauted +Sole, English..... November 1 to May 1.... Baked, broiled, fried +Sunfish........... May 1 to December 1.... Fried, sauted +Trout, fresh...... April 1 to September 1. Baked, broiled, fried, + water boiled, sauted +Weakfish, or...... May 15 to October 15... Baked, broiled + sea trout +Whitebait......... May 1 to April 1....... Fried, sauted +Whitefish,........ November 1 to March 1.. Baked, fried, sauted, + fresh water broiled + +19. PURCHASE OF FISH.--The housewife has much to do with the market +price of fish and the varieties that are offered for sale, for these are +governed by the demand created by her. The fisherman's catch depends on +weather conditions, the season, and other uncertain factors. If the +kinds of fish he secures are not what the housewife demands, they either +will not be sent to market or will go begging on the market for want of +purchasers. Such a state of affairs should not exist, and it would not +if every housewife were to buy the kind of fish that is plentiful in her +home market. So that she may become familiar with the varieties that the +market affords, she should carefully study Tables II and III, which give +the names, seasons, and uses of both fresh fish and salt and smoked +fish. With the information given in these tables well in mind, she will +be able not only to select the kind she wants, but to cooperate better +with dealers. + +TABLE III + +NAMES, SEASONS, AND USES OF SALT AND SMOKED FISH + +NAME OF FISH SEASON METHOD OF COOKERY + + SALT FISH + +Anchovies........ All the year.. Served as a relish, stuffed + with various highly + seasoned mixtures, used + as flavor for sauce + +Codfish, dried... All the year.. Creamed, balls + +Herring, pickled. All the year.. Sauted + +Mackerel......... All the year.. Broiled, fried, sauted + +Salmon, salt..... All the year.. Fried, broiled, boiled + + SMOKED FISH + +Haddock, or...... October 15 to. Broiled, baked, creamed + finnan haddie April 1 + +Halibut.......... October 1 to.. Baked, broiled, fried + April 1 +Herring.......... All the year.. Served as a relish + without cooking + +Mackerel......... October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + November 1 + +Smoked salmon.... All the year.. Baked, boiled, fried + +Shad............. October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + May 1 + +Sturgeon......... October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + May 1 + +Whitefish........ October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + May 1 + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +20. Another point to be considered in the purchase of fish is the size. +Some fish, such as halibut and salmon, are so large that they must +usually be cut into slices or steaks to permit the housewife to purchase +the quantity she requires for immediate use. Other fish are of such size +that one is sufficient for a meal, and others are so small that several +must be purchased to meet the requirements. An idea or the difference in +the size of fish can be gained from Figs. 1 and 2. The larger fish in +Fig. 1 is a medium-sized whitefish and the smaller one is a smelt. Fish +about the size of smelts lend themselves readily to frying and sauteing, +whereas the larger kinds, like whitefish, may be prepared to better +advantage by baking either with or without suitable stuffing. The larger +fish in Fig. 2 is a carp and the smaller one is a pike. Much use is made +of pike, but carp has been more shunned than sought after. However, when +carp is properly cooked, it is a very palatable food, and, besides, it +possesses high food value. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +21. In the purchase of fish, the housewife, provided she is not obliged +to have fish for a particular day, will do well also to get away from +the one-day-a-week purchasing of fish; that is, if she is not obliged to +serve fish on Friday, she should endeavor to serve it on some other day. +Even twice a week is not too often. If such a plan were followed out, +fishermen would be able to market their catch when it is procured and +the waste of fish or the necessity for keeping it until a particular day +would be overcome. + +22. Another way in which the housewife can help herself in the selection +of fish is to become familiar with all the varieties of edible fish +caught in or near her community. When she has done this, it will be a +splendid plan for her to give those with which she is unfamiliar a +trial. She will be surprised at the many excellent varieties that are +obtained in her locality and consequently come to her fresher than fish +that has to be shipped long distances. + +23. FRESHNESS OF FISH.--In the purchase of fish, the housewife should +not permit herself to be influenced by any prejudice she may have as to +the name or the appearance of the fish. However, too much attention +cannot be paid to its freshness. + +Several tests can be applied to fish to determine whether or not it is +fresh; therefore, when a housewife is in doubt, she should make an +effort to apply them. Fish should not give off any offensive odor. The +eyes should be bright and clear, not dull nor sunken. The gills should +have a bright-red color, and there should be no blubber showing. The +flesh should be so firm that no dent will be made when it is touched +with the finger. Fish may also be tested for freshness by placing it in +a pan of water; if it sinks, it may be known to be fresh, but if it +floats it is not fit for use. + +24. CARE OF FISH IN THE HOME.--If fish is purchased in good condition, +and every effort should be made to see that it is, the responsibility of +its care in the home until it is presented to the family as a cooked +dish rests on the housewife. If, upon reaching the housewife, it has not +been cleaned, it should be cleaned at once. In case it has been cleaned +either by the fish dealer or the housewife and cannot be cooked at once, +it should be looked over carefully, immediately washed in cold water, +salted slightly inside and out, placed in a covered enamel or porcelain +dish, and then put where it will keep as cold as possible. If a +refrigerator is used, the fish should be put in the compartment from +which odors cannot be carried to foods in the other compartments. In +cold weather, an excellent plan is to put the fish out of doors instead +of in the refrigerator, for there it will remain sufficiently cold +without the use of ice. However, the best and safest way is to cook the +fish at once, so that storing it for any length of time after its +delivery will not be necessary. + +Salt and smoked fish do not, of course, require the same care as fresh +fish. However, as many of these varieties are strong in flavor, it is +well to weaken their flavor before cooking them by soaking them or, if +possible, by parboiling them. + + +PREPARATION OF FISH FOR COOKING + +25. CLEANING FISH.--Fish is usually prepared for cooking at the market +where it is purchased, but frequently a fish comes into the home just as +it has been caught. In order to prepare such a fish properly for +cooking, the housewife must understand how to clean it. The various +steps in cleaning fish are illustrated in Figs. 3 to 6. The first step +consists in removing the scales. To do this, place the fish on its side, +as shown in Fig. 3, grasp it firmly by the tail, and [Illustration: FIG. +3] then with the cutting edge of a knife, preferably a dull one, scrape +off the scales by quick motions of the knife toward the head of the +fish. When one side has been scraped clean, or _scaled_, as this +operation is called, turn the fish over and scale the other side. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +With the fish scaled, proceed to remove the entrails. As shown in Fig. +4, cut a slit in the belly from the head end to the vent, using a sharp +knife. Run the opening up well toward the head, as Fig. 5 shows, and +then through the opening formed draw out the entrails with the fingers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +If the head is to be removed, it should be cut off at this time. When a +fish is to be baked or prepared in some other way in which the head may +be retained, it is allowed to remain on, but it is kept more for an +ornament than for any other reason. To remove the head, slip a sharp +knife under the gills as far as possible, as Fig. 6 shows, and then cut +it off in such a way as not to remove with it any of the body of +the fish. + +Whether the head is removed or not, make sure that the cavity formed by +taking out the entrails is perfectly clean. Then wash the fish with cold +water and, if desired, cut off the fins and tail, although this is not +usually done. The fish, which is now properly prepared, may be cooked at +once or placed in the refrigerator until time for cooking. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +26. BONING FISH.--In the preparation of some kinds of fish, it is often +desired to bone the fish; that is, to remove the backbone and the ribs. +Figs. 7 to 10 show the various steps in the process of boning. After the +fish has been thoroughly cleaned, insert a sharp-pointed knife in the +back where it is cut from the head, as shown in Fig. 7, and loosen the +backbone at this place. Then, as in Fig. 8, slip the knife along the +ribs away from the backbone on both sides. After getting the bone well +loosened at the end, cut it from the flesh all the way down to the tail, +as shown in Fig. 9. When thus separated from the flesh, the backbone and +the ribs, which comprise practically all the bones in a fish, may be +lifted out intact, as is shown in Fig. 10. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +27. SKINNING FISH.--Some kinds of fish, especially those having no +scales, such as flounder, catfish, and eels, are made more palatable by +being skinned. To skin a fish, cut a narrow strip of the skin along the +spine from the head to the tail, as shown in Fig. 11. At this opening, +loosen the skin on one side where it is fastened to the bony part of the +fish and then, as in Fig. 12, draw it off around toward the belly, +working carefully so as not to tear the flesh. Sometimes it is a good +plan to use a knife for this purpose, working the skin loose from the +flesh with the knife and at the same time pulling the skin with the +other hand. After removing the skin from one side, turn the fish and +take off the skin from the other side in the same way. Care should be +taken to clean the fish properly before attempting to skin it. If the +fish is frozen, it should first be thawed in cold water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +28. FILLETING FISH.--As many recipes require fish to be cut into +_fillets_, that is, thick, flat slices from which the bone is removed, +it is well for the housewife to understand just how to accomplish this +part of the preparation. Figs. 13 to 15 show the filleting of a +flounder. While this process varies somewhat in the different varieties +of fish, the usual steps are the ones here outlined. After thoroughly +cleaning the flounder and removing the skin, lay the fish out flat and +cut the flesh down through the center from the head end to the tail, as +shown in Fig. 13. Then, with a knife, work each half of the flesh loose +from the bones, as in Fig. 14. With these two pieces removed, turn the +fish over, cut the flesh down through the center, and separate it from +the bones in the same manner as before. If a meat board is on hand, it +is a good plan to place the fish on such a board before removing the +flesh. At the end of the filleting process, the flounder should appear +as shown in Fig. 15, the long, narrow strips on the right being the +flesh and that remaining on the board being the bones intact. The strips +thus produced may be cut into pieces of any preferred size. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + + * * * * * + +RECIPES FOR FISH AND FISH ACCOMPANIMENTS + +METHODS OF COOKING FISH + +29. As Tables II and III show, practically all methods of cookery are +applicable in the cooking of fish. For instance, fish may be boiled, +steamed, baked, fried, broiled, sauted, and, in addition, used for +various kinds of bisques, chowders, and numerous other made dishes. The +effect of these different methods is exactly the same on fish as on +meat, since the two foods are the same in general construction. The +cookery method to select depends largely on the size, kind, quality, and +flavor of the fish. Just as an old chicken with well-developed muscles +is not suitable for broiling, so a very large fish should not be broiled +unless it can be cut into slices, steaks, or thin pieces. Cook cutting +fish with knife. Such a fish is usually either stuffed and baked or +baked without stuffing, but when it is cut into slices, the slices may +be sauted, fried, broiled, or steamed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15 Fish on cutting board] + +Some varieties of fish are more or less tasteless. These should be +prepared by a cookery method that will improve their flavor, or if the +cooking fails to add flavor, a highly seasoned or highly flavored sauce +should be served with them. The acid of vinegar or lemon seems to assist +in bringing out the flavor of fish, so when a sauce is not used, a slice +of lemon is often served with the fish. + + +RECIPES FOR FISH SAUCES AND STUFFINGS + +30. As many of the recipes for fish call for sauce and stuffing, recipes +for these accompaniments are taken up before the methods of cooking fish +are considered. This plan will make it possible for the beginner to +become thoroughly familiar with these accompaniments and thus be better +prepared to carry out the recipes for cooking fish. + +31. SAUCES FOR FISH.--Sauces are generally served with fish to improve +their flavor and increase their nutritive value. Some kinds of fish, +such as salmon, shad, butterfish, Spanish mackerel, etc., contain more +than 6 per cent. of fat, but as many of the fish that are used for food +contain less than this, they are somewhat dry and are improved +considerably by the addition of a well-seasoned and highly flavored +sauce. Then, too, some fish contain very few extractives, which, when +present, as has been learned, are the source of flavor in food. As some +of the methods of cooking, boiling in particular, dissolve the few +extractives that fish contain and cause the loss of much of the +nutritive material, it becomes almost necessary to serve a sauce with +fish so prepared, if a tasty dish is to be the result. + +32. The sauces that may be used with fish are numerous, and the one to +select depends somewhat on the cookery method employed and the +preference of those to whom the fish is served. Among the recipes that +follow will be found sauces suitable for any method that may be used in +the preparation of fish. A little experience with them will enable the +housewife to determine the ones that are most satisfactory as to both +flavor and nutritive value for the different varieties of fish she uses +and the methods of cookery she employs. + +LEMON CREAM SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 c. thin cream +Salt and pepper +Juice of 1 lemon or 1 Tb. vinegar + +Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the flour, and continue stirring +until the two are well mixed. Add to this the thin cream and stir until +the mixture is thick and boils. Season with salt, pepper, and the juice +of the lemon or the vinegar. + +SPANISH SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +1 slice of onion +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. milk +1/4 c. tomato puree +1/4 c. chopped pimiento + +Brown the butter with the onion, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and +stir until well blended. Add the milk and allow the mixture to cook +until it thickens. To this add the tomato and pimiento. Heat thoroughly +and serve. + +NUT SAUCE + +1 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. peanut butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. meat stock + +Melt the butter and add the flour and peanut butter. When they are well +mixed, allow them to brown slightly. Add the salt and pepper to this +mixture and pour into it the meat stock. Bring to the boiling point +and serve. + +HORSERADISH SAUCE + +1/2 c. cream +1/4 c. boiled salad dressing +2 Tb. grated horseradish +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. paprika +1/4 tsp. mustard + +Whip the cream until stiff; then add the salad dressing, horseradish, +salt, paprika, and mustard. When well blended, the sauce is ready +to serve. + +EGG SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +3/4 c. milk +/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. vinegar +1 egg +1 Tb. chopped parsley + +Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir until well blended. Add the +milk, salt, and pepper, and cook until the mixture thickens. To this add +the vinegar, the egg chopped fine, and the chopped parsley. Heat +thoroughly and serve. + +TOMATO SAUCE + +2 c. tomato puree +1 small onion, sliced +1 bay leaf +6 cloves +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Strain stewed tomato to make the puree. Put this over the fire in a +saucepan with the sliced onion, the bay leaf, and the cloves. Cook +slowly for about 10 minutes. Strain to remove the onion, bay leaf, and +cloves. Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and into this +pour the hot tomato. Cook until it thickens and serve. + +MUSHROOM SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +1 slice of carrot +1 slice of onion +Sprig of parsley +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. flour +1 c. meat stock +1/2 c. mushrooms +2 tsp. lemon juice + +Put the butter in a frying pan with the carrot, onion, parsley, salt, +and pepper, and cook together until brown. Remove the onion, carrot, and +parsley. Stir in the flour, brown it slightly, and then add the meat +stock. Cook together until thickened. Just before removing from the +fire, add the mushrooms, chopped into fine pieces, and the lemon juice. +Allow it to heat thoroughly and then serve. + +DRAWN-BUTTER SAUCE + +1/4 c. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1-1/2 c. hot water +2 hard-cooked eggs + +Melt the butter, and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Pour into this the +hot water, and cook until the mixture thickens. Slice the eggs into +1/4-inch slices and add these to the sauce just before removing from +the stove. + +33. STUFFING FOR FISH.--As has been mentioned, fish that is to be baked +is often stuffed before it is put into the oven. The stuffing not only +helps to preserve the shape of the fish, but also provides a means of +extending the flavor of the fish to a starchy food, for bread or cracker +crumbs are used in the preparation of most stuffings. Three recipes for +fish stuffing are here given, the first being made of bread crumbs and +having hot water for the liquid, the second of cracker crumbs and having +milk for the liquid, and the third of bread crumbs and having stewed +tomato for the liquid. + +FISH STUFFING No. 1 + +1/4 c. butter +1/2 c. hot water +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 tsp. onion juice +1 Tb. chopped parsley +2 c. fine bread crumbs + +Melt the butter in the hot water, add the salt, pepper, onion juice, and +parsley, and pour over the crumbs. Mix thoroughly and use to stuff +the fish. + +FISH STUFFING No. 2 + +1/2 c. milk +2 c. cracker crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/4 c. melted butter +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 egg + +Warm the milk and add it to the crumbs, together with the salt, pepper, +melted butter, and parsley. To this mixture, add the beaten egg. When +well mixed, use as stuffing for fish. + +FISH STUFFING No. 3 + +2 Tb. butter +1 Tb. finely chopped onion +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. chopped sour pickles +1/2 c. stewed tomato +2 c. stale bread crumbs + +Melt the butter and add the onion, parsley, salt, pepper, pickles, and +tomato. Pour this mixture over the crumbs, mix all thoroughly, and use +to stuff the fish. If the dressing seems to require more liquid than the +stewed tomato, add a little water. + + +RECIPES FOR FRESH FISH + +34. BOILED FISH.--Boiling extracts flavor and, to some extent, nutriment +from the food to which this cookery method is applied. Therefore, unless +the fish to be cooked is one that has a very strong flavor and that will +be improved by the loss of flavor, it should not be boiled. Much care +should be exercised in boiling fish, because the meat is usually so +tender that it is likely to boil to pieces or to fall apart. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +35. A utensil in which fish can be boiled or steamed very satisfactorily +is shown in Fig. 16. This _fish boiler_, as it is called, is a long, +narrow, deep pan with a cover and a rack on which the fish is placed. +Attached to each end of the rack is an upright strip, or handle, that +permits the rack containing the fish to be lifted out of the pan and the +fish thus removed without breaking. To assist further in holding the +fish together while it is cooking, a piece of gauze or cheesecloth may +be wrapped around the fish before it is put into the pan. + +36. When a fish is to be boiled, clean it and, if desired, remove the +head. Pour sufficient boiling water to cover the fish well into the +vessel in which it is to be cooked, and add salt in the proportion of 1 +teaspoonful to each quart of water. Tie the fish in a strip of +cheesecloth or gauze if necessary, and lower it into the vessel of +slowly boiling water. Allow the fish to boil until it may be easily +pierced with a fork; then take it out of the water and remove the cloth, +provided one is used. Serve with a well-seasoned sauce, such as lemon +cream, horseradish, etc. + +37. BOILED COD.--A fish that lends itself well to boiling is fresh cod. +In fact, codfish prepared according to this method and served with a +sauce makes a very appetizing dish. + +Scale, clean, and skin a fresh cod and wrap it in a single layer of +gauze or cheesecloth. Place it in a kettle or a pan of freshly boiling +water to which has been added 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of +water. Boil until the fish may be easily pierced with a fork, take from +the water, and remove the gauze or cheesecloth carefully so as to keep +the fish intact. Serve with sauce and slices of lemon. + +38. STEAMED FISH.--The preparation of fish by steaming is practically +the same as that by boiling, and produces a dish similar to boiled fish. +The only difference is that steamed fish is suspended over the water and +is cooked by the steam that rises instead of being cooked directly in +the water. Because the fish is not surrounded by water, it does not lose +its nutriment and flavor so readily as does boiled fish. + +If fish is to be cooked by steaming, first clean it thoroughly. Wrap in +a strip of gauze or cheesecloth and place in a steamer. Steam until +tender, and then remove the cloth and place the fish on a platter. As +steaming does not add flavor, it is usually necessary to supply flavor +to fish cooked in this way by adding a sauce of some kind. + +39. BROILED FISH.--The best way in which to cook small fish, thin strips +of fish, or even good-sized fish that are comparatively thin when they +are split open is to broil them. Since in this method of cooking the +flavor is entirely retained, it is especially desirable for any fish of +delicate flavor. + +To broil fish, sear them quickly over a very hot fire and then cook them +more slowly until they are done, turning frequently to prevent burning. +As most fish, and particularly the small ones used for broiling, contain +almost no fat, it is necessary to supply fat for successful broiling and +improvement of flavor. It is difficult to add fat to the fish while it +is broiling, so, as a rule, the fat is spread over the surface of the +fish after it has been removed from the broiler. The fat may consist of +broiled strips of bacon or salt pork, or it may be merely melted butter +or other fat. + +40. BROILED SCROD WITH POTATO BORDER.--Young cod that is split down the +back and that has had the backbone removed with the exception of a small +portion near the tail is known as _scrod_. Such fish is nearly always +broiled, it may be served plain, but it is much more attractive when +potatoes are combined with it in the form of an artistic border. + +To prepare this dish, broil the scrod according to the directions given +in Art. 39. Then place it on a hot platter and spread butter over it. +Boil the desired number of potatoes until they are tender, and then +force them through a ricer or mash them until they are perfectly fine. +Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and add sufficient milk to make a +paste that is a trifle stiffer than for mashed potatoes. If desired, raw +eggs may also be beaten into the potatoes to serve as a part of the +moisture. Fill a pastry bag with the potatoes thus prepared and press +them through a rosette tube in any desired design on the platter around +the fish. Bake in a hot oven until the potatoes are thoroughly heated +and are browned slightly on the top. + +41. BROILED FRESH MACKEREL.--Probably no fish lends itself better to +broiling than fresh mackerel, as the flesh of this fish is tender and +contains sufficient fat to have a good flavor. To improve the flavor, +however, strips of bacon are usually placed over the fish and allowed to +broil with it. + +Clean and skin a fresh mackerel. Place the fish thus prepared in a +broiler, and broil first on one side and then on the other. When seared +all over, place strips of bacon over the fish and continue to broil +until it is done. Remove from the broiler, season with salt and pepper, +and serve. + +42. BROILED SHAD ROE.--The mass of eggs found in shad, as shown in Fig. +17, is known as the _roe_ of shad. Roe may be purchased separately, when +it is found in the markets from January 1 to June 1, or it may be +procured from the fish itself. It makes a delicious dish when broiled, +especially when it is rolled in fat and bread crumbs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +Wash the roe that is to be used and dry it carefully between towels. +Roll it in bacon fat or melted butter and then in fine crumbs. Place in +a broiler, broil until completely done on one side, turn and then broil +until entirely cooked on the other side. Remove from the broiler and +pour melted butter over each piece. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and +serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +43. BAKED FISH.--Good-sized fish, that is, fish weighing 4 or 5 pounds, +are usually baked. When prepared by this method, fish are very +satisfactory if they are spread out on a pan, flesh side up, and baked +in a very hot oven with sufficient fat to flavor them well. A fish of +large size, however, is especially delicious if its cavity is filled +with a stuffing before it is baked. + +When a fish is to be stuffed, any desired stuffing is prepared and then +filled into the fish in the manner shown in Fig. 18. With the cavity +well filled, the edges of the fish are drawn together over the stuffing +and sewed with a coarse needle and thread, as Fig. 19 shows. + +Whether the fish is stuffed or not, the same principles apply in its +baking as apply in the roasting of meat; that is, the heat of a quick, +hot oven sears the flesh, keeps in the juices, and prevents the loss of +flavor, while that of a slow oven causes the loss of much of the flavor +and moisture and produces a less tender dish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +44. Often, in the baking of fish, it is necessary to add fat. This may +be done by putting fat of some kind into the pan with the fish, by +spreading strips of bacon over the fish, or by larding it. In the dry +varieties of fish, larding, which is illustrated in Fig. 20, proves very +satisfactory, for it supplies the substance in which the fish is most +lacking. As will be observed, larding is done by inserting strips of +bacon or salt pork that are about 3 inches long and 1/4 inch thick into +gashes cut into the sides of the fish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +45. BAKED HADDOCK.--As haddock is a good-sized fish, it is an especially +suitable one for baking. However, it is a dry fish, so fat should be +added to it to improve its flavor. Any of the methods suggested in Art. +44 may be used to supply the fat that this fish needs. + +When haddock is to be baked, select a 4 or 5-pound fish, clean it +thoroughly, boning it if desired, and sprinkle it inside and out with +salt. Fill the cavity with any desired stuffing and sew up. Place in a +dripping pan, and add some bacon fat or a piece of salt pork, or place +several slices of bacon around it. Bake in a hot oven for about 1 hour. +After it has been in the oven for about 15 minutes, baste with the fat +that will be found in the bottom of the pan and continue to baste every +10 minutes until the fish is done. Remove from the pan to a platter, +garnish with parsley and slices of broiled bacon, and serve with any +desired sauce. + +46. BAKED HALIBUT.--Because of its size, halibut is cut into slices and +sold in the form of steaks. It is probably one of the most economical +varieties of fish to buy, for very little bone is contained in a slice +and the money that the housewife expends goes for almost solid meat. +Halibut slices are often sauted, but they make a delicious dish when +baked with tomatoes and flavored with onion, lemon, and bay leaf, as +described in the accompanying recipe. + +BAKED HALIBUT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. tomatoes +Few slices onion +1 bay leaf +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 thin slices bacon +1 Tb. flour +2 lb. halibut steak + +Heat the tomatoes, onion, and bay leaf in water. Add the salt and pepper +and cook for a few minutes. Cut the bacon into small squares, try it out +in a pan, and into this fat stir the flour. Pour this into the hot +mixture, remove the bay leaf, and cook until the mixture thickens. Put +the steaks into a baking dish, pour the sauce over them, and bake in a +slow oven for about 45 minutes. Remove with the sauce to a hot platter +and serve. + +47. BAKED FILLETS OF WHITEFISH.--When whitefish of medium size can be +secured, it is very often stuffed and baked whole, but variety can be +had by cutting it into fillets before baking it. Besides producing a +delicious dish, this method of preparation eliminates carving at the +table, for the pieces can be cut the desired size for serving. + +Prepare fillets of whitefish according to the directions for filleting +fish in Art. 28. Sprinkle each one with salt and pepper, and dip it +first into beaten egg and then into bread crumbs. Brown some butter in a +pan, place the fish into it, and set the pan in a hot oven. Bake until +the fillets are a light brown, or about 30 minutes. Remove to a hot +dish, garnish with parsley and serve with any desired sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +48. FILLET OF FLOUNDER.--In appearance, flounder is not so attractive as +many other fish, but it is a source of excellent flesh and is therefore +much used. A very appetizing way in which to prepare flounder is to +fillet it and prepare it according to the accompanying recipe, when it +will appear as in Fig. 21. + +Secure a flounder and fillet it in the manner explained in Art. 28. Cut +each fillet into halves, making eight pieces from one flounder. Cut +small strips of salt pork or bacon, roll the pieces of flounder around +these, and fasten with a toothpick. Place in a baking dish with a small +quantity of water, and bake in a hot oven until a good brown. Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +49. PLANKED FISH.--Like planked steak, planked fish, which is +illustrated in Fig. 22, is a dish that appeals to the eye and pleases +the taste. The fish is baked on the plank and then surrounded with a +border of potatoes, the fish and potatoes making an excellent food. + +To prepare planked fish, thoroughly clean and bone a medium-size +whitefish, shad, haddock, or any desired fish. Grease a plank and place +the fish on it. Lay some strips of bacon across the top of the fish, +place in a hot oven, and bake for about 30 minutes or a little longer if +necessary. Boil potatoes and prepare them for piping by mashing them, +using 4 tablespoonfuls of milk, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and one egg +to each 2 cupfuls of potato. Then, with a rosette pastry tube, pipe a +border of potatoes around the edge of the plank, so that it will appear +as in Fig. 22. Likewise, pipe rosettes of potatoes on the strips of +bacon placed on top of the fish. Then replace the plank with the fish +and potatoes in the oven, and bake until the potatoes are brown. Garnish +with parsley and serve. + +50. FRIED FISH.--Very small fish or slices of larger fish are often +fried in deep fat. When they are prepared in this way, they are first +dipped into beaten egg and then into crumbs or corn meal to form a +coating that will cling to their surface. Coated with such a material, +they are fried in deep fat until the surface is nicely browned. After +being removed from the fat, they should be drained well before serving. + +51. FRIED PERCH.--When fried in deep fat, perch is found to be very +appetizing. To prepare it in this way, secure a perch and scale and +clean it. Cut it crosswise into 2-inch strips, roll each piece in flour, +and fry in deep fat until nicely browned. Serve hot with lemon or with a +sauce of some kind. + +52. FRIED EEL.--If an appetizing way to cook eel is desired, it will be +found advisable to fry it in deep fat. When it is to be cooked in this +way, skin and clean the eel and cut it into thick slices. Pour some +vinegar over the slices, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and allow +them to stand for several hours. Remove the pieces from the vinegar, dip +each one into slightly beaten egg and then into flour, and fry in deep +fat until well browned. Serve plain or with a sauce. + +53. SAUTED FISH.--Without doubt, the most popular way to prepare fish is +to saute them. This method may be applied to practically the same kinds +of fish that are fried or broiled, and it is especially desirable for +the more tasteless varieties. It consists in browning the fish well in a +small quantity of fat, first on one side and then on the other. If fat +of good flavor is used, such as bacon or ham fat, the flavor of the +fish will be very much improved. Before sauteing, the fish or pieces of +fish are often dipped into slightly beaten egg and then rolled in flour, +very fine cracker crumbs, or corn meal, or the egg is omitted and they +are merely covered with the dry, starchy material. The effect of this +method of cooking is very similar to that of deep-fat frying, except +that the outside tissues are apt to become, very hard from the +application of the hot fat because of the coating that is generally +used. Since most fish breaks very easily, it is necessary that it be +handled carefully in this method in order that the pieces may be +kept whole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +54. SAUTED SMELTS.--To be most satisfactory, smelts are generally +sauted, as shown in Fig. 23. Fish of this kind are prepared for cooking +by cutting off the heads and removing the entrails through the opening +thus made; or, if it is desired to leave the heads on, the entrails may +be removed through the gill or a small slit cut below the mouth. At any +rate, these fish are not cut open as are most other fish. + +With the fish thus prepared, roll them in fine cracker crumbs and saute +them in melted butter until they are nicely browned. Serve with +slices of lemon. + +55. SAUTED HALIBUT STEAK.--Slices of halibut, when firm in texture and +cut about 3/4 inch thick, lend themselves very well to sauteing. Secure +the required number of such slices and sprinkle each with salt and +pepper. Then spread melted butter over each steak, and roll it in fine +crumbs. Place fat in a frying pan, allow it to become hot, and saute the +halibut in this until well browned. + +56. SAUTED PICKEREL.--A variety of fresh-water fish that finds favor +with most persons is pickerel. When this fish is to be sauted, scale +and clean it and cut it crosswise into 2-inch strips. Then roll each +piece in flour, sprinkle it with salt and pepper, and saute the slices +in hot fat. When one side is sufficiently brown, turn and brown on the +other side. + +57. STEWED FISH.--Like boiling, stewing extracts flavor and nutriment +from fish. The process differs, however, in that the fish is cooked +gently by simmering. This cookery method is employed for fish that is +inclined to be tough. Usually, vegetables, such as carrots and onions, +are cooked with the fish in order to impart flavor. To prevent the fish +from falling apart, it may be wrapped in cheesecloth or gauze. + +58. STEWED FRESH HERRING.--When fresh herring can be obtained, it can be +made into a delicious dish by stewing it with onions, parsley, and +carrots. In this method of preparation, the herring should not be +permitted to stew rapidly; it will become more tender if it simmers +gently. As herring are rather small fish, weighing only about 1/2 pound, +it will usually be necessary to obtain more than one for a meal. + +Clean the required number of fresh herring, place them in a saucepan, +and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Brown some slices of onion in +butter, and add the same number of slices of carrots and a generous +quantity of parsley. Add enough boiling water to these vegetables to +cover them and the fish, and pour both over the fish. Place all on the +fire and simmer gently until the fish is tender. Remove the fish from +the water and serve. The vegetables are used merely to add flavor, and +they will have practically boiled away by the time the fish is cooked. + +59. STEWED EEL.--Eel is delicious when stewed. When allowed to simmer +slowly with several slices of onion and a little parsley, it becomes +both tasty and tender. + +Skin and clean the eel that is to be stewed, remove all the fat, and cut +into pieces about 2 inches long. Season well with salt and pepper and +place in a saucepan with several slices of onion, 1 tablespoonful of +chopped parsley, and 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Add enough cold water +to cover well, and allow the eel to simmer gently until it is tender +enough to be pierced with a fork. Remove from the water and serve hot. + + +RECIPES FOR SALT AND SMOKED FISH + +60. PLACE OF SALT AND SMOKED FISH IN THE DIET.--In regions where fresh +fish cannot be obtained or in seasons when they are scarce everywhere, +the housewife will do well to use salt and smoked fish. These varieties +of fish not only will give her a chance to vary the diet, but will +enable her to provide at a more economical price, food that, pound for +pound, contains more nutriment than the same fish when fresh. While some +of the varieties of smoked and salt fish may not be obtainable in all +communities, the housewife will do much toward bringing the supply to +her community by requesting them from the dealer. When a dealer knows +that there is a demand for certain kinds, he will make an effort to +secure the varieties wanted. + +61. FRESHENING SALT AND SMOKED FISH.--The cooking of salt and smoked +fish is not a difficult matter, but it always involves the freshening of +the fish before any cooking method can be applied. This consists in +placing the fish in a large quantity of water and allowing it to stand +until enough of the salt has been extracted to suit the taste. Some +kinds of fish are so salty that they require considerable soaking, +whereas others require only a little freshening. However, it is usually +advisable to change the water several times. If it is desired to hasten +the extraction of the salt, the fish should be raised above the bottom +of the vessel by means of a wire rack or several clean sticks. In the +case of very thick fish, several gashes may be cut into the flesh to +permit the salt to pass out more readily. + +62. CREAMED CODFISH.--Since codfish is a rather dry fish, containing +little fat, it is usually combined with some other food to make it more +appetizing. In the case of creamed codfish, the cream sauce supplies the +food substances in which the fish is lacking and at the same time +provides a very palatable dish. When codfish is prepared in this way, +boiled potatoes are usually served with it. + +To make creamed codfish, freshen the required amount of codfish by +pouring lukewarm water over it. Shred the fish by breaking it into small +pieces with the fingers. Pour off the water, add fresh warm water, and +allow the fish to stand until it is not too salty. When it is +sufficiently freshened, drain off all the water. Melt a little butter in +a frying pan, add the fish, and saute until slightly browned. Make a +medium white sauce and pour it over the codfish. Serve hot with +boiled potatoes. + +63. CODFISH BALLS.--Another excellent way in which to serve codfish is +to combine it with mashed potatoes, make these into balls, and fry them +in deep fat. These give variety to meals and also afford an opportunity +to serve a nutritious food. + +Freshen the codfish as explained in Art. 61, and then mince it very +fine. Add an equal amount of freshly cooked hot potato that has been put +through a potato ricer or mashed fine. Mix thoroughly and, if necessary, +season with salt and pepper. Shape into balls and fry in deep fat. Drain +well and serve hot. + +64. SAUTED SALT MACKEREL.--When an extremely tasty dish that will afford +a change from the usual daily routine of meals is desired, sauted salt +mackerel will be found very satisfactory. + +Freshen salt mackerel that is to be sauted by putting it into a saucepan +and covering it with cold water. Place this over the fire, and allow the +water to heat to almost the boiling point. Pour off the water, and saute +the fish in butter or other fat until nicely browned. If desired, pour a +small amount of thin cream over the mackerel just before removing it +from the pan, allow this to heat, and serve it as a sauce with +the mackerel. + +65. BAKED FINNAN HADDIE.--When haddock is cured by smoking, it is known +as _finnan haddie_. As fish of this kind has considerable thick flesh, +it is very good for baking. Other methods of cookery may, of course, be +applied to it, but none is more satisfactory than baking. + +To bake a finnan haddie, wash it in warm water and put it to soak in +fresh warm water. After it has soaked for 1/2 hour, allow it to come +gradually to nearly the boiling point and then pour off the water. Place +the fish in a baking pan, add a piece of butter, sprinkle with pepper, +and pour a little water over it. Bake in a hot oven until it is nicely +browned. Serve hot. + +66. CREAMED FINNAN HADDIE.--The flavor of finnan haddie is such that +this fish becomes very appetizing when prepared with a cream sauce. If, +after combining the sauce with the fish, the fish is baked in the oven, +an especially palatable dish is the result. + +To prepare creamed finnan haddie, freshen the fish and shred it into +small pieces. Then measure the fish, put it into a baking dish, and +pour an equal amount of white sauce over it. Sprinkle generously with +crumbs and bake in a hot oven until the crumbs are browned. Serve hot. + +67. BOILED SALMON.--When smoked salmon can be secured, it makes a +splendid fish for boiling. If it is cooked until tender and then served +with a well-seasoned sauce, it will find favor with most persons. + +Freshen smoked salmon in warm water as much as seems necessary, +remembering that the cooking to which it will be subjected will remove a +large amount of the superfluous salt. Cover the salmon with hot water, +and simmer slowly until it becomes tender. Remove from the water, pour a +little melted butter over it, and serve with any desired sauce. + + +RECIPES FOR CANNED FISH + +68. CANNED FISH IN THE DIET.--As a rule, canned fish is a comparatively +cheap food and there is no reason why the economical housewife should +not make frequent use of the various kinds. It should be bought, +however, from a reputable firm, in order that the greatest value may be +obtained for the money spent. In addition, it should be used as soon as +possible after the can has been opened; if all of it cannot be utilized +at one time, it should be placed in a covered receptacle--not a metal +one--and kept cold to prevent it from spoiling. Often canned fish can be +served without any further preparation than removing it from the can. +However, as some varieties, particularly salmon and tuna fish, are much +used in the preparation of both cold and cooked dishes, several recipes +are here given for these varieties. + +69. CREAMED TUNA FISH.--Combining tuna fish with a cream sauce and +serving it over toast makes a dish that is both delicate and +palatable--one that will prove very satisfactory when something to take +the place of meat in a light meal is desired. + +CREAMED TUNA FISH +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 Tb. butter +3 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/8 tsp. paprika +1-1/2 c. hot milk +1-1/2 c. tuna fish +1 egg + +Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the flour, salt, pepper, and +paprika. Stir well, pour in the milk, and when this has thickened add +the tuna fish. Allow this to heat thoroughly in the sauce. Just before +serving, add the slightly beaten egg and cook until this has thickened. +Pour over toast and serve. + +70. SALMON MOLD.--A change from the usual way of serving salmon can be +had by making a salmon mold such as is illustrated in Fig. 24. Besides +being a delicious dish and providing variety in the diet, salmon mold is +very attractive. + +SALMON MOLD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. salmon +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. gelatine +1-1/2 c. boiling water + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +Remove all skin and bones from the salmon when it is taken from the can, +and mince it thoroughly with a fork. Add the vinegar, salt, and pepper. +Prepare the gelatine by dissolving it in the boiling water. Add the +seasoned salmon to the prepared gelatine. With cold water, wet a +ring-shaped mold having an open space in the center. Pour the +salmon-and-gelatine mixture into this mold, and allow it to stand until +it solidifies. Arrange a bed of lettuce leaves on a chop plate, turn the +mold out on this, and fill the center with dressing. Serve at once. A +very desirable dressing for this purpose is made as follows: + +DRESSING FOR SALMON MOLD + +1 c. cream +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. sugar +1 c. finely chopped cucumber + +Whip the cream until it is stiff, and add the vinegar, salt, and sugar. +Fold into this the finely chopped cucumber. + +71. SALMON PATTIES.--Delicious patties can be made from salmon by +combining it with bread crumbs and using a thick white sauce to hold the +ingredients together. These may be either sauted in shallow fat or fried +in deep fat. + +SALMON PATTIES +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +2 c. finely minced salmon +1 c. fresh bread crumbs +1 c. thick white sauce +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +Dry bread crumbs + +With the salmon, mix the fresh bread crumbs and the white sauce. Season +with salt and pepper. Shape into round patties, roll in the dry bread +crumbs, and fry in deep fat or saute in shallow fat. Serve hot with or +without sauce. + +72. CREAMED SALMON WITH RICE.--A creamed protein dish is always more +satisfactory if it is served on some other food, particularly one high +in carbohydrate. When this is done, a better balanced dish is the +result. Creamed salmon and rice make a very nutritious and appetizing +combination. + +CREAMED SALMON WITH RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. salmon +1 c. medium white sauce +Steamed rice + +Break the salmon into moderately small pieces and carefully fold these +into the hot white sauce. Serve this on a mound of hot steamed rice. + + +RECIPES FOR LEFT-OVER FISH + +73. So as not to waste any food material, it is necessary that all +left-over fish be utilized in some way. This is not so simple a matter +as in the case of meat, because fish is one of the foods that are not +popular as a left-over dish. Still fish left-overs can be used if a +little thought is given to the matter. Of course, it is a wise plan to +prepare only the quantity of fish that can be consumed at the meal for +which it is cooked, but should any remain it should not be thrown away, +for some use can be made of it. A point to remember, however, is that +fish is not satisfactory in soup of any kind except a fish soup; +therefore, bits of left-over fish may be added to only such soups as +clam chowder or other fish chowder. + +Whether the fish has been boiled, steamed, baked, fried, sauted, or +prepared in any other way, it may always be made into croquettes. When +used for this purpose, all the bones should be carefully removed. These +may be easily taken out after the fish has become cold. If the fish has +been stuffed and part of the stuffing remains, it may be broken into +pieces and used with the flesh of the fish. A recipe for croquettes in +which fish is combined with rice follows. + +74. FISH CROQUETTES.--If any quantity of left-over fish is on hand, it +may be combined with rice to make very tasty croquettes. + +FISH CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. cold fish +1 c. cold steamed rice +1 c. thick white sauce +Salt and pepper +1 egg +Crumbs + +Mince the fish into small pieces, mix with the rice, and add the white +sauce. Season with salt and pepper and shape into croquettes. Dip into +slightly beaten egg, roll in crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Drain and +serve with any desired sauce. + +75. CREAMED FISH IN POTATO NEST.--Fish may also be combined with mashed +potato to produce a most appetizing dish. Line a baking dish with hot +mashed potato, leaving a good-sized hollow in the center. Into this pour +creamed fish made by mixing equal proportions of left-over cold fish and +white sauce. Season well with salt and pepper, sprinkle with crumbs, and +dot the top with butter. Bake until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot. + + * * * * * + +SHELL FISH + +NATURE, VARIETIES, AND USE OF SHELL FISH + +76. Besides the varieties of fish that have already been considered, the +general term fish also includes SHELL FISH. Fish of this kind are +different in structure from bony fish, for they are acquatic animals +that are entirely or partly encased in shells. They include _mollusks_, +or _bivalves_, such as oysters, clams, and scallops, and _crustaceans_, +such as lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. + +77. The popularity of the edible varieties of mollusks and crustaceans +mentioned depends largely on whether they can be easily obtained and +whether they are pleasing to the local or individual taste. As they are +found in salt rivers, bays, and other shallow salt-water sources, their +greatest use is among people living near the seashore, but they are much +favored where they can be procured in edible condition. They are not so +cheap as many other fish foods; that is, a certain amount of money will +not purchase so great a quantity of shell fish, lobster for instance, as +some of the well-known varieties of fish proper, such as halibut or +whitefish. Lobsters and crabs are usually more expensive than oysters +and clams; consequently, they are used more often to provide a delicacy +or to supply something more or less uncommon for a special meal. + +78. Several precautions should be observed in purchasing shell fish. For +instance, crabs and lobsters should be purchased alive. They are usually +shipped on ice so that they will remain in this condition for some time, +and they are displayed on ice in the markets for the same reason. Such +shell fish should be kept alive until they are plunged into boiling +water to cook. Oysters and clams bought in the shell must also be alive +when purchased. A tightly closed shell indicates that they are alive, +whereas a slightly open shell proves that they are dead. If these two +varieties are bought out of the shells, the fish themselves should not +be accompanied by a great quantity of liquid. Considerable liquid is an +indication that the oysters or clams have been adulterated by the +addition of water. Formerly it was the custom to keep oysters in fresh +water, as the water they absorb bloats or fattens them. This practice, +however, has fallen into disfavor. + +79. Shell fish lend themselves admirably to a large variety of dishes, +including soups, entrees, salads, and substitutes for meat dishes. They +possess a great deal of distinctive flavor, their food value is +comparatively high, and, provided they are in good condition and are +properly prepared, they are healthful and easily digested. It can +therefore be seen that shell fish have much to recommend their use. +There is considerable danger, however, in using any varieties that are +not perfectly fresh or freshly cooked. In the case of mollusks, or +bivalves, much harm has resulted from the use of those which have been +grown or bred in unsanitary surroundings. Because of these facts, it is +of the utmost importance that great care be exercised in selecting and +preparing shell fish. + +80. COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL FISH.--In composition, the +varieties of fish included under shell fish do not differ greatly from +fish proper. Most of them, however, contain more waste and less of the +food substances than fish, so that their food value is somewhat lower. +Table IV will serve to give a good idea of the composition and food +value of the several varieties of shell fish, and in studying it, a good +plan will be to compare it with Table I, which gives the food value of +fish. As will be observed, protein forms a very large proportion of the +food substance of shell fish. Also, they contain more carbohydrates than +fish, the amount ranging from .4 to 5.2 per cent., which is in the form +of sugar. Although this amount is too small to warrant much +consideration as a supply of carbohydrates, it is mentioned because it +is an interesting fact. + +TABLE IV + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL FISH + +Name of Fish Water Protein Fat Total Ash Food Value + Carbo- Per Pound + hydrates Calories +Clams, removed + from shell 80.8 10.6 1.1 5.2 2.3 340 +Crabs, whole 77.1 16.6 2.0 1.2 3.1 415 +Lobsters, whole 79.2 16.4 1.8 .4 2.2 390 +Oysters, in shell 86.9 6.2 1.2 3.7 2.0 235 +Scallops 80.3 14.8 .1 3.4 1.4 345 + + + + +TABLE V + +SEASONS FOR SHELL FISH + +NAME OF FISH SEASON + +Clams, hard shelled..............All the year +Clams, soft shelled..............May 1 to October 15 +Crabs, hard shelled..............All the year +Crabs, soft shelled..............March 1 to October 15 +Lobsters.........................All the year +Oysters..........................September 1 to May 1 +Scallops.........................September 15 to April 1 +Shrimp...........................March 15 to June 1, and + September 15 to October 15 + + +81. SEASONS FOR SHELL FISH.--With the exception of clams and lobster, +which can be obtained all the year around, shell fish have particular +seasons; that is, there is a certain time of the year when they are not +suitable for food. It is very important that every housewife know just +what these seasons are, so that she will not include the foods in the +diet of her family when they should not be used. Table V, which will +furnish her with the information she needs, should therefore be +carefully studied. + + * * * * * + +OYSTERS, CLAMS, AND SCALLOPS + +OYSTERS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +[Illustration: FIG. 25] + +82. OYSTERS, CLAMS, and SCALLOPS are salt-water fish that belong to the +family of mollusks, or soft-bodied animals. They are entirely encased in +hard shells, which, though of the same general shape, differ somewhat +from each other in appearance. Fig. 25 shows a group of oysters and +clams, the three on the left being oysters and the three on the right, +clams. Oysters are larger than clams and have a rough, uneven shell, +whereas clams have a smooth, roundish shell. The three varieties of +mollusks are closely related in their composition and in their use as +food, but as oysters are probably used more commonly than the others +they are considered first. + +83. COMPOSITION OF OYSTERS.--Oysters occupy a prominent place among +animal foods, because they are comparatively high in protein. In +addition, they contain a substance that most flesh foods lack in any +quantity, namely, carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, and for this +reason are said to resemble milk closely in composition. A comparison +of the following figures will show how these foods resemble each other: + + WATER PROTEIN FAT CARBOHYDRATE MINERAL SALTS +Milk......... 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 .7 +Oysters...... 86.9 6.2 1.2 3.7 2.0 + +Oysters, as will be observed, contain only a small quantity of fat, and +for this reason their total food value is somewhat lower than that of +milk. A pint of milk has a value of 325 calories, while the same +quantity of oysters has an approximate value of only 250 calories. +Because of the difference in the cost of these two foods, oysters +costing several times as much as milk, the use of oysters is not so +cheap a way of supplying food material. + +84. DIGESTIBILITY OF OYSTERS.--When merely the ability of the digestive +tract to handle oysters is taken into consideration, they are said to be +easily digested if they are served raw or are properly prepared. This is +due to the fact that when taken as a food they are disposed of in a +comparatively short time by the stomach. In addition, their absorption +from the alimentary tract is quite complete; that is, they contain +little or no waste material. But, just as cooking has much to do with +the digestibility of other protein foods, so it has with oysters. For +this reason, the housewife who wishes to feed her family this food in +its most digestible form must thoroughly understand all phases of +its cooking. + +85. HEALTHFULNESS OF OYSTERS.--Much illness has been attributed to +oysters, and without doubt they have been the cause of some typhoid and +some ptomaine poisoning. A knowledge of the reason for these diseases +has done much to eliminate them. It is now definitely known that much of +the typhoid caused from eating oysters was due to the conditions under +which they were grown. In their growth, oysters fasten themselves to +stationary things, such as rocks or piles driven into the ground +underneath the water, and they obtain their food by simply opening the +shell and making use of minute particles of plant and animal life that +they are able to extract from the water. When the water was not clean or +when sewage was turned into it, typhoid germs were transmitted to +persons who took oysters as food. At present, there is scarcely any +danger from such causes, for more care is now given to the conditions +under which oysters grow. Ptomaine poisoning from oysters was caused by +eating them when they had been improperly cared for in storage or had +been taken from the shells after they were dead. Unless persons handling +oysters know how to take care of them, this danger is still likely +to exist. + +86. PURCHASING OYSTERS.--To be able to purchase oysters intelligently, +the housewife should be familiar with the names of the various kinds. +These names are dependent on the locality from which the oysters come, +and include _Blue Points, Cape Cods, Cotuits, Lynn Havens_, and numerous +other varieties. It should be remembered that the varieties raised in +different localities are quite distinctive, differing to some extent in +both size and appearance. Unless the purchaser is familiar with the +different varieties, almost any of the small oysters are likely to be +sold to her for one of the small varieties and, likewise, any of the +large oysters for one of the large varieties. While this is of small +consequence, provided the quality is satisfactory and the price is +right, it is well for every housewife to familiarize herself with the +names of the various kinds, so that she may know just what variety she +is purchasing. + +87. When oysters are bought in the shell, they should be alive, a fact +that can be determined by the tightly closed shell, as has already been +stated. If the shells are not closed or can be easily pried apart, it +may be known that the oysters are not good and that they should be +rejected. When it is possible to procure them, oysters that have been +removed from the shells immediately after being taken from the beds are +preferable to those which have not been removed from the shells before +shipping. When purchased out of the shells, oysters should be grayish in +color, should have no disagreeable odor, and should contain no excess +water or liquid. After being purchased, oysters should be kept on ice +unless they can be cooked at once. + +The season for oysters is from September to April, inclusive. While in +some localities they can be purchased at other times during the year, +they are not likely to be so good. In fact, it is not safe to use +oysters during the warm months. + +88. IMPORTANT POINTS IN COOKING OYSTERS.--The protein of oysters, like +that found in other foods, is coagulated by heat. Long heat, provided it +is sufficiently intense, makes oysters tough, and in this condition they +are neither agreeable to eat nor readily digested. When they are to be +cooked at a high temperature, therefore, the cooking should be done +quickly. If they are to be cooked at a temperature below the boiling +point, they may be subjected to heat for a longer time without becoming +so tough as when a high temperature is used. Cooking quickly at a high +temperature, however, is preferable in most cases to long, slow cooking. +For example, in the preparation of oyster stew, long cooking produces no +better flavor than short cooking at a high temperature and renders +oysters far less digestible. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +89. OPENING OYSTERS.--Unless oysters are bought already opened, it +becomes necessary to open them in the home before they can be served raw +or cooked. To open oysters is not difficult, and with a little +experience the work can be done with ease. It will be well to note that +the two shells of an oyster, which are called _valves_, are held +together by a single muscle, known as the _adductor muscle_, that lies +near the center, and that this muscle must be cut before the shell will +open readily. Before attempting to open oysters, however, they should be +scrubbed with clean water, so as to remove any sand that may be on the +shells. When the oysters are cleaned, proceed to open them in the manner +shown in Figs. 26 and 27. First, as in Fig. 26, insert the point of a +knife into the hinged, or pointed, end and push the blade between the +valves until they appear to separate, when it will be known that the +muscle has been cut. Then, as in Fig. 27, lay the valves open and loosen +the oyster from the shell by slipping the knife under it. + +If the oysters that are being opened are to be cooked before serving, +simply drop them with their liquid into a suitable vessel and discard +the shells. Before using the oysters, remove them from the liquid, look +them over carefully to see that no small particles of shells cling to +them, and wash them in clean, cold water to remove any sand that may be +present. Also, strain the liquid through a cloth, so that it will be +free from sand when used in the preparation of the dish for which the +oysters are to be used or for the making of soup or broth. + +Oysters that are to be eaten raw are frequently served on the half +shell. Therefore, if they are to be used in this way, place each oyster, +as it is loosened in the process of opening, into the deeper shell, as +Fig. 27 shows, and discard the other one. Very often good-looking oyster +shells are saved in order that they may be used from time to time in +serving raw oysters that are bought already opened. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +90. RAW OYSTERS.--When an appetizer is desired in a meal that is to +consist of several courses, raw oysters are often used for the first +course. Oysters that are to be eaten raw may be served in the shells or +removed from them. They are bland in flavor, however, and require some +sharp, highly seasoned sauce in order to give them sufficient snap. The +sauces commonly used for this purpose include cocktail sauce, chilli +sauce, catsup, horseradish, and tobasco sauce. Sometimes, though, lemon +juice or vinegar and pepper and salt are preferred to sauce. As a rule, +crisp crackers, small squares of toast, or wafers and butter accompany +raw oysters in any form, and sometimes celery and radishes are +served, too. + +91. When a cocktail sauce is served with raw oysters, they are generally +referred to as OYSTER COCKTAILS. Two methods of serving these are in +practice. In one, as shown in Fig. 28, the cocktail sauce is put into a +small glass placed in the center of a soup plate filled with cracked +ice, and the oysters, usually six in half shells, are arranged around +the glass, on the ice. In the other, as shown in Fig. 29, the desired +number of oysters that have been removed from the shells are dropped +into a stemmed glass containing the cocktail sauce, and the glass is +placed in a bowl of cracked ice. An _oyster fork_, which is a small, +three-pronged fork, is always served with raw oysters, and usually a +piece of lemon is supplied in addition to the cocktail sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29] + +92. OYSTER STEW.--If an extremely nutritious way of preparing oysters is +desired, oyster stew should be selected. This is perhaps the simplest +way in which to cook oysters, and yet care must be exercised in making +this dish, for the oysters should not be cooked too long and the milk, +which must be brought to the boiling point, should not be allowed to +burn. Oyster stew makes an excellent dish for lunch. It should not be +served as the first course of a heavy meal because of the large amount +of nutriment it contains. + +OYSTER STEW +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. oysters +1 qt. milk +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Pour 1 cupful of water over the oysters, look them over carefully, and +remove any pieces of shell that may cling to the oysters, making sure +that any particles of sand are washed off. Heat this liquid to the +boiling point and then strain it through a cloth. Put the milk on the +fire to heat, and when hot, add the butter, salt, and pepper, and +strained liquid. After the whole mixture has come to the boiling point, +pour in the oysters and cook until they look plump and the edges begin +to curl. Remove from the heat and serve with crisp crackers. + +93. CREAMED OYSTERS.--Another nutritious way in which to prepare oysters +and at the same time produce a dish that is pleasing to most persons is +to cream them. After being creamed, oysters may be served over toast or +in timbale cases. + +CREAMED OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +24 oysters +1-1/2 c. medium white sauce +Salt and pepper +6 slices toast or 6 timbale cases + +Melt the butter in a frying pan, add the oysters, and heat them in the +butter until the edges begin to curl slightly. Pour the hot oysters into +the hot white sauce, season to taste with salt and pepper, and serve +over toast or in timbale cases. + +94. SCALLOPED OYSTERS.--No food makes a more palatable scalloped dish +than oysters. Oysters so prepared are liked by nearly every one, and the +ingredients with which they are combined help to give such a dish +balance so far as the food substances are concerned. Care should be +taken, however, in the baking of scalloped oysters, for they are likely +to become tough if they are cooked too long. + +SCALLOPED OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. bread crumbs +2 Tb. butter +1 c. cracker crumbs +1 pt. oysters +Salt and pepper +1 c. milk + +Butter the bread crumbs with the butter, and then mix them with the +cracker crumbs. Sprinkle the bottom of a greased baking dish with +one-fourth of the crumbs, and over this put a layer of oysters that have +been previously cleaned. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and add +one-fourth more of the crumbs. Add another layer of oysters, sprinkle +with salt and pepper, and place the remainder of the crumbs on top. +Strain the liquid from the oysters through a piece of cloth, mix this +with the milk, and pour over the dish thus prepared. Place in a hot +oven, and bake until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the top +is brown. + +95. FRIED OYSTERS.--Of all the dishes prepared from oysters, fried +oysters undoubtedly find favor with the greatest number of persons. +However, unless care is taken in frying the oysters, they are likely to +be somewhat indigestible. Deep fat should be used for this purpose, and +it should be hot enough to brown a 1-inch cube of bread a golden brown +in 40 seconds. + +FRIED OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +24 large oysters +1 egg +1/4 c. milk +Fine cracker crumbs +Salt +Pepper + +Thoroughly dry the oysters by laying them on one end of a soft cloth and +patting them with the other. Beat the egg and add the milk to it. Dip +the oysters into the cracker crumbs, then into the egg-and-milk mixture, +and again into the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until brown. Remove from the +fat, drain well, and place on oiled paper. Sprinkle with salt and pepper +and serve hot. + +96. OYSTER PIE.--Baking oysters into a pie is another means of combining +a protein food with foods that are high in other food substances. As +oyster pie is somewhat hearty, it may be used as the main dish of a +heavy meal. + +OYSTER PIE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. oysters +1 c. medium white sauce +Salt and pepper +Baking-powder biscuit dough + +Cut each of the oysters into three or four pieces, and place them in a +greased baking dish. Pour over them the hot white sauce and the juice +from the oysters. Season with salt and pepper. Over the top, place a +layer of the biscuit dough rolled about 1/4 inch thick. Set in a hot +oven and bake until the crust is brown. + +97. PIGS IN BLANKETS.--When something entirely different in the way of +oysters is desired, pigs in blankets should be tried. This is a very +good name for the dish given in the accompanying recipe, for the oysters +are rolled up in a strip of bacon, which serves as a blanket. They are +especially suitable for a light meal, such as luncheon or a dainty lunch +that is to be served to company. + +PIGS IN BLANKETS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +18 large oysters +18 thin strips of bacon + +After the oysters have been cleaned, roll each one in a strip of bacon. +Fasten the bacon where the edges meet by running a toothpick through at +this point. Place in a broiler and broil on one side until brown; then +turn them and broil until the other side is brown. Serve hot. + +98. OYSTER FRITTERS.--Variety may also be secured in the use of oysters +by making oyster fritters. When such fritters are nicely browned and +served with an appetizing sauce, an attractive as well as a tasty dish +is the result. + +OYSTER FRITTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. oysters +1 egg muffin batter + +Clean the oysters and cut each into four or five pieces. Make a one-egg +muffin batter and to it add the cut oysters. Drop the mixture by +spoonfuls into deep fat and fry until brown. Remove from the fat, drain, +and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Serve with a desired sauce. + + +CLAMS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +99. NATURE AND DIGESTIBILITY OF CLAMS.--Clams are bivalves similar to +oysters in both form and composition. Because of the similarity in +composition, they are utilized in much the same ways as oysters, being +used extensively for food in parts of the country where the supply is +large. There are numerous varieties of clams, and some of them differ +slightly from each other in appearance, color, and flavor. Preference +for the different varieties is largely a matter of individual taste. + +Clams may be purchased loose or in the shell and they may be served in +or out of the shell. However, when bought in the shell, they must be +purchased alive and must be subjected to the same tests as are oysters. +As in the case of oysters, they may be eaten raw or cooked. Their +preparation for cooking is similar to that of oysters. In the raw state, +they are easily digested, but upon the application of heat they become +tough, and the longer they are cooked, the tougher they become. It can +therefore be seen that the digestibility of clams is influenced very +much by cooking. + +100. OPENING CLAMS.--If clams are to be opened in the home, the method +illustrated in Fig. 30 may be employed. First wash the clams to remove +the sand, and then place a clam on a hard surface so that the pointed +edge is up. Insert the thin edge of a knife into the very slight groove +between the shells, or valves, and with a heavy utensil of some kind +strike the top of the knife several times so as to separate the valves. +Then, as in opening oysters, spread the shells apart, as shown, and +loosen the clam from the shell it adheres to. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30] + +101. RAW CLAMS.--Like oysters, raw clams are generally served as a +cocktail, or an appetizer, at the beginning of a meal. If they are to be +served in the half shell, place them in a dish of cracked ice; if they +are to be served without the shells, place the required number in a +stemmed glass that is set in a dish of cracked ice. In either case, +lemon or a suitable sauce, or both, should be supplied. + +102. STEAMED CLAMS.--Steaming is the method generally adopted when clams +in large numbers are cooked for a "clam bake," but there is no reason +why it cannot be used by the housewife when she wishes to cook only +enough for her family. When large quantities are to be steamed, use is +generally made of a steamer, but the housewife will find that she can +steam a few clams very satisfactorily in a saucepan or a similar vessel. + +To prepare steamed clams, scrub the shells of the clams until they are +perfectly clean. Place the desired number thus cleaned in a saucepan and +add enough water to cover the bottom of the pan about 1 inch. Allow this +to cook until the shells of the clams open. Remove the clams from the +pan and serve them in the shells. Provide each person with a small dish +of melted butter into which to dip the clams as they are removed from +the shells to be eaten. The liquid found in the clams may be poured from +the shell before the clams are served, and after being well seasoned may +be served as clam broth. + +103. BAKED CLAMS.--Another very appetizing way in which to prepare clams +is to combine them with bread crumbs, season them well, and then bake +them until they are well browned. Select several good-sized clams for +each person to be served. Scrub the shells well and open them. Remove +the clams and chop them into small pieces. To each cupful of chopped +clams, add 2 cupfuls of buttered bread crumbs, 1 tablespoonful of +chopped parsley, 1 tablespoonful of chopped pimiento, and 1 +tablespoonful of onion juice. Season the mixture with salt and pepper +and fill the shells with it. Place these in a shallow pan and bake in a +very hot oven until the crumbs are well browned on top. Serve hot. + +104. FRIED CLAMS.--As oysters make a very desirable dish when fried in +deep fat, so clams may be treated in this way, too. Remove the desired +number of clams from the shells, wash them thoroughly, and dry them on a +clean towel. Dip them into beaten egg, and finally into the crumbs. Fry +in deep fat until they are a golden brown. Serve with slices of lemon. + + +SCALLOPS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +105. NATURE OF SCALLOPS.--Scallops, which are another form of bivalves, +are less commonly used for food than oysters and clams. Scalloped dishes +get their name from the fact that scallop shells were originally used +for their preparation. Not all of the scallop is used for food; merely +the heavy muscle that holds the two shells together is edible. Scallops +are slightly higher in protein than oysters and clams and they also have +a higher food value than these two mollusks. The most common method of +preparation for scallops is to fry them, but they may also be baked in +the shells. + +106. FRIED SCALLOPS.--If scallops are properly fried, they make an +appetizing dish. As they are a rather bland food, a sauce of some kind, +preferably a sour one, is generally served with them. + +Select the desired number of scallops and wash thoroughly. Dip first +into either fine bread crumbs or cracker crumbs, then into beaten egg, +and again into the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden brown, remove, +and drain. Serve with lemon or a sour sauce, such as horseradish or +tomato sauce. + +107. BAKED SCALLOPS.--If a tasty as well as a slightly unusual dish is +desired to give variety to the diet, baked scallops will undoubtedly +find favor. As shown in the accompanying recipe, mushrooms are one of +the ingredients in baked scallops and these not only provide additional +material, but improve the flavor. + +To prepare baked scallops, clean the desired number, parboil for 15 +minutes, drain, and cut into small pieces. For each cupful of scallops, +melt 2 tablespoonfuls of butter in a frying pan, saute in it 1 +tablespoonful of chopped onion, and add 1/2 cupful of chopped mushrooms. +When these have browned, add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour and 1 cupful of +milk. Cook until thick and then add the scallops. Fill the scallop +shells with the mixture, sprinkle with buttered bread crumbs, place in +the oven, and bake until the crumbs are brown. + + * * * * * + +LOBSTERS, CRABS, AND SHRIMP + +GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS + +108. The shell fish, LOBSTERS, CRABS, and SHRIMP, come under the head of +crustaceans; that is, animals consisting of jointed sections, each of +which is covered with a hard shell. Their flesh is similar in +composition to that of other fish, but it is tougher and harder to +digest. However, it is popular because of its unique and delicate +flavor. In fact, whenever these varieties of fish can be obtained along +the seacoast or within a reasonable distance from the place where they +are caught, they are considered a delicacy. If they can be shipped alive +to any point, they are perfectly safe to use, although quite high in +price because of their perishable nature. + +109. Unless such shell fish can be procured alive in the markets, the +use of a good brand of any of them canned is recommended. In fact, +canned lobster, crab, and shrimp are very satisfactory and may be +substituted for any of the fresh cooked varieties in the recipes that +follow. It is true that some persons object to canned food because +ptomaine poisoning sometimes results, but it has been found that +ptomaine poisoning is more liable to result from eating these foods when +they are bought in the market in poor condition than when they are +secured in canned form. Care must be exercised, however, whenever use is +made of canned food of any kind. Upon opening a can of any of these +varieties of fish, the entire contents should be removed from the can at +once and used as soon as possible. It must be remembered that the +ptomaine poisoning that is sometimes caused by eating canned foods is +not due to the fact that the foods come in tin cans, but that they are +allowed to stand in the cans after they are opened. Upon their being +exposed to the air, putrefaction sets in and causes the harmful effect. + +110. Lobsters, crabs, and shrimp are very similar in composition, shrimp +being slightly higher in protein and total food value than the others. +If they are not prepared in an indigestible way, they are comparatively +easy to digest. It has been proved a fallacy that lobster and ice cream +are a dangerous combination, for if both are in good condition they may +be combined with no ill effects to the normal individual. + + +LOBSTERS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +111. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES.--Of these three types of sea food, +lobsters are perhaps the most popular. They are found along the North +Atlantic and North Pacific seacoasts. Alive, they are mottled +bluish-green in color, but upon being cooked they change to bright red. +As soon as they are caught, many of them are packed in ice and shipped +alive to various points, while others are plunged immediately into +boiling water and sold cooked. A live lobster ready for cooking is shown +in Fig. 31. Lobsters vary greatly in size. Only those 9 inches or more +in length can be sold, the smaller ones being thrown back into the +water. When they are purchased either raw or cooked, they should be +heavy for their size; that is, they should be heavy because of their +plumpness and good condition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31] + +112. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION.--To prepare a lobster, which should be +alive, grasp it firmly by the back, as shown in Fig. 32, plunge it +quickly, head first, into a kettle of rapidly boiling water, and then +submerge the rest of the body. Be sure to have a sufficient amount of +water to cover the lobster completely. Boil rapidly for 5 minutes; then +lower the flame or remove to a cooler part of the stove and cook slowly +for 1/2 hour. Remove from the water and allow to cool. + +After being prepared in this way, a lobster may be served cold or it may +be used in the preparation of various made dishes. If it is to be used +without further preparation, it is often served from the shell, which is +usually split open. Mayonnaise or some other sauce is generally served +with lobster. The flesh is removed from the shell with a small fork as +it is eaten. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32] + +113. REMOVING LOBSTER FROM THE SHELL.--The majority of the dishes made +from lobster require that the flesh be removed from the shell. To do +this, first pull off the two large claws and the four pairs of small +claws, as shown in Fig. 33, and break the tail from the body. +Then with scissors, as in Fig. 34, cut a single slit the entire +length of the shell covering the under part of the tail and +remove the flesh inside the tail in a whole, large piece, as shown in +Fig. 35. The intestinal tract, which can be readily observed, will be +found embedded in this piece and running the entire length. Slash the +flesh and remove it. Next remove the flesh of the body from the shell, +retaining only that part which appears to be fibrous, like the flesh of +the tail. The stomach, which is called "the lady" because its inside +appearance closely resembles a lady sitting in a chair, should not be +removed from the shell. However, care should be taken to obtain all the +flesh surrounding the bones in the bony part of the lobster. The coral +substance, that is, the roe of the lobster, should also be removed, as +it can be used for a garnish. + +[Illustration FIG. 33] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34] + +With the flesh removed from the shell, proceed to take out that +contained in the claws. Break open the large claws, using a nut cracker +or a small hammer for this purpose, and, as in Fig. 36, remove the flesh +that they contain. If the small claws are to be used for a garnish, as +is often done, remove the flesh without breaking them; otherwise break +them as in the case of the large ones. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35] + +114. LOBSTER COCKTAIL.--Practically all varieties of shell fish make +most satisfactory cocktails, and lobster is no exception. To make a +lobster cocktail, shred or cut into small pieces the flesh of a lobster +that has been prepared according to the directions just given. Chill the +shreds or pieces and then serve them in stemmed cocktail glasses with +any desirable cocktail sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36] + +115. SCALLOPED LOBSTER.--Persons who care for the flavor of lobster will +find scalloped lobster a very attractive dish. When prepared in this +way, it is suitable either for luncheon or for dinner. + +SCALLOPED LOBSTER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. lobster meat +1 c. medium white sauce +2/3 c. buttered bread crumbs +1 hard-cooked egg +Salt +Pepper + +Mix the lobster with the medium white sauce. Butter a baking dish, place +half of the crumbs in the bottom, and pour over them the lobster and +white sauce. Slice the hard-cooked egg over the top of the lobster, +season the whole well with salt and pepper, and sprinkle the remainder +of the crumbs over the top. Place in a hot oven and bake until the +crumbs are brown. Garnish with sprays of parsley and serve at once. + +116. DEVILED LOBSTER.--A dish that is delicious and at the same time +very attractive is deviled lobster. After removing the flesh from the +shell, the shell should be cleaned thoroughly, as it is to be used as a +receptacle in which to put the lobster mixture for baking. When removed +from the oven, this dish can be made more attractive by garnishing it +with the lobster claws and tail. + +DEVILED LOBSTER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 Tb. chopped onion +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +Dash of Cayenne pepper +1/8 tsp. paprika +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. lemon juice +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 c. milk +2 c. lobster meat +1/4 c. buttered cracker crumbs + +Saute the onion in the butter, and to this add the flour, salt, Cayenne +pepper, paprika, pepper, lemon juice, and parsley. Mix well and add the +milk. When the whole has cooked until it is thick, add the lobster. Pour +the mixture into the clean shell of the lobster, sprinkle with cracker +crumbs, and place in the oven long enough to brown the crumbs. Remove +from the oven, place on a serving dish, garnish with the claws and tail +of the lobster, if desired, and serve at once. + +117. LOBSTER A LA NEWBURG.--When lobster a la Newburg is mentioned, one +naturally thinks of a chafing dish, for this is one of the dishes that +is very often made in a chafing dish and served at small social +gatherings. However, it can be made just as satisfactorily on the +kitchen stove and is a dish suitable for a home luncheon or +small dinner. + +LOBSTER A LA NEWBURG +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +2 c. lobster +1/2 tsp. salt +Few grains of Cayenne pepper +1/2 c. milk +1/2 c. thin cream +1 tsp. vinegar +1 Tb. lemon juice +2 egg yolks + +Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, and into this pour the +lobster meat cut into rather large pieces. Add the salt, pepper, milk, +and cream; cook together until thick, and then pour in the vinegar and +lemon juice. Beat the egg yolks and stir them into the cooked mixture, +using care to prevent them from curdling. When the mixture has +thickened, remove from the stove and serve over toast. + +118. LOBSTER CROQUETTES.--Probably the most attractive dish that can be +made out of lobster is the one explained in the accompanying recipe. As +this is artistically garnished, and at the same time extremely +appetizing, it is suitable for a meal that is intended to be very nice, +such as a dainty luncheon. If the elaborate garnishing here suggested is +not desired, the croquettes may be served with merely a suitable sauce. + +LOBSTER CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. thick white sauce +2 eggs +2 c. diced lobster meat +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +Fine bread crumbs + +Prepare the white sauce and allow it to cool. Add one beaten egg and the +lobster meat. Season with the salt and pepper. Shape into croquettes, +roll in beaten egg, then in crumbs, and fry in deep fat until an even +brown. Drain, stick a lobster claw into the end of each, and arrange on +a platter with the claws around the outside. Pour a medium white sauce +over the opposite ends and the centers of the croquettes and over this +sprinkle the lobster coral and hard-cooked egg yolks, which have been +forced through a sieve. In the center of the platter, arrange a small +mound of parsley and one of the large claws of the lobster. + + +CRABS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +119. NATURE OF CRABS.--Numerous varieties of crabs are obtained along +the seashores of the United States, and most of them measure not more +than 5 or 6 inches across. Shell fish in this form are used for food +both before the shells have hardened, when they are known as +_soft-shelled crabs_, and after the shells have grown hard, when they +are called _hard-shelled crabs_. To be at their best, crabs should be as +heavy as lobsters in proportion to their size. Their flesh should be +firm and stiff and their eyes should be bright. The male crab has a +smaller body and longer claws than the female. In food value, crabs are +quite similar to lobsters. + +Tiny _oyster crabs_ are found in the shells of crabs as well as in +oysters. These are considered a great delicacy and are used chiefly for +garnishing, because they are very small and, as a rule, are not found in +large numbers. + +120. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION.--Before either soft-shelled or +hard-shelled crabs can be used as food, a certain amount of preparation +is necessary. In the case of hard-shelled crabs, plunge them alive into +hot water, allow them to come to the boiling point, and cook slowly for +1/2 hour. It is a good plan to add 1 tablespoonful of salt for each crab +that is being boiled. While the crabs are cooking, remove the scum that +rises to the top. When they are sufficiently cooked, open the shells and +take out the meat, being careful to remove all the meat from the claws. + +Soft-shelled crabs require a somewhat different kind of preparation. +With this variety, lift up the points on each side of the back shell and +remove the spongy substance that is found under them. In addition, take +off the apron, which is the small piece that occurs at the lower part of +the shell and that terminates in points. The crabs are then ready for +frying, which is the method of cooking that is usually applied to +this variety. + +121. CRAB-FLAKE COCKTAIL.--Crab meat is used for cocktails in the same +way as oysters, clams, and lobster. In fact, no better appetizer to +serve at the beginning of a meal can be found. To make crab-flake +cocktail, remove the meat from the shells of cooked hard-shelled crabs +in the way just explained, and chill it. Then place it in stemmed +glasses and serve with cocktail sauce. + +122. DEVILED CRABS.--Variety in the cooking of hard-shelled crabs can be +secured by deviling them according to the accompanying directions. As +will be observed, this is done in practically the same way that lobster +is deviled. + +DEVILED CRABS +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +2 Tb. butter +4 crabs +1 c. cream sauce +1 Tb. onion juice +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash Cayenne pepper +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 egg +Cracker crumbs + +Put the butter in a frying pan, add the meat from the four crabs, and +pour into this the cream sauce. Season with the onion juice, salt, +Cayenne pepper, and pepper. Add the well-beaten egg and allow the +mixture to cook until the egg has thickened, being careful not to let it +curd. Fill the back shells of the crabs with this mixture, sprinkle with +cracker crumbs, place in a hot oven, and bake until brown. Serve hot +or cold. + +123. FRIED SOFT-SHELLED CRABS.--After soft-shelled crabs are prepared in +the manner explained in Art. 120, they are usually fried in deep fat. +Egg and cracker dust or flour are used to make a coating for the crabs. + +FRIED SOFT-SHELLED CRABS +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +4 soft-shelled crabs +1 egg +Cracker dust or flour +Salt and pepper + +Prepare the crabs by removing the apron and the spongy substance under +the shell of each crab. Beat the egg slightly. Roll the crabs first in +the egg and then in the cracker dust or the flour. Fry in hot, deep fat +until a golden brown. Remove from the fat, drain, and sprinkle well with +salt and pepper to season. Serve hot or cold. + +124. CREAMED CRAB MEAT.--When the meat of hard-shelled crabs is creamed, +it makes a very dainty dish, especially if it is served over toast or in +timbale cases. To give a touch of color and at the same time add a +little flavor, chopped pimiento is generally added. + +Boil the desired number of hard-shelled crabs and remove the meat from +the shells. For each cupful of crab meat, prepare 1 cupful of medium +white sauce. Add the crab meat, season well, and, if desired, add some +chopped pimiento. Serve hot over toast or in timbale cases. + + +SHRIMP AND THEIR PREPARATION + +125. NATURE OF SHRIMP.--Shrimp are similar to crabs and lobsters in +composition and in the methods of preparation. They differ considerably +in appearance, however, and are smaller in size. When alive, shrimp are +a mottled greenish color, but upon being dropped into boiling-hot water +they turn red. When they have cooked sufficiently, the meat, which is +very delicious, may be easily removed from the shells. After the meat of +shrimp is thus prepared, it may be used cold in a salad or a cocktail or +it may be utilized in a number of ways for hot dishes. Very often a +chafing dish is used in the preparation of such dishes, but this utensil +is not necessary, as they may be cooked in an ordinary utensil on a +stove of any kind. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37] + +126. CREAMED SHRIMP.--The usual way of preparing shrimp is to cook it +with mushrooms and then serve it over toast, or, as shown in Fig. 37, in +timbale cases. Creamed shrimp is dainty in appearance, pleasing to the +taste, and highly nutritious. + +CREAMED SHRIMP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. medium white sauce +1 c. diced shrimp +1 c. chopped mushrooms +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Heat the white sauce, and to it add the shrimp, mushrooms, salt, and +pepper. Beat a little butter into the mixture to improve the flavor, +heat, and serve in timbale cases, as shown, or over toast. + +127. SHRIMP A LA SALLE.--Shrimp also makes an appetizing and attractive +dish when combined with tomato and green pepper. The accompanying recipe +gives directions for the preparation of such a dish, which is called +shrimp a La Salle. + +SHRIMP A LA SALLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 c. shredded shrimp +1 c. stewed tomato +1 small green pepper, chopped +1 Tb. chopped onion +1 tsp. celery salt +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Brown the butter in a saucepan and add the shrimp, tomato, green pepper, +onion, celery salt, salt, and pepper. Heat all together thoroughly, and +serve over toast. + +COCKTAIL SAUCES + +128. The various kinds of shell fish are served so frequently as +cocktails that cocktail sauces are much in demand. The foundation of +these sauces is always tomato catsup, but the ingredients used for +seasoning usually vary according to individual taste. The following +recipes make amounts sufficient for one serving: + +COCKTAIL SAUCE I + +1/4 tsp. grated horseradish +Juice of 1/4 lemon +12 drops tobasco sauce +10 drops Worcestershire sauce +1 Tb. tomato catsup + +COCKTAIL SAUCE II + +1 Tb. tomato catsup +1 Tb. grapefruit juice +1 tsp. spiced vinegar +Dash of tobasco sauce +Sprinkling of salt +Dusting of chopped parsley + +Mix the ingredients thoroughly and serve with oysters, clams, lobster, +shrimp, or crab meat thoroughly chilled. + + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) For what food may fish be substituted in the diet? (_b_) How +does fish compare with meat as to its usefulness as food? + +(2) (_a_) What food substances are present in fish? (_b_) How does the +food value of fish compare with that of meat? + +(3) (_a_) Discuss the digestibility of fish. (_b_) How does the salting +of fish for preservation affect its digestibility? + +(4) How does the housewife's purchase of fish affect the market price? + +(5) What methods of cookery should be used in preparing: (_a_) large +fish? (_b_) small fish? + +(6) Mention the tests for determining the freshness of fish. + +(7) Discuss the care of fish in the home. + +(8) Give the steps in the preparation of a fish for cooking. + +(9) Give the steps in the boning of a fish. + +(10) (_a_) What are fillets? (_b_) Tell briefly how fillets are +obtained. + +(11) Why are sauces frequently served with fish? + +(12) (_a_) What is larding? (_b_) How may fish be larded? (_c_) For what +purpose is larding done? + +(13) How may salt fish be freshened? + +(14) (_a_) Mention the shell fish. (_b_) Discuss their usefulness in the +diet. + +(15) What precautions should be taken in the purchase of shell fish? + +(16) Discuss the composition and food value of shell fish. + +(17) Compare the composition of milk with that of oysters. + +(18) (_a_) What is the season for oysters? (_b_) How are oysters opened? + +(19) (_a_) How are clams opened? (_b_) What is the effect of long +cooking on clams? + +(20) (_a_) How are lobsters prepared? (_b_) Mention the two kinds of +crabs. (_c_) How do these differ? + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Mention the varieties of fish most common in your local market. + +Compare the cost of a sufficient amount of fish to serve your family +with the cost of beef and either veal or lamb served to the same number +of persons at other times. Submit your results. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + +A + +Adductor muscle of an oyster, +American forcemeat balls, +Apples, Bacon with sliced, + Cold pork with fried, +Asparagus soup, Cream of, + +B + +Bacon, + and eggs, + Calves' liver and, + combined with cereals, + combined with other foods, + with sliced apples, + with tomatoes, +Baked clams, + fillet of whitefish, + finnan haddie, + fish, + haddock, + halibut, + ham, + poultry with rice, + scallops, +Balls, American forcemeat, + Codfish, + Egg, + Forcemeat, +Bass, Food value and composition of black, +Basting of meat, +Batter, Timbale-case, +Bechamel, Chicken, +Beef, + Boiled corned, + Braized, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of, + Corned, + Cuts of, + Fillet of, + for stewing and coming, Cuts of, + Frizzled, + General characteristics of, + hash, + loaf, Recipe for, + loin, Steaks obtained from, + Mexican, + organs and their preparation, + pie, + Pot-roasted, + Preparation of stews and corned, + Roast, + stew, + Tenderloin of, +Beefsteak, Broiled, +Beefsteaks and their preparation, +Birds, Preparation of small, + Roast small, +Biscuits, Creamed veal on, +Bisques, +Bivalves, +Blue points, +Bluefish, Composition and food value of, +Bob veal, +Boiled cod, + corned beef, + dinner, + fish, + ham, + salmon, + tongue, +Boiler, Fish, +Boiling, Cooking meat by, +Bologna, +Bone stock, +Boned chicken, +Boning a chicken, + a fish, +Borsch, +Bouillon, + Tomato, +Braized beef, + beef, Recipe for, + tongue, +Braizing, +Bread sticks, + stuffing, +Broiled beefsteak, + fillet, + fish, + fresh mackerel, + ham, + pork, Sauted or, + poultry, + scrod with potato border, + shad roe, + squirrel, + sweetbreads, + venison, + venison, Sauce for, +Broiler, +Broilers, Composition and food value of, +Broiling, cooking meat by, +Broth, +Brown sauce, Veal cutlets in, +Buying meats, Points to consider in, + +C + +Cabbage, Scalloped pork and, +Calves' liver and bacon, +Canned fish in the diet, +Cape Cods, +Capons, +Carbohydrate in fish, + in meat, +Care, nature, and use of stock pot, + of fish in the home, + of meat, + of meat in the home, + of meat in the market, +Carp, Composition and food value of, +Carving meat, Serving and, + poultry, Serving and, +Casserole, Chicken en, +Catfish, Composition and food value of, +Caul, +Celery and radishes, +Cereals, Bacon combined with, +Chestnut puree, + stuffing, +Chicken a la king, + Bechamel, + Boned, + broilers, Composition and food value of, + Crop of a, + croquettes, + curry, + Cutting up a, + Definition of, + Determining the age of, + Determining the freshness of, + Drawing a, + Dressing a, + en casserole, + feet, Preparing, + Fricassee of, + Fried, + Frying, + General marks of good quality in, + giblets, + Gravy for fried, + Jellied, + Maryland fried, + pie, + Plucking a, + Poultry other than, + Preparation of, + Roast, + Roasting, + salad, + salad, Mock, + Selection of, + Singeing a, + stew with dumplings or noodles, + with paprika sauce, Fried, + with rice, +Chickens, Live, +Chops in tomato sauce, pork, + Lamb and mutton, + Veal, +Chowder, Clam, + Corn, + Fish, + Potato, +Chowders, +Chuck roasts, +Clam chowder, +Clams, and scallops, Oysters, + Baked, + Composition and food value of, + Fried, + Nature and digestibility of, + Opening of, + Preparation of, + Raw, + Steamed, +Classes of soup, General, + of soups denoting consistency, +Classification of poultry, + of soups, +Cleaning fish, +Clear soup or bouillon, Stock for, + soups, + soups and stocks, +Clearing soup, +Cocktail, Crab-flake, + Lobster, + Oyster, +Cod, Boiled, +Codfish balls, +Creamed, +Cold pork with fried apples, + -storage poultry, +Comparison of fish and meat, Table showing the, + of fish with meat, + of mutton and lamb, +Composition and food value of beef, + and food value of black bass, + and food value of bluefish, + and food value of canned salmon, + and food value of carp, + and food value of catfish, + and food value of chicken broilers, + and food value of clams, + and food value of crabs, + and food value of fowl, + and food value of halibut steak, + and food value of lake trout, + and food value of lamb, + and food value of leg of lamb, + and food value of lobsters, + and food value of mutton, + and food value of oysters, + and food value of pork, + and food value of pork chops, + and food value of red snapper, + and food value of scallops, + and food value of shell fish, + and food value of shell fish, Tables showing, + and food value of veal, + and food value of whitefish, + and structure of meat, + of fish, + of oysters, + of poultry, +Connective tissue, +Consomme, +Cooking meat for soup, + meat, Methods of, + meat, Purposes of, + meat, Time required for, + meats, Time table for, + of beef, + of fish, + of giblets, + of mutton and lamb, + of pork, + of poultry, +Cooking of veal, + oysters, Important points in, + Preparing rabbit for, +Corn chowder, + soup, Cream of, +Corned beef, + beef, Boiled, + beef, Preparation of stews and, +Cottage pie, +Cotuits, +Crab, Deviled, + flake cocktail, + meat, Creamed, +Crabs, and shrimp, General characteristics of lobsters, + Composition and food value of, + Fried soft-shelled, + Hard-shelled, + Nature of, + Oyster, + Preliminary preparation of, + Preparation of, + Soft-shelled, +Cracker stuffing, +Crackers, +Cream-of-asparagus soup, + of-corn soup, + of-onion soup, + of-pea soup, + of-potato soup, + of-spinach soup, + of-tomato soup, +sauce, Lemon, +soups, +Creamed codfish, + crab meat, + finnan haddie, + fish in potato nest, + oysters, + salmon with rice, + shrimp, + sweetbreads, + tuna fish, + veal on biscuits, +Crop of a chicken, +Croquettes, + Chicken, + Fish, + Frying of, + Lobster, + Sweetbread, + Veal, +Croutons, +Crown roast of lamb, + roast of pork, +Crustaceans, +Cured pork, Preparation of, +Curry, Chicken, +Cutlets in brown sauce, Veal, + Pan-broiled veal steak or, +Cutlets, Veal steaks or, +Cuts, Names and uses of beef, + Names of pork, + obtained from a side of beef and their uses, Table of, + of beef, + of beef for stewing and corning, + of beef, Method of obtaining, + of beef, Table of, + of beef, Uses of, + of mutton and lamb, Distinguishing features of, + of mutton and lamb, Method of obtaining, + of mutton and lamb, Names and uses of, + of mutton and lamb, Table of, + of pork, + of pork, Uses of, + of veal and their uses, + Preparation of veal, + Table of pork, + Table of veal, +Cutting up a chicken, + +D + +Daikan, +Deep-fat frying, Principles of, +Delmonico steak, +Deviled crab, + lobster, +Diet, Canned fish in the, + Fish in the, + Meat in the, + Salt and smoked fish in the, +Digestibility of clams, Nature and, + of fish, + of oysters, +Drawing a chicken, +Drawn-butter sauce, +Dressing a chicken, + for salmon mold, +Dry plucking, +Duck, Liver stuffing for, + Peanut stuffing for roast, + Preparation of, + Roast, + Spring, + Young, +Ducks, Selection of, +Dumplings, + or noodles, Chicken stew with, + +E + +Economic value of soup, +Economy in the purchase of poultry, +Eel, Fried, + Stewed, +Egg balls, +Egg sauce, +Eggs and bacon, +Extractives, + in meat, +Extracts, Meat, + Soup, + Vegetable, + +F + +Fat in fish, + in meat, + Trying out suet and other, +Feathers, Pin, +Feeding and care on quality of poultry, Influence of, +Fillet, Broiled, + mignon, + of beef, + of flounder, + of venison, Roast, + of whitefish, Baked, +Filleting fish, +Finnan haddie, Baked, + haddie, Creamed, +First soup stock, +Fish, + and meat, Relative nutritive value of, + and meat, Table showing the comparison of, + Baked, + Boiled, + boiler, + Boning a, + Broiled, + Carbohydrate in, + chowder, + Cleaning, + Composition and food value of shell, + Composition of, + Cooking of, + Creamed tuna, + croquettes, + Digestibility of, + Fat in, + Filleting, + Food value of, + Freshness of, + Fried, + in potato nest, Creamed, + in the diet, + in the diet, Canned, + in the diet, Salt and smoked, + in the home, Care of, + Left-over, + Mineral matter in, + Planked, + Protein in, + Purchase of, + Sauces for, + Scaling a, + Seasons for shell, + Shell, + Skinning, + Steamed, + Stewed, + stock, + Stuffing for, + Table showing composition and food value of shell, + Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of fresh, + Table showing names, seasons, and uses of salt and smoked, + Table showing seasons for shell, + with meat, Comparison of, +Flat-bone steak, +Flavoring stock, +Flounder, Fillet of, +Food, Poultry as a, + Sea, + suitable for the stock pot, + value and composition of beef, + value and composition of black bass, + value and composition of bluefish, + value and composition of canned salmon, + value and composition of carp, + value and composition of catfish, + value and composition of chicken broilers, + value and composition of clams, + value and composition of crabs, + value and composition of fowl, + value and composition of halibut steak, + value and composition of lake trout, + value and composition of lamb, + value and composition of leg of lamb, + value and composition of lobsters, + value and composition of mutton, + value and composition of oysters, + value and composition of pork, + value and composition of pork chops, + value and composition of red snapper, + value and composition of scallops, + value and composition of veal, + value and composition of whitefish, + value of fish, + value of fish, Factors determining, + Value of meat as, + value of shell fish, Composition and, + value of shell fish, Tables showing composition and, +Forcemeat balls, +Fore quarter of veal, +Fork, Oyster, +Fowl, Composition and food value of, + Definition of, +Fowls, Selection of guinea, +Frankfurters, +Fresh fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of, + herring, Stewed, + mackerel, Broiled, + pork, Preparation of, +Freshening salt and smoked fish, +Freshness of fish, +Fricassee of chicken, +Fricasseeing applied to meat and fowl, +Fried apples, Cold pork with, + chicken, + chicken, Gravy for, + chicken, Maryland, + chicken with paprika sauce, + clams, + eel, + fish, + oysters, + perch, + scallops, + soft-shelled crabs, +Fritters, Oyster, + Soup, +Frizzled beef, +Frying and sauteing applied to meat, + chicken, + of croquettes, + Principles of deep-fat, + +G + +Gall bladder, +Game, Definition of, + General description of, + stock, +Garnishes, Soup accompaniments and, +Geese, Selection of, +Gelatine in meat, +Giblets, Cooking of, + of a chicken, +Glycogen, or muscle sugar, +Goose, Preparation of, + Roast, +Gravy for fried chicken, + Making, +Green-pepper stuffing, +Guinea fowls, Selection of, +H + +Haddock, Baked, +Halibut, Baked, + steak, Composition and food value of, + steak, Sauted, +Ham, + Baked, + baked in milk, + Boiled, + Broiled, +Hamburger steak, +Hard-shelled crabs, +Hash, Beef, + Turkey, +Headcheese, +Healthfulness of oysters, +Heart, Stuffed, + sweetbread, +Heavy thick soups, +Herring, Stewed fresh, +Hind quarter of veal, +Hip-bone steak, +Home, Care of fish in the, +Horseradish sauce, +Household stock, + +I + +Individual lamb pies, +Influence of feeding and care on quality of poultry, +Iron, Timbale, + +J + +Jellied chicken, + veal, + veal, Left-over, +Julienne soup, + +K + +Keeping stock, +Kidneys, +Kouskous, +Krishara, + +L + +Lake trout, Composition and food value of, +Lamb, + and mutton chops, + and mutton cuts, Distinguishing features of, + and mutton cuts, Names and uses of, + and mutton, Left-over, + and mutton stews, + Comparison of mutton and, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of mutton and, + Crown roast of, + cuts, Method of obtaining mutton and, + cuts, Table of mutton and, + Food value and composition of leg of, + on toast, Minced, + or mutton, Scalloped, + pies, Individual, + Rack of, + Roast leg of, + Saddle of, + Spring, + Turkish, +Lard, Leaf, +Larding, +Leaf lard, +Lebaba, +Left-over beef, + -over fish, + -over Jellied veal, + -over lamb and mutton, + -over Pork, + -over Poultry, + -over veal, +Leg of venison, Roast, +Lemon cream sauce, +Live chickens, +Liver and bacon, + stuffing for roast duck, +Liverwurst, +Loaf, beef, +Lobster a la Newburg, + cocktail, + croquettes, + Deviled, + from the shell, Removing, + Scalloped, +Lobsters, Composition and food value of, + crabs and shrimp, + Distinguishing features of, + Preparation of, +Loin, Steaks obtained from beef, +Lynn Havens, + +M + +Mackerel, Broiled fresh, + Sauted salt, +Making gravy, + soup, +Market, Preparation of poultry for, +Maryland fried chicken, +Meaning and use of soup stock, +Meat as food, Value of, + Basting of, + Carbohydrate in, + Care of, + Comparison of fish with, + Cooking of, +Meat, Creamed crab, + cuts, Names and uses of, + Definition of, + extracts, + Extractives in, + Fat in, + Gelatine in, + in the diet, + in the home, Care of, + in the market, Care of, + Methods of cooking, + Minerals in, + preparations, Sausages and, + Protein in, + Purchase of, + Purposes of cooking, + Relative nutritive value of fish and, + Serving and carving of, + Structure and composition of, + Time required for cooking, + used for soup making, + Water in, + +Meats, Points to consider in buying, + Time table for cooking, + +Method of obtaining beef cuts, + of obtaining mutton and lamb cuts, +Methods of cooking meat, +Mexican beef, +Mignon, Fillet, +Milk, Ham baked in, +Minced lamb on toast, +Mineral matter in fish, +Minerals in meat, +Minestra, +Mint sauce, +Mock chicken salad, +Mock duck, or rolled steak, +Mold, Salmon, +Mollusks, +Mulligatawny soup, +Muscle sugar, Glycogen or, +Mushroom sauce, +Mutton, + and lamb chops, + and lamb, Comparison of, + and lamb, Cooking of, + and lamb cuts, Distinguishing features of, + and lamb cuts, Method of obtaining, + and lamb cuts, Names and uses of, + and lamb cuts, Table of, + Composition and food value of, + Left-over lamb and, + Rack of, + Roast leg of, + Roast saddle of, + Saddle of, + Scalloped lamb or, + stews, Lamb and, + +N + +Noodle soup, +Noodles, Chicken stew with dumplings or, + Vegetable soup with, +Nut sauce, +Nutritive value of fish, Relative, + +O + +Onion soup, Cream of, +Opening clams, + oysters, +Organs, Veal, +Ox-tail soup, +Oyster, Adductor muscle of an, + cocktails, + crabs, + fork, + fritters, + pie, + stew, + stuffing, + Valves of an, +Oysters, clams, and scallops, + Composition of, + Creamed, + Digestibility of, + Food value of, + Fried, + Healthfulness of, + Important points in cooking, + Opening, + Preparation of, + Purchasing, + Raw, + Scalloped, + +P + +Pan-broiled steak, + -broiled veal steaks or cutlets, + broiling, Cooking meat by, +Paprika sauce, Fried chicken with, +Partridge, Selection of, +Pastry strips, +Pate de fois gras, +Patties, Rice and meat, + Salmon, +Pea soup, Cream of, +Peanut stuffing for roast duck, +Perch, Fried, +Pheasant, partridge, and quail, + Selection of, +Pickerel, Sauted, +Pickled pig's feet, + tongue, +Pie, Beef, +Pie, Chicken, + Cottage, + Oyster, + Rabbit, +Pies, Individual lamb, +Pig, Roast, +Pigeons, Selection of, +Pig's feet, Pickled, +Pigs in blankets, +Pin feathers, +Planked fish, + steak, +Plucking a chicken, + Dry, +Poisoning, Ptomaine, +Ponhasse, +Pork, + and cabbage, Scalloped, + chops and tomato sauce, + chops, Composition and food value of, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of, + Crown roast, of, + Cuts of, + Cuts, Table of, + cuts, Uses of, + General characteristics of, + Left-over, + Preparation of cured, + Preparation of fresh, + Roast, + Salt, + sausage, + Sauted or broiled, + Sauted tenderloin of, + Tenderloin of, + with fried apples, Cold, +Porterhouse roast, + steak, +Pot-au-feu, + -roasted beef, + Stock, +Potato border, Broiled scrod with, + chowder, + nest, Creamed fish in, + soup, Cream-of-, +Potpie, Veal, +Potroka, +Poulards, +Poultry as a food, + Broiled, + Classification of, + Cold-storage, + Composition of, + Definition of, + Effect of sex on quality of, + for cooking, Preparation of, + for the market, Preparation of, + Indication of cold-storage, + Left-over, + other than chicken, + Selection of, + Serving and carving, + Stuffing for roast, + Table for the selection of, + with rice, Baked, +Preparation of beef organs, + of beefsteak, + of chicken, + of clams, + of crabs, + of cured pork, + of duck, + of fresh pork, + of goose, + of lobsters, + of oysters, + of poultry for cooking, + of poultry for the market, + of roasts, + of scallops, + of shrimp, + of small birds, + of stews and corned beef, + of sweetbreads, + of turkey, + of veal cuts, +Preparing chicken feet, + rabbit for cooking, +Principles of deep-fat frying, +Processes involved in making stock, +Protein in fish, + in meat, +Ptomaine poisoning, +Purchase of fish, + of meat, + of poultry, Economy in the, +Purchasing oysters, +Puree, Chestnut, + Split-pea, +Purees, +Purpose of soup in the meal, +Purposes of cooking meat, + +Q + +Quail, Selection of, +Quality in chicken, General marks of good, + of poultry, Effect of sex on, + of poultry, Influence of feeding and care on, + +R + +Rabbit for cooking, Preparing, + pie, + Roast, + Sauted, +Rack of lamb, + of mutton, +Radishes and celery, +Raw clams, + oysters, +Red snapper, Food value and composition of, +Relative nutritive value of fish, +Removing grease from soup, + lobster from the shell, +Rib roast, Standing, + roasts, +Rice and meat patties, + Baked poultry with, + Chicken with, + Creamed salmon with, + Scalloped veal with, + stuffing, +Rigor mortis, +Roast beef, + chicken, + duck, + duck, Liver stuffing for, + duck, Peanut stuffing for, + fillet of venison, + goose, + leg of lamb, + leg of mutton, + leg of venison, + of lamb, Crown, + of pork, Crown, + pig, + pork, + Porterhouse, + poultry, Stuffing for, + rabbit, + saddle of mutton, + small birds, + Standing rib, + turkey, +Roasting, + chicken, +Roasts, Chuck, + Preparation of, + Rib, + Rump, + Veal, +Roe, Broiled shad, +Rolled steak, or mock duck, + steak, Stuffing for, +Rolls, Veal, +Rump roasts, + +S + +Saddle of lamb, + of mutton, + of mutton, Roast, +Salad, Chicken, + Mock chicken, + Veal, +Salmon, Boiled, + Composition and food value of canned, +Salmon mold, + mold, Dressing for, + patties, + with rice, Creamed, +Salt and smoked fish, Freshening, + and smoked fish in the diet, + and smoked fish, Table showing names, seasons, and uses of, + mackerel, Sauted, + pork, +Sauce, Drawn-butter, + Egg, + for broiled venison, + Fried chicken with paprika, + Horseradish, + Lemon cream, + Mint, + Mushroom, + Nut, + Spanish, + Thin white, + Tomato, +Sauces for fish, +Sausage, Pork, +Sausages and meat preparations, +Sauted fish, + halibut steak, + or broiled pork, + pickerel, + rabbit, + salt mackerel, + smelts, + tenderloin of pork, +Sauteing and frying, +Scaling a fish, +Scalloped lamb or mutton, + lobster, + oysters, + pork with cabbage, + veal with rice, +Scallops, Baked, + Composition and food value of, + Fried, + Oysters, clams, and, + Preparation of, +Scrapple, +Scrod with potato border, Broiled, +Sea food, +Seasons, and uses of fresh fish, Table showing the names, + and uses of smoked fish, Table showing the names, + for shell fish, + for shell fish, Table showing, +Second soup stock, +Selection of chicken, + of ducks, + of poultry, + of turkeys, +Serving and carving meat, +Serving and carving poultry, + soup, +Shad roe, Broiled, +Shell fish, + fish, Composition and food value of, + fish, Seasons for, + fish, Tables showing composition and food value of, + fish, Table showing seasons for, +Shrimp a La Salle, + Creamed, + General characteristics of lobsters, crabs, and, + Lobsters, crabs, and, + Nature of, + Preparation of, +Simmering, or stewing, +Singeing a chicken, +Sirloin steak, +Skinning fish, +Skirt steak, +Small birds, Preparation of, + birds, Roast, +Smelts, Sauted, +Smoked fish, Freshening salt and, + fish in the diet, Salt and, + fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of, +Soft-shelled crabs, + -shelled crabs, Fried, +Soljinka, +Soup, + accompaniments and garnishes, + accompaniments, Recipes for, + and its place in the meal, + and soup accompaniments, + Clearing of, + Cooking meat for, + Cream-of-asparagus, + Cream-of-corn, + Cream-of-onion, + Cream-of-pea, + Cream-of-potato, + Cream-of-spinach, + Cream-of-tomato, + Definition of, + Economic value of, + extracts, + fritters, + General classes of, + in the meal, Purpose of, + in the meal, Value of, + Julienne, + making, Meat used for, + Making of, + making, Vegetables used for, + Mulligatawny, + Noodle, + Ox-tail, + Principal ingredients of, + Recipes for, + Removing grease from, + Serving, + stock, Meaning and use of, + stock, Uses of, + stock, Varieties of, + Thickening, + Value of, +Soups, Classification of, + Clear, + Cream, + denoting consistency, Classes of, + Heavy thick, + Thick, + typical of particular countries, +Spanish sauce, + stew, +Spinach soup, Cream-of-, +Split-pea puree, +Spring duck, + lamb, +Squabs, +Squirrel, Broiled, +Standing rib roast, +Steak, Club, + Delmonico, + Flat-bone, + Hamburger, + Hip-bone, + or cutlets, Veal, + Pan-broiled, + Planked, + Porterhouse, + Sauted halibut, + Sirloin, + Skirt, + Stuffing for rolled, + Swiss, + Vegetables served with, +Steaks obtained from the beef loin, + obtained from the round, + Preparation of beef, +Steamed clams, + fish, +Stew, Beef, + Oyster, + Spanish, + Veal, +Stewed eel, + fish, + fresh herring, +Stewing and corning, Beef for, + or simmering, +Stews and corned beef, Preparation of, + Lamb and mutton, +Sticks, Bread, +Stock, Bone, +Stock, + First, + Fish, + flavoring, + for clear soup or bouillon, + for soup, + Game, + Household, + Keeping, + Meaning and use of soup, + pot, + pot, Food suitable for the, + pot, Nature, use, and care of, + Second, + Varieties of soup, + Vegetable, + White, +Stocks and clear soups, +Stomach sweetbread, +Strips, Pastry, +Structure and composition of meat, +Stuffed heart, + veal breast, +Stuffing, Bread, + Chestnut, + Cracker, + for fish, + for roast duck, Liver, + for roast poultry, + for rolled steak, + for veal, + Green-pepper, + Oyster, + Rice, +Suet, Trying out, +Sweetbread croquettes, + Heart, + Stomach, + Throat, +Sweetbreads, + Broiled, + Creamed, + Preparation of, +Swiss steak, + +T + +Table for the selection of poultry, + of cuts obtained from a side of beef and their uses, + of mutton and lamb cuts, + of pork cuts, + of veal cuts, + showing composition and food value of shell fish, + showing seasons for shell fish, + showing the comparison of fish and meat, + showing the names, seasons, and uses of fresh fish, + showing the names, seasons, and uses of smoked fish, +Tarhonya, +Tenderloin of beef, + of pork, + of pork, Sauted, +Thick soups, +Thickening soup, +Thin white sauce, +Throat sweetbread, +Timbale-case batter, + cases, + iron, +Time required for cooking meat, +Tissue, Connective, +Toast, Minced lamb on, +Tomato bouillon, + sauce, + sauce, Pork chops and, + soup, Cream-of-, +Tomatoes, Bacon with, +Tongue, Boiled, + Braized, + Pickled, +Trout, Food value of lake, +Trying out suet, +Tuna fish, Creamed, +Turkey hash, + Preparation of, + Roast, +Turkeys, Selection of, +Turkish lamb, + +U + +Use of soup stock, + of stock pot, +Uses of beef cuts, + of fresh fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and, + of lamb and mutton cuts, + of smoked fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and, + of veal cuts, + +V + +Value of fish, Food, + of fish, Relative nutritive, + of meat as food, + of shell fish, Tables showing composition and food, + of soup in the meal, +Valves of an oyster, +Varieties and uses of soup stock, + of soup stock, +Veal, Bob, + breast, Stuffed, + chops, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of, + croquettes, + cuts and their preparation, + cuts and their uses, + cuts, Table of, + cutlets in brown sauce, + Fore quarter of, + Hind quarter of, + Jellied, + kidneys, + Left-over, + Left-over jellied, + Nature of, + on biscuits, Creamed, + organs, + potpie, + roasts, + rolls, + salad, + steak or cutlets, Pan-broiled, + stew, + Stuffing for, + sweetbreads, Broiled, + sweetbreads, Creamed, + with rice, Scalloped, +Vegetable extracts, + soup with noodles, + stock, +Vegetables served with steak, + used for soup making, +Venison, Broiled, + Cuts of, + Roast fillet of, + Roast leg of, + Sauce for, + +W + +Water in meat, +White stock, +Whitefish, Baked fillet of, + Composition and food value of, +Wing tips of chicken, + +Y + +Yearling, Meaning of, +Young, or spring, duck, + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +Vol. 3, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 3 *** + +This file should be named 7loc310.txt or 7loc310.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 7loc311.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 7loc310a.txt + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, +Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 3 + Volume 3: Soup; Meat; Poultry and Game; Fish and Shell Fish + +Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9937] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on November 2, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, +Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY + +VOLUME THREE + + +SOUP + +MEAT + +POULTRY AND GAME + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc. + + + + +PREFACE + +This volume, which is the third of the Woman's Institute Library of +Cookery, includes soups and the high-protein foods, meat, poultry, game, +and fish. It therefore contains information that is of interest to every +housewife, for these foods occupy an important place in the majority +of meals. + +In her study of _Soup,_ she will come to a thorough appreciation of the +place that soup occupies in the meal, its chief purposes, and its +economic value. All the different kinds of soups are classified and +discussed, recipes for making them, as well as the stocks used in their +preparation, receiving the necessary attention. The correct serving of +soup is not overlooked; nor are the accompaniments and garnishes so +often required to make the soup course of the meal an attractive one. + +In _Meat,_ Parts 1 and 2, are described the various cuts of the +different kinds of meat--beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and pork--and the +part of the animal from which they are obtained, the way in which to +judge a good piece of meat by its appearance, and what to do with it +from the time it is purchased until all of it is used. All the methods +applicable to the cooking of meats are emphasized in this section. +Supplementing the text are numerous illustrations showing the ways in +which meat cuts are obtained. Besides, many of them are so reproduced +that actual cuts of meat may be readily recognized. Equipped with this +knowledge, the housewife need give no concern to the selection, care, +and cooking of every variety of meat. + +In _Poultry and Game,_ the selection and preparation of all kinds of +poultry receive attention. While such food is somewhat of a luxury in a +great many homes, it helps to relieve the monotony of the usual protein +foods, and it often supplies just what is desired for special occasions. +Familiarity with poultry and game is a decided asset to any housewife, +and success with their cooking and serving is assured through a study +of this text, for every step in their preparation is clearly explained +and illustrated. + +In _Fish and Shell Fish,_ the other high-protein food is treated in full +as to its composition, food value, purchase, care, and preparation. Such +interesting processes as the boning, skinning, and filleting of fish are +not only carefully explained but clearly illustrated. In addition to +recipes for fresh, salt, smoked, and canned fish are given directions +for the preparation of all edible shell fish and recipes for the various +stuffings and sauces served with fish. + +Too much cannot be said about the importance of the subjects covered in +this volume and the necessity for a thorough understanding of them on +the part of every housewife. Indeed, a mastery of them will mean for her +an acquaintance with the main part of the meal, and when she knows how +to prepare these foods, the other dishes will prove a simple matter. + + + +CONTENTS + +SOUP + Value of Soup + Classification of Soups + Uses and Varieties of Soup Stock + The Stock Pot + Principal Ingredients in Soup + Processes Involved in Making Stock + Serving Soup + Recipes for Soup and Soup Accompaniments + Stocks and Clear Soups + Heavy Thick Soups + Cream Soups + Purées + Chowders + Soup Accompaniments and Garnishes + +MEAT + Value of Meat as Food + Structure and Composition of Meat + Purchase and Care of Meat + Purposes of Cooking Meat + Methods of Cooking Meat + Time Required for Cooking Meat + Beef--General Characteristics + Cuts of Beef + Steaks and Their Preparation + Roasts and Their Preparation + Preparation of Stews and Corned Beef + Beef Organs and Their Preparation + Making Gravy + Trying Out Suet and Other Fats + Preparation of Left-Over Beef + Veal + Cuts of Veal and Their Uses + Veal Cuts and Their Preparation + Veal Organs and Their Preparation + Preparation of Left-Over Veal + Mutton and Lamb--Comparison + Cuts of Mutton and Lamb + Preparation of Roasts, Chops, and Stews + Preparation of Left-Over Lamb and Mutton + Pork + Cuts of Pork + Fresh Pork and Its Preparation + Cured Pork and Its Preparation + Preparation of Left-Over Pork + Serving and Carving of Meat + Sausages and Meat Preparations + Principles of Deep-Fat Frying + Application of Deep-Fat Frying + Timbale Cases + +POULTRY AND GAME + Poultry as a Food + Selection of Poultry + Selection of Chicken + Selection of Poultry Other Than Chicken + Composition of Poultry + Preparation of Chicken for Cooking + Preparation of Poultry Other Than Chicken for Cooking + Cooking of Poultry + Stuffing for Roast Poultry + Boned Chicken + Dishes from Left-Over Poultry + Serving and Carving of Poultry + Game + Recipes for Game + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + Fish in the Diet + Composition and Food Value of Fish + Purchase and Care of Fish + Cleaning Fish + Boning Fish + Skinning Fish + Filleting Fish + Methods of Cooking Fish + Recipes for Fish Sauces and Stuffings + Recipes for Fresh Fish + Recipes for Salt and Smoked Fish + Recipes for Canned Fish + Recipes for Left-Over Fish + Shell Fish--Nature, Varieties, and Use + Oysters and Their Preparation + Clams and Their Preparation + Scallops and Their Preparation + Lobsters and Their Preparation + Crabs and Their Preparation + Shrimp and Their Preparation + + + + +SOUP + +SOUP AND ITS PLACE IN THE MEAL + +VALUE OF SOUP + +1. SOUP is a liquid food that is prepared by boiling meat or vegetables, +or both, in water and then seasoning and sometimes thickening the liquid +that is produced. It is usually served as the first course of a dinner, +but it is often included in a light meal, such as luncheon. While some +persons regard the making of soup as difficult, nothing is easier when +one knows just what is required and how to proceed. The purpose of this +Section, therefore, is to acquaint the housewife with the details of +soup making, so that she may provide her family with appetizing and +nutritious soups that make for both economy and healthfulness. + +2. It is interesting to note the advancement that has been made with +this food. The origin of soup, like that of many foods, dates back to +practically the beginning of history. However, the first soup known was +probably not made with meat. For instance, the mess of pottage for which +Esau sold his birthright was soup made of red lentils. Later on meat +came to be used as the basis for soup because of the agreeable and +appetizing flavor it provides. Then, at one time in France a scarcity of +butter and other fats that had been used to produce moistness and +richness in foods, brought about such clear soups as bouillon and +consommé. These, as well as other liquid foods, found much favor, for +about the time they were devised it came to be considered vulgar to chew +food. Thus, at various periods, and because of different emergencies, +particular kinds of soup have been introduced, until now there are many +kinds from which the housewife may choose when she desires a dish that +will start a meal in the right way and at the same time appeal to +the appetite. + +3. VALUE OF SOUP IN THE MEAL.--Not all persons have the same idea +regarding the value of soup as a part of a meal. Some consider it to be +of no more value than so much water, claiming that it should be fed to +none but children or sick persons who are unable to take solid food. On +the other hand, many persons believe that soup contains the very essence +of all that is nourishing and sustaining in the foods of which it is +made. This difference of opinion is well demonstrated by the ideas that +have been advanced concerning this food. Some one has said that soup is +to a meal what a portico is to a palace or an overture to an opera, +while another person, who evidently does not appreciate this food, has +said that soup is the preface to a dinner and that any work really worth +while is sufficient in itself and needs no preface. Such opinions, +however, must be reconciled if the true value of this food is to be +appreciated. + +4. Probably the best way in which to come to a definite conclusion as to +the importance of soup is to consider the purposes it serves in a meal. +When its variety and the ingredients of which it is composed are thought +of, soup serves two purposes: first, as an appetizer taken at the +beginning of a meal to stimulate the appetite and aid in the flow of +digestive juices in the stomach; and, secondly, as an actual part of the +meal, when it must contain sufficient nutritive material to permit it to +be considered as a part of the meal instead of merely an addition. Even +in its first and minor purpose, the important part that soup plays in +many meals is not hard to realize, for it is just what is needed to +arouse the flagging appetite and create a desire for nourishing food. +But in its second purpose, the real value of soup is evident. Whenever +soup contains enough nutritive material for it to take the place of some +dish that would otherwise be necessary, its value cannot be +overestimated. + +If soup is thought of in this way, the prejudice that exists against it +in many households will be entirely overcome. But since much of this +prejudice is due to the fact that the soup served is often unappetizing +in both flavor and appearance, sufficient attention should be given to +the making of soup to have this food attractive enough to appeal to the +appetite rather than discourage it. Soup should not be greasy nor +insipid in flavor, neither should it be served in large quantities nor +without the proper accompaniment. A small quantity of well-flavored, +attractively served soup cannot fail to meet the approval of any family +when it is served as the first course of the meal. + +5. GENERAL CLASSES OF SOUP.--Soups are named in various ways, according +to material, quality, etc.; but the two purposes for which soup is used +have led to the placing of the numerous kinds into two general classes. +In the first class are grouped those which serve as appetizers, such as +bouillon, consommé, and some other broths and clear soups. In the second +class are included those eaten for their nutritive effect, such as cream +soups, purées, and bisques. From these two classes of soup, the one that +will correspond with the rest of the meal and make it balance properly +is the one to choose. For instance, a light soup that is merely an +appetizer should be served with a heavy dinner, whereas a heavy, highly +nutritious soup should be used with a luncheon or a light meal. + +6. ECONOMIC VALUE OF SOUP.--Besides having an important place in the +meal of which it forms a part, soup is very often an economy, for it +affords the housewife a splendid opportunity to utilize many left-overs. +With the French people, who excel in the art of soup making chiefly +because of their clever adaptation of seasoning to foods, their +_pot-au-feu_ is a national institution and every kitchen has its stock +pot. Persons who believe in the strictest food economy use a stock pot, +since it permits left-overs to be utilized in an attractive and +palatable way. In fact, there is scarcely anything in the way of fish, +meat, fowl, vegetables, and cereals that cannot be used in soup making, +provided such ingredients are cared for in the proper way. Very often +the first glance at the large number of ingredients listed in a soup +recipe creates the impression that soup must be a very complicated +thing. Such, however, is not the case. In reality, most of the soup +ingredients are small quantities of things used for flavoring, and it is +by the proper blending of these that appetizing soups are secured. + +CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS + +7. The two general classes of soup already mentioned permit of numerous +methods of classification. For instance, soups are sometimes named from +the principal ingredient or an imitation of it, as the names potato +soup, beef soup, macaroni soup, mock-turtle soup testify. Again, both +stimulating and nutritious soups may be divided into thin and thick +soups, thin soups usually being clear, and thick soups, because of their +nature, cloudy. When the quality of soups is considered, they are placed +in still different classes and are called broth, bisque, consommé, +purée, and so on. Another important classification of soups results from +the nationality of the people who use them. While soups are classified +in other ways, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes if the +housewife understands these three principal classes. + +8. CLASSES DENOTING CONSISTENCY.--As has already been pointed out, soups +are of only two kinds when their consistency is thought of, namely, +_clear soups_ and _thick soups._ + +CLEAR SOUPS are those made from carefully cleared stock, or soup +foundation, and flavored or garnished with a material from which the +soup usually takes its name. There are not many soups of this kind, +_bouillon_ and _consommé_ being the two leading varieties, but in order +to be palatable, they require considerable care in making. + +THICK SOUPS are also made from stock, but milk, cream, water, or any +mixture of these may also be used as a basis, and to it may be added for +thickening meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, or grain or some other starchy +material. Soups of this kind are often made too thick, and as such soups +are not appetizing, care must be taken to have them just right in +consistency. + +9. CLASSES DENOTING QUALITY.--When attention is given to the quality of +soup, this food divides itself into several varieties, namely, _broth, +cream soup, bisque, chowder,_ and _purée._ + +BROTHS have for their foundation a clear stock. They are sometimes a +thin soup, but other times they are made quite thick with vegetables, +rice, barley, or other material, when they are served as a substantial +part of a meal. + +CREAM SOUPS are highly nutritious and are of great variety. They have +for their foundation a thin cream sauce, but to this are always added +vegetables, meat, fish, or grains. + +BISQUES are thick, rich soups made from game, fish, or shell fish, +particularly crabs, shrimp, etc. Occasionally, vegetables are used in +soup of this kind. + +CHOWDERS are soups that have sea food for their basis. Vegetables and +crackers are generally added for thickening and to impart flavor. + +PURÉES are soups made thick partly or entirely by the addition of some +material obtained by boiling an article of food and then straining it to +form a pulp. When vegetables containing starch, such as beans, peas, +lentils, and potatoes, are used for this purpose, it is unnecessary to +thicken the soup with any additional starch; but when meat, fish, or +watery vegetables are used, other thickening is required. To be right, a +purée should be nearly as smooth as thick cream and of the same +consistency. + +10. CLASSES TYPICAL OF PARTICULAR COUNTRIES.--Certain kinds of soup have +been made so universally by the people of various countries that they +have come to be regarded as national dishes and are always thought of as +typical of the particular people by whom they are used. Among the best +known of these soups are _Borsch,_ a soup much used by the Russian +people and made from beets, leeks, and sour cream; _Daikan,_ a Japanese +soup in which radishes are the principal ingredient; _Kouskous,_ a soup +favored by the people of Abyssinia and made from vegetables; _Krishara_, +a rice soup that finds much favor in India; _Lebaba,_ an Egyptian soup +whose chief ingredients are honey, butter, and raisin water; _Minestra,_ +an Italian soup in which vegetables are combined; _Mulligatawny,_ an +Indian rice soup that is flavored with curry; _Potroka,_ another kind of +Russian soup, having giblets for its foundation; _Soljinka,_ an entirely +different variety of Russian soup, being made from fish and onions; and +_Tarhonya,_ a Hungarian soup containing noodles. + + * * * * * + + +STOCK FOR SOUP + +USES AND VARIETIES OF STOCK + +11. MEANING AND USE OF STOCK.--In order that soup-making processes may +be readily grasped by the housewife, she should be thoroughly familiar +with what is meant by _stock,_ which forms the foundation of many soups. +In looking into the derivation of this term, it will be found that the +word stock comes from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning to stick, and that +while it has many different uses, the idea of fixedness is expressed in +every one of them. As is generally known, a stock of anything means a +reserve supply of that thing stored away for future use. When applied to +soup, stock is similar in meaning, for it refers to material stored or +prepared in such a way that it may be kept for use in the making of +certain kinds of soup. In a more definite sense, soup stock may be +regarded as a liquid containing the juices and soluble parts of meat, +bone, and vegetables, which have been extracted by long, slow cooking +and which can be utilized in the making of soups, sauces, and gravies. + +12. Soups in which stock is utilized include all the varieties made from +beef, veal, mutton, and poultry. If clear stock is desired for the +making of soup, only fresh meat and bones should be used and all +material that will discolor the liquid in any way carefully avoided. For +ordinary, unclarified soups, the trimmings and bones of roast, steak, or +chops and the carcass of fowl can generally be utilized. However, very +strongly flavored meat, such as mutton, or the fat from mutton should be +used sparingly, if at all, on account of the strong flavor that +it imparts. + +13. VARIETIES OF STOCK.--Several kinds of stock are utilized in the +making of soup, and the kind to employ depends on the soup desired. In +determining the kind of stock required for the foundation of a soup, the +housewife may be guided by the following classification: + +FIRST STOCK is made from meat and bones and then clarified and used for +well-flavored, clear soups. + +SECOND STOCK is made from the meat and the bones that remain after the +first stock is strained off. More water is added to the remaining +material, and this is then cooked with vegetables, which supply the +needed flavor. Such stock serves very well for adding flavor to a +nutritious soup made from vegetables or cereal foods. + +HOUSEHOLD STOCK is made by cooking meat and bones, either fresh or +cooked, with vegetables or other material that will impart flavor and +add nutritive value. Stock of this kind is used for ordinary soups. + +BONE STOCK is made from meat bones to which vegetables are added for +flavor, and it is used for making any of the ordinary soups. + +VEGETABLE STOCK is made from either dried or fresh vegetables or both. +Such stock is employed in making vegetable soups. + +GAME STOCK is made from the bones and trimmings of game to which +vegetables are added for flavor. This kind of stock is used for making +game soups. + +FISH STOCK is made from fish or fish trimmings to which vegetables are +added for flavor. Shell fish make especially good stock of this kind. +Fish stock is employed for making chowders and fish soups. + +14. ADDITIONAL USES OF STOCK.--As has already been shown, stock is used +principally as a foundation for certain varieties of soup. This +material, however, may be utilized in many other ways, being especially +valuable in the use of left-over foods. Any bits of meat or fowl that +are left over can be made into an appetizing dish by adding thickened +stock to them and serving the combination over toast or rice. In fact, a +large variety of made dishes can be devised if there is stock on hand to +add for flavor. The convenience of a supply of stock will be apparent +when it is realized that gravy or sauce for almost any purpose can be +made from the contents of the stock pot. + +15. SOUP EXTRACTS.--If a housewife does not have sufficient time to go +through the various processes involved in making soup, her family need +not be deprived of this article of diet, for there are a number of +concentrated meat and vegetable extracts on the market for making soups +quickly. The _meat extracts_ are made of the same flavoring material as +that which is drawn from meat in the making of stock. Almost all the +liquid is evaporated and the result is a thick, dark substance that must +be diluted greatly with water to obtain the basis for a soup or a broth. +Some of the _vegetable extracts,_ such as Japanese soy and English +marmite, are so similar in appearance and taste to the meat extracts as +to make it quite difficult to detect any difference. Both varieties of +these extracts may be used for sauces and gravies, as well as for soups, +but it should be remembered that they are not highly nutritious and are +valuable merely for flavoring. + + +THE STOCK POT + +16. NATURE, USE, AND CARE OF STOCK POT.--Among the utensils used for +cooking there is probably none more convenient and useful than the stock +pot. It is nothing more or less than a covered crock or pot like that +shown in Fig. 1, into which materials that will make a well-flavored +stock are put from time to time. From such a supply, stock can be drawn +when it is needed for soup; then, when some is taken out, more water +and materials may be added to replenish the pot. The stock pot should be +made of either enamel or earthenware, since a metal pot of any kind is +liable to impart flavor to the food. Likewise, its lid, or cover, should +be tight-fitting, for then it will be an excellent utensil in which the +materials may be stored until they are to be heated, when they can be +poured or dipped into a saucepan or a kettle. + +The stock pot, like any other utensil used for making soup, should +receive considerable care, as it must be kept scrupulously clean. No +stock pot should ever be allowed to stand from day to day without being +emptied, thoroughly washed, and then exposed to the air for a while +to dry. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +17. FOOD SUITABLE FOR THE STOCK POT.--Some one has said that nothing +edible is out of place in the stock pot, and, to a great extent, this +statement is true. Here should be put the bones from the cooked roast, +as well as the trimmings cut from it before it went into the oven; the +tough ends and bones of beefsteak; the trimmings or bones sent home by +the butcher; the carcasses of fowls, together with any remains of +stuffing and tough or left-over bits of meat; any left-over vegetables; +the remains of the gravy or any unsweetened sauces used for meats or +vegetables; the spoonful of left-over hash, stew, or stuffing; a +left-over stuffed tomato or pepper; and the water in which rice, +macaroni, or certain vegetables have been cooked. Of course, plain water +can be used for the liquid, but the water in which such vegetables as +cauliflower, carrots, beans, peas, asparagus, celery, and potatoes have +been cooked is especially desirable, for, besides imparting flavor to +the soup, it adds valuable mineral salts. However, when such things as +left-over cereals, rice, macaroni, and green vegetables are to be +utilized in soup, they should not be put in the stock pot; rather, they +should be added to the stock after it is removed from the pot. + + +MAKING OF SOUP + +PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS + +18. The making of the stock that is used in soup is the most important +of the soup-making processes; in fact, these two things--soup and +stock--may be regarded, in many instances, as one and the same. The +housewife will do well, therefore, to keep in mind that whenever +reference is made to the making of soup usually stock making is also +involved and meant. Before the actual soup-making processes are taken +up, however, the nature of the ingredients required should be well +understood; for this reason, suitable meats and vegetables, which are +the principal ingredients in soups, are first discussed. + +19. MEAT USED FOR SOUP MAKING.--With the exception of pork, almost every +kind of meat, including beef, veal, mutton, lamb, game, and poultry, is +used for soup making. Occasionally, ham is employed, but most other +forms of pork are seldom used to any extent. When soup stock is made +from these meats, they may be cooked separately, or, as a combination is +often an improvement over a single variety, several kinds may be +combined. For instance, mutton used alone makes a very strongly flavored +soup, so that it is usually advisable to combine this kind of meat with +another meat that has a less distinctive flavor. On the other hand, veal +alone does not have sufficient flavor, so it must be combined with lamb, +game, fowl, or some other well-flavored meat. + +20. Certain cuts of meats are preferred to others in the making of +soups, because of the difference in their texture. The tender cuts, +which are the expensive ones, should not be used for soups, as they do +not produce enough flavor. The tough cuts, which come from the muscles +that the animal uses constantly and that therefore grow hard and tough, +are usually cheaper, but they are more suitable, because they contain +the material that makes the best soup. The pieces best adapted to soup +making are the shins, the shanks, the lower part of the round, the neck, +the flank, the shoulder, the tail, and the brisket. The parts of the +animal from which these cuts are taken are clearly shown in Fig. 2. +Although beef is obtained from the animal shown, the same cuts come from +practically the same places in other animals. Stock made from one of +these cuts will be improved if a small amount of the fat of the meat is +cooked with it; but to avoid soup that is too greasy, any excess fat +that remains after cooking should be carefully removed. The marrow of +the shin bone is the best fat for soup making. + +If soup is to be made from fish, a white variety should be selected. The +head and trimmings may be utilized, but these alone are not sufficient, +because soup requires some solid pieces of meat. The same is true of +meat bones; they are valuable only when they are used with meat, an +equal proportion of bone and meat being required for the best stock. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +21. VEGETABLES USED FOR SOUP MAKING.--In soup making, the housewife has +also a large number of vegetables from which to select, for any +vegetable that has a decided flavor may be used. Among those from which +soups can be made successfully are cabbage, cauliflower, asparagus, +corn, onions, turnips, carrots, parsnips, tomatoes, beans, peas, +lentils, salsify, potatoes, spinach, celery, mushrooms, okra, and even +sweet potatoes. These vegetables are used for two purposes: to provide +flavoring and to form part of the soup itself as well as to furnish +flavor. When they are used simply for flavoring, they are cooked until +their flavor is obtained and then removed from the stock. When they are +to form part of the soup, as well as to impart flavor, they are left in +the soup in small pieces or made into a purée and eaten with the soup. + +Attention, too, must be given to the condition of the vegetables that +are used in soup. The fresh vegetables that are used should be in +perfect condition. They should have no decayed places that might taint +or discolor the soups, and they should be as crisp and solid as +possible. If they are somewhat withered or faded, they can be freshened +by allowing them to stand in cold water for a short time. When dried +vegetables are to be used for soup making, they should first be soaked +well in cold water and then, before being added to the stock, either +partly cooked or entirely cooked and made into a purée. + + +PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MAKING STOCK + +22. Although the making of stock or soup is a simple process, it must +necessarily be a rather long one. The reason for this is that all flavor +cannot be drawn from the soup materials unless they are subjected to +long, slow cooking at a temperature lower than the boiling point. With +this point definitely understood, the actual work of soup making may +be taken up. + +23. COOKING MEAT FOR SOUP.--When clear stock is to be made from fresh +meat, the required quantity of meat should be cut into small pieces +rather than large ones, so as to expose as much of the surface as +possible from which the flavor of the meat can be drawn. A little more +flavor is obtained and a brown color developed if a small part, perhaps +a fourth, of the pieces of meat are first browned in the frying pan. The +pieces thus browned, together with the pieces of fresh meat, are put +into a kettle and a quart of cold water for each pound of meat is +then added. + +The reason for using cold rather than hot water will be evident when the +action of water on raw meat is understood. The fiber of meat is composed +of innumerable thread-like tubes containing the flavor that is to be +drawn out into the water in order to make the stock appetizing. When the +meat is cut, these tiny tubes are laid open. Putting the meat thus +prepared into cold water and allowing it to heat gradually tend to +extract the contents of the tubes. This material is known as +_extractives_, and it contains in its composition stimulating +substances. On the other hand, plunging the meat into hot water and +subjecting it quickly to a high temperature will coagulate the protein +in the tissue and prevent the extractives from leaving the tubes. + +24. To obtain the most flavor from meat that is properly prepared, it +should be put over a slow fire and allowed to come gradually to the +boiling point. As the water approaches the boiling point, a scum +consisting of coagulated albumin, blood, and foreign material will begin +to rise to the top, but this should be skimmed off at once and the +process of skimming continued until no scum remains. When the water +begins to boil rapidly, either the fire should be lowered or the kettle +should be removed to a cooler part of the stove so that the water will +bubble only enough for a very slight motion to be observed. Throughout +the cooking, the meat should not be allowed to boil violently nor to +cease bubbling entirely. + +The meat should be allowed to cook for at least 4 hours, but longer if +possible. If, during this long cooking, too much water evaporates, more +should be added to dilute the stock. The salt that is required for +seasoning may be added just a few minutes before the stock is removed +from the kettle. However, it is better to add the salt, together with +the other seasonings, after the stock has been drawn off, for salt, like +heat, has a tendency to harden the tissues of meat and to prevent the +flavor from being readily extracted. + +25. Although, as has been explained, flavor is drawn from the fibers of +meat by boiling it slowly for a long time, the cooking of meat for soup +does not extract the nourishment from it to any extent. In reality, the +meat itself largely retains its original nutritive value after it has +been cooked for soup, although a small quantity of protein is drawn out +and much of the fat is removed. This meat should never be wasted; +rather, it should be used carefully with materials that will take the +place of the flavor that has been cooked from it. + +26. FLAVORING STOCK.--It is the flavoring of stock that indicates real +skill in soup making, so this is an extremely important part of the +work. In fact, the large number of ingredients found in soup recipes +are, as a rule, the various flavorings, which give the distinctive +flavor and individuality to a soup. However, the housewife whose larder +will not produce all of the many things that may be called for in a +recipe should not feel that she must forego making a particular kind of +soup. Very often certain spices or certain flavoring materials may be +omitted without any appreciable difference, or something that is on hand +may be substituted for an ingredient that is lacking. + +27. The flavorings used most for soup include cloves, peppercorns, red, +black, and white pepper, paprika, bay leaf, sage, marjoram, thyme, +summer savory, tarragon, celery seed, fennel, mint, and rosemary. While +all of these are not absolutely necessary, the majority of them may well +be kept on the pantry shelf. In addition, a bottle of Worcestershire +sauce should be kept on hand. Celery and parsley, which are also much +used for flavoring, can usually be purchased fresh, but as they are +scarce at times it is advisable to dry some of the leaves during the +season when they can be secured, so as to have a supply when they are +not in the market. A small amount of lemon peel often improves soup, so +some of this should be kept in store. Another group of vegetables that +lend themselves admirably to soup flavoring includes leeks, shallots, +chives, garlic, and onions, all of which belong to the same family. They +must be used judiciously, however, as a strong flavor of any of them is +offensive to most persons. + +28. As many of the flavorings used for soup lose their strength when +they are exposed to the air, every effort should be made to keep them in +good condition. Many of them can be kept an indefinite length of time if +they are placed in tightly closed metal boxes or glass jars. Flavorings +and spices bought from the grocer or the druggist in paper packages +should be transferred to, and enclosed in, a receptacle that will not +allow them to deteriorate. If proper attention is given to these +materials, the supply will not have to be replenished often; likewise, +the cost of a sufficient number to produce the proper flavorings will be +very slight. + +29. In the use of any of the flavorings mentioned or the strongly +flavored vegetables, care should be taken not to allow any one +particular flavor to predominate. Each should be used in such quantity +that it will blend well with the others. A very good way in which to fix +spices and herbs that are to flavor soup is to tie them in a small piece +of cheesecloth and drop the bag thus made into the soup pot. When +prepared in this way, they will remain together, so that, while the +flavor can be cooked out, they can be more readily removed from the +liquid than if they are allowed to spread through the contents of the +pot. Salt, which is, of course, always used to season soup, should be +added in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful to each quart of liquid. + +30. REMOVING GREASE FROM SOUP.--A greasy soup is always unpalatable. +Therefore, a very important feature of soup making, whether a thin or a +thick soup is being made, is the removal of all grease. Various ways of +removing grease have been devised, depending on whether the soup is hot +or cold. In the case of hot or warm soup, all the grease that it is +possible to remove with a spoon may be skimmed from the top, and the +remainder then taken up with a piece of clean blotting paper, +tissue-paper, or absorbent cotton. Another plan, by which the fat may be +hardened and then collected, consists in tying a few small pieces of ice +in a piece of cloth and drawing them over the surface of the soup. A +very simple method is to allow the soup or stock to become cold, and +then remove the fat, which collects on the top and hardens, by merely +lifting off the cake that forms. + +31. CLEARING SOUP.--Sometimes it is desired to improve the appearance of +soup stock, particularly a small amount of soup that is to be served at +a very dainty luncheon or dinner. In order to do this, the stock may be +treated by a certain process that will cause it to become clear. After +being cleared, it may be served as a thin soup or, if it is heavy +enough, it may be made into a clear, sparkling jelly into which many +desirable things may be molded for salad or for a dish to accompany a +heavy course. Clearing soup is rather extravagant; however, while it +does not improve the taste, it does improve the appearance. + +A very satisfactory way in which to clear stock is to use egg whites and +crushed egg shell. To each quart of cold stock should be added the +crushed shell and a slightly beaten egg white. These should be mixed +well, placed on the fire, and the mixture stirred constantly until it +boils. As the egg coagulates, some of the floating particles in the +stock are caught and carried to the top, while others are carried to the +bottom by the particles of shell as they settle. After the mixture has +boiled for 5 or 10 minutes, the top should be skimmed carefully and the +stock then strained through a fine cloth. When it has been reheated, the +cleared stock will be ready to serve. + +32. THICKENING SOUP.--Although thin, clear soups are preferred by some +and are particularly desirable for their stimulating effect, thick soups +find much favor when they are used to form a substantial part of a meal. +Besides giving consistency to soup, thickening usually improves the +flavor, but its chief purpose is to give nutritive value to this food. +In fact, whenever a soup is thickened, its food value is increased by +the ingredient thus added. For this reason, it is advisable to thicken +soups when they are desired for any other purpose than their +stimulating effect. + +33. The substance used to thicken soups may be either a starchy material +or food or a purée of some food. The starchy materials generally used +for this purpose are plain flour, browned flour, corn starch, and +arrowroot flour. Any one of these should be moistened with enough cold +water to make a mixture that will pour easily, and then added to the hot +liquid while the soup is stirred constantly to prevent the formation of +lumps. A sufficient amount of this thickening material should be used to +make a soup of the consistency of heavy cream. + +The starchy foods that are used for thickening include rice, barley, +oatmeal, noodles, tapioca, sago, and macaroni. Many unusual and fancy +forms of macaroni can be secured, or the plain varieties of Italian +pastes may be broken into small pieces and cooked with the soup. When +any of these foods are used, they should be added long enough before the +soup is removed to be cooked thoroughly. + +Purées of beans, peas, lentils, potatoes, and other vegetables are +especially desirable for the thickening of soups, for they not only give +consistency, but add nutritive value and flavor as well. Another +excellent thickening may be obtained by beating raw eggs and then adding +them carefully to the soup just before it is to be served. After eggs +have been added for thickening, the soup should not be allowed to boil, +as it is liable to curdle. + +34. KEEPING STOCK.--Soup stock, like many other foods, spoils quite +readily. Therefore, in order to keep it for at least a few days, it must +receive proper attention. At all times, the vessel containing stock +should be tightly closed and, especially in warm weather, the stock +should be kept as cold as possible. Stock that is heavy enough to +solidify into a jellylike consistency when it is cold will keep better +than stock that remains liquid. The addition of salt or any spicy +flavoring also helps to keep stock from deteriorating, because these +materials act as preservatives and prevent the action of bacteria that +cause spoiling. Bacteria may be kept from entering soup if, instead of +removing the grease, it is allowed to form in a solid cake over the +top. No matter which of these precautions is taken to prevent stock from +spoiling, it should be heated to boiling point once a day when it is to +be kept for several days. + + +SERVING SOUP + +35. Soup may be correctly served in several different ways, the method +to adopt usually depending on the kind of soup. Thin, clear soups are +generally served in bouillon cups, as shown in Fig. 3, which may be +placed on the table immediately before the family assembles or passed +after the members are seated. Heavier soups may be served at the table +from a soup tureen, or each person's portion may be served before the +family comes to the table. For soups of this kind, the flat soup plate, +like that shown in Fig. 4, is found preferable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +The spoon to be served with soup also depends on the kind of soup, but a +larger spoon than a teaspoon is always necessary. When soup is served in +a soup plate, a dessert spoon is used, as will be observed in Fig. 4. A +bouillon spoon is the best kind to use with any thin soup served in +bouillon cups. Such a spoon, as shown in Fig. 3, is about the length of +a teaspoon, but has a round bowl. + +36. To increase the attractiveness of soup and at the same time make it +more appetizing and nutritious, various accompaniments and relishes are +served with it. When the accompaniment is in the form of crackers, +croutons, or bread sticks, they may be passed after the soup is served, +or, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, a few of them may be placed on the +bread-and-butter plate at each person's place. The relishes should be +passed while the soup is being eaten. Plain whipped cream or whipped +cream into which a little mashed pimiento has been stirred adds much to +the flavor and appearance of soup when served on the top of any hot or +cold variety. Then, too, many soups, especially vegetable soups, are +improved in flavor by the addition of a spoonful of grated cheese, which +should be sprinkled into the dish at the time of serving. For this +purpose, a hard, dry cheese, such as Parmesan, which can often be +purchased already grated in bottles, is the most satisfactory. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +37. In summer, clear soups are sometimes served cold, as cold soups are +found more desirable for warm weather than hot ones. However, when a +soup is intended to be hot, it should be hot when it is ready to be +eaten, and every effort should be made to have it in this condition if +an appetizing soup is desired. This can be accomplished if the soup is +thoroughly heated before it is removed from the stove and the dishes in +which it is to be served are warmed before the soup is put into them. + + * * * * * + + +RECIPES FOR SOUP AND SOUP ACCOMPANIMENTS + +NECESSITY FOR CAREFUL WORK + +38. So that the housewife may put into practice the knowledge she has +gained about soup making, there are here given recipes for various kinds +of soup. As will be observed, these recipes are classified according to +the consistency and nature of the soups, all those of one class being +placed in the same group. As it is important, too, for the housewife to +know how to prepare the various accompaniments and garnishes that are +generally served with soup, directions for the making of these are also +given and they follow the soup recipes. + +39. In carrying out these recipes, it will be well to note that +exactness in fulfilling the requirements and care in working out the +details of the recipes are essential. These points cannot be ignored in +the making of soup any more than in other parts of cookery, provided +successful results and excellent appearance are desired. It is therefore +wise to form habits of exactness. For instance, when vegetables are to +be cut for soups, they should be cut into pieces of equal size, or, if +they are to be diced, they should be cut so that the dice are alike. All +the pieces must be of the same thickness in order to insure uniform +cooking; if this precaution is not observed, some of the pieces are +likely to overcook and fall to pieces before the others are done. + +Strict attention should also be given to the preparation of other +ingredients and the accompaniments. The meat used must be cut very +carefully rather than in ragged, uneven pieces. Noodles, which are often +used in soup, may be of various widths; but all those used at one time +should be uniform in width--that is, all wide or all narrow. If +different widths are used, an impression of careless cutting will be +given. Croutons and bread sticks, to be most satisfactory, should be cut +straight and even, and, in order to toast uniformly, all those made at +one time should be of the same size. + + +STOCKS AND CLEAR SOUPS + +40. Stock for Clear Soup or Bouillon.--A plain, but well-flavored, beef +stock may be made according to the accompanying recipe and used as a +basis for any clear soup served as bouillon without the addition of +anything else. However, as the addition of rice, barley, chopped +macaroni, or any other such food will increase the food value of the +soup, any of them may be supplied to produce a more nutritious soup. +When this stock is served clear, it should be used as the first course +in a comparatively heavy meal. + +STOCK FOR CLEAR SOUP OR BOUILLON + +4 lb. beef +4 qt. cold water +1 medium-sized onion +1 stalk celery +2 sprigs parsley + +6 whole cloves +12 peppercorns +1 bay leaf +Salt +Pepper + +Cut the meat into small pieces. Pour the cold water over it, place on a +slow fire, and let it come to a boil. Skim off all scum that rises to +the top. Cover tightly and keep at the simmering point for 6 to 8 hours. +Then strain and remove the fat. Add the onion and celery cut into +pieces, the parsley, cloves, peppercorns, and bay leaf. Simmer gently +for about 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper to taste. Strain through +a cloth. + +41. Household Stock.--If it is desired to make a stock that may be kept +on hand constantly and that may be used as a foundation for various +kinds of soups, sauces, and gravies, or as a broth for making casserole +dishes, household stock will be found very satisfactory. Such stock made +in quantity and kept in a sufficiently cool place may be used for +several days before it spoils. Since most of the materials used in this +stock cannot be put to any other particularly good use, and since the +labor required in making it is slight, this may be regarded as an +extremely economical stock. + +HOUSEHOLD STOCK + +3 qt. cold water +3 lb. meat (trimmings of fresh +meat, bones, and tough pieces +from roasts, steaks, etc.) +1 medium-sized onion +4 cloves +6 peppercorns +Herbs +Salt +Pepper + +Pour the cold water over the meat and bones and put them on the fire to +cook. When they come to a boil skim well. Then cover and simmer 4 to 6 +hours. Add the onion, cloves, peppercorns, and herbs and cook for +another hour. Add salt and pepper to taste. Strain and set aside to +cool. Remove the fat. + +42. White Stock.--An especially nice broth having a delicate flavor and +generally used for special functions when an attractive meal is being +served to a large number of persons is made from veal and fowl and known +as white stock. If allowed to remain in a cool place, this stock will +solidify, and then it may be used as the basis for a jellied meat +dish or salad. + +WHITE STOCK + +5 lb. veal +1 fowl, 3 or 4 lb. +8 qt. cold water +2 medium-sized onions +2 Tb. butter +2 stalks celery +1 blade mace +Salt +Pepper + +Cut the veal and fowl into pieces and add the cold water. Place on a +slow fire, and let come gradually to the boiling point. Skim carefully +and place where it will simmer gently for 6 hours. Slice the onions, +brown slightly in the butter, and add to the stock with the celery and +mace. Salt and pepper to suit taste. Cook 1 hour longer and then strain +and cool. Remove the fat before using. + +43. Consommé.--One of the most delicious of the thin, clear broths is +consommé. This is usually served plain, but any material that will not +cloud it, such as finely diced vegetables, green peas, tiny pieces of +fowl or meat, may, if desired, be added to it before it is served. As a +rule, only a very small quantity of such material is used for +each serving. + +CONSOMMÉ + +4 lb. lower round of beef +4 lb. shin of veal +1/4 c. butter +8 qt. cold water +1 small carrot +1 large onion +2 stalks celery +12 peppercorns +5 cloves +4 sprigs parsley +Pinch summer savory +Pinch thyme +2 bay leaves +Salt +Pepper + +Cut the beef and veal into small pieces. Put the butter and meat into +the stock kettle, and stir over the fire until the meat begins to brown. +Add the cold water, and let come to the boiling point. Skim carefully +and let simmer for 6 hours. Cut the vegetables into small pieces and +add to the stock with the spices and herbs. Cook for 1 hour, adding salt +and pepper to suit taste. Strain and cool. Remove the fat and clear +according to directions previously given. + +44. Tomato Bouillon.--It is possible to make a clear tomato soup without +meat stock, but the recipe here given, which is made with meat stock, +has the advantage of possessing a better flavor. The tomato in this +bouillon lends an agreeable color and flavor and affords a change from +the usual clear soup. Cooked rice, macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli +may be added to tomato bouillon to provide an additional quantity of +nutrition and vary the plain soup. + +TOMATO BOUILLON +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 qt, meat stock +1 tsp. salt +1 Tb. sugar + +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 can tomatoes + +Heat the stock, and to it add the salt, sugar, and pepper. Rub the +tomatoes through a fine sieve, and add them to the stock. Cook together +for a few minutes and serve. + +HEAVY THICK SOUPS + +45. Julienne Soup.--A very good way in which to utilize any small +quantities of vegetables that may be in supply but are not sufficient to +serve alone is to use them in julienne soup. For soup of this kind, +vegetables are often cut into fancy shapes, but this is a more or less +wasteful practice and should not be followed, as tiny strips or dice cut +finely and carefully are quite as agreeable. The vegetables do not add a +large amount of nutriment to this soup, but they introduce into the soup +mineral salts that the soups would otherwise not have and they also add +a variety of flavor. + +JULIENNE SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. mixed vegetables +1/2 tsp. salt +1 qt. stock +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Cut into tiny dice or into strips such vegetables as celery, carrots, +and turnips, making them as nearly the same size and shape as possible. +Put them on to cook in enough boiling salted water to cover well. Cook +until they are soft enough to be pierced with a fork, but do not lose +their shape. Drain off the water and put the vegetables into the stock. +Bring to the boiling point, season with the pepper, and serve. + +46. Ox-Tail Soup.--The use of ox tails for soup helps to utilize a part +of the beef that would ordinarily be wasted, and, as a rule, ox tails +are comparatively cheap. Usually the little bits of meat that cook off +the bones are allowed to remain in the soup. Variety may be obtained by +the addition of different kinds of vegetables. + +OX-TAIL SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +2 ox tails +1 large onion +1 Tb. beef drippings +4 qt. cold water +1 Tb. mixed herbs +4 peppercorns +1 Tb. salt + +Wash and cut up the ox tails, separating them at the joints. Slice the +onion and brown it and half of the ox tails in the beef drippings. When +they are browned, put them and the remainder of the ox tails into a +kettle. Add the water and the herbs and peppercorns tied in a little +piece of cheesecloth. Bring to the boiling point, and then simmer for 3 +to 4 hours or until the meat separates from the bones. Add the salt an +hour before serving the soup. Remove the fat and serve some of the +nicest joints with the soup. If vegetables are desired, they should be +diced and added 20 minutes before serving, so that they will be +cooked soft. + +47. Mulligatawny Soup.--If a highly seasoned soup is desired, +mulligatawny, although not a particularly cheap soup, will be found very +satisfactory. The curry powder that is used adds an unusual flavor that +is pleasing to many people, but if it is not desired, it may be omitted. + +MULLIGATAWNY SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +3 lb. chicken +1 lb. veal +4 qt. cold water +2 onions +1 Tb. butter +4 peppercorns +4 cloves +1 stalk celery +1 Tb. curry powder +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 lemon + +Cut up the chicken and veal, add the cold water to them, and place over +a slow fire. Slice the onions and brown them in the butter. Add them and +the peppercorns, cloves, chopped celery, and curry powder stirred to a +smooth paste with a little water to the meat. Simmer together slowly +until the chicken is tender. Remove the meat from the bones and cut it +into small pieces. Put the bones into the kettle and simmer for another +hour. Strain the liquid from the veal and bones and remove the fat. Add +the salt, pepper, chicken, and the juice of the lemon. Return to the +fire and cook for a few minutes. Serve with a tablespoonful or two of +cooked rice in each soup dish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +48. Noodle Soup.--The addition of noodles to soup increases its food +value to a considerable extent by providing carbohydrate from the flour +and protein from the egg and flour. Noodle soup is a very attractive +dish if the noodles are properly made, for then they will not cause the +soup to become cloudy when they are put into it. Little difficulty will +be experienced if the directions here given for making noodles are +followed explicitly. + +NOODLE SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 egg +1 Tb. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +Flour +1 qt. household stock +3 sprigs parsley +1 small onion + +To make noodles, beat the egg slightly, add to it the milk, and stir in +the salt and enough flour to make a stiff dough. Toss upon a floured +board and roll very thin. Allow the dough to dry for hour or more, and +then, as shown in Fig. 5, cut it into strips about 4 inches wide. Place +several strips together, one on top of the other, and roll them up +tight, in the manner indicated. Cut each roll into thin slices with a +sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 6. When the slices are separated the +noodles should appear as shown in the pile at the right. If it is +desired not to follow this plan, the dough may be rolled into a thin +sheet and cut into strips with a noodle cutter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +Such a supply of noodles may be used at once, or they may be dried +thoroughly and sealed tightly in a jar for future use. The very dry +ones, however, require a little longer cooking than those which are +freshly made. With the noodles prepared, heat the stock with the parsley +and onion chopped very fine. Add the noodles and cook for 15 or 20 +minutes or until the noodles are thoroughly cooked. + +Rice, barley, macaroni, and other starchy materials may be added to +stock in the same way as the noodles. + +49. Vegetable Soup With Noodles.--The combination of noodles and +vegetables in soup is a very excellent one, since the vegetables add +flavor and the noodles add nutritive value. If the vegetables given in +the accompanying recipe cannot be readily obtained, others may be +substituted. + +VEGETABLE SOUP WITH NOODLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 carrot +1 onion +1 turnip +1 stalk celery +1 c. boiling water +1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 c. noodles +2 sprigs parsley +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 qt. household stock + +Dice the vegetables and put them on to cook with the boiling water and +the salt. Cook for a few minutes or until partly soft. Add the noodles, +parsley, pepper, and stock and cook for 15 minutes longer. Serve. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +CREAM SOUPS + +50. Soups classed as cream soups consist of a thin white sauce to which +is added a vegetable in the form of a purée or cut into small pieces. +Because of their nature, cream soups are usually high in food value; but +they are not highly flavored, so their use is that of supplying +nutrition rather than stimulating the appetite. Considerable variety can +be secured in cream soups, for there are scarcely any vegetables that +cannot be used in the making of them. Potatoes, corn, asparagus, +spinach, peas, tomatoes, and onions are the vegetables that are used +oftenest, but cream soups may also be made of vegetable oysters, okra, +carrots, watercress, celery, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, lentils, and +dried peas. The vegetables may be cooked especially for the soup, or +left-over or canned vegetables may be utilized. It is an excellent plan +to cook more than enough of some vegetables for one day, so that some +will be left over and ready for soup the next day. + +If the vegetable is not cut up into small pieces, it must be put through +a sieve and made into the form of a purée before it can be added to the +liquid. Two kinds of sieves for this purpose are shown in Fig. 7. It +will be observed that with the large, round sieve, a potato masher must +be used to mash the vegetables, the pulp of which is caught by the +utensil in which the sieve is held. In making use of the smaller sieve, +or ricer, the vegetable is placed in it and then mashed by pressing the +top down over the contents with the aid of the handles. + +51. THIN WHITE SAUCE.--The liquid for cream soups should be thin white +sauce made entirely of milk or of milk and cream. The flavor of the soup +will be improved, however, by using with the milk some meat stock, or +the stock that remains from cooking celery, asparagus, or any vegetables +that will lend a good flavor to the soup. The recipe here given makes a +sauce that may be used for any kind of cream soup. + +THIN WHITE SAUCE + +1 pt. milk, or milk and cream or stock +1 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour + +Heat the liquid, salt, and butter in a double boiler. Stir the flour and +some of the cold liquid that has been reserved to a perfectly smooth, +thin paste and add to the hot liquid. Stir constantly after adding the +flour, so that no lumps will form. When the sauce becomes thick, it is +ready for the addition of any flavoring material that will make a +palatable soup. If thick material, such as any vegetable in the form of +a purée, rice, or potato, is used without additional liquid, only half +as much flour will be required to thicken the sauce. + +52. CREAM-OF-POTATO SOUP.--Because of the large quantity of carbohydrate +derived from the potato, cream-of-potato soup is high in food value. For +persons who are fond of the flavor of the potato, this makes a delicious +soup and one that may be served as the main dish in a light meal. + +CREAM-OF-POTATO SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +2 slices of onion +1 sprig parsley +2 medium-sized potatoes +1 c. milk +1 c. potato water +1 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Cook the onion and parsley with the potatoes, and, when cooked soft, +drain and mash. Make a sauce of the milk, potato water, flour, and +butter. Season with the salt and pepper, add the mashed potato, +and serve. + +53. CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP.--The flavor of corn is excellent in a cream +soup, the basis of the soup being milk, butter, and flour. Then, too, +the addition of the corn, which is comparatively high in food value, +makes a very nutritious soup. + +CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +1 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +1 c. canned corn +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make a white sauce of the milk, butter, and flour. Force the corn +through a colander or a sieve, and add the purée to the white sauce. +Season with the salt and pepper, and serve. + +54. Cream-of-Asparagus Soup.--The asparagus used in cream-of-asparagus +soup adds very little besides flavor, but this is of sufficient value to +warrant its use. If a pinch of soda is used in asparagus soup, there is +less danger of the curdling that sometimes occurs. In making this soup, +the asparagus should be combined with the white sauce just +before serving. + +CREAM-OF-ASPARAGUS SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1 c. asparagus purée +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Add to it the cup of +purée made by forcing freshly cooked or canned asparagus through a +sieve. Season with the salt and pepper, and serve. + +55. Cream-of-Spinach Soup.--Although cream-of-spinach soup is not +especially attractive in appearance, most persons enjoy its flavor, and +the soup serves as another way of adding an iron-containing food to the +diet. Children may often be induced to take the soup when they would +refuse the spinach as a vegetable. + +CREAM-OF-SPINACH SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. spinach purée +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Add the spinach purée, +made by forcing freshly cooked or canned spinach through a sieve. Season +with the salt and pepper, heat thoroughly, and serve. + +56. Cream-of-Pea Soup.--Either dried peas or canned green peas may be +used to make cream-of-pea soup. If dried peas are used, they must first +be cooked soft enough to pass through a sieve. The flavor is quite +different from that of green peas. With the use of green peas, a fair +amount of both protein and carbohydrate is added to the soup, but more +protein is provided when dried peas are used. + +CREAM-OF-PEA SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 pt. milk +1 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. pea purée +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Put enough freshly +cooked or canned peas through a sieve to make 1/2 cupful of purée. Then +add the pea purée, the salt, and the pepper to the white sauce. Heat +thoroughly and serve. + +57. CREAM-OF-TOMATO SOUP.--As a rule, cream-of-tomato soup is popular +with every one. Besides being pleasing to the taste, it is comparatively +high in food value, because its basis is cream sauce. However, the +tomatoes themselves add very little else besides flavor and +mineral salts. + +CREAM-OF-TOMATO SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 c. canned tomatoes +1 pt. milk +3 Tb. flour +3 Tb. butter +1/8 tsp. soda +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Force the tomatoes through a sieve and heat them. Make white sauce of +the milk, flour, and butter. Add the soda to the tomatoes, and pour them +slowly into the white sauce, stirring rapidly. If the sauce begins to +curdle, beat the soup quickly with a rotary egg beater. Add the salt and +pepper and serve. + +58. CREAM-OF-ONION SOUP.--Many persons who are not fond of onions can +often eat soup made of this vegetable. This is probably due to the fact +that the browning of the onions before they are used in the soup +improves the flavor very decidedly. In addition, this treatment of the +onions gives just a little color to the soup. + +CREAM-OF-ONION SOUP +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +4 medium-sized onions +4 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +2-1/2 c. milk +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Slice the onions and brown them in a frying pan with 2 tablespoonfuls of +the butter. Make white sauce of the flour, the remaining butter, and the +milk. Add to this the browned onions, salt, and pepper. Heat thoroughly +and serve. + +PURÉES + +59. CHESTNUT PURÉE.--There are many recipes for the use of chestnuts in +the making of foods, but probably none is any more popular than that for +chestnut purée. The chestnuts develop a light-tan color in the soup. The +very large ones should be purchased for this purpose, since chestnuts of +ordinary size are very tedious to work with. + +CHESTNUT PURÉE +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 c. mashed chestnuts +1 c. milk +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/8 tsp. celery salt +1 c. white stock + +Cook Spanish chestnuts for 10 minutes; then remove the shells and skins +and mash the chestnuts. Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. +Add to this the mashed chestnuts, salt, pepper, celery salt, and stock. +Heat thoroughly and serve. + +60. SPLIT-PEA PURÉE.--Dried peas or split peas are extremely high in +food value, and their addition to soup stock makes a highly nutritious +soup of very delightful flavor. Such a purée served in quantity does +nicely for the main dish in a light meal. Instead of the peas, dried +beans or lentils may be used if they are preferred. + +SPLIT-PEA PURÉE +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +3/4 c. split peas +1 pt. white stock +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour + +Soak the peas overnight, and cook in sufficient water to cover well +until they are soft. When thoroughly soft, drain the water from the peas +and put them through a colander. Heat the stock and add to it the pea +purée, salt, and pepper. Rub the butter and flour together, moisten with +some of the warm liquid, and add to the soup. Cook for a few minutes +and serve. + +CHOWDERS + +61. CLAM CHOWDER.--The flavor of clams, like that of oysters and other +kinds of sea food, is offensive to some persons, but where this is not +the case, clam chowder is a popular dish of high food value. This kind +of soup is much used in localities where clams are plentiful. + +CLAM CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. water +1 qt. clams +1 small onion +1 c. sliced potatoes +1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1/2 c. diced carrots +1/2 c. diced celery +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Add the water to the clams, and pick them over carefully to remove any +shell. Strain the liquid through cheesecloth, and then scald the clams +in it. Remove the clams and cook the vegetables in the liquid until they +are soft. Add the milk, butter, salt, and pepper and return the clams. +Heat thoroughly and serve over crackers. + +62. FISH CHOWDER.--An excellent way in which to utilize a small quantity +of fish is afforded by fish chowder. In addition, this dish is quite +high in food value, so that when it is served with crackers, little of +anything else need be served with it to make an entire meal if it be +luncheon or supper. Cod, haddock, or fresh-water fish may be used in the +accompanying recipe. + +FISH CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 lb. fish +1 small onion +1 c. sliced potatoes +1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 c. milk + +Skin the fish, remove the flesh, and cut it into small pieces. Simmer +the head, bones, and skin of the fish and the onion in water for 1/2 +hour. Strain, and add to this stock the fish, potatoes, tomatoes, salt, +and pepper. Simmer together until the potatoes are soft. Add the butter +and milk. Serve over crackers. + +63. POTATO CHOWDER.--A vegetable mixture such as the one suggested in +the accompanying recipe is in reality not a chowder, for this form of +soup requires sea food for its basis. However, when it is impossible to +procure the sea food, potato chowder does nicely as a change from the +usual soup. This chowder differs in no material way from soup stock in +this form. + +POTATO CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1-1/2 c. sliced potatoes +1 small onion, sliced +1 c. water +1-1/2 c. milk +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter + +Cook the potatoes and onion in the water until they are soft, but not +soft enough to fall to pieces. Rub half of the potatoes through a sieve +and return to the sliced ones. Add the milk, salt, pepper, and butter. +Cook together for a few minutes and serve. + +64. CORN CHOWDER.--The addition of corn to potato chowder adds variety +of flavor and makes a delicious mixture of vegetables. This dish is +rather high in food value, especially if the soup is served over +crackers. A small amount of tomato, although not mentioned in the +recipe, may be added to this combination to improve the flavor. + +CORN CHOWDER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. sliced potatoes +1 small onion, sliced +1 c. water +1 c. canned corn +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Cook the potatoes and onions in the water until they are soft. Add the +corn, milk, butter, salt, and pepper, and cook together for a few +minutes. Serve over crackers. + + +SOUP ACCOMPANIMENTS AND GARNISHES + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +65. The soup course of a meal is a more or less unattractive one, but it +may be improved considerably if some tempting thing in the way of a +garnish or an accompaniment is served with it. But whatever is selected +to accompany soup should be, in a great measure, a contrast to it in +both consistency and color. The reason why a difference in consistency +is necessary is due to the nature of soup, which, being liquid in form, +is merely swallowed and does not stimulate the flow of the gastric +juices by mastication. Therefore, the accompaniment should be something +that requires chewing and that will consequently cause the digestive +juices, which respond to the mechanical action of chewing, to flow. The +garnish may add the color that is needed to make soup attractive. The +green and red of olives and radishes or of celery and radishes make a +decided contrast, so that when any of these things are served with soup, +an appetizing first course is the result. It is not necessary to serve +more than one of them, but if celery and radishes or celery, radishes, +and olives can be combined in the same relish dish, they become more +attractive than when each is served by itself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +66. RADISHES AND CELERY.--Before radishes and celery are used on the +table, whether with soup or some other part of a meal, they should be +put into cold water and allowed to stand for some time, so that they +will be perfectly crisp when they are served. In the case of radishes, +the tops and roots should first be cut from them, and the radishes then +scrubbed thoroughly. They may be served without any further treatment, +or they may be prepared to resemble flowers, as is shown in Fig. 8. This +may be done by peeling the red skin back to show the white inside, and +then cutting the sections to look like the petals of a flower. Little +difficulty will be experienced in preparing radishes in this artistic +way if a sharp knife is used, for, with a little practice, the work can +be done quickly and skilfully. + +67. Celery that is to be served with soup may be prepared in two ways, +as Fig. 9 illustrates. The stems may be pulled from the stalk and served +separately, as in the group on the right, or the stalk may be cut down +through the center with a knife into four or more pieces, as shown at +the left of the illustration. The first of these methods is not so good +as the second, for by it one person gets all of the tender heart and the +coarse outside stems are left for all the others. By the second method, +every piece consists of some of the heart and some of the outside stems +attached to the root and makes a similar serving for each person. +Whichever way is adopted, however, the celery should be scrubbed and +cleansed thoroughly. This is often a difficult task, because the dirt +sticks tightly between the stems. Still, an effort should be made to +have the celery entirely free from dirt before it goes to the table. A +few tender yellow leaves may be left on the pieces to improve the +appearance of the celery. + +68. CRACKERS.--Various kinds of wafers and crackers can be purchased to +serve with soup, and the selection, as well as the serving of them, is +entirely a matter of individual taste. One point, however, that must not +be overlooked is that crackers of any kind must be crisp in order to be +appetizing. Dry foods of this sort absorb moisture from the air when +they are exposed to it and consequently become tough. As heat drives off +this moisture and restores the original crispness, crackers should +always be heated before they are served. Their flavor can be improved by +toasting them until they are light brown in color. + +69. CROUTONS.--As has already been learned, croutons are small pieces of +bread that have been fried or toasted to serve with soup. These are +usually made in the form of cubes, or dice, as is shown in the front +group in Fig. 10; but they may be cut into triangles, circles, ovals, +hearts, or, in fact, any fancy shape, by means of small cutters that can +be purchased for such purposes. The bread used for croutons should not +be fresh bread, as such bread does not toast nor fry very well; +left-over toast, stale bread, or slices of bread that have been cut from +the loaf and not eaten are usually found more satisfactory. If the +croutons are not made from slices already cut, the bread should be cut +into slices 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick, and, after the crusts have been +closely trimmed, the slices should be cut into cubes. When the cubes +have been obtained, they may be put into a shallow pan and toasted on +all sides quickly, placed in a frying basket and browned in deep fat, or +put into a frying pan and sautéd in butter. If toast is used, it should +merely be cut in the desired shape. + +Various methods of serving croutons are in practice. Some housewives +prefer to place them in the soup tureen and pour the soup over them, +while others like to put a few in each individual serving of soup. A +better plan, however, and one that is much followed, is to serve a +number of croutons on a small plate or dish at each person's place, as +shown in Figs. 3 and 4, for then every one may eat them in the way +preferred. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +70. BREAD STICKS.--A soup accompaniment similar in nature to croutons, +and known as _bread sticks_, is made of pieces of bread 1/2 inch wide, +1/2 inch thick, and several inches long. These are toasted on each side +and are served in place of crackers. A number of them are shown in the +back row in Fig. 10. Variety in bread sticks may be secured by spreading +butter over them before the toasting is begun or by sprinkling grated +cheese over them a few minutes before they are removed from the oven. +Bread sticks are usually served on a bread-and-butter plate to the left +of each person's place at the table. + +71. PASTRY STRIPS.--A very appetizing addition to soup may be made by +cutting pastry into narrow strips and then baking these strips in the +oven until they are brown or frying them in deep fat and draining them. +Strips prepared in this way may be served in place of crackers, +croutons, or bread sticks, and are considered delicious by those who are +fond of pastry. Details regarding pastry are given in another Section. + +72. SOUP FRITTERS.--If an entirely different kind of soup accompaniment +from those already mentioned is desired, soup fritters will no doubt +find favor. These are made by combining certain ingredients to form a +batter and then dropping small amounts of this into hot fat and frying +them until they are crisp and brown. The accompanying recipe, provided +it is followed carefully, will produce good results. + +SOUP FRITTERS + +1 egg +2 Tb. milk +3/4 tsp. salt +1/2 c. flour + +Beat the egg, and to it add the milk, salt, and flour. Drop the batter +in tiny drops into hot fat, and fry until brown and crisp. Drain on +paper and serve with the soup. + +73. EGG BALLS.--To serve with a soup that is well flavored but not +highly nutritious, egg balls are very satisfactory. In addition to +supplying nutrition, these balls are extremely appetizing, and so they +greatly improve a course that is often unattractive. Careful attention +given to the ingredients and the directions in the accompanying recipe +will produce good results. + +EGG BALLS + +3 yolks of hard-cooked eggs +1/2 tsp. melted butter +Salt and pepper +1 uncooked yolk + +Mash the cooked yolks, and to them add the butter, salt, and pepper, and +enough of the uncooked yolk to make the mixture of a consistency to +handle easily. Shape into tiny balls. Roll in the white of egg and then +in flour and sauté in butter. Serve in the individual dishes of soup. + +74. FORCEMEAT BALLS.--Another delicious form of accompaniment that +improves certain soups by adding nutrition is forcemeat balls. These +contain various nutritious ingredients combined into small balls, and +the balls are then either sautéd or fried in deep fat. They may be +placed in the soup tureen or in each person's soup. + +FORCEMEAT BALLS + +1/2 c. fine stale-bread crumbs +1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +White of 1 egg +1/4 tsp. salt +Few grains of pepper +2/3 c. breast of raw chicken or raw fish + +Cook the bread crumbs and milk to form a paste, and to this add the +butter, beaten egg white, and seasonings. Pound the chicken or fish to a +pulp, or force it through a food chopper and then through a purée +strainer. Add this to the first mixture. Form into tiny balls. Roll in +flour and either sauté or fry in deep fat. Serve hot. + +75. AMERICAN FORCEMEAT BALLS.--A simple kind of forcemeat balls may be +made according to the accompanying recipe. The meat used may be sausage +provided especially for the purpose or some that is left over from a +previous meal. If it is not possible to obtain sausage, some other +highly seasoned meat, such as ham first ground very fine and then +pounded to a pulp, may be substituted. + +AMERICAN FORCEMEAT BALLS + +1 Tb. butter +1 small onion +1-1/2 c. bread, without crusts +1 egg +1 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. pepper +Dash of nutmeg +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1/2 c. sausage meat + +Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the onion finely chopped. Fry for +several minutes over the fire. Soak the bread in water until thoroughly +softened and then squeeze out all the water. Mix with the bread the egg, +salt, pepper, nutmeg, parsley, and meat, and to this add also the butter +and fried onion. Form small balls of this mixture and sauté them in +shallow fat, fry them in deep fat, or, after brushing them over with +fat, bake them in the oven. Place a few in each serving of soup. + + +SOUP + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) Mention the two purposes that soups serve in a meal, (_b_) +What are the qualities of a good soup? + +(2) (_a_) Mention the two general classes of soup. (_b_) Explain and +illustrate how to choose a soup. + +(3) Why is soup an economical dish? + +(4) (_a_) Explain in full the meaning of stock as applied to soup. (_b_) +For what purposes other than soup making is stock used? + +(5) (_a_) What is the value of the stock pot? (_b_) What care should be +given to it? + +(6) Mention some of the materials that may be put into the stock pot. + +(7) (_a_) Why are the tough cuts of meat more suitable for soup than the +tender ones? (_b_) Name the pieces that are best adapted to soup making. + +(8) (_a_) What proportion of bone to meat should be used in making soup +from fresh meat? (_b_) For what two purposes are vegetables used +in soup? + +(9) Explain briefly the making of stock from meat. + +(10) (_a_) Why should the cooking of the meat for stock be started with +cold water rather than with hot water? (_b_) What disposal should be +made of meat from which stock is made? + +(11) (_a_) Of what value are flavorings in the making of soups? (_b_) +What precaution should be taken in the use of flavorings? + +(12) Explain how grease may be removed from soup. + +(13) How may soup be cleared? + +(14) (_a_) For what purposes is thickening used in soups? (_b_) Mention +the materials most used to thicken soups. + +(15) What precaution should be taken to keep soup or stock from +spoiling. + +(16) What point about the serving of soup should be observed if an +appetizing soup is desired? + +(17) What kind of dish is used for serving: (_a_) thin soup? (_b_) thick +soup? + +(18) (_a_) What is a cream soup? (_b_) Give the general directions for +making soup of this kind. + +(19) (_a_) How may the soup course of a meal be made more attractive? +(_b_) In what ways should soup accompaniments be a contrast to the soup? + +(20) (_a_) Explain the making of croutons. (_b_) What is the most +satisfactory way in which to prepare celery that is to be served +with soup? + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Plan and prepare a dinner menu from the recipes given in the lessons +that you have studied. Submit the menu for this dinner and give the +order in which you prepared the dishes. In addition, tell the number of +persons you served, as well as what remained after the meal and whether +or not you made use of it for another meal. Send this information with +your answers to the Examination Questions. + + * * * * * + + + + +MEAT (PART 1) + + * * * * * + +MEAT IN THE DIET + +VALUE OF MEAT AS FOOD + +1. In its broadest sense, MEAT may be considered as "any clean, sound, +dressed or properly prepared edible part of animals that are in good +health at the time of slaughter." However, the flesh of carnivorous +animals--that is, animals that eat the flesh of other animals--is so +seldom eaten by man, that the term meat is usually restricted to the +flesh of all animals except these. But even this meaning of meat is too +broad; indeed, as the term is generally used it refers particularly to +the flesh of the so-called domestic animals, and does not include +poultry, game, fish, and the like. It is in this limited sense that meat +is considered in these Sections, and the kinds to which attention is +given are beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and pork. Meat, including these +varieties, forms one of the principal sources of the family's food +supply. As such, it is valuable chiefly as a food; but, in the form of +broths and extracts made from it, meat stimulates the appetite and +actually assists the flow of gastric juice. Therefore, so that the +outlay for meat will not be greater than it should be and this food will +provide the greatest amount of nourishment, every housewife should be +thoroughly familiar with the place it occupies in the dietary. + +2. In the first place, it should be remembered that the food eaten by +human beings comes from two sources--animal and vegetable. The foods of +animal origin, which include milk, eggs, and meat, have a certain +similarity that causes them to be classed together and this is the fact +that they are high-protein foods. Milk is the first protein food fed to +the young, but a little later it is partly replaced by eggs, and, +finally, or in adult life, meat largely takes the place of both. For +this reason, meat has considerable importance in the dietary. In +reality, from this food is obtained the greatest amount of protein that +the average person eats. However, it will be well to note that milk and +eggs, as well as cheese and even cereals and vegetables, can be made to +take the place of meat when the use of less of this food is deemed +advisable. + +3. As the work of protein foods is to build and repair tissue, it is on +them that the human race largely depends. Of course, protein also yields +energy; but the amount is so small that if one variety of protein food, +such as meat, were eaten simply to supply energy to the body, huge +quantities of it would be needed to do the same work that a small amount +of less expensive food would accomplish. Some persons have an idea that +meat produces the necessary strength and energy of those who perform +hard work. This is entirely erroneous, because fats and carbohydrates +are the food substances that produce the energy required to do work. +Some kind of protein is, of course, absolutely necessary to the health +of every normal person, but a fact that cannot be emphasized too +strongly is that an oversupply of it does more harm than good. + +Scientists have been trying for a long time to determine just how much +of these tissue-building foods is necessary for individuals, but they +have found this a difficult matter. Nevertheless, it is generally +conceded that most persons are likely to use too much rather than too +little of them. It is essential then, not only from the standpoint of +economy, but from the far more important principle of health, that the +modern housewife should know the nutritive value of meats. + +4. In her efforts to familiarize herself with these matters, the +housewife should ever remember that meat is the most expensive of the +daily foods of a family. Hence, to get the greatest value for the money +expended, meat must be bought judiciously, cared for properly, and +prepared carefully. Too many housewives trust the not over-scrupulous +butcher to give them the kind of meat they should have, and very often +they do not have a clear idea as to whether it is the best piece that +can be purchased for the desired purpose and for the price that is +asked. Every housewife ought to be so familiar with the various cuts of +meat that she need not depend on any one except herself in the purchase +of this food. She will find that both the buying and the preparation of +meats will be a simple matter for her if she learns these three +important things: (1) From what part of the animal the particular piece +she desires is cut and how to ask for that piece; (2) how to judge a +good piece of meat by its appearance; and (3) what to do with it from +the moment it is purchased until the last bit of it is used. + +5. Of these three things, the cooking of meat is the one that demands +the most attention, because it has a decided effect on the quality and +digestibility of this food. Proper cooking is just as essential in the +case of meat as for any other food, for a tender, digestible piece of +meat may be made tough and indigestible by improper preparation, while a +tough piece may be made tender and very appetizing by careful, +intelligent preparation. The cheaper cuts of meat, which are often +scorned as being too tough for use, may be converted into delicious +dishes by the skilful cook who understands how to apply the various +methods of cookery and knows what their effect will be on the +meat tissues. + +6. Unfortunately, thorough cooking affects the digestibility of meat +unfavorably; but it is doubtless a wise procedure in some cases because, +as is definitely known, some of the parasites that attack man find their +way into the system through the meat that is eaten. These are carried to +meat from external sources, such as dust, flies, and the soiled hands of +persons handling it, and they multiply and thrive. It is known, too, +that some of the germs that cause disease in the animal remain in its +flesh and are thus transmitted to human beings that eat such meat. If +there is any question as to its good condition, meat must be thoroughly +cooked, because long cooking completely eliminates the danger from +such sources. + + +STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT + +7. An understanding of the physical structure of meat is essential to +its successful cooking. Meat consists of muscular tissue, or lean; +varying quantities of visible fat that lie between and within the +membranes and tendons; and also particles of fat that are too small to +be distinguished except with the aid of a microscope. The general nature +of the lean part of meat can be determined by examining a piece of it +with merely the unaided eye. On close observation, it will be noted +that, especially in the case of meat that has been cooked, innumerable +thread-like fibers make up the structure. With a microscope, it can be +observed that these visible fibers are made up of still smaller ones, +the length of which varies in different parts of the animal. It is to +the length of these fibers that the tenderness of meat is due. Short +fibers are much easier to chew than long ones; consequently, the pieces +containing them are the most tender. These muscle fibers, which are in +the form of tiny tubes, are filled with a protein substance. They are +held together with a tough, stringy material called _connective tissue_. +As the animal grows older and its muscles are used more, the walls of +these tubes or fibers become dense and tough; likewise, the amount of +connective tissue increases and becomes tougher. Among the muscle fibers +are embedded layers and particles of fat, the quantity of which varies +greatly in different animals and depends largely on the age of the +animal. For instance, lamb and veal usually have very little fat in the +tissues, mutton and beef always contain more, while pork contains a +greater amount of fat than the meat of any other domestic animal. + +8. The composition of meat depends to a large extent on the breed of the +animal, the degree to which it has been fattened, and the particular cut +of meat in question. However, the muscle fibers are made up of protein +and contain more protein, mineral salts, or ash, and certain substances +called _extractives_, all of which are held in solution by water. The +younger the animal, the greater is the proportion of water and the lower +the nutritive value of meat. It should be understood, however, that not +all of meat is edible material; indeed, a large part of it is made up of +gristle, bones, cartilage, nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue. +The amount of these indigestible materials also varies in different +animals and different cuts, but the average proportion in a piece of +meat is usually considered to be 15 per cent. of the whole. Because of +the variation of both the edible and inedible material of meat, a +standard composition for this food cannot readily be given. However, an +idea of the average composition of the various kinds can be obtained +from Fig. 1. + +[Illustration: Fig 1.] + +BEEF Fuel value per pound + Chuck, medium fat 735 + Loin, medium fat 1040 + Ribs, medium fat 1155 + Round, very lean 475 + Round, medium fat 895 + Round, very fat 1275 + Rump, medium fat 1110 + +VEAL + Breast, medium fat 740 + Leg, medium fat 620 + Loin, medium fat 690 + +LAMB + Leg, medium fat 870 + +MUTTON + Leg, medium fat 900 + +PORK + Ham, fresh, medium fat 1345 + Ham, smoked 1675 + Loin 1455 + Bacon, medium fat 2795 + +9. PROTEIN IN MEAT.--The value of meat as food is due to the proteins +that it contains. Numerous kinds of protein occur in meat, but the +chief varieties are myosin and muscle albumin. The _myosin_, which is +the most important protein and occurs in the greatest quantity, hardens +after the animal has been killed and the muscles have become cold. The +tissues then become tough and hard, a condition known as _rigor +mortis_. As meat in this condition is not desirable, it should be used +before rigor mortis sets in, or else it should be put aside until this +condition of toughness disappears. The length of time necessary for this +to occur varies with the size of the animal that is killed. It may be +from 24 hours to 3 or 4 days. The disappearance is due to the +development of certain acids that cause the softening of the tissues. +The _albumin_, which is contained in solution in the muscle fibers, is +similar in composition to the albumen of eggs and milk, and it is +affected by the application of heat in the cooking processes in much +the same way. + +10. GELATINE IN MEAT.--The gelatine that is found in meat is a substance +very similar in composition to protein, but it has less value as food. +It is contained in the connective tissue and can be extracted by +boiling, being apparent as a jellylike substance after the water in +which meat has been cooked has cooled. Use is made of this material in +the preparation of pressed meats and fowl and in various salads and +other cold-meat dishes. Some kinds of commercial gelatine are also made +from it, being first extracted from the meat and then evaporated to form +a dry substance. + +11. FAT IN MEAT.--All meat, no matter how lean it appears, contains some +fat. As already explained, a part of the fat contained in meat occurs in +small particles so embedded in the muscle fibers as not to be readily +seen, while the other part occurs in sufficient amounts to be visible. +In the flesh of some animals, such as veal and rabbit, there is almost +no visible fat, but in very fat hogs or fowls, one-third or one-half of +the weight may be fat. Meats that are very fat are higher in nutritive +value than meats that contain only a small amount of this substance, as +will be observed on referring to the table of meat compositions in Fig. +1. However, an excessive amount of fat prevents the protein materials +from digesting normally. + +The quality of fat varies greatly, there being two distinct kinds of +this material in animals. That which covers or lies between the muscles +or occurs on the outside of the body just beneath the skin has a lower +melting point, is less firm, and is of a poorer grade for most purposes +than that which is found inside the bony structure and surrounds the +internal organs. The suet of beef is an example of this internal fat. + +Fat is a valuable constituent of food, for it is the most concentrated +form in which the fuel elements of food are found. In supplying the body +with fuel, it serves to maintain the body temperature and to yield +energy in the form of muscular and other power. Since this is such a +valuable food material, it is important that the best possible use be +made of all drippings and left-over fats and that not even the smallest +amount of any kind be wasted. + +12. CARBOHYDRATE IN MEAT.--In the liver and all muscle fibers of animals +is stored a small supply of carbohydrate in a form that is called +_glycogen_, or _muscle sugar_. However, there is not enough of this +substance to be of any appreciable value, and, so far as the methods of +cookery and the uses of meat as food are concerned, it is of no +importance. + +13. WATER IN MEAT.--The proportion of water in meat varies from +one-third to three-fourths of the whole, depending on the amount of fat +the meat contains and the age of the animal. This water carries with it +the flavor, much of the mineral matter, and some food material, so that +when the water is removed from the tissues these things are to a great +extent lost. The methods of cookery applied to meat are based on the +principle of either retaining or extracting the water that it contains. +The meat in which water is retained is more easily chewed and swallowed +than that which is dry. However, the water contained in flesh has no +greater value as food than other water. Therefore, as will be seen in +Fig. 1, the greater the amount of water in a given weight of food, the +less is its nutritive value. + +14. MINERALS IN MEAT.--Eight or more kinds of minerals in sufficient +quantities to be of importance in the diet are to be found in meat. Lean +meat contains the most minerals; they decrease in proportion as the +amount of fat increases. These salts assist in the building of hard +tissues and have a decided effect on the blood. They are lost from the +tissues of meat by certain methods of cookery, but as they are in +solution in the water in which the meat is cooked, they need not be lost +to the diet if use is made of this water for soups, sauces, and gravies. + +15. EXTRACTIVES IN MEAT.--The appetizing flavor of meat is due to +substances called _extractives_. The typical flavor that serves to +distinguish pork from beef or mutton is due to the difference in the +extractives. Although necessary for flavoring, these have no nutritive +value; in fact, the body throws them off as waste material when they are +taken with the food. In some methods of cookery, such as broiling and +roasting, the extractives are retained, while in others, such as those +employed for making stews and soups, they are drawn out. + +Extractives occur in the greatest quantity in the muscles that the +animal exercises a great deal and that in reality have become tough. +Likewise, a certain part of an old animal contains more extractives than +the same part of a young one. For these reasons a very young chicken is +broiled while an old one is used for stew, and ribs of beef are roasted +while the shins are used for soup. + +Meat that is allowed to hang and ripen develops compounds that are +similar to extractives and that impart additional flavor. A ripened +steak is usually preferred to one cut from an animal that has been +killed only a short time. However, as the ripening is in reality a +decomposition process, the meat is said to become "high" if it is +allowed to hang too long. + + +PURCHASE AND CARE OF MEAT + +16. PURCHASE OF MEAT.--Of all the money that is spent for food in the +United States nearly one-third is spent for meat. This proportion is +greater than that of any European country and is probably more than is +necessary to provide diets that are properly balanced. If it is found +that the meat bill is running too high, one or more of several things +may be the cause. The one who does the purchasing may not understand the +buying of meat, the cheaper cuts may not be used because of a lack of +knowledge as to how they should be prepared to make them appetizing, or +more meat may be served than is necessary to supply the needs of +the family. + +Much of this difficulty can be overcome if the person purchasing meat +goes to the market personally to see the meat cut and weighed instead of +telephoning the order. It is true, of course, that the method of cutting +an animal varies in different parts of the country, as does also the +naming of the different pieces. However, this need give the housewife no +concern, for the dealer from whom the meat is purchased is usually +willing to supply any information that is desired about the cutting of +meat and the best use for certain pieces. In fact, if the butcher is +competent, this is a very good source from which to obtain a knowledge +of such matters. + +Another way in which to reduce the meat bill is to utilize the trimmings +of bone and fat from pieces of meat. In most cases, these are of no +value to the butcher, so that if a request for them is made, he will, as +a rule, be glad to wrap them up with the meat that is purchased. They +are of considerable value to the housewife, for the bones may go into +the stock pot, while the fat, if it is tried out, can be used for +many things. + +17. The quantity of meat to purchase depends, of course, on the number +of persons that are to be served with it. However, it is often a good +plan to purchase a larger piece than is required for a single meal and +then use what remains for another meal. For instance, a large roast is +always better than a small one, because it does not dry out in the +process of cookery and the part that remains after one meal may be +served cold in slices or used for making some other dish, such as meat +pie or hash. Such a plan also saves both time and fuel, because +sufficient meat for several meals may be cooked at one time. + +In purchasing meat, there are certain pieces that should never be asked +for by the pound or by the price. For instance, the housewife should not +say to the butcher, "Give me 2 pounds of porterhouse steak," nor should +she say, "Give me 25 cents worth of chops." Steak should be bought by +the cut, and the thickness that is desired should be designated. For +example, the housewife may ask for an inch-thick sirloin steak, a 2-inch +porterhouse steak, and so on. Chops should be bought according to the +number of persons that are to be served, usually a chop to a person +being quite sufficient. Rib roasts should be bought by designating the +number of ribs. Thus, the housewife may ask for a rib roast containing +two, three, four, or more ribs, depending on the size desired. Roasts +from other parts of beef, such as chuck or rump roasts, may be cut into +chunks of almost any desirable size without working a disadvantage to +either the butcher or the customer, and may therefore be bought by the +pound. Round bought for steaks should be purchased by the cut, as are +other steaks; or, if an entire cut is too large, it may be purchased as +upper round or lower round, but the price paid should vary with the +piece that is purchased. Round bought for roasts, however, may be +purchased by the pound. + +18. CARE OF MEAT IN THE MARKET.--Animal foods decompose more readily +than any other kind, and the products of their decomposition are +extremely dangerous to the health. It is therefore a serious matter when +everything that comes in contact with meat is not clean. Regarding the +proper care of meat, the sanitary condition of the market is the first +consideration. The light and ventilation of the room and the cleanliness +of the walls, floors, tables, counters, and other equipment are points +of the greatest importance and should be noted by the housewife when she +is purchasing meat. Whether the windows and doors are screened and all +the meat is carefully covered during the fly season are also matters +that should not be overlooked. Then, too, the cleanliness and physical +condition of the persons who handle the meat should be of as great +concern as the sanitary condition of the market. The housewife who +desires to supply her family with the safest and cleanest meat should +endeavor to purchase it in markets where all the points pertaining to +the sanitary condition are as ideal as possible. If she is at all +doubtful as to the freshness and cleanliness of what is sold to her, she +should give it thorough cooking in the process of preparation so that no +harm will be done to the persons who are to eat it. + +19. CARE OF MEAT IN THE HOME.--Because of the perishable nature of meat, +the care given it in the market must be continued in the home in order +that no deterioration may take place before it is cooked. This is not +much of a problem during cold weather, but through the summer months a +cool place in which to keep it must be provided unless the meat can be +cooked very soon after it is delivered. Meat that must be shipped long +distances is frozen before it is shipped and is kept frozen until just +before it is used. If such meat is still frozen when it enters the home, +it should not be put into a warm place, for then it will thaw too +quickly. Instead, it should be put in the refrigerator or in some place +where the temperature is a few degrees above freezing point, so that it +will thaw slowly and still remain too cold for bacteria to +become active. + +Even if meat is not frozen, it must receive proper attention after it +enters the home. As soon as it is received, it should be removed from +the wrapping paper or the wooden or cardboard dish in which it is +delivered. If the meat has not been purchased personally, it is +advisable to weigh it in order to verify the butcher's bill. When the +housewife is satisfied about the weight, she should place the meat in +an earthenware, china, or enameled bowl, cover it, and then put it away +in the coolest available place until it is used. Some persons put salt +on meat when they desire to keep it, but this practice should be +avoided, as salt draws out the juices from raw meat and hardens the +tissues to a certain extent. + +If such precautions are taken with meat, it will be in good condition +when it is to be cooked. However, before any cooking method is applied +to it, it should always be wiped with a clean, damp cloth. In addition, +all fat should be removed, except just enough to assist in cooking the +meat and give it a good flavor. Bone or tough portions may also be +removed if they can be used to better advantage for soups or stews. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF MEAT + +PURPOSES OF COOKING MEAT + +20. It is in the preparation of food, and of meat in particular, that +one of the marked differences between uncivilized and civilized man is +evident. Raw meat, which is preferred by the savage, does not appeal to +the appetite of most civilized persons; in fact, to the majority of them +the idea of using it for food is disgusting. Therefore, civilized man +prepares his meat before eating it, and the higher his culture, the more +perfect are his methods of preparation. + +While it is probably true that most of the methods of cookery render +meat less easy to digest than in its raw condition, this disadvantage is +offset by the several purposes for which this food is cooked. Meat is +cooked chiefly to loosen and soften the connective tissue and thus cause +the muscle tissues to be exposed more fully to the action of the +digestive juices. Another important reason for cooking meat is that +subjecting it to the action of heat helps to kill bacteria and +parasites. In addition, meat is cooked to make it more attractive to the +eye and to develop and improve its flavor. + + +METHODS OF COOKING MEAT + +21. The result desired when meat is cooked has much to do with the +method of cookery to choose, for different methods produce different +results. To understand this, it will be necessary to know just what the +action of cooking is on the material that meat contains. When raw meat +is cut, the tiny meat fibers are laid open, with the result that, in the +application of the cooking process, the albuminous material either is +lost, or, like the albumen of eggs, is coagulated, or hardened, and thus +retained. Therefore, before preparing a piece of meat, the housewife +should determine which of these two things she wishes to accomplish and +then proceed to carry out the process intelligently. + +The methods of cookery that may be applied to meat include broiling, pan +broiling, roasting, stewing or simmering, braizing, frying, sautéing, +and fricasseeing. All of these methods are explained in a general way in +_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, but explanations of them as they apply +to meat are here given in order to acquaint the housewife with the +advantages and disadvantages of the various ways by which this food can +be prepared. + +22. BROILING AND PAN BROILING.--Only such cuts of meats as require short +cooking can be prepared by the methods of broiling and pan broiling. To +carry out these methods successfully, severe heat must be applied to the +surface of the meat so that the albumin in the ends of the muscle fibers +may be coagulated at once. This presents, during the remainder of the +preparation, a loss of the meat juices. + +Meat to which either of these methods is applied will be indigestible on +the surface and many times almost uncooked in the center, as in the case +of rare steak. Such meat, however, is more digestible than thin pieces +that are thoroughly cooked at the very high temperature required +for broiling. + +23. ROASTING.--The process of roasting, either in the oven or in a pot +on top of the stove, to be properly done, requires that the piece of +meat to be roasted must first be seared over the entire surface by the +application of severe heat. In the case of a pot roast, the searing can +be done conveniently in the pot before the pot-roasting process begins. +If the meat is to be roasted in the oven, it may be seared first in a +pan on top of the stove. However, it may be seared to some extent by +placing it in a very hot oven and turning it over so that all the +surface is exposed. Then, to continue the roasting process, the +temperature must be lowered just a little. + +The roasting pan may be of any desirable size and shape that is +convenient and sufficiently large to accommodate the meat to be +prepared. A pan like that shown in Fig. 2 is both convenient and +satisfactory. It is provided with a cover that fits tight. In this +cover, as shown, is an opening that may be closed or opened so as to +regulate the amount of moisture inside the pan. In the bottom of the pan +is a rack upon which the meat may rest. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +24. To prepare meat for roasting, flour should be sprinkled or rubbed +over its lean surface before it is put in the pan. This forms a paste +that cooks into a crust and prevents the loss of juices from the meat. +In roasting, the heat is applied longer and more slowly than in broiling +or frying, so that there is more possibility for the connective tissue +beneath the surface to soften. The surface is, however, as indigestible +as that of broiled meat. + +An important point for every housewife to remember in this connection is +that the larger the roast the slower should be the fire. This is due to +the fact that long before the heat could penetrate to the center, the +outside would be burned. A small roast, however, will be more delicious +if it is prepared with a very hot fire, for then the juices will not +have a chance to evaporate and the tissues will be more moist and tasty. + +25. FRYING AND SAUTÉING.--When meat is fried or sautéd, that is, brought +directly in contact with hot fat, it is made doubly indigestible, +because of the hardening of the surface tissues and the indigestibility +of the fat that penetrates these tissues. This is especially true of +meat that is sautéd slowly in a small quantity of hot fat. Much of this +difficulty can be overcome, however, if meat prepared by these methods, +like that which is broiled or roasted, is subjected quickly to intense +heat. In addition, the fat used for cooking should be made hot before +the meat is put into it. + +26. BOILING.--To boil meat means to cook it a long time in water at a +temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit. This method of preparing meat is +not strongly advocated, for there is seldom a time when better results +cannot be obtained by cooking meat at a lower temperature than boiling +point. The best plan is to bring the meat to the boiling point, allow +it to boil for a short time, and then reduce the temperature so that the +meat will simmer for the remainder of the cooking. + +In cooking meat by boiling, a grayish scum appears on the surface just +before the boiling point is reached. This scum is caused by the gradual +extraction of a part of the soluble albumin that is present in the +hollow fibers of the muscle tissue. After its extraction, it is +coagulated by the heat in the water. As it coagulates and rises, it +carries with it to the top particles of dirt and other foreign material +present in the water or on the surface of the meat. In addition, this +scum contains a little blood, which is extracted and coagulated and +which tends to make it grayish in color. Such scum should be skimmed +off, as it is unappetizing in appearance. + +27. Whether the meat should be put into cold water or boiling water +depends on the result that is desired. It is impossible to make a rich, +tasty broth and at the same time have a juicy, well-flavored piece of +boiled meat. If meat is cooked for the purpose of making soup or broth, +it should be put into cold water and then brought to a boil. By this +method, some of the nutritive material and much of the flavoring +substance will be drawn out before the water becomes hot enough to +harden them. However, in case only the meat is to be used, it should be +plunged directly into boiling water in order to coagulate the surface at +once, as in the application of dry heat. If it is allowed to boil for 10 +minutes or so and the temperature then reduced, the coating that is +formed will prevent the nutritive material and the flavor from being +lost to any great extent. But if the action of the boiling water is +permitted to continue during the entire time of cooking, the tissues +will become tough and dry. + +28. STEWING OR SIMMERING.--The cheap cuts of meat, which contain a great +deal of flavor and are so likely to be tough, cannot be prepared by the +quick methods of cookery nor by the application of high temperature, for +the result would be a tough, indigestible, and unpalatable dish. The +long, slow cooking at a temperature lower than boiling point, which is +known as stewing or simmering, should be applied. In fact, no better +method for the preparation of tough pieces of meat and old fowl can be +found than this process, for by it the connective tissue and the muscle +fibers are softened. If the method is carried out in a tightly closed +vessel and only a small amount of liquid is used, there is no +appreciable loss of flavor except that carried into the liquid in which +the meat cooks. But since such liquid is always used, the meat being +usually served in it, as in the case of stews, there is no actual loss. + +To secure the best results in the use of this method, the meat should be +cut into small pieces so as to expose as much surface as possible. Then +the pieces should be put into cold water rather than hot, in order that +much of the juices and flavoring materials may be dissolved. When this +has been accomplished, the temperature should be gradually raised until +it nearly reaches the boiling point. If it is kept at this point for +several hours, the meat will become tender and juicy and a rich, tasty +broth will also be obtained. + +29. BRAIZING.--Meat cooked by the method of braizing, which is in +reality a combination of stewing and baking, is first subjected to the +intense dry heat of the oven and then cooked slowly in the steam of the +water that surrounds it. To cook meat in this way, a pan must be used +that will permit the meat to be raised on a rack that extends above a +small quantity of water. By this method a certain amount of juice from +the meat is taken up by the water, but the connective tissue is well +softened unless the cooking is done at too high a temperature. + +30. FRICASSEEING.--As has already been learned, fricasseeing is a +combination of sautéing and stewing. The sautéing coagulates the surface +proteins and prevents, to some extent, the loss of flavor that would +occur in the subsequent stewing if the surface were not hardened. To +produce a tender, tasty dish, fricasseeing should be a long, slow +process. This method is seldom applied to tender, expensive cuts of meat +and to young chickens, but is used for fowl and for pieces of meat that +would not make appetizing dishes if prepared by a quicker method. + + +TIME REQUIRED FOR COOKING MEAT + +31. The length of time required for cooking various kinds of meat is +usually puzzling to those inexperienced in cookery. The difference +between a dry, hard beef roast and a tender, moist, juicy one is due to +the length of time allowed for cooking. Overdone meats of any kind are +not likely to be tasty. Therefore, it should be remembered that when dry +heat is used, as in baking, roasting, broiling, etc., the longer the +heat is applied the greater will be the evaporation of moisture and the +consequent shrinkage in the meat. + +A general rule for cooking meat in the oven is to allow 15 minutes for +each pound and 15 minutes extra. If it is to be cooked by broiling, +allow 10 minutes for each pound and 10 minutes extra; by boiling, 20 +minutes for each pound and 20 minutes extra; and by simmering, 30 +minutes for each pound. In Table I is given the number of minutes +generally allowed for cooking 1 pound of each of the various cuts of +beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork by the different cookery methods. +This table should be referred to in studying the two Sections +pertaining to meat. + +TABLE I + +TIME TABLE FOR COOKING MEATS + +NAME OF CUT COOKERY METHOD TIME PER POUND + MINUTES + BEEF +Round Roasting 12 to 15 +Ribs Roasting, well done 12 to 15 +Ribs Roasting, rare 8 to 10 +Rump Roasting 12 to 15 +Sirloin Roasting, rare 8 to 10 +Rolled roast Roasting 12 to 15 +Steaks Broiling, well done 12 to 15 +Steaks Broiling, rare 8 to 10 +Fresh beef Boiling 20 to 25 +Corned beef Boiling 25 to 30 +Any cut Simmering 30 +Chuck Braizing 25 to 30 + + VEAL +Leg Roasting 20 +Chops or steak Broiling 8 to 30 +Shoulder Braizing 30 to 40 + + MUTTON +Leg Roasting 15 to 20 +Shoulder Roasting 15 to 20 +Leg Braizing 40 to 50 +Leg Boiling 15 to 25 +Chops Broiling 10 to 12 + + LAMB +Loin or saddle Roasting 15 to 20 +Leg Roasting 15 to 20 +Chops Broiling 8 to 10 + + PORK +Shoulder or ribs Roasting 20 to 25 +Ham Boiled 20 to 30 +Chops Broiled 8 to 10 + + * * * * * + + +BEEF + +GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF + +32. As is generally known, BEEF is the flesh of a slaughtered steer, +cow, or other adult bovine animal. These animals may be sold to be +slaughtered as young as 1-1/2 to 2 years old, but beef of the best +quality is obtained from them when they are from 3 to 4 years of age. +Ranging from the highest quality down to the lowest, beef is designated +by the butcher as prime, extra fancy, fancy, extra choice, choice, good, +and poor. In a market where trade is large and varied, it is possible to +make such use of meat as to get a higher price for the better qualities +than can be obtained in other markets. + +33. When the quality of beef is to be determined, the amount, quality, +and color of the flesh, bone, and fat must be considered. The surface of +a freshly cut piece of beef should be bright red in color. When it is +exposed to the air for some time, the action of the air on the blood +causes it to become darker, but even this color should be a good clear +red. Any unusual color is looked on with suspicion by a person who +understands the requirements of good meat. To obtain beef of the best +quality, it should be cut crosswise of the fiber. In fact, the way in +which meat is cut determines to a great extent the difference between +tender and tough meat and, consequently, the price that is charged. This +difference can be readily seen by examining the surface of a cut. It +will be noted that the tender parts are made up of short fibers that are +cut directly across at right angles with the surface of the meat, while +the tougher parts contain long fibers that run either slanting or almost +parallel to the surface. + +34. The amount of bone and cartilage in proportion to meat in a cut of +beef usually makes a difference in price and determines the usefulness +of the piece to the housewife. Therefore, these are matters that should +be carefully considered. For instance, a certain cut of beef that is +suitable for a roast may cost a few cents less than another cut, but if +its proportion of bone to meat is greater than in the more expensive +piece, nothing is gained by purchasing it. Bones, however, possess some +value and can be utilized in various ways. Those containing _marrow_, +which is the soft tissue found in the cavities of bones and composed +largely of fat, are more valuable for soup making and for stews and +gravies than are solid bones. + +In young beef in good condition, the fat is creamy white in color. +However, as the animal grows older, the color grows darker until it +becomes a deep yellow. + +Besides the flesh, bone, and fat, the general shape and thickness of a +piece of beef should be noted when its quality is to be determined. In +addition, its adaptability to the purpose for which it is selected and +the method of cookery to be used in its preparation are also points that +should not be overlooked. + + * * * * * + +CUTS OF BEEF + +METHOD OF OBTAINING CUTS + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +35. With the general characteristics of beef well in mind, the housewife +is prepared to learn of the way in which the animal is cut to produce +the different pieces that she sees in the butcher shop and the names +that are given to the various cuts. The cutting of the animal, as well +as the naming of the pieces, varies in different localities, but the +difference is not sufficient to be confusing. Therefore, if the +information here given is thoroughly mastered, the housewife will be +able to select meat intelligently in whatever section of the country she +may reside. An important point for her to remember concerning meat of +any kind is that the cheaper cuts are found near the neck, legs, and +shins, and that the pieces increase in price as they go toward the back. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4 *divisions of a cow into cuts*] + +36. The general method of cutting up a whole beef into large cuts is +shown in Fig. 3. After the head, feet, and intestines are removed, the +carcass is cut down along the spine and divided into halves. Each half +includes an entire side and is known as a _side of beef_. Then each side +is divided into _fore_ and _hind quarters_ along the diagonal line that +occurs about midway between the front and the back. It is in this form +that the butcher usually receives the beef. He first separates it into +the large pieces here indicated and then cuts these pieces into numerous +smaller ones having names that indicate their location. For instance, +the piece marked _a_ includes the _chuck_; _b_, the _ribs_; _c_, the +_loin_; _d_, the _round_; _e_, the _flank_; _f_, the _plate_; and _g_, +the _shin_. + +37. The cuts that are obtained from these larger pieces are shown in +Fig. 4. For instance, from the chuck, as illustrated in (_a_), are +secured numerous cuts, including the neck, shoulder clod, shoulder, and +chuck ribs. The same is true of the other pieces, as a careful study of +these illustrations will reveal. Besides indicating the various cuts, +each one of these illustrations serves an additional purpose. From +(_a_), which shows the skeleton of the beef, the amount and the shape of +the bone that the various cuts contain can be readily observed. From +(_b_), which shows the directions in which the surface muscle fibers +run, can be told whether the cutting of the pieces is done across the +fibers or in the same direction as the fibers. Both of these matters are +of such importance to the housewife that constant reference to these +illustrations should be made until the points that they serve to +indicate are thoroughly understood. + + +NAMES AND USES OF CUTS + +38. So that a still better idea may be formed of the pieces into which a +side of beef may be cut, reference should be made to Fig. 5. The heavy +line through the center shows where the side is divided in order to cut +it into the fore and hind quarters. As will be observed, the fore +quarter includes the chuck, prime ribs, and whole plate, and the hind +quarter, the loin and the round, each of these large pieces being +indicated by a different color. + +To make these large pieces of a size suitable for sale to the consumer, +the butcher cuts each one of them into still smaller pieces, all of +which are indicated in the illustration. The names of these cuts, +together with their respective uses, and the names of the beef organs +and their uses, are given in Table II. + +TABLE II + +CUTS OBTAINED FROM A SIDE OF BEEF AND THEIR USES + +NAME OF NAME OF CUT USES OF CUTS +LARGE PIECE + +Chuck........Neck Soups, broths, stews + Shoulder clod Soups, broths, stews, + boiling, corning + Ribs (11th, 12th, Brown stews, braizing, + and 13th) poor roasts + Ribs (9th and 10th) Braizing, roasts + Shoulder Soups, stews, corning, roast + Cross-ribs Roast + Brisket Soups, stews, corning + Shin Soups + +Prime Ribs...Ribs (1st to 8th, Roasts + inclusive) + +Whole Plate..Plate Soups, stews, corning + Navel Soups, stews, corning + +Loin.........Short steak Steaks, roasts + Porterhouse cuts Steaks, roasts + Hip-bone steak Steaks, roasts + Flat-bone steak Steaks, roasts + Round-bone steak Steaks, roasts + Sirloin Steaks + Top sirloin Roasts + Flank Rolled steak, braizing, boiling + Tenderloin Roast + +Round........Rump Roasts, corning + Upper round Steaks, roasts + Lower round Steaks, pot roasts, stews + Vein Stews, soups + Shank Soups + +Beef Organs..Liver Broiling, frying + Heart Baking, braizing + Tongue Boiling, baking, braizing + Tail Soup + +39. As will be observed from Fig. 5, the ribs are numbered in the +opposite direction from the way in which they are ordinarily counted; +that is, the first rib in a cut of beef is the one farthest from the +head and the thirteenth is the one just back of the neck. The first and +second ribs are called the _back ribs_; the third, fourth, fifth, and +sixth, the _middle ribs_. To prepare the ribs for sale, they are usually +cut into pieces that contain two ribs, the first and second ribs being +known as the first cut, the third and fourth as _the second_ cut, etc. +After being sawed across, the rib bones are either left in to make a +_standing rib roast_ or taken out and the meat then rolled and fastened +together with skewers to make a _rolled roast_. _Skewers,_ which are +long wooden or metal pins that may be pushed through meat to fasten it +together, will be found useful to the housewife in preparing many cuts +of meat for cooking. They may usually be obtained at a meat market or a +hardware store. + +40. Certain of the organs of beef are utilized to a considerable extent, +so that while they cannot be shown in Fig. 5, they are included in Table +II. The heart and the tongue are valuable both because they are +economical and because they add variety to the meat diet of the family. +The tongue, either smoked or fresh, may be boiled and then served hot, +or it may be pickled in vinegar and served cold. The heart may be +prepared in the same way, or it may be stuffed and then baked. The tail +of beef makes excellent soup and is much used for this purpose. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF BEEF + +STEAKS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +41. Steaks Obtained From the Loin.--The way in which a loin of beef is +cut into steaks is shown in Fig. 6. From _a_ to _b_ are cut _Delmonico +steaks;_ from _b_ to _c_, _porterhouse steaks;_ from _c_ to _d_, +_hip-bone steaks;_ from _d_ to _e_, _flat-bone steaks;_ and from _e_ to +_f_, _sirloin steaks_. The _loin_ is cut from the rump at _f_ and from +the flank and plate at _h_ to _j_. When steaks are cut from the flesh of +animals in good condition, they are all very tender and may be used for +the quick methods of cookery, such as broiling. A very good idea of what +each of these steaks looks like can be obtained from Figs. 7 to 11, +inclusive. Each of these illustrations shows the entire section of +steak, as well as one steak cut from the piece. + +DELMONICO STEAK, which is shown in Fig. 7, is the smallest steak that +can be cut from the loin and is therefore an excellent cut for a small +family. It contains little or no tenderloin. Sometimes this steak is +wrongly called a club steak, but no confusion will result if it is +remembered that a _club steak_ is a porterhouse steak that has most of +the bone and the flank end, or "tail," removed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +Porterhouse steak, which is illustrated in Fig 8, contains more +tenderloin than any other steak. This steak also being small in size is +a very good cut for a small number of persons. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +_Hip-bone steak_, shown in Fig. 9, contains a good-sized piece of +tenderloin. Steak of this kind finds much favor, as it can be served +quite advantageously. + +Flat-bone steak, as shown in Fig. 10, has a large bone, but it also +contains a considerable amount of fairly solid meat. When a large +number of persons are to be served, this is a very good steak to select. + +Sirloin steak is shown in Fig. 11. As will be observed, this steak +contains more solid meat than any of the other steaks cut from the loin. +For this reason, it serves a large number of persons more advantageously +than the others do. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +42. Steaks Obtained From the Round.--While the steaks cut from the loin +are usually preferred because of their tenderness, those cut from the +upper round and across the rump are very desirable for many purposes. If +these are not so tender as is desired, the surface may be chopped with +a dull knife in order to make tiny cuts through the fibers, or it may be +pounded with some blunt object, as, for instance, a wooden potato +masher. In Fig. 12, the entire round and the way it is sometimes +subdivided into the upper and lower round are shown. What is known as a +round steak is a slice that is cut across the entire round. However, +such a steak is often cut into two parts where the line dividing the +round is shown, and either the upper or the lower piece may be +purchased. The upper round is the better piece and brings a higher price +than the whole round or the lower round including the vein. The quick +methods of cookery may be applied to the more desirable cuts of the +round, but the lower round or the vein is generally used for roasting, +braizing, or stewing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +43. Broiled Beefsteak.--As has already been explained, the steaks cut +from the loin are the ones that are generally used for broiling. When +one of these steaks is to be broiled, it should never be less than 1 +inch thick, but it may be from 1 to 2-1/2 inches in thickness, according +to the preference of the persons for whom it is prepared. As the flank +end, or "tail," of such steaks is always tough, it should be cut off +before cooking and utilized in the making of soups and such dishes as +require chopped meats. In addition, all superfluous fat should be +removed and then tried out. Beef fat, especially if it is mixed with +lard or other fats, makes excellent shortening; likewise, it may be used +for sautéing various foods. + +When a steak has been prepared in this manner, wipe it carefully with a +clean, damp cloth. Heat the broiler very hot and grease the rack with a +little of the beef fat. Then place the steak on the rack, expose it +directly to the rays of a very hot fire, and turn it every 10 seconds +until each side has been exposed several times to the blaze. This is +done in order to sear the entire surface and thus prevent the loss of +the juice. When the surface is sufficiently seared, lower the fire or +move the steak to a cooler place on the stove and then, turning it +frequently, allow it to cook more slowly until it reaches the desired +condition. The broiling of a steak requires from 10 to 20 minutes, +depending on its thickness and whether it is preferred well done or +rare. Place the broiled steak on a hot platter, dot it with butter, +season it with salt and pepper, and serve at once. + +44. Pan-Broiled Steak.--If it is impossible to prepare the steak in a +broiler, it may be pan-broiled. In fact, this is a very satisfactory way +to cook any of the tender cuts. To carry out this method, place a heavy +frying pan directly over the fire and allow it to become so hot that the +fat will smoke when put into it. Grease the pan with a small piece of +the beef fat, just enough to prevent the steak from sticking fast. Put +the steak into the hot pan and turn it as soon as it is seared on the +side that touches the pan. After it is seared on the other side, turn it +again and continue to turn it frequently until it has broiled for about +15 minutes. When it is cooked sufficiently to serve, dot it with butter +and season it with salt and pepper. Serve hot. + +45. ROLLED STEAK, OR MOCK DUCK.--To have a delicious meat, it is not +always necessary to secure the tender, expensive cuts, for excellent +dishes can be prepared from the cheaper pieces. For instance, steaks cut +from the entire round or thin cuts from the rump can be filled with a +stuffing and then rolled to make rolled steak, or mock duck. This is an +extremely appetizing dish and affords the housewife a chance to give her +family a pleasing variety in the way of meat. The steak used for this +purpose should first be broiled in the way explained in Art. 43. Then it +should be filled with a stuffing made as follows: + +STUFFING FOR ROLLED STEAK + +1 qt. stale bread crumbs +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1 small onion +1 Tb. salt +2 Tb. butter +1/4 Tb. pepper +1 c. hot water + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] Mix all together. Pile on top of the broiled +steak and roll the steak so that the edges lap over each other and the +dressing is completely covered. Fasten together with skewers or tie by +wrapping a cord around the roll. Strips of bacon or salt pork tied to +the outside or fastened with small skewers improve the flavor of the +meat. Place in a roasting pan and bake in a hot oven until the steak is +thoroughly baked. This will require not less than 40 minutes. Cut into +slices and serve hot. + +46. SKIRT STEAK.--Lying inside the ribs and extending from the second +or third rib to the breast bone is a thin strip of muscle known as a +skirt steak. This is removed before the ribs are cut for roasts, and, as +shown in Fig. 13, is slit through the center with a long, sharp knife to +form a pocket into which stuffing can be put. As a skirt steak is not +expensive and has excellent flavor, it is a very desirable piece +of meat. + +To prepare such a steak for the table, stuff it with the stuffing given +for rolled steak in Art. 45, and then fasten the edges together with +skewers. Bake in a hot oven until the steak is well done. Serve hot. + +47. SWISS STEAK.--Another very appetizing dish that can be made from the +cheaper steaks is Swiss steak. To be most satisfactory, the steak used +for this purpose should be about an inch thick. + +Pound as much dry flour as possible into both sides of the steak by +means of a wooden potato masher. Then brown it on both sides in a hot +frying pan with some of the beef fat. When it is thoroughly browned, +pour a cup of hot water over it, cover the pan tight, and remove to the +back of the stove. Have just enough water on the steak and apply just +enough heat to keep it simmering very slowly for about 1/2 hour. As the +meat cooks, the water will form a gravy by becoming thickened with the +flour that has been pounded into the steak. Serve the steak with +this gravy. + +48. HAMBURGER STEAK.--The tougher pieces of beef, such as the flank ends +of the steak and parts of the rump, the round, and the chuck, may be +ground fine by being forced through a food chopper. Such meat is very +frequently combined with egg and then formed into small cakes or patties +to make Hamburger steak. Besides providing a way to utilize pieces of +meat that might otherwise be wasted, this dish affords variety to +the diet. + +HAMBURGER STEAK +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 lb. chopped beef +1 small onion, chopped +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1 egg (if desired) +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Mix the ingredients thoroughly and shape into thin patties. Cook by +broiling in a pan placed in the broiler or by pan-broiling in a hot, +well-greased frying pan. Spread with butter when ready to serve. + +49. PLANKED STEAK.--A dish that the housewife generally considers too +complicated for her, but that may very readily be prepared in the home, +is planked steak. Such a steak gets its name from the fact that a part +of its cooking is done on a hardwood plank, and that the steak, together +with vegetables of various kinds, is served on the plank. Potatoes are +always used as one of the vegetables that are combined with planked +steak, but besides them almost any combination or variety of vegetables +may be used as a garnish. Asparagus tips, string beans, peas, tiny +onions, small carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, stuffed peppers, and +stuffed tomatoes are the vegetables from which a selection is usually +made. When a tender steak is selected for this purpose and is properly +cooked, and when the vegetables are well prepared and artistically +arranged, no dish can be found that appeals more to the eye and +the taste. + +To prepare this dish, broil or pan-broil one of the better cuts of steak +for about 8 minutes. Butter the plank, place the steak on the center of +it and season with salt and pepper. Mash potatoes and to each 2 cupfuls +use 4 tablespoonfuls of milk, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and one egg. +After these materials have been mixed well into the potatoes, arrange a +border of potatoes around the edge of the plank. Then garnish the steak +with whatever vegetables have been selected. Care should be taken to see +that these are properly cooked and well seasoned. If onions, mushrooms, +or carrots are used, it is well to sauté them in butter after they are +thoroughly cooked. With the steak thus prepared, place the plank under +the broiler or in a hot oven and allow it to remain there long enough to +brown the potatoes, cook the steak a little more, and thoroughly heat +all the vegetables. + +50. VEGETABLES SERVED WITH STEAK.--If an attractive, as well as a tasty, +dish is desired and the housewife has not sufficient time nor the +facilities to prepare a planked steak, a good plan is to sauté a +vegetable of some kind and serve it over the steak. For this purpose +numerous vegetables are suitable, but onions, small mushrooms, and +sliced tomatoes are especially desirable. When onions are used, they +should be sliced thin and then sautéd in butter until they are soft and +brown. Small mushrooms may be prepared in the same way, or they may be +sautéd in the fat that remains in the pan after the steak has been +removed. Tomatoes that are served over steak should be sliced, rolled in +crumbs, and then sautéd. + +ROASTS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +51. FILLET OF BEEF.--A large variety of roasts can be obtained from a +side of beef, but by far the most delicious one is the tenderloin, or +fillet of beef. This is a long strip of meat lying directly under the +chine, or back bone. It is either taken out as a whole, or it is left in +the loin to be cut as a part of the steaks that are obtained from this +section. When it is removed in a whole piece, as shown in Fig. 14, the +steaks that remain in the loin are not so desirable and do not bring +such a good price, because the most tender part of each of them +is removed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +Two different methods of cookery are usually applied to the tenderloin +of beef. Very often, as Fig. 14 shows, it is cut into slices about 2 +inches thick and then broiled, when it is called _broiled fillet_, or +_fillet_ mignon. If it is not treated in this way, the whole tenderloin +is roasted after being rolled, or larded, with salt pork to supply the +fat that it lacks. Whichever way it is cooked, the tenderloin always +proves to be an exceptionally tender and delicious cut of beef. However, +it is the most expensive piece that can be bought, and so is not +recommended when economy must be practiced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +52. CHUCK ROASTS.--While the pieces cut from the chuck are not so +desirable as those obtained from the loin or as the prime ribs, still +the chuck yields very good roasts, as Figs. 15 and 16 show. The roast +shown in Fig. 15 is the piece just back of the shoulder, and that +illustrated in Fig. 16 is cut from the ribs in the chuck. These pieces +are of a fairly good quality and if a roast as large as 8 or 10 pounds +is desired, they make an economical one to purchase. + +53. RIB ROASTS.--Directly back of the chuck, as has already been +learned, are the prime ribs. From this part of the beef, which is shown +in Figs. 17 and 18, the best rib roasts are secured. Fig. 17 shows the +ribs cut off at about the eighth rib and Fig. 18 shows the same set +turned around so that the cut surface is at about the first rib, where +the best cuts occur. To prepare this piece for roasting, it is often cut +around the dark line shown in Fig. 18, and after the back bone and ribs +have been removed, is rolled into a roll of solid meat. The thin lower +part that is cut off is used for boiling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +54. When only a small roast is wanted, a single rib, such as is shown in +Fig. 19, is often used. In a roast of this kind, the bone is not +removed, but, as will be observed, is sawed in half. Such a roast is +called a _standing rib roast_. Another small roast, called a +_porterhouse roast_, is illustrated in Fig. 20. This is obtained by +cutting a porterhouse steak rather thick. It is therefore a very tender +and delicious, although somewhat expensive, roast. Other parts of the +loin may also be cut for roasts, the portion from which sirloin steaks +are cut making large and very delicious roasts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +55. RUMP ROASTS.--Between the loin and the bottom round lies the rump, +and from this may be cut roasts of different kinds. The entire rump with +its cut surface next to the round is shown in Fig. 21, and the various +pieces into which the rump may be cut are illustrated in Figs. 22 to 25. +These roasts have a very good flavor and are very juicy, and if beef in +prime condition can be obtained, they are extremely tender. Besides +these advantages, rump roasts are economical, so they are much favored. +To prepare them for cooking, the butcher generally removes the bone and +rolls them in the manner shown in Fig. 26. + +56. ROAST BEEF.--The usual method of preparing the roasts that have just +been described, particularly the tender ones, is to cook them in the +oven. For this purpose a roasting pan, such as the one previously +described and illustrated, produces the best results, but if one of +these cannot be obtained, a dripping pan may be substituted. When the +meat is first placed in the oven, the oven temperature should be 400 to +450 degrees Fahrenheit, but after the meat has cooked for about 15 +minutes, the temperature should be lowered so that the meat will cook +more slowly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25] + +Before putting the roast in the oven, wipe it thoroughly with a damp +cloth. If its surface is not well covered with a layer of fat, place +several pieces of salt pork on it and tie or skewer them fast. Then, +having one of the cut sides up so that it will be exposed to the heat of +the oven, set the piece of meat in a roasting pan or the utensil that is +to be substituted. Dredge, or sprinkle, the surface with flour, salt, +and pepper, and place the pan in the oven, first making sure that the +oven is sufficiently hot. Every 10 or 15 minutes baste the meat with the +fat and the juice that cooks out of it; that is, spoon up this liquid +and pour it over the meat in order to improve the flavor and to prevent +the roast from becoming dry. If necessary, a little water may be added +for basting, but the use of water for this purpose should generally be +avoided. Allow the meat to roast until it is either well done or rare, +according to the way it is preferred. The length of time required for +this process depends so much on the size of the roast, the temperature +of the oven, and the preference of the persons who are to eat the meat, +that definite directions cannot well be given. However, a general idea +of this matter can be obtained by referring to the Cookery Time Table +given in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, and also to Table I of this +Section, which gives the time required for cooking each pound of meat. +If desired, gravy may be made from the juice that remains in the pan, +the directions for making gravy being given later. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +57. BRAIZED BEEF.--An excellent way in which to cook a piece of beef +that is cut from the rump or lower round is to braize it. This method +consists in placing the meat on a rack over a small quantity of water in +a closed pan and then baking it in the oven for about 4 hours. +Vegetables cut into small pieces are placed in the water and they cook +while the meat is baking. As meat prepared in this way really cooks in +the flavored steam that rises from the vegetables, it becomes very +tender and has a splendid flavor; also, the gravy that may be made from +the liquid that remains adds to its value. In serving it, a spoonful of +the vegetables is generally put on the plate with each piece of meat. + +BRAIZED BEEF +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 lb. beef from rump or lower round +Flour +Salt +Pepper +2 thin slices salt pork +1/4 c. diced carrots +1/4 c. diced turnips +1/4 c. diced onions +1/4 c. diced celery +3 c. boiling water + +Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, and dredge, or sprinkle, it with the +flour, salt, and pepper. Try out the pork and brown the entire surface +of the meat in the fat thus obtained. Then place the meat on a rack in a +deep granite pan, an earthen bowl, or a baking dish, and surround it +with the diced vegetables. Add the boiling water, cover the dish tight, +and place in a slow oven. Bake for about 4 hours at a low temperature. +Then remove the meat to a hot platter, strain out the vegetables, and +make a thickened gravy of the liquid that remains, as explained later. + +58. POT-ROASTED BEEF.--The usual, and probably the most satisfactory, +method of preparing the cheaper cuts of beef is to cook them in a heavy +iron pot over a slow fire for several hours. If the proper attention is +given to the preparation of such a roast, usually called a pot roast, it +will prove a very appetizing dish. Potatoes may also be cooked in the +pot with the meat. This is a good plan to follow for it saves fuel and +at the same time offers variety in the cooking of potatoes. + +When a piece of beef is to be roasted in a pot, try out in the pot a +little of the beef fat. Then wipe the meat carefully and brown it on all +sides in the fat. Add salt, pepper, and 1/2 cupful of boiling water and +cover the pot tightly. Cook over a slow fire until the water is +evaporated and the meat begins to brown; then add another 1/2 cupful of +water. Continue to do this until the meat has cooked for several hours, +or until the entire surface is well browned and the meat tissue very +tender. Then place the meat on a hot platter and, if desired, make gravy +of the fat that remains in the pan, following the directions given +later. If potatoes are to be cooked with the roast, put them into the +pot around the meat about 45 minutes before the meat is to be removed, +as they will be cooked sufficiently when the roast is done. + +59. BEEF LOAF.--Hamburger steak is not always made into small patties +and broiled or sautéd. In fact, it is very often combined with cracker +crumbs, milk, and egg, and then well seasoned to make a beef loaf. Since +there are no bones nor fat to be cut away in serving, this is an +economical dish and should be used occasionally to give variety to the +diet. If desired, a small quantity of salt pork may be combined with the +beef to add flavor. + +BEEF LOAF +(Sufficient to Serve Ten) + +3 lb. beef +2 Tb. salt +1/4 lb. salt pork +1/4 Tb. pepper +1 c. cracker crumbs +1 small onion +1 c. milk +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 egg + +Put the beef and pork through the food chopper; then mix thoroughly with +the other ingredients. Pack tightly into a loaf-cake pan. Bake in a +moderate oven for 2 1/2 to 3 hours. During the baking, baste frequently +with hot water to which a little butter has been added. Serve either hot +or cold, as desired. + + +PREPARATION OP STEWS AND CORNED BEEF + +60. Cuts Suitable for Stewing and Corning.--Because of the large variety +of cuts obtained from a beef, numerous ways of cooking this meat have +been devised. The tender cuts are, of course, the most desirable and the +most expensive and they do not require the same preparation as the +cheaper cuts. However, the poorer cuts, while not suitable for some +purposes, make very good stews and corned beef. The cuts that are most +satisfactory for stewing and coming are shown in Figs. 27 to 30. A part +of the chuck that is much used for stewing and coming is shown in Fig. +27, _a_ being the upper chuck, _b_ the shoulder, and _c_ the lower +chuck. Fig. 28 shows a piece of the shoulder cut off just at the leg +joint, Fig. 29, the neck, and Fig. 30, a piece of the plate called a +flat-rib piece. Besides these pieces, the brisket, the lower part of the +round, and any of the other chuck pieces that do not make good roasts +are excellent for this purpose. In fact, any part that contains bone and +fat, as well as lean, makes well-flavored stew. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +[Illustration: FIG. 28] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30] + +61. Beef Stew.--Any of the pieces of beef just mentioned may be used +with vegetables of various kinds to make beef stew. Also left-over +pieces of a roast or a steak may be utilized with other meats in the +making of this dish. If the recipe here given is carefully followed, a +very appetizing as well as nutritious stew will be the result. + +BEEF STEW +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +4 lb. beef +2/3 c. diced carrots +2 Tb. salt +1 small onion, sliced +1/4 Tb. pepper +3 c. potatoes cut into 1/4 in. slices +2/3 c. diced turnips +2 Tb. flour + +Wipe the meat and cut it into pieces about 2 inches long. Try out some +of the fat in a frying pan and brown the pieces of meat in it, stirring +the meat constantly so that it will brown evenly. Put the browned meat +into a kettle with the remaining fat and the bone, cover well with +boiling water, and add the salt and pepper. Cover the kettle with a +tight-fitting lid. Let the meat boil for a minute or two, then reduce +the heat, and allow it to simmer for about 2 hours. For the last hour, +cook the diced turnips, carrots, and onions with the meat, and 20 +minutes before serving, add the potatoes. When the meat and vegetables +are sufficiently cooked, remove the bones, fat, and skin; then thicken +the stew with the flour moistened with enough cold water to pour. Pour +into a deep platter or dish and serve with or without dumplings. + +62. When dumplings are to be served with beef stew or any dish of this +kind, they may be prepared as follows: + +DUMPLINGS + +2 c. flour +2 Tb. fat +1/2 Tb. salt +3/4 to 1 c. milk +4 tsp. baking powder + +Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop in the fat with a +knife. Add the milk gradually and mix to form a dough. Toss on a floured +board and roll out or pat until it is about 1 inch thick. Cut into +pieces with a small biscuit cutter. Place these close together in a +buttered steamer and steam over a kettle of hot water for 15 to 18 +minutes. Serve with the stew. + +If a softer dough that can be cooked with the stew is preferred, 1 1/2 +cupfuls of milk instead of 3/4 to 1 cupful should be used. Drop the +dough thus prepared by the spoonful into the stew and boil for about 15 +minutes. Keep the kettle tightly covered while the dumplings +are boiling. + +63. CORNED BEEF.--It is generally the custom to purchase corned beef, +that is, beef preserved in a brine, at the market; but this is not +necessary, as meat of this kind may be prepared in the home. When the +housewife wishes to corn beef, she will find it an advantage to procure +a large portion of a quarter of beef, part of which may be corned and +kept to be used after the fresh beef has been eaten. Of course, this +plan should be followed only in cold weather, for fresh meat soon spoils +unless it is kept very cold. + +To corn beef, prepare a mixture of 10 parts salt to 1 part saltpeter and +rub this into the beef until the salt remains dry on the surface. Put +the meat aside for 24 hours and then rub it again with some of the same +mixture. On the following day, put the beef into a large crock or stone +jar and cover it with a brine made by boiling 2-1/2 gallons of water +into which have been added 2 quarts salt, 2 ounces saltpeter, and 3/4 +pound brown sugar. Be careful to cool the brine until it entirely cold +before using it. Allow the beef to remain in the brine for a week before +attempting to use it. Inspect it occasionally, and if it does not appear +to be keeping well, remove it from the brine, rub it again with the salt +mixture, and place it in fresh brine. Beef that is properly corned will +keep an indefinite length of time, but it should be examined, every 2 or +3 days for the first few weeks to see that it is not spoiling. + +64. BOILED CORNED BEEF.--The usual way to prepare beef corned in the +manner just explained or corned beef bought at the market is to boil it. +After it becomes sufficiently tender by this method of cooking, it may +be pressed into a desired shape and when cold cut into thin slices. Meat +of this kind makes an excellent dish for a light meal such as luncheon +or supper. + +To boil corned beef, first wipe it thoroughly and roll and tie it. Then +put it into a kettle, cover it with boiling water, and set it over the +fire. When it comes to the boiling point, skim off the scum that forms +on the top. Cook at a low temperature until the meat is tender enough to +be pierced easily with a fork. Then place the meat in a dish or a pan, +pour the broth over it, put a plate on top that will rest on the meat, +and weight it down with something heavy enough to press the meat into +shape. Allow it to remain thus overnight. When cold and thoroughly set, +remove from the pan, cut into thin slices, and serve. + +65. BOILED DINNER.--Corned beef is especially adaptable to what is +commonly termed a boiled dinner. Occasionally it is advisable for the +housewife to vary her meals by serving a dinner of this kind. In +addition to offering variety, such a dinner affords her an opportunity +to economize on fuel, especially if gas or electricity is used, for all +of it may be prepared in the same pot and cooked over the same burner. + +BOILED DINNER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 lb. corned beef +1 c. sliced turnips +1 small head of cabbage cut into eighths +1 c. sliced potatoes +Pepper and salt +1 c. sliced carrots + +Cook the corned beef in the manner explained in Art. 64. When it has +cooked sufficiently, remove it from the water. Into this water, put the +cabbage, carrots, turnips, and potatoes; then add the salt and pepper, +seasoning to taste. Cook until the vegetables are tender. Remove the +vegetables and serve them in vegetable dishes with some of the meat +broth. Reheat the meat before serving. + + +BEEF ORGANS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +66. BOILED TONGUE.--The tongue of beef is much used, for if properly +prepared it makes a delicious meat that may be served hot or cold. It is +usually corned or smoked to preserve it until it can be used. In either +of these forms or in its fresh state, it must be boiled in order to +remove the skin and prepare the meat for further use. If it has been +corned or smoked, it is likely to be very salty, so that it should +usually be soaked overnight to remove the salt. + +When boiled tongue is desired, put a fresh tongue or a smoked or a +corned tongue from which the salt has been removed into a kettle of cold +water and allow it to come to a boil. Skim and continue to cook at a low +temperature for 2 hours. Cool enough to handle and then remove the skin +and the roots. Cut into slices and serve hot or cold. + +67. PICKLED TONGUE.--A beef tongue prepared in the manner just explained +may be treated in various ways, but a method of preparation that meets +with much favor consists in pickling it. Pickled tongue makes an +excellent meat when a cold dish is required for a light meal or meat for +sandwiches is desired. The pickle required for one tongue contains the +following ingredients: + +PICKLE + +1-1/2 c. vinegar +2 c. water +1/4 c. sugar +1 Tb. salt +1/4 Tb. pepper +6 cloves +1 stick cinnamon + +Boil all of these ingredients for a few minutes, then add the tongue, +and boil for 15 minutes. Remove from the stove and let stand for 24 +hours. Slice and serve cold. + +68. BRAIZED TONGUE.--The process of braizing may be applied to tongue as +well as to other parts of beef. In fact, when tongue is cooked in this +way with several kinds of vegetables, it makes a delicious dish that is +pleasing to most persons. + +BRAIZED TONGUE +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 fresh tongue +1/3 c. diced carrots +1/3 c. diced onions +1/3 c. diced celery +1 c. stewed tomatoes +2 c. water in which tongue is boiled + +Boil the tongue as previously directed, and then skin it and remove the +roots. Place it in a long pan and pour over it the carrots, onions, +celery, stewed tomatoes, and the water. Cover tight and bake in a slow +oven for 2 hours. Serve on a platter with the vegetables and sauce. + +69. STUFFED HEART.--If a stuffed meat is desired, nothing more +appetizing can be found than stuffed heart. For this purpose the heart +of a young beef should be selected in order that a tender dish +will result. + +After washing the heart and removing the veins and the arteries, make a +stuffing like that given for rolled beefsteak in Art. 45. Stuff the +heart with this dressing, sprinkle salt and pepper over it, and roll it +in flour. Lay several strips of bacon or salt pork across the top, place +in a baking pan, and pour 1 cupful of water into the pan. Cover the pan +tight, set it in a hot oven, and bake slowly for 2 or 3 hours, depending +on the size of the heart. Add water as the water in the pan evaporates, +and baste the heart frequently. When it has baked sufficiently, remove +to a platter and serve at once. + + +MAKING GRAVY + +70. To meats prepared in various ways, gravy--that is, the sauce made +from the drippings or juices that cook out of steaks, roasts, and stews, +or from the broth actually cooked from the meat as for soup--is a +valuable addition, particularly if it is well made and properly +seasoned. A point to remember in this connection is that gravy should be +entirely free from lumps and not too thick. It will be of the right +thickness if 1 to 2 level tablespoonfuls of flour is used for each pint +of liquid. It should also be kept in mind that the best gravy is made +from the brown drippings that contain some fat. + +To make gravy, remove any excess of fat that is not required, and then +pour a little hot water into the pan in order to dissolve the drippings +that are to be used. Add the flour to the fat, stirring until a smooth +paste is formed. Then add the liquid, which may be water or milk, and +stir quickly to prevent the formation of lumps. Season well with salt +and pepper. Another method that also proves satisfactory is to mix the +flour and liquid and then add them to the fat that remains in the pan in +which the meat has been cooked. + + +TRYING OUT SUET AND OTHER FATS + +71. The suet obtained from beef is a valuable source of fat for cooking, +and it should therefore never be thrown away. The process of obtaining +the fat from suet is called _trying_, and it is always practiced in +homes where economy is the rule. + +To try out suet, cut the pieces into half-inch cubes, place them in a +heavy frying pan, and cover them with hot water. Allow this to come to a +boil and cook until the water has evaporated. Continue the heating until +all the fat has been drawn from the tissue. Then pour off all the liquid +fat and squeeze the remaining suet with a potato masher or in a fruit +press. Clean glass or earthen jars are good receptacles in which to keep +the fat thus recovered from the suet. + +To try out other fats, proceed in the same way as for trying out suet. +Such fats may be tried by heating them in a pan without water, provided +the work is done carefully enough to prevent them from scorching. + + +PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER BEEF + +72. As has been shown, meat is both an expensive and a perishable food. +Therefore, some use should be made of every left-over bit of it, no +matter how small, and it should be disposed of quickly in order to +prevent it from spoiling. A point that should not be overlooked in the +use of left-over meats, however, is that they should be prepared so as +to be a contrast to the original preparation and thus avoid monotony in +the food served. This variation may be accomplished by adding other +foods and seasonings and by changing the appearance as much as possible. +For instance, what remains from a roast of beef may be cut in thin +slices and garnished to make an attractive dish; or, left-over meat may +be made very appetizing by cutting it into cubes, reheating it in gravy +or white sauce, and serving it over toast or potato patties. Then there +is the sandwich, which always finds a place in the luncheon. The meat +used for this purpose may be sliced thin or it may be chopped fine, and +then, to increase the quantity, mixed with salad dressing, celery, +olives, chopped pickles, etc. An excellent sandwich is made by placing +thin slices of roast beef between two slices of bread and serving hot +roast-beef gravy over the sandwich thus formed. Still other appetizing +dishes may be prepared from left-over beef as the accompanying +recipes show. + +73. MEXICAN BEEF--An extremely appetizing dish, known as Mexican beef, +can be made from any quantity of left-over beef by serving it with a +vegetable sauce. Such a dish needs few accompaniments when it is served +in a light meal, but it may be used very satisfactorily as the main dish +in a heavy meal. + +MEXICAN BEEF + +2 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1 onion, chopped +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 red pepper +1 tsp. celery salt +1 green pepper +Thin slices roast beef +3/4 c. canned tomatoes + +Brown the butter, add the chopped onion, and cook for a few minutes. +Then add the chopped peppers, tomatoes, salt, pepper, and celery salt. +Cook all together for a few minutes and add the thinly sliced roast +beef. When the meat has become thoroughly heated, it is ready to serve. + +74. COTTAGE PIE.--A very good way to use up left-over mashed potatoes +as well as roast beef is to combine them and make a cottage pie. In this +dish, mashed potatoes take the place of the crust that is generally put +over the top of a meat pie. If well seasoned and served hot, it makes a +very palatable dish. + +To make a cottage pie, cover the bottom of a baking dish with a 2-inch +layer of well-seasoned mashed potatoes. Over this spread left-over roast +beef cut into small pieces. Pour over the meat and potatoes any +left-over gravy and a few drops of onion juice made by grating raw +onion. Cover with a layer of mashed potatoes 1 inch deep. Dot with +butter and place in a hot oven until the pie has heated through and +browned on top. Serve hot. + +75. BEEF PIE.--No housewife need be at a loss for a dish that will tempt +her family if she has on hand some left-over pieces of beef, for out of +them she may prepare a beef pie, which is always in favor. Cold roast +beef makes a very good pie, but it is not necessary that roast beef be +used, as left-over steak or even a combination of left-over meats, will +do very well. + +Cut into 1-inch cubes whatever kinds of left-over meats are on hand. +Cover with hot water, add a sliced onion, and cook slowly for 1 hour. +Thicken the liquid with flour and season well with salt and pepper. Add +two or three potatoes, cut into 1/4-inch slices, and let them boil for +several minutes. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking dish and cover +it with a baking-powder biscuit mixture. Bake in a hot oven until the +crust is brown. Serve hot. + +76. BEEF HASH.--One of the most satisfactory ways in which to utilize +left-over roast beef or corned beef is to cut it into small pieces and +make it into a hash. Cold boiled potatoes that remain from a previous +meal are usually combined with the beef, and onion is added for flavor. +When hash is prepared to resemble an omelet and is garnished with +parsley, it makes an attractive dish. + +To make beef hash, remove all skin and bone from the meat, chop quite +fine, and add an equal quantity of chopped cold-boiled potatoes and one +chopped onion. Season with salt and pepper. Put the mixture into a +well-buttered frying pan, moisten with milk, meat stock, or left-over +gravy, and place over a fire. Let the hash brown slowly on the bottom +and then fold over as for an omelet. Serve on a platter garnished +with parsley. + +77. FRIZZLED BEEF.--While the dried beef used in the preparation of +frizzled beef is not necessarily a left-over meat, the recipe for this +dish is given here, as it is usually served at a meal when the preceding +left-over beef dishes are appropriate. Prepared according to this +recipe, frizzled beef will be found both nutritious and appetizing. + +FRIZZLED BEEF +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +2 Tb. butter +1/4 lb. thinly sliced dried beef +2 Tb. flour +1 c. milk +4 slices of toast + +Brown the butter in a frying pan and add the beef torn into small +pieces. Allow it to cock until the beef becomes brown. Add the flour and +brown it. Pour the milk over all, and cook until the flour thickens the +milk. Serve over the toast. + + +MEAT (PART 1) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) What is meat? (_b_) What substance in meat makes it a valuable +food? + +(2) (_a_) What do protein foods do for the body? (_b_) How does meat +compare in cost with the other daily foods? + +(3) What harm may occur from eating meat that is not thoroughly cooked? + +(4) (_a_) Describe the structure of meat, (_b_) How do the length and +the direction of the fibers affect the tenderness of meat? + +(5) (_a_) How may gelatine be obtained from meat? (_b_) What use is made +of this material? + +(6) (_a_) Describe the two kinds of fat found in meat, (_b_) What does +this substance supply to the body? + +(7) (_a_) What is the value of water in the tissues of meat? (_b_) How +does its presence affect the cookery method to choose for +preparing meat? + +(8) (_a_) What are extractives? (_b_) Why are they of value in meat? + +(9) (_a_) Name the ways by which the housewife may reduce her meat bill, +(_b_) How should meat be cared for in the home? + +(10) Give three reasons for cooking meat. + +(11) (_a_) Describe the effect of cooking on the materials contained in +meat, (_b_) How does cooking affect the digestibility of meat? + +(12) What methods of cookery are used for: (_a_) the tender cuts of +meat? (_b_) the tough cuts? (_c_) Mention the cuts of meat that have the +most flavor. + +(13) (_a_) How should the temperature of the oven vary with the size of +the roast to be cooked? (_b_) Give the reason for this. + +(14) Describe beef of good quality. + +(15) In what parts of the animal are found: (_a_) the cheaper cuts of +beef? (_b_) the more expensive cuts? + +(16) (_a_) Name the steaks obtained from the loin, (_b_) Which of these +is best for a large family? (_c_) Which is best for a small family? + +(17) Describe the way in which to broil steak. + +(18) (_a_) What is the tenderloin of beef? (_b_) Explain the two ways of +cooking it. + +(19) (_a_) Name the various kinds of roasts, (_b_) Describe the roasting +of beef in the oven. + +(20) (_a_) What cuts of beef are most satisfactory for stews? (_b_) +Explain how beef stew is made. + + * * * * * + + + +MEAT (PART 2) + + * * * * * + +VEAL + +NATURE OF VEAL + +1. Veal is the name applied to the flesh of a slaughtered calf. This +kind of meat is at its best in animals that are from 6 weeks to 3 months +old when killed. Calves younger than 6 weeks are sometimes slaughtered, +but their meat is of poor quality and should be avoided. Meat from a +calf that has not reached the age of 3 weeks is called bob veal. Such +meat is pale, dry, tough, and indigestible and, consequently, unfit for +food. In most states the laws strictly forbid the sale of bob veal for +food, but constant vigilance must be exercised to safeguard the public +from unscrupulous dealers. A calf that goes beyond the age of 3 months +without being slaughtered must be kept and fattened until it reaches the +age at which it can be profitably sold as beef, for it is too old to be +used as veal. + +2. The nature of veal can be more readily comprehended by comparing it +with beef, the characteristics of which are now understood. Veal is +lighter in color than beef, being more nearly pink than red, and it +contains very little fat, as reference to Fig. 1, _Meat_, Part 1, will +show. The tissues of veal contain less nutriment than those of beef, but +they contain more gelatine. The flavor of veal is less pronounced than +that of beef, the difference between the age of animals used for veal +and those used for beef being responsible for this lack of flavor. These +characteristics, as well as the difference in size of corresponding +cuts, make it easy to distinguish veal from beef in the market. + +CUTS OF VEAL, AND THEIR USES + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +3. The slaughtered calf from which veal is obtained is generally +delivered to the butcher in the form shown in Fig. 1; that is, with the +head, feet, and intestines removed and the carcass split into halves +through the spine. He divides each half into quarters, known as the +_fore quarter_ and the _hind quarter_, and cuts these into +smaller pieces. + +4. FORE QUARTER.--The fore quarter, as shown in Fig. 1, is composed of +the neck, chuck, shoulder, fore shank, breast, and ribs. Frequently, no +distinction is made between the neck and the chuck, both of these pieces +and the fore shank being used for soups and stews. The shoulder is cut +from the ribs lying underneath, and it is generally used for roasting, +often with stuffing rolled inside of it. The breast, which is the under +part of the fore quarter and corresponds to the plate in beef, is +suitable for either roasting or stewing. When the rib bones are removed +from it, a pocket that will hold stuffing can be cut into this piece. +The ribs between the shoulder and the loin are called the _rack_; they +may be cut into chops or used as one piece for roasting. + +5. HIND QUARTER.--The hind quarter, as Fig. 1 shows, is divided into the +loin, flank, leg, and hind shank. The loin and the flank are located +similarly to these same cuts in beef. In some localities, the part of +veal corresponding to the rump of beef is included with the loin, and in +others it is cut as part of the leg. When it is part of the leg, the leg +is cut off just in front of the hip bone and is separated from the lower +part of the leg, or hind shank, immediately below the hip joint. This +piece is often used for roasting, although cutlets or steaks may be cut +from it. The hind shank, which, together with the fore shank, is called +a _knuckle_, is used for soup making. When the loin and flank are cut in +a single piece, they are used for roasting. + +6. VEAL ORGANS.--Certain of the organs of the calf, like those of beef +animals, are used for food. They include the heart, tongue, liver, and +kidneys, as well as the thymus and thyroid glands and the pancreas. The +heart and tongue of veal are more delicate in texture and flavor than +those of beef, but the methods of cooking them are practically the same. +The liver and kidneys of calves make very appetizing dishes and find +favor with many persons. The thymus and thyroid glands and the pancreas +are included under the term _sweetbreads_. The thymus gland, which lies +near the heart and is often called the _heart sweetbread_, is the best +one. The thyroid gland lies in the throat and is called the _throat +sweetbread_. These two glands are joined by a connecting membrane, but +this is often broken and each gland sold as a separate sweetbread. The +pancreas, which is the _stomach sweetbread_, is used less often than +the others. + +7. Table of Veal Cuts.--The various cuts of veal, together with their +uses, are arranged for ready reference in Table I. Therefore, so that +the housewife may become thoroughly familiar with these facts about +veal, she is urged to make a careful study of this table. + +TABLE I + +NAMES OF VEAL CUTS AND ORGANS AND THEIR USES + +NAME OF LARGE CUT NAME OF SMALL CUT USES OF CUTS + + / Head Soup, made dishes, gelatine + | Breast Stew, made dishes, gelatine +Fore Quarter | Ribs Stew, made dishes, chops + | Shoulder Stew, made dishes + \ Neck Stew or stock, made dishes + + / Loin Chops, roasts +Hind Quarter | Leg Cutlets or fillet, sautéing, or roasting + \ Knuckle Stocks, stews + + / Brains Made dishes, chafing dish + | Liver Broiling, sautéing +Veal Organs | Heart Stuffed, baked + | Tongue Broiled, braised + | Sweetbreads Made dishes, chafing dish + \ Kidneys Boiled, stew + + +COOKING OF VEAL + +VEAL CUTS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +8. In the preparation of veal, an important point to remember is that +meat of this kind always requires thorough cooking. It should never be +served rare. Because of the long cooking veal needs, together with the +difficulty encountered in chewing it and its somewhat insipid flavor, +which fails to excite the free flow of gastric juice, this meat is more +indigestable than beef. In order to render it easier to digest, since it +must be thoroughly cooked, the long, slow methods of cookery should be +selected, as these soften the connective tissue. Because of the lack of +flavor, veal is not so good as beef when the extraction of flavor is +desired for broth. However, the absence of flavor makes veal a valuable +meat to combine with chicken and the more expensive meats, particularly +in highly seasoned made dishes or salads. Although lacking in flavor, +veal contains more gelatine than other meats. While this substance is +not very valuable as a food, it lends body to soup or broth and assists +in the preparation of certain made dishes. To supply the flavor needed +in dishes of this kind, pork is sometimes used with the veal. + +9. Veal Steaks or Cutlets.--Strictly speaking, veal cutlets are cut from +the ribs; however, a thin slice cut from the leg, as shown in Fig. 2, +while in reality a steak, is considered by most housewives and butchers +as a cutlet. A piece cut from the leg of veal corresponds to a cut of +round steak in beef. + +10. Pan-Broiled Veal Steak or Cutlets.--Several methods of preparing +veal steak or cutlets are in practice, but a very satisfactory one is to +pan-broil them. This method prevents the juices from being drawn out of +the meat and consequently produces a tender, palatable dish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +To pan-broil veal steak or cutlets, grease a hot frying pan with fat of +any desirable kind, place the pieces of meat in it, and allow them to +sear, first on one side and then on the other. When they are completely +seared, lower the temperature, and broil for 15 to 20 minutes, or longer +if necessary. Season well with salt and pepper. When cooked, remove to a +platter and, just before serving, pour melted butter over the meat. + +11. Veal Cutlets in Brown Sauce.--To improve the flavor of veal cutlets, +a brown sauce is often prepared and served with them. In fact, the +cutlets are cooked in this sauce, which becomes thickened by the flour +that is used to dredge the meat. + +To cook cutlets in this way, dredge them with flour, season them with +salt and pepper, and sauté them in hot fat until the flour is quite +brown. Then pour 1 cupful of milk and 1 cupful of water over the meat, +cover the pan securely, and allow to cook slowly for about 3/4 hour. The +sauce should be slightly thick and quite brown. Serve the cutlets in the +brown sauce. + +12. Veal Roasts.--Several different cuts of veal make very good roasts. +The most economical one is a 5 or 6-inch slice cut from the leg of veal +in the same way as the steak shown in Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3, Shoulder of veal.] + +Both the loin and the best end of the neck are excellent for roasting. +The shoulder of veal, which is shown in Fig. 3, is sometimes roasted, +but it is more often used for stew. Veal breast from which the ribs have +been removed and veal rack, which is the portion of the ribs attached to +the neck, may also be used for roasting. When they are, they are usually +cut so as to contain a deep slit, or pocket, that may be filled with +stuffing. In fact, whenever it is possible, the bone is removed from a +piece of roasting veal and stuffing is put in its place. + +To roast any of these pieces, wipe the meat, dredge it with flour, and +season it with salt and pepper. Place it in a roasting pan and put it +into a hot oven. Bake for 15 minutes; then lower the temperature of the +oven and continue to bake slowly until the meat is well done, the +length of time depending on the size of the roast. Baste frequently +during the roasting. Remove the roast to a hot platter. Then place the +roasting pan over the flame, and make gravy by browning 2 tablespoonfuls +of flour in the fat that it contains, adding to this 1-1/2 cupfuls of +water, and cooking until the flour has thickened the water. Serve the +gravy thus prepared in a gravy bowl. + +13. Stuffed Veal Breast.--A breast of veal in which a pocket has been +cut for stuffing is shown in Fig. 4. When such a piece is +desired for roasting, it is advisable to have the butcher prepare it. +The stuffing required should be made as follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +STUFFING FOR VEAL + +4 Tb. butter or bacon or ham fat +1/2 Tb. salt +1/8 Tb. pepper +1 Tb. celery salt +2 sprigs of parsley, chopped +1 pimiento, chopped +1-1/2 c. water +1 qt. stale bread crumbs + +Melt the fat, and to it add the salt, pepper, celery salt, parsley, +pimiento, and water. Pour this mixture over the crumbs, and mix all +thoroughly. Stuff into the opening in the breast. Place the meat thus +stuffed in a baking pan and bake in a moderately hot oven for 1 to +1-1/2 hours. + +14. Veal Potpie.--A good way in which to impart the flavor of meat to a +starchy material and thus not only economize on meat, but also provide +an appetizing dish, is to serve meat with dumplings in a veal potpie. +For such a dish, a piece of veal from the shoulder, like that shown in +Fig. 3, is the best cut. To give variety, potatoes may be used, and to +improve the flavor at least one onion is cooked with the meat. + +To prepare a veal potpie, wipe the meat, cut it into pieces of the right +size for serving, and to it add a few pieces of salt pork or bacon. Put +these over the fire in enough cold water to cover the meat well and add +a small onion, sliced. Bring to the boiling point and skim; then simmer +until the meat is tender. Season with salt and pepper a few minutes +before the meat has finished cooking. Next, make a baking-powder biscuit +dough, roll it 1/4 inch thick, and cut it into 1-1/2-inch squares. Then +examine the meat to see how much of the liquid has evaporated. If the +liquid is too thick, add boiling water to thin it. Drop in the squares +of dough, cover the pot tight, and boil for 15 minutes without +uncovering. + +If potatoes are desired in a pie of this kind, cut them into thick +slices and add the slices about 10 minutes before the dough is to be put +into the broth, so that they will have sufficient time in which to cook. + +15. Veal Stew.--The cheaper cuts of veal can be used to advantage for +making veal stew. Such a dish is prepared in the same way as beef stew, +which is explained in _Meat_, Part 1, except that veal is substituted +for the beef. Vegetables of any desired kind may be used in veal stew, +and the stewed or boiled dumplings mentioned in the beef-stew recipe may +or may not be used. As the vegetables and the dumplings, provided +dumplings are used, increase the quantity of meat-flavored food, only +small portions of the meat need be served. + +16. Jellied Veal.--The large amount of gelatine contained in veal may be +utilized in the preparation of jellied veal. The most satisfactory piece +for making jellied veal is the knuckle, or shank. No more attractive +meat dish than this can be found for luncheon or supper, for it can be +cut into thin slices and served on a nicely garnished platter. + +JELLIED VEAL +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +Knuckle of veal +1 Tb. salt +1/4 c. chopped celery +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 Tb. chopped onion + +Put the knuckle in a pot and add enough water to cover it. Add the salt, +celery, parsley, and onion. Cook until the meat is very tender and then +strain off the liquid. Cut the meat from the bones and chop it very +fine. Boil the liquid until it is reduced to 1 pint, and then set aside +to cool. Place the meat in a mold and when cold pour the broth over it. +Keep in a cool place until it has set. Slice and serve cold. + + +VEAL ORGANS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +17. Getting Sweetbreads Ready for Cooking--The throat glands and the +pancreas of calves, which, as has already been learned, are called +sweetbreads, can be cooked in various ways for the table. The first +process in their preparation, however, is the same for all recipes. When +this is understood, it will be a simple matter to make up attractive +dishes in which sweetbreads are used. It is generally advisable to buy +sweetbreads in pairs, as the heart and throat sweetbreads are preferable +to the one that lies near the stomach. Sweetbreads spoil very quickly. +Therefore, as soon as they are brought into the kitchen, put them in +cold water and allow them to remain there for 1/2 hour or more. Then put +them to cook in boiling water for 20 minutes in order to parboil them, +after which place them in cold water again. Unless they are to be used +immediately, keep them in cold water, as this will prevent them from +discoloring. Before using sweetbreads in the recipes that follow, remove +the skin and stringy parts. + +18. Broiled Sweetbreads.--Because of their tenderness, sweetbreads are +especially suitable for broiling. When prepared in this way and served +with sauce of some kind, they are very palatable. + +In order to broil sweetbreads, first parboil them in the manner just +explained. Then split each one lengthwise and broil them over a clear +fire for 5 minutes or pan-broil them with a small amount of butter until +both surfaces are slightly browned. Season with salt and pepper. +Serve hot. + +19. Creamed Sweetbreads.--If an especially dainty dish is desired for a +light meal, sweetbreads may be creamed and then served over toast or in +patty shells or timbale cases, the making of which is taken up later. If +desired, mushrooms may be combined with sweetbreads that are served in +this way. Diced cold veal or calves' brains creamed and served in this +way are also delicious. Instead of creaming sweetbreads and calves' +brains, however, these organs are sometimes scrambled with eggs. + +To prepare creamed sweetbreads, parboil them and then separate them +into small pieces with a fork or cut them into cubes. Reheat them in a +cupful of white sauce, season well, and then serve them in any of the +ways just mentioned. If mushrooms are to be used, cook and dice them +before combining them with the sweetbreads. + +20. Kidneys.--The kidneys of both lamb and veal are used for food. The +cooking of them, however, must be either a quick, short process or a +long, slow one. When a quick method is applied, the tissues remain +tender. Additional cooking renders them tough, so that a great deal more +cooking must be done to make them tender again. Whatever method is +applied, kidneys must always be soaked in water for 1 hour or more so as +to cleanse them, the outside covering then pared off, and the meat +sliced or cut into cubes or strips. After being thus prepared, kidneys +may be broiled or sautéd, or, if a long method of cookery is preferred, +they may be boiled or stewed with or without vegetables. + +21. Calves' Liver and Bacon.--Beef liver is sometimes used for food, but +it is not so good as liver from the calf. In fact, calves' liver, +especially when combined with bacon, is very appetizing. The bacon +supplies the fat that the liver lacks and at the same time +provides flavor. + +To prepare calves' liver and bacon, cut the liver into 1/2-inch slices, +cover these with boiling water, and let them stand for 5 minutes. Remove +from the water, dip into flour, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. For +each slice of liver pan-broil a slice of bacon. Remove the bacon to a +hot platter, and then place the slices of liver in the bacon fat and +sauté them for about 10 minutes, turning them frequently. Serve the +liver and bacon together. + + +PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER VEAL + +22. Veal Rolls.--The portion of a veal roast that remains after it has +been served hot can be combined with dressing to make veal rolls, a dish +that will be a pleasing change from the usual cold sliced meat. + +To make veal rolls, slice the veal and into each slice roll a spoonful +of stuffing. Tie with a string, roll in flour, and sprinkle with salt +and pepper. Brown the rolls in hot butter. Then pour milk, stock, or +gravy over the rolls and simmer for 10 minutes. Remove the strings and +serve on toast. + +23. Left-Over Jellied Veal.--While jellied veal is usually made from a +piece of veal bought especially for this purpose, it can be made from +the left-overs of a veal roast. However, when the roast is purchased, +some veal bones should be secured. Wash these bones, cover them with +cold water, and to them add 1 onion, 1 bay leaf, and 1 cupful of diced +vegetables, preferably celery, carrots, and turnips. Allow these to +simmer for 2 hours. To this stock add the bones that remain after the +roast has been served and simmer for 1 or 2 hours more. Strain the +stock, skim off the fat, and season well with salt and pepper. Chop fine +the left-over veal and 2 hard-cooked eggs. Put in a loaf-cake pan and +pour the stock over it. When it has formed a mold, slice and serve cold. + +24. Creamed Veal on Biscuits.--A very good substitute for chicken and +hot biscuits is creamed veal served on biscuits. This is an especially +good dish for a light meal, such as luncheon or supper. Any left-over +veal may be chopped or cut up into small pieces and used for this +purpose. After the veal has been thus prepared, reheat it with white +sauce and season it well with paprika, salt, and pepper. Make +baking-powder biscuits. To serve, split the hot biscuits, lay them open +on a platter or a plate, and pour the hot creamed veal over them. + +25. Scalloped Veal with Rice.--A very palatable dish can be prepared +from left-over veal by combining it with rice and tomatoes. To prepare +such a dish, season cooked rice with 1 teaspoonful of bacon fat to each +cupful of rice. Place a layer of rice in a baking dish, and over it put +a layer of chopped veal. Pour a good quantity of stewed tomatoes over +the veal and season well with salt and pepper. Over the tomatoes put a +layer of rice, and cover the top with buttered crumbs. Set in a hot oven +and bake until the crumbs are browned and the ingredients +thoroughly heated. + +26. Veal Salad.--A salad is always a delightful addition to a meal and +so usually finds favor. When it is made of meat, such as veal, it can be +used as the main dish for luncheon or supper. As shown in the +accompanying recipe, other things, such as celery, peas, and hard-cooked +eggs, are usually put in a salad of this kind. + +VEAL SALAD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. cold diced veal +1 c. diced celery +1/2 c. canned peas +3 hard-cooked eggs +4 Tb. olive oil +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Combine the veal, celery, peas, and eggs chopped fine. Mix the olive +oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper to make a dressing. Marinate the +ingredients with this dressing. Serve on lettuce leaves with any salad +dressing desired. + + + +MUTTON AND LAMB + +COMPARISON OF MUTTON AND LAMB + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +27. The term mutton is usually applied to the flesh of a sheep that is 1 +year or more old, while lamb is the flesh of sheep under 1 year of age. +The popularity of these meats varies very much with the locality. In the +United States, a preference for lamb has become noticeable, but in +England mutton is more popular and is more commonly used. Both of these +meats, however, are very palatable and nutritious, so that the choice +of one or the other will always be determined by the taste or market +conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +28. Lamb that is 6 weeks to 3 months old is called _spring lamb_, and +usually comes into the market in January or February. The meat of sheep +1 year old is called _yearling_. Good mutton is cut from sheep that is +about 3 years old. Lamb may be eaten as soon as it is killed, but mutton +requires ripening for 2 or 3 weeks to be in the best condition for food. +Mutton differs from lamb very much as beef differs from veal, or as the +meat of any other mature animal differs from a young one of the same +kind. In mutton there is a smaller percentage of water and a larger +percentage of fat, protein, extractives, and flavoring substances. + +There is also a difference in the appearance of these two meats. Lamb is +pink and contains only small amounts of fat, while mutton is brick red +and usually has considerable firm white fat. The bones of lamb are pink, +while those of mutton are white. The outside of lamb is covered with a +thin white skin that becomes pink in mutton. The size of the pieces of +meat often aids in distinguishing between these two meats, mutton, of +course, coming in larger pieces than lamb. + +29. If there is any question as to whether the meat from sheep is lamb +or mutton, and it cannot be settled by any of the characteristics +already mentioned, the front leg of the dressed animal may be examined +at the first joint above the foot. Fig. 5 shows this joint in both lamb +and mutton. In lamb, which is shown at the left, the end of the bone can +be separated from the long bone at the leg, as indicated, while in +mutton this joint grows fast and looks like the illustration at the +right. The joint is jagged in lamb, but smooth and round in mutton. + + +CUTS OF MUTTON AND LAMB + +METHOD OF OBTAINING CUTS + +30. Mutton and lamb are usually cut up in the same way, the dressed +animal being divided into two pieces of almost equal weight. The line of +division occurs between the first and second ribs, as is indicated by +the heavy middle line in Fig. 6. The back half of the animal is called +the _saddle_ and the front half, the _rack_. In addition to being cut in +this way, the animal is cut down the entire length of the backbone and +is thus divided into the fore and hind quarters. + +The method of cutting up the racks and saddles varies in different +localities, but, as a rule, the method illustrated in Fig. 7 is the one +that is used. As here shown, the rack, or fore quarter, is cut up into +the neck, chuck, shoulder, rib chops, and breast; and the saddle, or +hind quarter, is divided into the loin, flank, and leg. + +The way in which the front and the back of a dressed sheep appear is +shown in Fig. 8. The membrane, which extends from the legs down over the +ribs, is the omentum, or covering of the intestines, and is known as the +_caul_. This must be removed from any part that it covers before the +meat is cooked. The kidneys incased in fat are also shown in the view +at the left. + + +NAMES AND USES OF CUTS + +31. Distinguishing Features of Cuts.--When the uses of the cuts of lamb +and mutton are to be considered, attention must be given to the anatomy +of the animal and the exercise that the different parts have received +during life. This is important, because the continued action of the +muscles tends to make the flesh tough, but, at the same time, it +increases the amount of extractives or flavoring material. Therefore, +meat taken from a part that has been subjected to much muscular action +is likely to need longer cooking than that taken from portions that have +not been exercised so much. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +In lamb and mutton, as in beef and veal, the hind quarter is exercised +less in life than the fore quarter and consequently is, on the average, +more tender. The cuts from this part are therefore more expensive and +more suitable for roasting and broiling. The fore quarter, although +having the disadvantage of containing more bone and being tougher, is +more abundantly supplied with extractives and flavoring materials. Most +of the pieces obtained from this portion are particularly suitable for +broths, soups, stews, etc. The rib is an exception, for this is usually +higher in price than the hind-quarter pieces and is used for chops +and roasts. + +32. Table of Mutton and Lamb Cuts.--The various cuts of mutton and lamb +and the uses to which they can be put are given in Table II, which may +be followed as a guide whenever there is doubt as to the way in which a +cut of either of these meats should be cooked. + +TABLE II + +NAMES AND USES OF MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS + +NAME OF LARGE CUT NAME OF SMALL CUT USES OF CUTS +Fore quarter: + Neck...................Broth, stew + Chuck.................. Stew, steamed + Shoulder................Boiled, steamed, braised, roast + Rack ribs...............Chops, crown roast + Breast.................. Stew, roast, braised, stuffed + +Hind quarter: + Loin.................... Seven chops, roast, boiling + Flank................... Stew + Leg..................... Roast, braising, broiling + Saddle.................. Roast + + +COOKING OF MUTTON AND LAMB + + +PREPARATION OF ROASTS, CHOPS, AND STEWS + +33. The cookery processes applied in preparing mutton and lamb for the +table do not differ materially from those applied in the preparation of +other meats. However, directions for cooking mutton and lamb in the most +practical ways are here given, so that the housewife may become +thoroughly familiar with the procedure in preparing roasts, chops, +and stews. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9 (_a_)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9 (_b_)] + +34. Roast Leg of Mutton or Lamb.--Of all the principal cuts of mutton or +lamb, the leg contains the smallest percentage of waste. It is, +therefore, especially suitable for roasting and is generally used for +this purpose. In Fig. 9 are shown two views of a leg of lamb or mutton. +That in (_a_) illustrates the leg with part of the loin attached, and +that in (_b_), the leg trimmed and ready for cooking. In order to make +the leg smaller, a slice resembling a round steak of beef is sometimes +cut for broiling, as here shown. If desired, the leg may be boned and +then stuffed before roasting. Since these meats are characterized by a +very marked flavor, something tart or acid is generally served +with them. + +To roast a leg of lamb or mutton, remove the caul, the pink skin, and +the superfluous fat. Dredge the leg with flour, salt, and pepper, set in +a roasting pan, and place in a hot oven. After the meat has cooked for +15 minutes, lower the temperature, and bake for 2 hours. Baste +frequently with water to which has been added a small amount of bacon or +ham fat and which should be put in the pan with the meat. Serve hot with +something acid, such as mint sauce, currant or mint jelly, or +spiced fruit. + +A mint sauce that will be found satisfactory for this purpose is made as +follows: + +MINT SAUCE + +2 Tb. powdered sugar +1/2 c. vinegar +1/4 c. finely chopped mint leaves, + or 2 Tb. dried mint + +Add the sugar to the vinegar and heat. Pour this over the mint and steep +on the back of the stove for 30 minutes. + +35. Roast Saddle of Mutton.--While saddle is the name applied to the +hind quarters of lamb and mutton, this term, as used in the cooking of +such meat, refers to the piece that consists of the two sides of the +loin cut off in one piece. It may be cut with or without the flank. In +either form, it is rolled and then skewered or tied into shape. + +To roast such a piece, remove all superfluous fat, dredge with flour, +salt, and pepper, place in a pan, and sear in a hot oven. Then reduce +the heat, place a small quantity of water in the pan, and bake for 2-1/2 +to 3 hours, basting from time to time during this cooking process. Serve +with or without mint sauce, as desired. + +36. Crown Roast of Lamb.--A very attractive roast is made by cutting the +same number of corresponding ribs from each side of the lamb and +trimming back the meat from the end of each rib. Such a roast is called +a crown roast. Fig. 10 shows a crown roast with the ribs trimmed, the +two pieces fastened together, and paper frills placed on the ends of the +bones. Such frills are usually added by the butcher, but they may be +purchased in supply stores and put on in the home. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +To prepare a roast of this kind, cook in the same way as a roast leg or +saddle. When it is sufficiently baked, fill the center with a cooked and +seasoned vegetable. Brussels sprouts, peas, string beans, asparagus, and +cauliflower are especially suitable for this purpose. Just before +serving, cover the ends of the bones with paper frills, as shown in the +illustration. + +37. Lamb and Mutton Chops.--Chops of mutton or lamb are obtained from +two sources. They may be cut from the ribs and have one bone in each cut +or they may be cut from the loin, when they correspond to the steaks +in beef. The loins and ribs of lamb, which are sometimes used for +rolled racks, but from which chops are usually cut, are shown in +Fig. 11. A rib chop cut from this piece has only a small part +of solid lean meat and contains one rib bone. Such a chop can +be made into a French chop, as shown in Fig. 12, by trimming +the meat from the bone down to the lean part, or "eye," of the chop. +Just before being served, a paper frill may be placed over the bone of a +chop of this kind. Chops cut from the loin often have a strip of bacon +or salt pork rolled around the edge and fastened with a skewer, as shown +in Fig. 13. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +38. The most satisfactory way in which to prepare chops is either to +broil them in a broiler or to pan-broil them. Apply to the cooking of +them the same principles that relate to the preparation of steaks; that +is, have the pan or broiler hot, sear the chops quickly on both sides, +and then cook them more slowly until well done, turning them +frequently. The broiling of lamb chops should require only from 8 to 10 +minutes, as they are seldom more than 1 inch thick. + +39. Lamb and Mutton Stews.--The cheaper cuts of lamb and mutton, such as +the neck, chuck, and flank, are used for the making of stews. Mutton, +however, is not so satisfactory as lamb for such dishes, as its flavor +is too strong. If mutton must be used, its flavor can be improved by +adding 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar during the cooking. The chief +object in the making of lamb and mutton stews is, as in the case of beef +and veal stews, to draw from the meat as much as possible of the +flavoring and nutritive materials. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +This can be accomplished by cutting up the meat into small pieces so as +to increase the amount of surface exposed and by keeping the temperature +low enough to prevent the proteins from coagulating. + +With these points in mind, proceed in the making of lamb or mutton stew +in the same way as for beef stew. To improve the flavor of the stew, +cook with it savory herbs and spices, such as bay leaf, parsley, +and cloves. + + +PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER LAMB AND MUTTON + +40. Turkish Lamb.--No left-over meat lends itself more readily to the +preparation of made dishes than lamb. Combined with tomatoes and rice +and flavored with horseradish, it makes a very appetizing dish called +Turkish lamb. The accompanying recipe should be carefully followed in +preparing this dish. + +TURKISH LAMB +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 onion, chopped +1/2 c. rice +1 c. water +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1-1/2 c. diced lamb or mutton +1 Tb. horseradish +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Put the butter in a frying pan and to it add the chopped onion and the +dry rice. Cook until the rice is browned. Then pour in the water and +tomatoes and add the meat, horseradish, salt, and pepper. Simmer gently +until the rice is completely cooked. + +41. MINCED LAMB ON TOAST.--Any lamb that remains after a meal may be +minced by chopping it fine or putting it through the food chopper. If it +is then heated, moistened well with water or stock, and thickened +slightly, it makes an excellent preparation to serve on toast. + +After mincing lean pieces of left-over lamb until they are very fine, +put them in a buttered frying pan. Dredge the meat well with flour and +allow it to brown slightly. Add enough water or stock to moisten well. +Season with salt and pepper, cook until the flour has thickened, and +then serve on toast. + +42. SCALLOPED LAMB OR MUTTON.--As a scalloped dish is usually pleasing +to most persons, the accompanying recipe for scalloped lamb or mutton +will undoubtedly find favor. Both macaroni and tomatoes are combined +with the meat in this dish, but rice could be substituted for the +macaroni, if desired. + +To make scalloped lamb or mutton, arrange a layer of buttered crumbs in +a baking dish, and on top of them place a layer of cooked macaroni, a +layer of meat, and then another layer of macaroni. Over this pour enough +stewed tomato to moisten the whole well. Season each layer with salt, +pepper, and butter. Over the top, place a layer of buttered crumbs. Bake +in a medium-hot oven until the whole is thoroughly heated. + +43. SPANISH STEW.--Left-over pieces of mutton or lamb may also form the +foundation of a very appetizing dish known as Spanish stew. Here +tomatoes are also used, and to give the stew flavor chilli sauce +is added. + +SPANISH STEW +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter. +1 onion, sliced +1 Tb. flour +2 c. lamb or mutton, diced +1-1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1 c. stock or gravy +1 Tb. chilli sauce +1 red pepper, cut fine +2 tsp. salt + +Put the butter in a frying pan and brown the sliced onion in it. Add the +flour and meat, and after browning them pour in the stewed tomatoes and +the stock or gravy. Season with the chilli sauce, the red pepper, and +the salt. Cover and let simmer until the whole is well thickened +and blended. + +44. INDIVIDUAL LAMB PIES.--Individual pies are always welcome, but when +they are made of lamb or mutton they are especially attractive. The +proportions required for pies of this kind are given in the +accompanying recipe. + +INDIVIDUAL LAMB PIES + +2 c. diced lamb or mutton +1/2 c. diced carrots +1/2 c. peas, cooked or canned +1 c. gravy or thickened stock + +Cut into small pieces any left-over lamb or mutton. Cook the carrots +until they are soft, add them, together with the peas, to the meat, and +pour the gravy or thickened stock over all. Simmer gently for a few +minutes. Line patty pans with a thin layer of baking-powder biscuit +dough, fill with the mixture, and cover the top with another thin layer +of the dough. Bake in a quick oven until the dough is baked. + + * * * * * + +PORK + +GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PORK + +45. PORK is the flesh of slaughtered swine used as food. It is believed +to be more indigestible than other meats, but if it is obtained from a +young and properly fed animal, it is not only digestible, but highly +appetizing, and, when eaten occasionally, it is very wholesome. + +The age of the animal from which pork is cut can be determined by the +thickness of the skin; the older the animal, the thicker the skin. To be +of the best kind, pork should have pink, not red, flesh composed of +fine-grained tissues, and its fat, which, in a well-fattened animal, +equals about one-eighth of the entire weight, should be white and firm. +Although all cuts of pork contain some fat, the proportion should not be +too great, or the pieces will not contain as much lean as they should. +However, the large amount of fat contained in pork makes its food value +higher than that of other meats, unless they are excessively fat, and +consequently difficult of digestion. + +46. One of the chief advantages of pork is that about nine-tenths of +the entire dressed animal may be preserved by curing and smoking. +Originally, these processes required a period of 2 to 3 months for their +completion, but they have gradually been shortened until now only a few +days are required for the work. Pork cured and smoked by the new +methods, however, does not possess such excellent flavor and such good +keeping qualities as that so treated by the longer process. Any one who +has the right storage facilities to care for the meat properly will find +it much more economical to purchase a whole carcass or a part of one and +then salt, smoke, or pickle the various pieces that can be treated in +this way than to purchase this meat cut by cut as it is needed +or desired. + + +CUTS OF PORK + +47. NAMES OF PORK CUTS.--The butcher usually buys a whole carcass of +pork. He first divides it into halves by splitting it through the spine, +and then cuts it up into smaller pieces according to the divisions shown +in Fig. 14, which illustrates the outside and the inside of a dressed +hog. As will be observed, the method of cutting up a hog differs greatly +from the cutting of the animals already studied. After the head is +removed, each side is divided into the shoulder, clear back fat, ribs, +loin, middle cut, belly, ham, and two hocks. + +48. USES OF PORK CUTS.--Hogs are usually fattened before they are +slaughtered, and as a result there is a layer of fat under the skin +which is trimmed off and used in the making of lard. The best quality of +lard, however, is made from the fat that surrounds the kidneys. This is +called _leaf lard_, because the pieces of fat are similar in shape to +leaves. Such lard has a higher melting point and is more flaky than that +made from fat covering the muscles. + +49. The head of pork does not contain a great deal of meat, but, as the +quality of this meat is very good, it is valuable for a number of +special dishes, such as headcheese and scrapple. + +The hocks contain considerable gelatine, so they are used for dishes +that solidify, or become firm, after they are made. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +50. A shoulder of pork cut roughly from the carcass is shown in Fig. 15. +This piece provides both roasts and steaks, or, when trimmed, it may +be cured or smoked. The front leg, which is usually cut to include the +lower part of the shoulder, is shown in Fig. 16. The ribs inside this +cut, when cut from underneath, are sold as spareribs. This piece, as +shown in Fig. 17, is generally trimmed to make what is known as +shoulder ham. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +51. The ribs and the loin cut in one piece are shown in Fig. 18. From +this piece are obtained the most desirable chops and roasts. When a +roast is desired, the rib bones are removed from the rib cut, which then +resembles the piece shown in Fig. 19. Directly under the backbone in +these cuts is the tenderest piece of pork to be had. When this is +removed in one piece, it is, as in beef, called the _tenderloin_. Very +often, however, it is left in to be cut up with the rest of the loin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +52. The middle cut is commonly used for bacon, while the belly is most +suitable for salt pork. These two cuts consist of large quantities of +fat and only narrow layers of lean. They are especially valuable for +enriching and flavoring foods, such as beans, that are neither rich in +fat nor highly flavored. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +53. The hind leg, or untrimmed ham, just as it is cut from the carcass, +is shown in Fig. 20. When this piece is trimmed and ready for curing or +for roasting, it appears as shown in Fig. 21. As will be noticed, the +outside skin, or rind, is not removed from either the shoulder or +the ham. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +54. TABLE OF PORK CUTS.--As is done in explaining the meats that have +been considered previously, there is here presented a table, designated +as Table III, that gives the names of the pork cuts and the uses to +which they may be put. This table will assist the housewife materially +in learning the names and uses of the various cuts of pork. + +TABLE III + +NAMES AND USES OF PORK CUTS + +NAMES OF CUTS USES OF CUTS + +Head Headcheese, boiling, baking +Shoulder Steaks, roasting, curing, smoking +Spareribs Roasting, boiling +Belly Salt pork, curing +Middle cut Bacon, curing, smoking +Ribs Chops, roasting +Loin Chops, roasting +Ham Roasting, curing, smoking +Back fat Lard +Hock Boiling, making jelly +Internal organs and trimmings Sausage + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF PORK + +FRESH PORK AND ITS PREPARATION + +55. ROAST PORK.--In the preparation of pork for the table, and a roast +in particular, several points must be taken into consideration. Unlike +beef, which is often served rare, pork must be well done in order to be +satisfactory. Rare pork to most persons is repulsive. Also, as a large +part of the surface of a pork roast, especially one cut from the +shoulder, loin, or ribs, is covered with a layer of fat, pork does not +have to be seared to prevent the loss of juice, nor does it have to be +put into such a hot oven as that required for beef. In fact, if the +temperature of the oven is very high, the outside will finish cooking +before the heat has had a chance to penetrate sufficiently to cook the +center. While this makes no difference with meat that does not need to +be thoroughly cooked, it is a decided disadvantage in the case of pork. + +56. When a shoulder of pork is to be roasted, it makes a very +satisfactory dish if it is boned and stuffed before roasting. To bone +such a piece, run a long, narrow knife all around the bone and cut it +loose; then pick up the bone by one end and shake it until it will pull +out. Fill the opening thus formed with bread or cracker stuffing. + +If an especially inviting roast of pork is desired, a _crown roast_ +should be selected, for this is just as attractive as a crown roast of +lamb. It is made by cutting corresponding pieces from each side of the +rib piece, trimming the bones clean as far back as the lean part of the +chops, and fastening the pieces together. A garnish of fried apple rings +is very attractive for such a roast. + +57. To cook a roast of any of these varieties, wipe the meat thoroughly, +dredge it with flour, salt, and pepper, and place it on a rack in a +dripping pan. Bake about 3 hours, depending on the size of the roast, +and baste every 15 minutes with fat from the bottom of the dripping pan. + +After the roast is removed from the roasting pan, make a gravy as for +any other roast. Serve with apple sauce, baked apples, cranberry sauce, +chilli sauce, pickles, or some other acid dish. Such an accompaniment +aids considerably in the digestion of pork, for it cuts the large amount +of fat that this meat contains and that so often retards the digestion, +and hastens the fat through the stomach. + +58. ROAST PIG.--In some households, roasted pig is the favorite meat for +the Thanksgiving or the Christmas dinner. There is sufficient reason for +its popularity, for when properly prepared and attractively garnished, +roasted pig offers a pleasing change from the meat usually served on +such days. + +To be suitable for roasting, a pig should be not more than 1 month or 6 +weeks old and should not weigh more than 7 or 8 pounds after it is +cleaned. The butcher should prepare it for cooking by scalding off the +hair, washing the pig thoroughly, inside and out, and withdrawing the +entrails of the animal through an incision made in the under part of +the body. + +59. When the pig is received in the home, wash it thoroughly, within and +without, wipe it dry, and fill it with stuffing. To make a stuffing +suitable for this purpose, season 2 quarts of fine bread crumbs with 4 +tablespoonfuls of chopped onion, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoonful +of pepper, and cupful of melted butter. Mix thoroughly and add 3 beaten +eggs. If the stuffing needs moisture, add water or milk. Stuff the pig +firmly with this stuffing, using every effort to restore its original +shape. Then sew up the opening and truss the animal; that is, draw the +hind legs forwards and bend the front legs backwards under the body, and +skewer and tie them into place. + +With the animal in this shape, wipe it off with a damp cloth, dredge it +with flour, and place it in a dripping pan, adding 1 cupful of boiling +water in which 1 teaspoonful of salt has been dissolved. Roast in a +moderate oven for at least 1-1/2 hours, or 20 minutes for each pound of +pig. Baste frequently, first with butter and water and later with +drippings. When the skin begins to brown slightly, rub over it a clean +piece of cloth dipped in melted butter. Repeat this operation every 10 +minutes until the meat is well done. Then remove the pig to a hot +platter and garnish with parsley, lettuce, celery, or fried or baked +apples. If a more ornamental garnishing is desired, place a lemon in the +mouth and use cranberries for the eyes. In carving, cut the head off, +split through the spine lengthwise, remove the legs, and cut the ribs so +as to form chops. + +60. SAUTÉD OR BROILED PORK.--Slices cut from the ribs and loin of pork +are called chops, and those obtained from the shoulder and hind legs are +called steaks. These, together with the tenderloin, the small piece of +lean, tender meat lying under the bones of the loin and seldom weighing +more than a pound, are especially suitable for sautéing or broiling. +When they are to be prepared by these processes, sauté or broil them as +any other meat, remembering, however, that pork must be well done. +Because of this fact, a more moderate temperature must be employed than +that used for beefsteak. + +61. PORK CHOPS IN TOMATO SAUCE.--A slight change from the usual way of +preparing pork chops can be had by cooking them with tomatoes. The +combination of these two foods produces a dish having a very +agreeable flavor. + +First brown the chops in their own fat in a frying pan, turning them +frequently so that the surfaces will become evenly browned. When they +have cooked for 15 minutes, pour enough strained stewed tomatoes over +them to cover them well, and season with salt and pepper. Cover the pan +tight, and allow them to simmer until the tomatoes become quite thick. +Place the chops on a hot platter, pour the tomato sauce over them, and +serve hot. + +62. SAUTÉD TENDERLOIN OF PORK.--Since the tenderloin of pork is a very +tender piece of meat, it needs no accompaniment to make it a delicious +dish, but sometimes a change of preparation is welcomed in order to give +variety to the diet. The accompanying directions should therefore be +followed when something different from broiled tenderloin is desired. + +Cut the tenderloin into lengthwise slices and brown these slices in +melted butter, turning them several times. Then remove to a cooler part +of the stove, and let them cook slowly in the butter for 15 minutes, +taking care to have them closely covered and turning them once or twice +so that they will cook evenly. At the end of this time, pour enough milk +or cream in the pan to cover the meat well and cook for 15 minutes +longer. With a skimmer, remove the meat, which should be very tender by +this time, from the pan, and put it where it will keep hot. Make a gravy +of the drippings that remain in the pan by thickening it with 1 +tablespoonful of flour, stirring it until it is thick and smooth and +seasoning it to taste with salt and pepper. Pour the gravy over the meat +and serve hot. + +63. PORK SAUSAGE.--The trimmings and some of the internal organs of pork +are generally utilized to make sausage by chopping them very fine and +then highly seasoning the chopped meat. Pork in this form may be bought +fresh or smoked and loose or in casings. It usually contains +considerable fat and therefore shrinks upon being cooked, for the fat is +melted by the heat and runs out of the sausage. + +To cook pork sausages put up in casings, place the required number in a +hot frying pan with a small quantity of hot water. Cover the pan with a +lid and allow the sausages to cook. When they have swelled up and the +skins, or casings, look as if they would burst, remove the cover and +thoroughly prick each one with a sharp fork, so as to allow the fat and +the water to run out. Then allow the water to evaporate and sauté the +sausages in their own fat, turning them frequently until they are +well browned. + +To cook loose pork sausage, shape it into thin, flat cakes. Grease a +frying pan slightly, in order to keep the cakes from sticking to the +surface, place the cakes in the pan, and allow them to cook in the fat +that fries out, turning them occasionally until both sides are +well browned. + + +CURED PORK AND ITS PREPARATION + +64. Under the heading of cured pork may be included many of the cuts of +pork, for a large part of a pork carcass can be preserved by curing. +However, this term is usually restricted to include salt pork, bacon, +and ham. As has already been learned, salt pork is obtained from the +belly; bacon, from the middle cut; and ham, from the two hind legs +of pork. + +65. SALT PORK.--As the cut used for salt pork is almost entirely fat, +this piece is seldom used alone for the table. Occasionally, it is +broiled to be served with some special food, such as fried apples, but +for the most part it is used for _larding_; that is, slices of it are +laid across the surface of meat and fish that are lacking in fat and +that therefore cook better and have a more agreeable flavor when fat in +some form is added. Pork of this kind is usually bought by the pound and +then sliced by the housewife as it is needed for cooking purposes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +66. BACON.--The middle cut of pork, upon being cured by smoking, is +regarded as bacon. It is sometimes used for larding purposes, but as it +contains more lean than salt pork, has a very pleasing flavor, and is +the most easily digested fat known, it is much used for food. A piece +that contains the usual proportion of fat and lean is shown in Fig. 22. +The strip of fat that occurs between the rind, or outer coat, and the +first layer of lean is the firmest and the best for larding. The fat +that fries out of bacon is excellent for use in the cooking and +seasoning of other foods, such as vegetables and meats. When bacon is +cooked for the table, its flavor will be improved if it is broiled +rather than fried in its own fat. The rind of bacon should, as a rule, +be trimmed off, but it should never be wasted, for it may be used to +grease a pancake griddle or any pan in which food is to be cooked, +provided the bacon flavor will not be objectionable. + +In purchasing bacon, it is usually more economical to buy the whole +side, or the entire middle cut, but if smaller quantities are desired, +any amount, either in one piece or in slices, may be bought. The +commercially cut bacon, which is very thin and becomes very crisp in its +preparation, may be bought with the rind retained or removed. In both of +these forms, it is often put up in jars or packed neatly in flat +pasteboard boxes. While such bacon is undoubtedly the most popular kind, +it should be remembered that the more preparation that is put on such a +food before it enters the home, the more expensive it becomes. Very +satisfactory results can be obtained from bacon bought in the piece if +care is used in cutting it. To secure very thin, even slices, a knife +having a thin blade that is kept sharp and in good condition should +always be used. + +67. BACON AND EGGS.--There are many combinations in which bacon is one +of the foods, but no more palatable one can be found than bacon and +eggs. This is generally a breakfast dish; still there is no reason why +it cannot be used at times for luncheon or supper to give variety. + +To prepare this combination of foods, first pan-broil the desired number +of slices of bacon in a hot frying pan until they are crisp and then +remove them to a warm platter. Into the fat that has fried out of the +bacon, put the required number of eggs, which have first been broken +into a saucer. Fry them until they reach the desired degree of hardness, +and then remove to the platter containing the bacon. Serve by placing a +slice or two of bacon on the plate with each egg. + +68. BACON COMBINED WITH OTHER FOODS.--Many other foods may be fried in +the same way as eggs and served with bacon. For instance, sliced apples +or sliced tomatoes fried in bacon fat until they become tender, but not +mushy, are delicious when served with crisp pieces of bacon. Also, cold +cereals, such as cream of wheat, oatmeal, corn-meal mush, etc., may be +sliced and fried until crisp and then served with bacon. + +69. HAM.--The hind leg of pork, when cured and smoked, is usually known +as ham. Fig. 23 shows a ham from which the rind has not been removed. In +such a ham, the proportion of fat and lean is about right, but when ham +is bought with the rind removed, much of the fat is also taken off. The +best hams weigh from 8 to 15 pounds, and have a thin skin, solid fat, +and a small, short tapering leg or shank. + +Several ways of cooking ham are in practice. Very often slices +resembling slices of round steak are cut from the whole ham and then +fried or broiled. If a larger quantity is desired, the entire ham or a +thick cut may be purchased. This is boiled or baked and then served hot +or cold. It is a good idea to purchase an entire ham and keep it in +supply, cutting off slices as they are desired. In such an event, the +ham should be kept carefully wrapped and should be hung in a cool, dry +place. In cutting a ham, begin at the large end, as in Fig. 23, and cut +off slices until the opposite end becomes too small to make good slices. +The piece that remains may be cooked with vegetables, may be boiled and +served either hot or cold, or, if it is only a small piece, may be used +for making soup. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +70. BROILED HAM.--The methods of broiling and pan broiling are very +satisfactory when applied to ham that is cut in slices. Ham is +pan-broiled in the same way as other meats. To broil ham, place slices 1 +inch thick on the hot broiler rack and sear quickly on both sides. Then +reduce the temperature and broil for 15 to 18 minutes, turning the ham +every few minutes until done. Remove to a hot platter. Add a little +water to the drippings in the broiler pan, pour this over the meat, and +serve at once. + +71. HAM BAKED IN MILK.--A change from the usual ways of preparing +slices of ham can be had by baking them in milk. A point to remember in +carrying out this method is that the meat must bake slowly in order to +be tender when it is done. + +Secure a 2-inch slice of ham, place it in a dripping pan, and completely +cover it with milk. Put in a moderate oven and cook for 2 or more hours. +When the ham is done, its surface should be brown and the milk should be +almost entirely evaporated. If the liquid added in the beginning is not +sufficient, more may be added during the baking. + +72. BOILED HAM.--Sometimes it is desired to cook an entire ham, +particularly when a large number of persons are to be served. The usual +way to prepare a whole ham is to boil it. When it is sufficiently +cooked, it may be served hot or kept until it is cold and then served in +slices. Nothing is more appetizing for a light meal, as luncheon or +supper, or for picnic lunches than cold sliced ham. Then, too, boiled +ham is very delicious when it is fried until the edges are crisp. + +To prepare boiled ham, first soak the ham in cold water for several +hours and then remove it and scrub it. Place it in a large kettle with +the fat side down and cover well with cold water. Put over a slow fire +and allow to come to the boiling point very slowly. Boil for 15 minutes +and skim off the scum that has risen. Simmer slowly for about 5 hours, +or at least 25 minutes for each pound of ham. Take from the kettle and +remove the skin about two-thirds of the way back. It will be found that +the skin will peel off easily when the ham is cooked enough. Garnish in +any desirable way and serve hot or cold. + +73. BAKED HAM.--Another very appetizing way in which to cook an entire +ham is to bake it. This involves both cooking in water on the top of the +stove and baking in the oven. While this recipe, as well as those +preceding, specifies ham, it should be remembered that shoulder may be +cooked in the same ways. + +For baked ham, proceed in the way just explained for boiled ham, but +boil only 12 minutes for each pound. Take the ham from the kettle and +allow it to cool enough to permit it to be handled. Remove the skin. +Then place the ham in a roasting pan and pour over it 1 cupful of water. +Bake 12 minutes for each pound and baste frequently while baking. Serve +hot or cold. + +PREPARATION OP LEFT-OVER PORK + +74. COLD PORK WITH FRIED APPLES.--A combination that most persons find +agreeable and that enables the housewife to use up left-over pork, is +cold pork and fried apples. To prepare this dish, remove the cores from +sour apples and cut the apples into 1/2-inch slices. Put these in a +frying pan containing hot bacon fat and fry until soft and well browned. +Slice cold pork thin and place in the center of a platter. Arrange the +apples around the pork in a border. + +75. SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE.--If not enough pork remains to serve +alone, it can be combined with cabbage to make a most appetizing +scalloped dish. The accompanying recipe shows just how to prepare such +a dish. + +SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. small thin slices of pork +1-1/2 c. cooked chopped cabbage +1-1/2 c. thin white sauce +1/4 c. buttered crumbs + +Arrange the pork and cabbage in layers in a baking dish, having a layer +of cabbage on top. Pour the white sauce over all and sprinkle the crumbs +on top. Bake until the sauce boils and the crumbs are brown. + +76. MOCK CHICKEN SALAD.--The similarity in appearance of pork to chicken +makes it possible to prepare a salad of cold pork that is a very good +substitute for chicken salad. A salad of this kind can be used as the +main dish in such a meal as luncheon or supper. + +MOCK CHICKEN SALAD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 Tb. vinegar +2 c. diced pork +1-1/2 c. diced celery +Salad dressing + +Heat the vinegar and pour it over the diced pork. Set aside to chill. +When ready to serve, add the diced celery and mix well. Pour the salad +dressing over all and serve on crisp lettuce leaves. + + +SERVING AND CARVING OF MEAT + +77. The manner of carving and serving meat in the home depends to some +extent on the kind of meat that is to be served. A way that is favored +by some is to carve the meat before it is placed on the table and then +serve it according to the style of service used. However, the preferable +way is to place the platter containing the meat on the table, together +with the plates, in front of the person who is to do the carving +and serving. + +The carver should use considerable care in cutting and serving the meat +so that the platter and the surrounding tablecloth will not become +unsightly. To make each portion as attractive as possible, it should be +cut off evenly and then placed on the plate with the best side up. +Furthermore, the carving should be done in an economical way in order +that whatever remains after the first serving may be served later in the +same meal, and what is not eaten at the first meal may be utilized to +advantage for another. To obtain the best results in carving, a good +carving knife should be secured and it should always be kept well +sharpened. + +78. With the general directions clear in mind, the methods of carving +and serving particular kinds of meat may be taken up. Chops, of course, +require no carving. By means of a large fork, one should be placed on +each person's plate. Steaks and roasts, however, need proper cutting in +order that equally good pieces may be served to each person dining. To +carve a steak properly, cut it across from side to side so that each +piece will contain a portion of the tender part, as well as a share of +the tougher part. When cut, the pieces should be strips that are about +as wide as the steak is thick. It is often advisable to remove the bone +from some steaks before placing them on the table. + +79. Roasts require somewhat more attention than steaks. Before they are +placed on the table, any cord used for tying should be cut and removed +and all skewers inserted to hold the meat in shape should be pulled out. +To carve a roast of any kind, run the fork into the meat deeply enough +to hold it firmly and then cut the meat into thin slices across the +grain. In the case of a roast leg that contains the bone, begin to carve +the meat from the large end, cutting each slice down to the bone and +then off so that the bone is left clean. Place round of beef and rolled +roasts on the platter so that the tissue side, and not the skin side, is +up, and then cut the slices off in a horizontal direction. To carve a +rib roast properly, cut it parallel with the ribs and separate the +pieces from the backbone. + + +SAUSAGES AND MEAT PREPARATIONS + +80. In addition to the fresh, raw meats that the housewife can procure +for her family, there are on the market numerous varieties of raw, +smoked, cooked, and partly cooked meats, which are generally included +under the term SAUSAGES. These meats are usually highly seasoned, so +they keep better than do fresh meats. They should not be overlooked by +the housewife, for they help to simplify her labor and at the same time +serve to give variety to the family diet. Still, it should be remembered +that when meats are made ready for use before they are put on the +market, the cost of the labor involved in their manufacture is added to +the price charged for them. For this reason, the housewife must be +prepared to pay more for meats of this kind than she would pay if she +could prepare them at home. However, she need not be concerned regarding +their safety, for the government's inspection and regulations prevent +any adulteration of them. + +81. Among the numerous varieties of these meats, many of them are +typical of certain localities, while others have a national or an +international reputation. They also vary in the kind of meat used to +make them. Some of them are made from beef, as _frankfurters_ and +certain kinds of _bologna_, while others are made from pork and include +the smoked and unsmoked sausages, _Liverwurst_ is made from the livers +of certain animals, and may be purchased loose or in skins. + +Some of these sausages are used so often in certain combinations of +foods that they are usually thought of in connection with the foods that +it is customary for them to accompany. Frankfurters and sauerkraut, pork +sausage and mashed potatoes, liverwurst and fried corn-meal mush are +well-known combinations of this kind. + +82. Closely allied to these sausages, although not one of them, is a +meat preparation much used in some localities and known as _scrapple_, +or _ponhasse_. This is prepared by cooking the head of pork, removing +the meat from the bones, and chopping it very fine. The pieces of meat +are then returned to the broth in which the head was cooked and enough +corn meal to thicken the liquid is stirred in. After the whole has +boiled sufficiently, it is turned into molds and allowed to harden. When +it is cold and hard, it can be cut into slices, which are sautéd in +hot fat. + +83. Besides scrapple, numerous other meat preparations, such as _meat +loaves_ of various kinds and _pickled pig's feet_, can usually be +obtained in the market. While the thrifty housewife does not make a +habit of purchasing meats of this kind regularly, there are times when +they are a great convenience and also afford an opportunity to vary +the diet. + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF FOODS BY DEEP-FAT FRYING + +PRINCIPLES OF DEEP-FAT FRYING + +84. Up to this point, all frying of foods has been done by sautéing +them; that is, frying them quickly in a small amount of fat. The other +method of frying, which involves cooking food quickly in deep fat at a +temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit, is used so frequently in +the preparation of many excellent meat dishes, particularly in the use +of left-overs, that specific directions for it are here given, together +with several recipes that afford practice in its use. No difficulty will +be experienced in applying this method to these recipes or to other +recipes if the underlying principles of deep-fat frying are thoroughly +understood and the proper utensils for this work are secured. + +85. In the first place, it should be remembered that if foods prepared +in this way are properly done, they are not so indigestible as they are +oftentimes supposed to be, but that incorrect preparation makes for +indigestibility in the finished product. For instance, allowing the food +to soak up quantities of fat during the frying is neither economical nor +conducive to a digestible dish. To avoid such a condition, it is +necessary that the mixture to be fried be made of the proper materials +and be prepared in the right way. One of the chief requirements is that +the surface of the mixture be properly coated with a protein material, +such as egg or egg and milk, before it is put into the fat or that the +mixture contain the correct proportion of egg so that its outside +surface will accomplish the same purpose. The reason for this +requirement is that the protein material is quickly coagulated by the +hot fat and thus prevents the entrance of fat into the inside material +of the fried food. + +Care must be taken also in the selection of the fat that is used for +deep-fat frying. This may be in the form of an oil or a solid fat and +may be either a vegetable or an animal fat. However, a vegetable fat is +usually preferred, as less smoke results from it and less flavor of the +fat remains in the food after it is cooked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24] + +86. The utensils required for deep-fat frying are shown in Fig. 24. They +consist of a wire basket and a pan into which the basket will fit. As +will be observed, the pan in which the fat is put has an upright metal +piece on the side opposite the handle. Over this fits a piece of wire +with which the basket is equipped and which is attached to the side +opposite the handle of the basket. This arrangement makes it possible to +drain the fat from whatever food has been fried without having to hold +the basket over the pan. + + +APPLICATION OF DEEP-FAT FRYING + +87. With the principles of deep-fat frying well in mind, the actual work +of frying foods by this method may be taken up. Numerous foods and +preparations may be subjected to this form of cookery, but attention is +given at this time to only croquettes and timbale cases. _Croquettes_ +are small balls or patties usually made of some finely minced food and +fried until brown. _Timbale cases_ are shells in which various creamed +foods are served. As these two preparations are representative of the +various dishes that can be cooked by frying in deep fat, the directions +given for these, if carefully mastered, may be applied to many +other foods. + +88. FRYING OF CROQUETTES.--After the mixture that is to be fried has +been prepared, and while the croquettes are being shaped, have the fat +heating in the deep pan, as in Fig. 24. Before the food is immersed, +test the temperature of the fat in the manner shown in Fig. 25, to make +sure that it is hot enough. To do this, put a 1/2-inch cube of bread in +the hot fat and keep it there for 40 seconds. If at the end of this time +it is a golden brown, it may be known that the fat is sufficiently hot +for any mixture. Be careful to regulate the heat so as to keep the fat +as near this temperature as possible, for it should be remembered that +each time a cold food is immersed in hot fat, the temperature is +lowered. Usually, a few minutes' frying is necessary to assure this +regulation of the temperature. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +As soon as the correct temperature is reached, put several of the +croquettes in the basket and set the basket in the pan of hot fat so +that the croquettes are entirely covered. Fry until a good brown color +is secured. Then lift the basket out of the fat and allow it to drain +until all the fat possible has dripped from it. Finally remove the +croquettes from the basket and place them on any kind of paper that will +absorb the excessive fat. Serve at once or keep hot until ready +to serve. + +89. VEAL CROQUETTES.--Veal that remains from a roast after it has been +served once can be utilized in no better way than in the making of +croquettes; or, if desired, veal may be cooked especially for this +purpose. When such croquettes are served with a sauce of any desirable +kind, such as white sauce or tomato sauce, or with left-over gravy, no +more appetizing dish can be found. + +VEAL CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. cold ground veal +1 c. thick white sauce +2 Tb. chopped onion +1 Tb. chopped parsley +Salt and pepper +1 egg +Fine crumbs + +Mix the ground veal with the white sauce, add the onion and parsley, and +salt and pepper to taste. Shape into oblong croquettes. Roll first in +the beaten egg, which, if necessary, may be increased by the addition of +a little milk, and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden +brown. Serve with or without sauce. + +90. SWEETBREAD CROQUETTES.--An extremely palatable dish can be made by +frying in deep fat sweetbreads cut any desirable shape and size. These +are usually served with a vegetable, and often a sauce of some kind is +served over both. + +To prepare the sweetbreads, parboil them according to the directions +given in Art. 17. Cut them into the kind of pieces desired, sprinkle the +pieces with salt and pepper, and dip them into beaten egg and then into +crumbs. Fry in deep fat and serve with a vegetable or a sauce or both. + +91. RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES.--Sometimes not enough meat remains after a +meal to make a tasty dish by itself. In such a case, it should be +combined with some other food, especially a starchy one, so as to extend +its flavor and produce a dish that approaches nearer a balanced ration +than meat alone does. A small amount of any kind of meat combined with +rice and the mixture then formed into patties, or croquettes, provides +both an appetizing and a nutritious dish. + +RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. finely chopped left-over meat +1 c. cold steamed rice +1/2 c. thick white sauce +1 Tb. chopped onion +1 tsp. celery salt +Salt and pepper +1 egg +Fine crumbs + +Mix the meat and rice, stir into them the white sauce, onion, and celery +salt, and salt and pepper to taste. Shape into croquettes, or patties; +roll first in the egg and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until +golden brown and serve with any desirable sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +92. TIMBALE CASES.--Such foods as creamed sweetbreads, creamed +sweetbreads and mushrooms, and other delicate foods that are served in +small quantities can be made very attractive by serving them in timbale +cases. These are made out of a batter by means of a timbale iron and +fried in deep fat until brown. In serving them, place them either on a +small plate or on the dinner plate with the rest of the dinner. To make +them especially attractive, dip the edge into egg white and then into +very finely chopped parsley. Fig. 26 shows creamed sweetbreads served in +a timbale case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +93. To prepare timbale cases, a _timbale iron_, such as is shown in Fig. +27, is required. Such an iron consists of a fluted piece of metal that +is either solid or hollow and that has attached to it a handle long +enough to keep the hand sufficiently far away from the hot fat. + +The batter required for timbale cases and the directions for combining +them are as follows: + +TIMBALE-CASE BATTER +(Sufficient to Make Twenty) + +1 egg +1/2 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1 tsp. sugar +3/4 c. flour + +Beat the egg with a fork just enough to break it up thoroughly. Add the +milk, salt, and sugar. Stir in the flour with as little beating as +possible. After preparing this mixture, allow it to stand for 1/2 hour, +so that any air it contains in the form of bubbles may escape and thus +prevent the formation of holes and bubbles in the finished +timbale cases. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +When about to use the batter, pour it into a cup or some other small +utensil that is just large enough to admit the iron easily. The iron +must be nearly covered with batter, but a large amount of it will not be +needed if a small utensil is used. Place the iron in the hot fat, as +shown in Fig. 27, until it is hot, or for about 4 minutes. Then let it +drip and place it in the batter, as in Fig. 28, being careful not to +permit the batter to come quite to the top of the iron, and remove it at +once. Place it immediately into the hot fat, as in Fig. 29, allowing the +fat to come higher on the iron than the batter does. This precaution +will prevent the formation of a ridge of bubbles around the top of the +timbale case. Fry in the deep fat until the case is nicely browned, as +shown in Fig. 26. Remove the iron from the fat, and allow it to drip. +Then carefully remove the timbale case from the iron with a fork and +place it on paper that will absorb the fat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +If your timbales are soft instead of crisp, you will know that the +mixture is too thick and should be diluted. Too hot or too cold an iron +will prevent the mixture from sticking to it. + + +MEAT (PART 2) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) What is veal? (_b_) From animals of what age is the best veal +obtained? + +(2) Compare veal and beef as to characteristics. + +(3) What cuts of veal are most suitable for: (_a_) roasts? (_b_) +cutlets? (_c_) soup and stews? (_d_) chops? + +(4) (_a_) What organs of veal are used for foods? (_b_) What are +sweetbreads? + +(5) (_a_) Why is veal more indigestible than beef? (_b_) What important +point must be remembered concerning the cooking of veal? + +(6) (_a_) What substance in veal is utilized in the preparation of +jellied veal? (_b_) Explain how this dish is prepared. + +(7) (_a_) At what age is sheep sold as lamb? (_b_) How do lamb and +mutton differ as to food substances? + +(8) Compare the flesh of lamb and mutton as to appearance. + +(9) As they apply to lamb and mutton, explain the terms: (_a_) rack; +(_b_) saddle. + +(10) Explain why some cuts of lamb and mutton are tough and others +tender. + +(11) What is: (_a_) a crown roast of lamb? (_b_) a French chop? + +(12) (_a_) Describe pork of the best kind. (_b_) Why is the food value +of pork higher than that of other meats? + +(13) (_a_) Name the cuts of pork. (_b_) What is meant by leaf lard? + +(14) What important points must be taken into consideration in the +cooking of pork? + +(15) (_a_) Name some of the accompaniments that are usually served with +pork. (_b_) What is the purpose of these accompaniments? + +(16) (_a_) For what purpose is salt pork generally used? (_b_) What is +bacon? (_c_) To what uses is bacon put? + +(17) (_a_) Give the general directions for the carving and serving of +meat. (_b_) Explain how to carve and serve a steak. + +(18) (_a_) What is meant by deep-fat frying? (_b_) Why must a food that +is to be fried in deep fat contain or be coated with a protein material? + +(19) (_a_) What utensils are necessary for deep-fat frying? (_b_) +Explain the procedure in frying croquettes in deep fat. + +(20) (_a_) For what purpose are timbale cases used? (_b_) Explain how to +make a batter for timbale cases. + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Select a cut of beef that you consider most desirable from an economical +standpoint. Buy a quantity that may be used to the greatest advantage +for your family. Prepare it in any way you desire. + +State the number of pounds purchased, the price of the meat, the number +of meals in which it was served, and the number of persons (tell how +many adults and how many children) served at each meal. Estimate the +cost of each portion by dividing the cost of the whole by the number of +persons served. + +Make up an original dish in which left-over meat is used and submit the +recipe to us. + + * * * * * + + + + +POULTRY + + * * * * * + +POULTRY AS A FOOD + +1. POULTRY is the term used to designate birds that have been +domesticated, or brought under the control of man, for two purposes, +namely, the eggs they produce and the flesh food they supply. All the +common species of domestic fowls--chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, +guinea fowls, and pigeons--are known as poultry. However, none of these +species is included under this term unless it is raised for at least one +of the two purposes mentioned. As the term is to be understood in this +Section, poultry includes all domestic fowls that are killed in order +that their flesh may be cooked and used as food for human beings. Of +course, many wild birds are killed for the flesh food they furnish, but +they are classed under the term _game_. + +2. Poultry is probably never a necessity in the ordinary dietary, and +when prices are high it is a decided luxury. Still it does aid +materially in relieving the monotony of the usual protein foods, and it +supplies that "something out of the ordinary" for special occasions. +Then, too, it is often valuable in the diet of an invalid or some person +with a poor appetite. Poultry is, of course, used more in some homes +than in others; yet there is scarcely a home in which it is not served +some time or another. A knowledge of this food and its preparation and +serving will therefore prove to be a valuable asset to any housewife. + +3. To arrive at a knowledge of the use of poultry as a food, the +housewife must necessarily become familiar with its selection and +purchase. Then she must give attention to both its preparation for +cooking and its actual cooking, and, finally, to its serving. In all +these matters she will do well to adhere to the practice of economy, +for, at best, poultry is usually an expensive food. Before entering into +these matters in detail, however, it will be well to look into them in a +general way. + +4. In the selection of poultry, the housewife should realize that +poultry breeders have so developed certain breeds, even of the same +species, that they are better for table use than others. The flesh of +any breed of poultry may be improved by feeding the birds good food and +giving them proper care; and it is by applying these principles that the +breeders are enabled to better the quality of this food. Other things +also influence the quality of poultry flesh as food, as, for example, +the way in which the poultry is prepared for market and the care it +receives in transportation and storage. Unless these are as they should +be, they have a detrimental effect on poultry, because such food is +decidedly perishable. + +It is possible to exercise economy in the purchase of poultry, but +before the housewife can do this she must be able to judge the age of +each kind she may desire. On the age depends to a great extent the +method of cookery to be followed in preparing the poultry for the table. +Likewise, she must know the marks of cold-storage poultry, as well as +those of poultry that is freshly killed; and she must be familiar with +the first marks of deterioration, or decay, that result from storing the +food too long or improperly. + +Economy may also be practiced in preparing poultry for cooking. To bring +this about, however, the housewife should realize that the best method +of preparing any kind of poultry for cooking is always the most +economical. It means, too, that she should understand thoroughly the +methods of drawing and cutting, so that she may either do this work +herself or direct it. + +The way in which poultry is cooked has a bearing on the cost of this +food, too. For example, a young, tender bird prepared by a wrong method +not only is a good dish spoiled, but is a waste of expensive material. +Likewise, an older bird, which has more flavor but tougher tissues, is +almost impossible as food if it is not properly prepared. Both kinds +make appetizing dishes and do not result in waste if correct methods of +cooking are followed in their preparation. + +Even the way in which poultry is served has a bearing on the cost of +this food. For this reason, it is necessary to know how to carve, as +well as how to utilize any of this food that may be left over, if the +housewife is to get the most out of her investment. + + * * * * * + +SELECTION OF POULTRY + +GENERAL INFORMATION + +5. The selection of any kind of poultry to be used as food is a matter +that should not be left to the butcher. Rather, it should be done by +some one who understands the purpose for which the poultry is to be +used, and, in the home, this is a duty that usually falls to the +housewife. There are a number of general facts about poultry, and a +knowledge of them will assist the housewife greatly in performing +her tasks. + +6. CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY.--Poultry breeders and dealers divide the +domestic fowls into three classes. In the first class are included those +which have combs, such as chickens, turkeys, and guinea fowls. Quails +and pheasants belong to this class also, but they are very seldom +domesticated. The birds in this class are distinguished by two kinds of +tissue--light meat on the breast and dark meat on the other parts of the +body. In the second class are included those fowls which swim, such as +ducks and geese. These are characterized by web feet and long thick +bills, and their meat is more nearly the same color over the entire +body. The third class is comprised of birds that belong to the family of +doves. Pigeons, which are called _squabs_ when used as food, are the +only domesticated birds of this class. They stand between the other two +classes with respect to their flesh, which has some difference in color +between the breast and other muscles, but not so much as chicken and +other fowls of the first class. + +7. INFLUENCE OF FEEDING AND CARE ON QUALITY.--To some extent, the breed +affects the quality of poultry as food; still this is a far less +important matter than a number of things that the purchaser is better +able to judge. Among the factors that greatly influence the quality are +the feeding and care that the birds receive up to the time of slaughter. +These affect not only the flavor and the tenderness of the tissue, as +well as the quantity of tissue in proportion to bone, but also the +healthfulness of the birds themselves. To keep the birds in good health +and to build up sufficient flesh to make them plump, with as much meat +as possible on the bones and a fair amount of fat as well, the food they +get must be clean and of the right kind. Likewise, the housing +conditions must be such that the birds are kept dry and sufficiently +warm. The living space, also, must be adequate for the number that are +raised. Domestic fowls are not discriminating as to their food, and when +they are forced to live in dirt and filth they will eat more or less of +it and thus injure the quality of their flesh. Poultry that comes into +the market looking drawn and thin, with blue-looking flesh and no fat, +shows evidence of having had poor living conditions and inadequate +feeding. Such poultry will be found to have a less satisfactory flavor +than that which has received proper care. + +8. EFFECT OF SEX ON QUALITY.--When birds of any kind are young, sex has +very little to do with the quality of the flesh. But as they grow older +the flesh of males develops a stronger flavor than that of females of +the same age and also becomes tougher. However, when birds, with the +exception of mature ones, are dressed, it would take an expert to +determine the sex. The mature male is less plump than the female, and it +is more likely to be scrawny. Likewise, its spurs are larger and its +bones are large in proportion to the amount of flesh on them. + +Very often the reproductive organs of young males are removed, and the +birds are then called _capons_. As the capon grows to maturity, it +develops more of the qualities of the hen. Its body becomes plump +instead of angular, the quality of its flesh is much better than that of +the cock, and the quantity of flesh in proportion to bone is much +greater. In fact, the weight of a capon's edible flesh is much greater +than that of either a hen or a cock. In the market, a dressed capon can +usually be told by the long tail and wing feathers that are left on, as +well as by a ring of feathers around the neck. Female birds that are +spayed are called _poulards_. Spaying, or removing the reproductive +organs, of female birds, however, makes so little improvement that it is +seldom done. + +9. PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR MARKET.--The manner in which poultry is +prepared for market has a great bearing on its quality as food. In some +cases, the preparation falls to the producer, and often, when birds are +raised in quantities, they are sold alive and dressed by the butcher. +However, poultry that is to be shipped long distances and in large +quantities or stored for long periods of time is usually prepared at a +slaughtering place. This process of slaughtering and shipping requires +great care, for if attention is not given to details, the poultry will +be in a state of deterioration when it reaches the consumer and +therefore unfit for food. + +In order to avoid the deterioration of poultry that is slaughtered some +distance from the place of its consumption, each bird is well fed up to +within 24 hours before it is killed. Then it is starved so that its +alimentary tract will be as empty as possible at the time of killing. +Such birds are killed by cutting the large blood vessel running up to +the head. When properly done, this method of killing allows almost all +the blood to be drained from the body and the keeping qualities are much +improved. At practically the same time, the brain is pierced by the +knife thrust, and as soon as the bleeding commences the fowl becomes +paralyzed. As the tissues relax, the feathers may be pulled easily from +the skin without immersing the bird in hot water. This method of +plucking, known as _dry plucking_, is preferable when the skin must be +kept intact and the poultry kept for any length of time. The head and +feet are left on and the entrails are not removed. The poultry is then +chilled to the freezing point, but not below it, after which the birds +are packed ten in a box and shipped to the market in refrigerator cars +or placed in cold storage. Unless the poultry is to be cooked +immediately after slaughter, such measures are absolutely necessary, as +its flesh is perishable and will not remain in good condition for a long +period of time. + +10. COLD-STORAGE POULTRY.--Poultry that has been properly raised, +killed, transported, and stored is very likely to come into the market +in such condition that it cannot be readily distinguished from freshly +killed birds. When exposed to warmer temperatures, however, storage +poultry spoils much more quickly than does fresh poultry. For this +reason, if there is any evidence that poultry has been in storage, it +should be cooked as soon as possible after purchase. + +There are really two kinds of cold-storage poultry: that which is kept +at a temperature just above freezing and delivered within a few weeks +after slaughtering, and that which is frozen and kept in storage a much +longer time. When properly cared for, either one is preferable to +freshly killed poultry that is of poor quality or has had a chance to +spoil. Poultry that has been frozen must be thawed carefully. It should +be first placed in a refrigerator and allowed to thaw to that +temperature before it is placed in a warmer one. It should never be +thawed by putting it into warm water. Thawing it in this way really +helps it to decompose. + +A sure indication of cold-storage poultry is the pinched look it +possesses, a condition brought about by packing the birds tightly +against one another. Storage poultry usually has the head and feet left +on and its entrails are not removed. Indeed, it has been determined by +experiment that poultry will keep better if these precautions are +observed. The removal of the entrails seems to affect the internal +cavity of the bird so that it does not keep well, and as a matter of +safety it should be cooked quickly after this has been done in the home. + + +SELECTION OF CHICKEN + +11. To be able to select chicken properly, the housewife must be +familiar with the terms that are applied to chickens to designate their +age or the cookery process for which they are most suitable. _Chicken_ +is a general name for all varieties of this kind of poultry, but in its +specific use it means a common domestic fowl that is less than 1 year +old. _Fowl_ is also a general term; but in its restricted use in cookery +it refers to the full-grown domestic hen or cock over 1 year of age, as +distinguished from the chicken or pullet. A _broiler_ is chicken from 2 +to 4 months old which, because of its tenderness, is suitable for +broiling. A _frying chicken_ is at least 6 months old, and a _roasting +chicken_ is between 6 months and 1 year old. With these terms +understood, it can readily be seen that if fried chicken is desired a +2-year-old fowl would not be a wise purchase. + +The quality of the bird is the next consideration in the selection of +chicken. A number of things have a bearing on the quality. Among these, +as has already been pointed out, are the feeding and care that the bird +has received during its growth, the way in which it has been prepared +for market, and so on. All of these things may be determined by careful +observation before making a purchase. However, if the bird is drawn, and +especially if the head and feet are removed, there is less chance to +determine these things accurately. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +12. GENERAL MARKS OF GOOD QUALITY.--A chicken older than a broiler that +has been plucked should not be scrawny nor drawn looking like that shown +in Fig. 1, nor should the flesh have a blue tinge that shows through the +skin. Rather, it should be plump and well rounded like the one shown in +Fig. 2. There should be a sufficient amount of fat to give a rich, +yellow color. It should be plucked clean, and the skin should be clear +and of an even color over the entire bird. Tender, easily broken skin +indicates a young bird; tougher skin indicates an older one. The skin +should be whole and unbroken; likewise, when pressed with the fingers, +it should be neither flabby nor stiff, but pliable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +13. The increase of age in a chicken is to some extent an advantage, +because with age there is an increase in flavor. Thus, a year-old +chicken will have more flavor than a broiler. However, after more than +a year, the flavor increases to such an extent that it becomes strong +and disagreeable. With the advance of age there is also a loss of +tenderness in the flesh, and this after 1-1/2 or 2 years becomes so +extreme as to render the bird almost unfit for use. As the age of a +chicken increases, the proportion of flesh to bone also increases up to +the complete maturity of the bird. Hence, one large bird is a more +economical purchase than two small ones that equal its weight, because +the proportion of bone to flesh is less in the large bird than in the +small ones. + +14. DETERMINING THE AGE OF CHICKEN.--An excellent way in which to +determine the age of a chicken that has been dressed consists in feeling +of the breast bone at the point where it protrudes below the neck. In a +very young chicken, a broiler, for instance, the point of this bone will +feel like cartilage, which is firm, elastic tissue, and may be very +easily bent. If the bird is about a year old, the bone will be brittle, +and in a very old one it will be hard and will not bend. + +15. If the head has been left on, the condition of the beak is a means +of determining age. In a young chicken, it will be smooth and unmarred; +in an old one, it will be rough and probably darker in color. If the +feet have been left on, they too will serve to indicate the age. The +feet of a young chicken are smooth and soft; whereas, those of an old +bird are rough, hard, and scaly. The claws of a young one are short and +sharp; but as the bird grows older they grow stronger and become blunt +and marred with use. The spur, which is a projection just above the foot +on the back of each leg, is small in the young chicken, and increases in +size as the age increases. However, the spurs are more pronounced in +males than in females. + +16. Another way of telling the age of dressed chicken is to observe the +skin. After plucking, young birds usually have some pin feathers left in +the skin. _Pin feathers_ are small unformed feathers that do not pull +out with the larger ones. Older birds are usually free from pin +feathers, but have occasional long hairs remaining in the skin after the +feathers have been plucked. These do not pull out readily and must be +singed off when the chicken is being prepared for cooking. + +17. DETERMINING THE FRESHNESS OF CHICKEN.--There are a number of points +that indicate whether or not a chicken is fresh. In a freshly killed +chicken, the feet will be soft and pliable and moist to the touch; also, +the head will be unshrunken and the eyes full and bright. The flesh of +such a chicken will give a little when pressed, but no part of the flesh +should be softer than another. As actual decomposition sets in, the skin +begins to discolor. The first marks of discoloration occur underneath +the legs and wings, at the points where they are attached to the body. +Any dark or greenish color indicates decomposition, as does also any +slimy feeling of the skin. The odor given off by the chicken is also an +indication of freshness. Any offensive odor, of course, means that the +flesh has become unfit for food. + +18. LIVE CHICKENS.--Occasionally chickens are brought to the market and +sold alive. This means, of course, that the birds are subjected to a +certain amount of fright and needless cruelty and that the work of +slaughtering falls to the purchaser. The cost, however, is decreased a +few cents on the pound. Such birds must be chosen first of all by weight +and then by the marks that indicate age, which have already been given. + + +SELECTION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN + +19. The determination of quality, especially freshness, is much the same +for other kinds of poultry as it is for chicken. In fact, the same +points apply in most cases, but each kind seems to have a few +distinguishing features, which are here pointed out. + +20. SELECTION OF TURKEYS.--Turkeys rank next to chickens in popularity +as food. They are native to America and are perhaps better known here +than in foreign countries. Turkey is a much more seasonal food than +chicken, it being best in the fall. Cold-storage turkey that has been +killed at that time, provided it is properly stored and cared for, is +better than fresh turkey marketed out of season. + +21. The age of a turkey can be fairly accurately told by the appearance +of its feet. Very young turkeys have black feet, and as they mature the +feet gradually grow pink, so that at more than 1 year old the feet will +be found to be pink. However, as the bird grows still older, the color +again changes, and a 3-year-old turkey will have dull-gray or blackish +looking feet. The legs, too, serve to indicate the age of turkeys. Those +of a young turkey are smooth, but as the birds grow older they gradually +become rough and scaly. A young turkey will have spurs that are only +slightly developed, whereas an old turkey will have long, sharp ones. + +22. Turkeys are seldom marketed when they are very young. But in spite +of the fact that this is occasionally done, the mature birds are more +generally marketed. Turkeys often reach a large size, weighing as much +as 20 to 25 pounds. A mature turkey has proportionately a larger amount +of flesh and a smaller amount of bone than chicken; hence, even at a +higher price per pound, turkey is fully as economical as chicken. + +23. SELECTION OF DUCKS.--Ducks probably come next to turkeys in +popularity for table use. Young ducks are sold in the market during the +summer and are called _spring duck_. The mature ducks may be purchased +at any time during the year, but they are best in the winter months. + +The flexibility of the windpipe is an excellent test for the age of +ducks. In the young bird, the windpipe may be easily moved; whereas, in +the old one, it is stationary and quite hard. The meat of ducks is dark +over the entire bird, and the greatest amount is found on the breast. +Its flavor is quite typical, and differs very much from turkey and +chicken. However, there is a comparatively small amount of meat even on +a good-sized duck, and it does not carve to very good advantage; in +fact, more persons can be served from a chicken or a turkey of the same +weight. Young ducks are rather difficult to clean, as a layer of fine +down, which is not easily removed, covers the skin. + +24. SELECTION OF GEESE.--Geese are much more commonly used for food in +foreign countries than in America. Their age may be told in the same way +as that of ducks, namely, by feeling of the windpipe. The flesh is dark +throughout and rather strongly flavored. The fat is used quite +extensively for cooking purposes, and even as a butter substitute in +some countries. Because of this fact, geese are generally fattened +before they are slaughtered, and often half the weight of the bird is +fat. The livers of fattened geese reach enormous proportions and are +considered a delicacy. They are used for _pâté de fois gras_. Usually, +this is put up in jars and brings a very high price. + +25. SELECTION OF PIGEONS.--Pigeons are raised primarily for their use +as _squabs_. These are young birds about 4 weeks old, and their meat is +tender and agreeable to the taste. The meat of the mature pigeon becomes +quite tough and unpalatable. The breast is the only part of the bird +that has meat on it in any quantity, and this meat is slightly lighter +in color than that which comes from the remainder of the body. Midsummer +is the best season for squabs, but they can be purchased at other times +of the year. The cost of squabs is too high to allow them to be used +extensively as a food in the ordinary household. + + +TABLE I + +GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF POULTRY + +Market Name Weight Age Season + Pounds + +Squab broiler 3/4 to 1-1/4 6 to 8 wk. April to July +Broiler 1-1/2 to 2 2 to 4 mo. May to Sept. +Frying chicken 2-1/2 to 3 6 mo. June to Oct. +Roasting chicken 3 to 6 6 mo. to 1 yr. All Year +Fowl 4 to 5 over 1 yr. All Year +Capon 6 to 10 6 to 8 wk. May to Sept. +Turkey broiler 1-1/2 to 4 2 to 4 mo. June to Sept. +Roasting turkey 8 to 25 6 mo. to 3 yr. Oct. to Jan. +Spring Duck 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 2 to 6 mo. May to Dec. +Roasting Duck 4 to 8 6 mo. to 1 yr. Best in winter +Green goose 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 2 to 6 mo. May to Dec. +Roasting goose 4 to 8 6 mo. to 1 yr. Oct. to Mar. +Squab 1/2 to 3/4 4 wk. June to Sept. +Guinea hen broiler 1 to 2 2 to 4 mo. Aug. to Nov. +Guinea fowl 3 to 5 6 mo. to 1 yr. Oct. to Mar. + + +26. SELECTION OF GUINEA FOWLS.--Guinea fowls are coming into common use +as food. The young birds are preferable to the older ones. They are +ready for the market in early autumn, while the old birds may be +procured at any time. The breast meat of guinea fowls is almost as light +as that of chicken, but all the meat of this bird has a gamy taste, +which is absent in the chicken. If this particular flavor is much +desired, it may be developed to even a greater degree by allowing the +bird to hang after killing until the meat begins to "turn," that is, +become "high." Such meat, however, is not usually desirable in the +ordinary menu. + +27. SELECTION OF PHEASANT, PARTRIDGE, AND QUAIL.--Pheasant, partridge, +and quail are usually considered game birds, but certain varieties are +being extensively domesticated and bred for market. Such birds are small +and are used more in the nature of a delicacy than as a common +article of food. + +28. TABLE OF POULTRY AND GAME.--In Table I are given the market names of +the various kinds of poultry and game birds, as well as the +corresponding age, the weight, and the season of the year when they are +most desirable. This table will serve as a guide in selecting poultry +that is to be used as food. + + +COMPOSITION OF POULTRY + +29. The composition of poultry is very similar to that of meats. In +fact, poultry is composed of protein, fat, water, mineral salts, and +extractives that do not differ materially from those found in meats. The +protein, which usually varies from 15 to 20 per cent., is a much more +constant factor than the fat, which varies from 8 to 40 per cent. This +variation, of course, makes the total food value high in some kinds of +poultry and low in others. For instance, in a young broiler that has not +been fattened, the food value is extremely low; whereas, in a mature +well-fattened bird, such as a goose, which increases very markedly in +fatty tissue after reaching maturity, it is extremely high. A factor +that detracts considerably from the edible portion of poultry is the +waste material, or refuse. This consists of the bones, cartilage, head, +feet, and entrails, or inedible internal organs. The greater the +proportion of such waste material, the more the total nutritive value of +the flesh is reduced. It is claimed that birds that have light-colored +flesh do not become so fat as those which have dark flesh. This, of +course, makes their nutritive value less, because the fat of poultry is +what serves to supply a large part of the nutrition. There is no +particular difference, as is commonly supposed, between the red and +white meat of poultry. The difference in color is due to a difference in +the blood supply, but this does not affect the composition to +any extent. + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR COOKING + +PREPARATION OF CHICKEN + +30. As has been implied, poultry must be properly prepared before it is +ready for cooking; likewise, the method of cookery determines how it +must be prepared. For example, if it is to be roasted, it must be drawn; +if it is to be stewed, it must be drawn and cut into suitable pieces; +and so on. The various steps that must be taken to make poultry suitable +for cooking are therefore considered here in detail. + +31. DRESSING A CHICKEN.--Although, as has been shown, the housewife does +not have to dress the chicken that she is to cook--that is, kill and +pluck it--there may be times when she will be called on to perform this +task or at least direct it. A common way of killing chicken in the home +is simply to grasp it firmly by the legs, lay it on a block, and then +chop the head off with a sharp hatchet or a cleaver. If this plan is +followed, the beheaded chicken must be held firmly until the blood has +drained away and the reflex action that sets in has ceased. Otherwise, +there is danger of becoming splashed with blood. + +32. After a chicken has been killed, the first step in its preparation, +no matter how it is to be cooked, consists in removing the feathers, or +_plucking_ it, as this operation is called. Plucking can be done dry by +simply pulling out the feathers. However, a bird can be plucked more +readily if it is first immersed in water at the boiling point for a few +minutes. Such water has a tendency to loosen the feathers so that they +can be pulled from the skin easily. Unless the chicken is to be used at +once, though, dry plucking is preferable to the other method. Care +should be taken not to tear or mar the skin in plucking, and the +operation is best performed by pulling out the feathers a few at a time, +with a quick jerk. In a young chicken, small feathers, commonly called +pin feathers, are apt to remain in the skin after plucking. These may be +pulled out by pinching each with the point of a knife pressed against +the thumb and then giving a quick jerk. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +33. Whether live poultry is dressed by a local butcher or in the home, +the length of time it should be kept after killing demands attention. +Such poultry should either be cooked before rigor mortis, or the +stiffening of the muscles, has had time to begin, or be allowed to +remain in a cool place long enough for this to pass off and the muscles +to become tender again. Naturally, if this softening, or ripening, +process, as it is sometimes called, goes on too long, decomposition will +set in, with the usual harmful effects if the meat is used as food. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +34. SINGEING A CHICKEN.--On all chickens except very young ones, whether +they are home dressed or not, hairs will be found on the skin; and, as +has been mentioned, the older the bird the more hair will it have. The +next step in preparing a chicken for cooking, therefore, is to singe it, +or burn off these hairs. However, before singeing, provided the head has +not been removed, cut it off just where the neck begins, using a kitchen +cleaver or a butcher knife, as in Fig. 3. To singe a dressed chicken, +grasp it by the head or the neck and the feet and then revolve it over a +gas flame, as shown in Fig. 4, or a burning piece of paper for a few +seconds or just long enough to burn off the hairs without scorching the +skin. After singeing, wash the skin thoroughly with a cloth and warm +water, as shown in Fig. 5. Then it will be ready for drawing and +cutting up. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +35. DRAWING A CHICKEN.--By drawing a chicken is meant the taking out of +the entrails and removing all parts that are not edible. Although this +work will be done by some butchers, the better plan is to do it at home, +for, as has been stated, chicken or any other poultry must be cooked +very soon after the entrails are removed. Chicken that is to be roasted +is always prepared in this way, as the cavity that remains may be filled +with stuffing. Drawing is also necessary when chicken is to be cooked in +any other way, as by stewing or frying, but in addition it must be cut +up. The procedure in drawing a chicken is simple, but some practice is +required before deftness will result. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +36. In order to draw a chicken, carefully cut a lengthwise slit through +the skin on the neck, and slip the fingers down around the _crop_, which +is a small sack that holds the food eaten by the chicken. Then pull +the crop out, and with it the windpipe, as in Fig. 6, taking pains not +to tear the skin nor to break the crop. + +Next, remove the tendons, or thick white cords, from the legs, so as to +improve the meat. These may be easily removed, especially from a chicken +that is freshly killed; that is, one in which the flesh is still moist. +Simply cut through the skin, just above the foot, as in Fig. 7, being +careful not to cut the tendons that lie just beneath the skin; then slip +a skewer or some other small, dull implement, as a fork, under the +tendons, pull down toward the foot until they loosen at the second +joint, and pull them out. This operation is clearly shown in Fig. 8. +With the tendons removed, the feet may be cut off. To do this, cut +through the skin where the two bones join, as shown in Fig. 9. As the +joint separates, cut through the remaining tendons and skin on the back +of the legs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +37. Proceed, next, to cut a crosswise slit through the skin between the +legs at a point above the vent, as in Fig. 10, so that the entrails may +be removed. This slit should be just large enough to admit the hand and +no larger. Insert the fingers of one hand in this slit and gently move +them around the mass of the internal organs, keeping them close to the +framework of the bird. This will loosen the entrails at the points where +they are attached to the body. Then, inserting the hand, slip the +fingers around the mass at the top, near the neck, and with one pull +remove the entire internal contents, as Fig. 11 shows. The lungs, or +lights, as they are sometimes called, do not come out with this mass. +They will be found covered with a membrane and tightly fastened inside +the breast bone, and must be removed by pulling them out with the tips +of the fingers. After the entrails are removed, pour clean cold water +into the cavity, rinse it well several times, and pour the water out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +38. Among the contents drawn from the chicken will be found the heart, +the liver, and the gizzard. These are called the _giblets_. They are the +only edible internal organs, and must be separated from the rest. To do +this, squeeze the blood from the heart, and then cut the large vessels +off close to the top of it. Then cut the liver away. In handling this +part of the giblets extreme care must be taken, for tightly attached to +it, as Fig. 12 shows, is the _gall bladder_, which is a tiny sack filled +with green fluid, called bile. If this sack breaks, anything that its +contents touches will become very bitter and therefore unfit to eat. The +gall bag should be cut out of the liver above the place where it is +attached, so as to be certain that it does not break nor lose any of the +bile. Next, remove the gizzard, which consists of a fleshy part +surrounding a sack containing partly digested food eaten by the +chicken. First trim off any surplus fat, and carefully cut through the +fleshy part just to the surface of the inside sack. Then pull the +outside fleshy part away from the sack without breaking it, as in Fig. +13, an operation that can be done if the work is performed carefully. +After removing the giblets and preparing them as explained, wash them +well, so that they may be used with the rest of the chicken. As a final +step, cut out the _oil sack_, which lies just above the tail, proceeding +in the manner illustrated in Fig. 14. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22] + +39. CUTTING UP A CHICKEN.--When chicken that has been drawn is to be +fried, stewed, fricasseed, or cooked in some similar way, it must be cut +into suitable pieces. In order to do this properly, it is necessary to +learn to locate the joints and to be able to cut squarely between the +two bones where they are attached to each other. To sever the legs from +the body of the chicken, first cut through the skin underneath each leg +where it is attached to the body, as in Fig. 15, bend the leg back far +enough to break the joint, and then cut through it, severing the entire +leg in one piece. When the legs are cut off, cut each one apart at the +joint between the thigh and the lower part, as in Fig. 16, making two +pieces. To sever the wings from the body, cut through the skin where the +wing is attached, as in Fig. 17, and bend it back until the joint +breaks. Then cut it off where the ends of the bones are attached to the +joint. When both legs and both wings are removed, proceed to cut the +body apart. As shown in Fig. 18, place the chicken, neck down, on a +table, and cut down through the ribs parallel with the breast and the +back, until the knife strikes a hard bone that it cannot cut. Then +firmly grasp the breast with one hand and the back with the other and +break the joints that attach these parts by pulling the back and the +breast away from each other, as in Fig. 19. Cut through the joints, as +in Fig. 20, so that the back, ribs, and neck will be in one piece and +the breast in another. [Illustration: Fig. 23] If desired, the breast +may be divided into two pieces by cutting it in the manner shown in Fig. +21; also, as the back will break at the end of the ribs, it may be cut +into two pieces there. Finally, cut the neck from the top piece of the +back, as in Fig. 22. + +The pieces of chicken thus procured may be rinsed clean with cold +water, but they should never be allowed to stand in water, because this +will draw out some of the extractives, or flavoring material, soluble +albumin, and mineral salts. + +40. PREPARING CHICKEN FEET.--Many persons consider that chicken feet are +not worth while for food. This, however, is a mistaken idea, for they +will add to the flavor of soup stock or they may be cooked with the +giblets to make stock for gravy. Chicken feet do not contain much meat, +but what little there is has an excellent flavor and should be removed +for use when creamed chicken or any dish made with left-over chicken is +to be cooked. + +To prepare chicken feet for use as food, scrub the feet well and pour +boiling water over them. After a minute or two, remove them from the +water and rub them with a clean cloth to peel off the scaly skin, as +shown in Fig. 23. Finally remove the nails by bending them back. + +41. UTILIZING THE WING TIPS.--The last joint, or tip, of chicken wings +has no value as food, but, like the feet, it will help to add flavor to +any stock that is made. This small piece of wing may be removed and then +cooked with the feet and giblets. + + +PREPARATION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN + +42. PREPARATION OF TURKEY.--The preparation of a plucked turkey for +cooking is almost identically the same as that of a plucked chicken. +Begin the preparation by singeing it; that is, hold it over a flame and +turn it so that all the hairs on the skin will be burned off. Then look +the skin over carefully, remove any pin feathers that may not have been +removed in plucking, and wash it thoroughly. Next, cut off the head, +leaving as much of the neck as possible. Draw the tendons from the legs +as in preparing chicken; the ease with which this can be done will +depend greatly on the length of time the turkey has been killed. Then +cut off the legs at the first joint above the foot. + +Having prepared the external part of the turkey, proceed to draw it. +First, remove the crop by cutting a slit lengthwise in the neck over the +crop, catching it with the fingers, and pulling it out. Next, cut a slit +between the legs, below the breast bone, and draw out the internal +organs. Clean and retain the giblets. Remove the lungs, wash out the +cavity in the turkey, and cut off the oil bag on the back, just +above the tail. + +Turkey prepared in this way is ready to stuff and roast. It is never cut +into pieces in the ordinary household until it has been cooked and is +ready to serve. Directions for carving are therefore given later. + +43. PREPARATION OF DUCK AND GOOSE.--The preparation of duck and goose +for cooking does not differ materially from that of turkey or chicken. +Like turkey, duck or goose is generally roasted and not cut up until it +is ready to serve. It will be well to note that young ducks are covered +with small feathers, or down, which is very difficult to remove. +However, the down may be removed by pulling it out with a small knife +pressed against the thumb. When the down is removed, proceed with the +preparation. Singe, wash, remove the head and feet, draw, wash the +inside of the bird, and remove the oil sack. Goose may be prepared for +cooking in the same way. + +44. PREPARATION OF SMALL BIRDS.--Squabs, partridge, pheasant, and other +small birds are usually cooked by broiling. To prepare such a bird for +cooking, singe, remove any small feathers that may remain, wash, remove +the head and feet, and draw, following the directions given for drawing +chicken. When it is thus cleaned, lay the bird open. To do this, begin +at the neck and cut down the back along the spine. If desired, however, +the bird may be cut down the back before drawing and the entrails +removed through the cut down the back. Finally, wash the inside and wipe +it dry, when the bird will be ready for broiling. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF POULTRY + +COOKERY METHODS + +45. With poultry, as in the case of meats of any kind, it is the +composition that determines the method of cookery; and, as the structure +and composition of the tissue of poultry do not differ materially from +those of meats, the application of the various cooking methods is +practically the same. Young and tender birds that have comparatively +little flesh, such as young chickens, squabs, and guinea fowl, are +usually prepared by such rapid methods as frying and broiling. +Medium-sized poultry, including chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, +and geese, require more cooking, and this, of course, must be done at a +lower temperature; therefore, such poultry is generally roasted. Old +poultry, particularly old chicken, or fowl, which is apt to be tough, +requires still more cooking, and for this reason is stewed, braized, or +fricasseed. The recipes for the cooking of various kinds of poultry here +given will serve to make clear the cookery method to employ, as well as +how to carry it out to advantage. + + +PREPARATION BY BROILING + +46. The method of broiling in the case of poultry of all kinds does not +differ in any way from the same method applied to cuts of meat. Since +broiling is a rapid method of cookery and heat is applied at a high +temperature, it is necessary that the poultry chosen for broiling be +young and tender and have a comparatively small amount of meat on +the bones. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +Broiled poultry is not an economical dish, neither is it one in which +the greatest possible amount of flavor is obtained, since, as in the +case of the meat of animals used for food, the flavor develops with the +age of the birds. However, broiled poultry has value in the diet of +invalids and persons with poor appetite and digestion, for if it is +properly done it is appetizing and easily digested. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25] + +47. BROILED POULTRY.--Poultry that is to be broiled must first be +dressed, drawn, and cleaned. Then, as has been mentioned for the +preparation of small birds, lay the bird open by cutting down along the +spine, beginning at the neck, as shown in Fig. 24. This will permit the +bird to be spread apart, as in Fig. 25. When it is thus made ready, +washed, and wiped dry, heat the broiler and grease it. Then place the +bird on the broiler in the manner shown in Fig. 26 and expose it to +severe heat. Sear quickly on one side, and turn and sear on the other +side. Then reduce the heat to a lower temperature and broil more slowly, +turning often. To prevent burning, the parts that stand up close to the +flame may be covered with strips of bacon fastened on with skewers; +also, to get the best results, the side of the bird on which the flesh +is thick should be exposed to the heat for a greater length of time than +the other side. If there is any danger of the high places burning in the +broiler, the bird may be removed and the cooking continued in a hot +oven. Broiled poultry should be well done when served. This means, then, +particularly in the case of chickens, that the broiling process should +be carried on for about 20 minutes. When the bird is properly cooked, +remove it from the broiler, place it on a hot platter, dot it with +butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, garnish, and serve. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26] + + +PREPARATION BY FRYING + +48. As has been mentioned, birds slightly older and larger than those +used for broiling should be fried, because frying is a slower method and +gives the flesh a more thorough cooking. However, most of the dishes +commonly known as fried poultry are not fried, but sautéd in shallow +fat. The same principles employed in sautéing any food are applied in +the cooking of poultry by this method; that is, the surface is seared as +quickly as possible and the cooking is finished at a lower temperature. +Often in this cooking process, the pieces to be sautéd are dipped into +batter or rolled in flour to assist in keeping the juices in the meat. + +49. FRIED CHICKEN.--To many persons, fried chicken--or, rather, sautéd +chicken, as it should be called--is very appetizing. Chicken may be +fried whole, but usually it is cut up, and when this is done it serves +to better advantage. Likewise, the method of preparation is one that +adds flavor to young chicken, which would be somewhat flavorless if +prepared in almost any other way. + +Frying is not a difficult cookery process. To prepare chickens, which +should be young ones, for this method of preparation, draw, clean, and +cut them up in the manner previously explained. When they are ready, +wash the pieces and roll them in a pan of flour, covering the entire +surface of each piece. Then, in a frying pan, melt fat, which may be +chicken fat, bacon fat, part butter, lard, or any other frying fat that +will give an agreeable flavor. When the fat is thoroughly hot, place in +it the pieces of floured chicken and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. +As soon as the pieces have browned on one side, turn them over and brown +on the other side. Then reduce the heat, cover the frying pan with a +tight-fitting lid, and continue to fry more slowly. If, after 25 or 30 +minutes, the meat can be easily pierced with a fork, it is ready to +serve; if this cannot be done, add a small quantity of hot water, +replace the cover, and simmer until the meat can be pierced readily. To +serve fried chicken, place the pieces on a platter and garnish the dish +with parsley so as to add to its appearance. + +50. GRAVY FOR FRIED CHICKEN.--If desired, brown gravy may be made and +served with fried chicken. After the chicken has been removed from the +frying pan, provided an excessive amount of fat remains, pour off some +of it. Sprinkle the fat that remains with dry flour, 1 tablespoonful to +each cupful of liquid that is to be used, which may be milk, cream, +water, or any mixture of the three. Stir the flour into the hot fat. +Heat the liquid and add this hot liquid to the fat and flour in the +frying pan. Stir rapidly so that no lumps will form, and, if necessary, +season with more salt and pepper to suit the taste. + +Gravy may also be made in this manner: Stir cold liquid slowly into the +flour in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful of flour to 1 cupful of +liquid, which may be milk, cream, water, or any mixture of the three. +Add the cold liquid and flour to the frying pan containing a small +amount of fat in which the chicken was fried. Stir rapidly until the +gravy has thickened and there are no lumps. + +Very often the giblets, that is, the liver, heart, and gizzard of +chicken, are used in making gravy. For example, the giblets may be +cooked in water until they are tender and then sautéd in butter to +serve, and when this is done the water in which they were cooked may be +used for making gravy. Again, if it is not desired to eat them in this +way, they may be chopped fine and added to gravy made from the fat that +remains from frying. + +51. MARYLAND FRIED CHICKEN.--Maryland fried chicken is a popular dish +with many persons. As a rule, corn fritters are used as a garnish and +Served with the chicken, and strips of crisp bacon are placed over the +top of it. Often, too, potato croquettes are served on the same platter, +a combination that makes almost an entire meal. + +To prepare Maryland fried chicken, draw, clean, and cut up young +chickens. Then wash the pieces and dry them with a soft cloth. Sprinkle +the pieces with salt and pepper, and dip each into fine cracker crumbs +or corn meal, then into beaten egg, and again into the crumbs or the +corn meal. Next, melt in a frying pan chicken or bacon fat, part butter, +lard, or any other fat for frying. When it is hot, place the pieces of +chicken in it. Fry them until they are brown on one side; then turn and +brown them on the other side. Lower the temperature and continue to fry +slowly until the meat may be easily pierced with a fork. When the +chicken is done, pour 2 cupfuls of white sauce on a hot platter and +place the chicken in it. Then garnish and serve. + +52. FRIED CHICKEN WITH PAPRIKA SAUCE.--Chickens that are a trifle older +than those used for plain fried chicken may be prepared to make what is +known as fried chicken with paprika sauce. If in preparing this dish the +chicken does not appear to be tender after frying, it may be made so by +simmering it in the sauce. + +To prepare this chicken dish, which is tempting to many, draw, clean, +and cut up a chicken as for frying. Then melt fat in a frying pan, place +the pieces in the hot fat, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and brown +on both sides quickly. When both sides are brown, continue to fry the +pieces until they are tender. Then sprinkle all with 2 level +tablespoonfuls of flour, add 2 cupfuls of milk or thin cream, and allow +this to thicken. Then sprinkle with paprika until the sauce is pink. Let +the chicken simmer slowly until the sauce penetrates the meat a little. +Serve on a platter with a garnish. + + +PREPARATION BY ROASTING + +53. Roasting is the cookery process that is commonly employed for +preparing chickens that are of good size, as well as turkeys, ducks, and +geese. It is also followed at times for cooking guinea fowl, partridges, +pheasants, and similar small birds. As a rule, birds prepared in this +way are filled with stuffing, which may be made in so many ways that +roasted stuffed poultry makes a delightful change in the regular +routine of meals. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27] + +54. ROAST CHICKEN.--Roasting is the best method to employ for the +preparation of old chicken unless, of course, it is extremely old and +tough. Then stewing is about the only method that is satisfactory. +Chicken for roasting should weigh no less than 3 pounds. Chicken +prepared according to the following directions makes a dish that is very +appetizing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28] + +To prepare chicken for roasting, clean and draw it in the manner +previously given. When it is made clean, rub salt and pepper on the +inside of the cavity, and stuff the cavity of the chicken, as shown in +Fig. 27, with any desirable stuffing. Directions for preparing stuffing +are given later. Also, fill with stuffing the space from which the crop +was removed, inserting it through the slit in the neck. Thread a large +darning needle with white cord and sew up the slit in the neck, as well +as the one between the legs, as in Fig. 28, so that the stuffing will +not fall out. Also, force the neck inside of the skin, and tie the skin +with a piece of string, as in Fig. 29. Then, as Fig. 29 also shows, +truss the chicken by forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing +joint, making a triangle; also, tie the ends of the legs together and +pull them down, tying them fast to the tail, as in Fig. 30. Trussing in +this manner will give the chicken a much better appearance for serving +than if it were not so fastened; but, of course, before it is placed on +the table, the strings must be cut and removed. After stuffing and +trussing, put the chicken on its back in a roasting pan, sprinkle it +with flour, and place it in a very hot oven. Sear the skin quickly. Then +reduce the temperature slightly and pour a cupful of water into the +roasting pan. Baste the chicken every 10 or 15 minutes with this water, +until it is well browned and the breast and legs may be easily pierced +with a fork. Remove to a platter and serve. If gravy is desired, it may +be made in the roasting pan in the same way as for fried chicken. The +giblets may be cut into pieces and added or they may be left out and +served after first cooking and then browning them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29] + +55. ROAST TURKEY.--In America, roast turkey is usually considered as a +holiday dish, being served most frequently in the homes on Thanksgiving +day. However, at times when the price is moderate, it is not an +extravagance to serve roast turkey for other occasions. Roasting is +practically the only way in which turkey is prepared in the usual +household, and it is by far the best method of preparation. +Occasionally, however, a very tough turkey is steamed before roasting in +order to make it sufficiently tender. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30] + +The preparation of roast turkey does not differ materially from the +method given for the preparation of roast chicken. After the turkey is +cleaned, drawn, and prepared according to the directions previously +given, rub the inside of the cavity with salt and pepper. Then stuff +with any desirable stuffing, filling the cavity and also the space under +the skin of the neck where the crop was removed. Then sew up the +opening, draw the skin over the neck and tie it, and truss the turkey by +forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing joint in a +triangular shape and tying both ends of the legs to the tail. When thus +made ready, place the turkey in the roasting pan so that the back rests +on the pan and the legs are on top. Then dredge with flour, sprinkle +with salt and pepper, and place in a hot oven. When its surface is well +browned, reduce the heat and baste every 15 minutes until the turkey is +cooked. This will usually require about 3 hours, depending, of course, +on the size of the bird. For basting, melt 4 tablespoonfuls of butter or +bacon fat in 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Pour this into the roasting +pan. Add water when this evaporates, and keep a sufficient amount for +basting. Turn the turkey several times during the roasting, so that the +sides and back, as well as the breast, will be browned. When the turkey +can be easily pierced with a fork, remove it from the roasting pan, cut +the strings and pull them out, place on a platter, garnish, and serve. +Gravy to be served with roast turkey may be made in the manner +mentioned for making gravy to be served with fried chicken. + +56. ROAST DUCK.--While young duck is often broiled, the usual method of +preparing this kind of poultry is by roasting; in fact, roasting is an +excellent way in which to cook duck that is between the broiling age and +full maturity. + +57. Duck is roasted in practically the same way as chicken or turkey. In +the case of a _young duck_, or _spring duck_, however, stuffing is not +used. After it is drawn and cleaned, truss it by folding back the wings +and tying the ends of the legs to the tail, so as to give it a good +appearance when served. Season with salt and pepper and dredge with +flour, and, over the breast, to prevent it from burning, place strips of +bacon or salt pork. When thus made ready, put the duck in a roasting +pan, pour in 1/2 cupful of water, and cook it in a hot oven until it is +very tender, basting it about every 15 minutes during the roasting. +About 15 minutes before the roasting is done, remove the strips of bacon +or pork, so as to permit the breast underneath them to brown. Serve on a +platter with a garnish. Make gravy if desired. + +58. In the case of an _old duck_, proceed as for roasting chicken or +turkey; that is, draw, clean, stuff, and truss it. In addition, place +strips of bacon or salt pork over its breast. Place it in a roasting +pan, pour 1/2 cupful of water into the pan, and put it in a hot oven. +During the roasting baste the duck every 15 minutes; also, as in +roasting a young duck, remove the bacon or salt pork in plenty of time +to permit the part underneath to brown. When the surface is well browned +and the meat may be easily pierced with a fork, place the duck on a +platter, remove the strings used to sew it up, garnish, and serve. Make +gravy if desired. + +59. ROAST GOOSE.--Specific directions for roasting goose are not given, +because the methods differ in no way from those already given for +roasting duck. Very young goose, or green goose, is usually roasted +without being stuffed, just as young duck. Older goose, however, is +stuffed, trussed, and roasted just as old duck. A very old goose may be +placed in a roasting pan and steamed until it is partly tender before +roasting. Apples in some form or other are commonly served with goose. +For example, rings of fried apple may be used as a garnish, or apple +sauce or stewed or baked apples may be served as an accompaniment. Make +gravy if desired. + +60. ROAST SMALL BIRDS.--Such small birds as guinea fowl, partridge, +pheasant, quail, etc. may be roasted if desired, but on account of being +so small they are seldom filled with stuffing. To roast such poultry, +first clean, draw, and truss them. Then lard them with strips of bacon +or salt pork, and place in a roasting pan in a very hot oven. During the +roasting, turn them so as to brown all sides; also, baste every 15 +minutes during the roasting with the water that has been poured into the +roasting pan. Continue the roasting until the flesh is very soft and the +joints can be easily pulled apart. Serve with a garnish. Make gravy +if desired. + +61. STUFFING FOR ROAST POULTRY.--As has been mentioned, stuffing, or +dressing, of some kind is generally used when poultry is roasted. +Therefore, so that the housewife may be prepared to vary the stuffing +she uses from time to time, recipes for several kinds are here given. +Very often, instead of using the giblets for gravy, they are cooked in +water and then chopped and added to the stuffing. Giblets are not +included in the recipes here given, but they may be added if desired. +The quantities stated in these recipes are usually sufficient for a bird +of average size; however, for a smaller or a larger bird the ingredients +may be decreased or increased accordingly. + +BREAD STUFFING + +4 c. dry bread crumbs +1/2 c. butter +1 small onion +1 beaten egg +1 tsp. salt +1 tsp. celery salt, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed +1/4 tsp. powdered sage (if desired) +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Pour a sufficient amount of hot water over the bread crumbs to moisten +them well. Melt the butter and allow it to brown slightly. Add the +onion, chopped fine, to the butter and pour this over the bread crumbs. +Add the beaten egg, salt, celery salt, and other seasonings, mix +thoroughly, and stuff into the bird. + +CRACKER STUFFING + +3 c. cracker crumbs +1 small onion (if desired) +1/3 c. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. powdered sage (if desired) +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Moisten the cracker crumbs with hot milk or water until they are quite +soft. Brown the chopped onion with the butter and pour over the +crackers. Add the seasonings, mix thoroughly, and stuff into the bird. + +OYSTER STUFFING + +3 c. dry bread crumbs +1/4 c. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 c. oysters +| c. chopped celery + +Moisten the bread crumbs with a sufficient amount of hot water to make +them quite soft. Brown the butter slightly and add it, with the +seasonings, to the bread. Mix with this the oysters and chopped celery. +Stuff into the bird. + +CHESTNUT STUFFING + +1 pt. blanched chestnuts +1 pt. bread crumbs +1/4 c. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. chopped parsley + +Blanch the chestnuts in boiling water to remove the dark skin that +covers them. Cook them until they are quite soft, and then chop them or +mash them. Moisten the bread crumbs with hot water and add the +chestnuts. Brown the butter slightly and pour it over the mixture. Add +the seasonings and chopped parsley and stuff. + +GREEN-PEPPER STUFFING + +1 qt. dried bread crumbs +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1/4 c. melted butter +2 Tb. bacon fat +1 small onion, chopped +1/4 c. finely chopped green pepper +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Moisten the bread crumbs with the stewed tomatoes and add a sufficient +amount of hot water to make the crumbs quite soft. Melt the butter and +bacon fat, add the onion, green pepper, and the seasonings, and pour +over the crumbs. Mix thoroughly and stuff. + +RICE STUFFING + +2 c. steamed rice +2 c. bread crumbs +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1/4 c. chopped pimiento +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 small onion, chopped +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1/4 c. butter +4 small strips bacon, diced and fried brown + +Mix the steamed rice with the bread crumbs. Add the stewed tomatoes, +pimiento, chopped parsley, chopped onion, salt, pepper, melted butter, +bacon and bacon fat, and a sufficient amount of hot water to moisten the +whole well. Mix thoroughly and stuff. + +PEANUT STUFFING FOR ROAST DUCK + +1 pt. cracker crumbs +1 c. shelled peanuts, finely chopped +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of Cayenne pepper +1/4 c. butter +Hot milk + +Mix the crumbs and the chopped peanuts. Add the salt, pepper, and +Cayenne pepper, and pour over them the melted butter and a sufficient +amount of hot milk to soften the whole. Stuff into the duck. + +LIVER STUFFING FOR ROAST DUCK + +1 duck liver +1/4 c. butter +1 small onion, chopped +2 c. dry bread crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 egg + +Chop the liver and sauté in the butter to which has been added the +chopped onion. Pour over the bread crumbs. Then add the salt, pepper, +finely chopped parsley, and the beaten egg. Pour over all a sufficient +amount of water to moisten well. Stuff into the duck. + + +BONED CHICKEN + +62. To offer variety in the serving of chicken, as well as to present an +easily carved bird, the process known as _boning_ is often resorted to. +Boning, as will be readily understood, consists in removing the flesh +from the bones before the bird is cooked. Boned chicken may be prepared +by roasting or broiling. In either case, the cookery process is the same +as that already given for poultry that is not boned. If it is to be +roasted, the cavity that results from the removal of the bones and +internal organs should be filled with stuffing or forcemeat, so that the +bird will appear as if nothing had been removed. If it is to be broiled, +stuffing is not necessary. Cooked boned chicken may be served either hot +or cold. Of course, other kinds of poultry may be boned if desired, and +if the directions here given for boning chicken are thoroughly learned +no difficulty will be encountered in performing this operation on any +kind. Boning is not a wasteful process as might be supposed, because +after the flesh is removed from the bones, they may be used in the +making of soup. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32] + +[Illustration: FIG. 33] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35] + +[Illustration: FIG. 36] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37] + +63. Before proceeding to bone a chicken, singe it, pull out the pin +feathers, cut off the head, remove the tendons from the legs, and +take out the crop through the neck. The bird may be drawn or not before +boning it, but in any event care must be taken not to break any part of +the skin. With these matters attended to, wash the skin well and wipe it +carefully. First, cut off the legs at the first joint, and, with the +point of a sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 31, loosen the skin and muscles +just above the joint by cutting around the bone. Cut the neck off close +to the body, as in Fig. 32. Then, starting at the neck, cut the skin +clear down the back to the tail, as in Fig. 33. [Illustration: FIG. 38] +Begin on one side, and scrape the flesh, with the skin attached to it, +from the back bone, as in Fig. 34. When the shoulder blade is reached, +push the flesh from it with the fingers, as in Fig. 35, until the wing +joint is reached. Disjoint the wing where it is attached to the body, as +in Fig. 36, and loosen the skin from the wing bone down to the second +joint. Disjoint the bone here and remove it up to this place, as Fig. 37 +illustrates. The remaining bone is left in the tip of the wing to give +it shape. When the bone from one wing is removed, turn the chicken +around and remove the bone from the other wing. Next, start at the back, +separating the flesh from the ribs, as in Fig. 38, taking care not to +penetrate into the side cavity of the chicken, provided it has not +[Illustration: FIG. 39] been drawn. Push the flesh down to the thigh, as +in Fig. 39, disjoint the bone here, and remove it down to the second +joint, as in Fig. 40. Disjoint the bone at the other joint, and +remove the skin and meat from the bone by turning them inside out, as in +Fig. 41. If the bone has been properly loosened at the first joint of +the leg, there will be no trouble in slipping it out. When this is done, +turn the meat and skin back again, so that they will be right side out. +Then proceed in the same way with the other leg. Next, free the flesh +from the collar bone down to the breast bone on both sides, proceeding +as in Fig. 42. When the ridge of the breast bone is reached, care must +be taken not to break the skin that lies very close to the bone. The +fingers should be used to separate the flesh at this place. When the +sides and front have been thus taken care of, free the skin and the +flesh from the bones over the rump. After this is done, the skeleton and +internal organs of the undrawn bird may be removed, leaving the flesh +intact. The skeleton of a chicken will appear as in Fig. 43. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41] + +[Illustration: Fig. 42] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45] + +If the boned chicken is to be roasted, the entire chicken, including the +spaces from which the wing and leg bones were removed, may be filled +with highly seasoned stuffing. When this is done, shape the chicken as +much as possible to resemble its original shape and sew up the back. The +chicken will then be ready to roast. If the boned chicken is to be +broiled, shape it on the broiler as shown in Fig. 44 and broil. When +broiled, boned chicken should appear as in Fig. 45. + + +PREPARATION BY STEWING AND OTHER COOKING METHODS + +64. CHICKEN STEW WITH DUMPLINGS OR NOODLES.--Perhaps the most common way +of preparing chicken is to stew it. When chicken is so cooked, such an +addition as dumplings or noodles is generally made because of the +excellent food combination that results. For stewing, an old chicken +with a great deal of flavor should be used in preference to a young one, +which will have less flavor. + +In order to prepare chicken by stewing, clean, draw, and cut up the bird +according to directions previously given. Place the pieces in a large +kettle and cover them well with boiling water. Bring all quickly to the +boiling point and add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Then remove the scum, +lower the temperature, and continue to cook at the simmering point. Keep +the pieces well covered with water; also, keep the stew pot covered +during the cooking. When the chicken has become tender enough to permit +the pieces to be easily pierced with a fork, remove them to a deep +platter or a vegetable dish. Dumplings or noodles may be cooked in the +chicken broth, as the water in which the chicken was stewed is called, +or they may be boiled or steamed separately. If they are cooked +separately, thicken the broth with flour and serve it over the chicken +with the noodles or dumplings. + +65. FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN.--For chicken that is tough, fricasseeing is an +excellent cooking method to employ. Indeed, since it is a long method of +cookery, a rather old, comparatively tough fowl lends itself best to +fricasseeing. Fricassee of chicken also is a dish that requires a great +deal of flavor to be drawn from the meat, and this, of course, cannot be +done if a young chicken is used. + +To prepare fricassee of chicken, clean and cut the bird into pieces +according to the directions previously given. Put these into a saucepan, +cover with boiling water, add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, bring to the +boiling point quickly, skim, and reduce the temperature so that the meat +will simmer slowly until it is tender. Next, remove the pieces of +chicken from the water in which they were cooked, roll them in flour, +and sauté them in butter or chicken fat until they are nicely browned. +If more than 2 or 2 1/2 cupfuls of broth remains, boil it until the +quantity is reduced to this amount. Then moisten 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls +of flour with a little cold water, add this to the stock, and cook until +it thickens. If desired, the broth may be reduced more and thin cream +may be added to make up the necessary quantity. Arrange the pieces of +chicken on a deep platter, pour the sauce over them, season with salt +and pepper if necessary, and serve. To enhance the appearance of this +dish, the platter may be garnished with small three-cornered pieces of +toast, tiny carrots, or carrots and green peas. + +66. CHICKEN PIE.--A good change from the usual ways of serving chicken +may be brought about by means of chicken pie. Such a dish is simple to +prepare, and for it may be used young or old chicken. + +To prepare chicken pie, dress, clean, and cut up a chicken in the usual +manner. Put it into a saucepan, add a small onion and a sprig of +parsley, cover with boiling water, and cook slowly until the meat is +tender. When the meat is cooked, add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and 1/4 +teaspoonful of pepper, and when it is perfectly tender remove it from +the stock. Thicken the stock with 1 tablespoonful of flour to each +cupful of liquid. Next, arrange the chicken in a baking dish. It may be +left on the bones or cut into large pieces and the bones removed. To it +add small carrots and onions that have been previously cooked until +tender and pour the thickened stock over all. Cover this with +baking-powder biscuit dough made according to the directions given in +_Hot Breads_ and rolled 1/4 inch thick. Make some holes through the +dough with the point of a sharp knife to let the steam escape, and bake +in a moderate oven until the dough is well risen and a brown crust is +formed. Then remove from the oven and serve. + +67. CHICKEN CURRY.--Chicken combined with rice is usually an agreeable +food combination, but when flavored with curry powder, as in the recipe +here given, it is a highly flavored dish that appeals to the taste of +many persons. + +CHICKEN CURRY + +1 3 lb. chicken +2 Tb. butter +2 onions +1 Tb. curry powder +2 tsp. salt +2 c. steamed rice + +Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken as for stewing. Put the butter in a +hot frying pan, add the onions, sliced thin, then the pieces of chicken, +and cook for 10 minutes. Parboil the liver, gizzard, and heart, cut them +into pieces and add them to the chicken in the frying pan. Sprinkle the +curry powder and the salt over the whole. Add boiling water or the stock +in which the giblets were cooked, and simmer until the chicken is +tender. Remove the meat from the frying pan and place it on a deep +platter. Surround it with a border of steamed rice. Thicken the stock in +the frying pan slightly with flour and pour the gravy over the chicken. +Serve hot. + +68. CHICKEN EN CASSEROLE.--Food prepared in casseroles always seems to +meet with the approval of even the most discriminating persons; and +chicken prepared in this way with vegetables is no exception to the +rule. For such a dish should be selected a chicken of medium size that +is neither very old nor very young. Any flavor that the bird contains is +retained, so a strong flavor is not desirable. + +In preparing chicken en casserole, first clean, dress, and cut it up in +the manner directed for stewed chicken. Place the pieces in a casserole +dish, together with 1 cupful of small carrots or larger carrots cut into +strips. Fry a finely chopped onion with several strips of bacon, and +cut these more finely while frying until the whole is well browned. Then +add them to the meat in the casserole dish. Also, add 1 cupful of potato +balls or 1 cupful of diced potatoes. Season well with salt and pepper, +add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, and over the whole pour sufficient hot +water to cover. Cover the casserole dish, place it in a moderate oven, +and cook slowly until the chicken is tender. Serve from the dish. + +69. JELLIED CHICKEN.--The housewife who desires to serve an unusual +chicken dish will find that there is much in favor of jellied chicken. +Aside from its food value, jellied chicken has merit in that it appeals +to the eye, especially if the mold used in its preparation has a +pleasing shape. + +JELLIED CHICKEN + +1 3 or 4 lb. chicken +2 tsp. salt +Several slices of onion +1 hard-cooked egg +1 pimiento +Several sprigs of parsley + +Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken. Put it into a saucepan and cover +with boiling water. Season with the salt and add the slices of onion. +Cook slowly until the meat will fall from the bones. Remove the chicken +from the saucepan, take the meat from the bones, and chop it into small +pieces. Reduce the stock to about 1 1/2 cupfuls, strain it, and skim off +the fat. With this done, place slices of the hard-cooked egg in the +bottom of a wet mold. Chop the pimiento and sprigs of parsley and mix +them with the chopped meat. Put the mixture on top of the sliced egg, +and pour the stock over the whole. Keep in a cool place until it is set. +If the stock is not reduced and more jelly is desired, unflavored +gelatine may be dissolved and added to coagulate the liquid. To serve +jellied chicken, remove from the mold, turn upside down, so that the +eggs are on top and act as a garnish, and then cut in thin slices. + +70. CHICKEN BECHAMEL.--Still another chicken dish that may be used to +break the monotony of meals is chicken bechamel, the word bechamel being +the name of a sauce invented by Béchamel, who was steward to Louis XIV, +a king of France. + +CHICKEN BECHAMEL + +1 good-sized chicken +2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 c. small mushrooms +1/4 c. chopped pimiento +3 Tb. flour +1 c. thin cream + +Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken. Place the pieces into a saucepan, +and cover with boiling water. Add the salt and the pepper, and allow to +come to the boiling point. Remove the scum and simmer the chicken slowly +until it is tender. Remove the chicken from the liquid, take the meat +from the bones, and cut it into small pieces. Add to these the mushrooms +and chopped pimiento. Reduce the stock to 1 cupful and thicken it with +the flour added to the thin cream. Cook until the sauce is thickened. +Then add to it the chopped chicken with the other ingredients. Heat all +thoroughly and serve on toast points or in timbale cases, the making of +which is explained in _Meat_, Part 2. + +71. COOKING OF GIBLETS.--As has been pointed out, the giblets--that is, +the liver, heart, and gizzard of all kinds of fowl--are used in gravy +making and as an ingredient for stuffing. When poultry is stewed, as in +making stewed chicken, it is not uncommon to cook the giblets with the +pieces of chicken. The gizzard and heart especially require long, slow +cooking to make them tender enough to be eaten. Therefore, when poultry +is broiled, fried, or roasted, some other cookery method must be +resorted to, as these processes are too rigid for the preparation of +giblets. In such cases, the best plan is to cook them in water until +they are tender and then sauté them in butter. When cooked in this way, +they may be served with the poultry, for to many persons they are very +palatable. + + +DISHES FROM LEFT-OVER POULTRY + +72. Left-over poultry of any kind is too valuable to be wasted, but even +if this were not so there are so many practical ways in which such +left-overs may be used to advantage that it would be the height of +extravagance not to utilize them. The bones that remain from roast fowl +after carving are especially good for soup making, as they will yield +quite a quantity of flavor when they are thoroughly cooked. If +sufficient meat remains on the carcass to permit of slicing, such meat +may be served cold. However, if merely small pieces are left or if fried +or broiled poultry remains, it will be advisable to make some other use +of these left-overs. It is often possible for the ingenious housewife to +add other foods to them so as to increase the quantity and thus make +them serve more. For example, a small quantity of pork or veal may be +satisfactorily used with chicken, as may also pieces of hard-cooked +eggs, celery, mushrooms, etc. In fact, salads may be made by combining +such ingredients and salad dressings. To show the use of left-overs +still further, there are here given a number of recipes that may well +be used. + +73. Chicken Salad.--A common way in which to utilize left-over chicken +is in chicken salad. Such salad may be served to advantage for luncheons +and other light meals. + +CHICKEN SALAD + +2 c. cold diced chicken +1 c. chopped celery +1 small onion, chopped +Salad dressing +2 hard-cooked eggs + +Mix the meat with the chopped celery and onion. Marinate with +well-seasoned vinegar or a little lemon juice. French dressing may be +used for this if oil is desired. Just before serving pour off any excess +liquid. Add any desired salad dressing. Heap the salad on lettuce leaves +and garnish with slices of the hard-cooked eggs. + +74. Chicken á la King.--Chicken à la king is not necessarily a left-over +dish, for it may be made from either left-over chicken or, if desired, +chicken cooked especially for it. It makes an excellent dish to prepare +in a chafing dish, but it may be conveniently prepared in a saucepan on +the fire and served in any desirable way. + +CHICKEN À LA KING + +3 Tb. fat (butter or bacon fat or part of each) +2 Tb. flour +3/4 c. chicken stock +1 c. milk or thin cream +1 tsp. salt +1/2 c. mushrooms +1/4 c. canned pimiento +1-1/2 c. cold chicken +2 eggs + +Melt the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, and stir until well mixed. +Heat the stock and the milk or cream, pour this into the mixture, stir +rapidly, and bring to boiling point. Add the salt and the mushrooms, +pimientoes, and cold chicken cut into pieces 1/2 to 1 inch long, allow +the mixture to come to the boiling point again, and add the slightly +beaten eggs. Remove from the fire at once to prevent the egg from +curdling. Serve over pieces of fresh toast and sprinkle with paprika. + +75. Chicken Croquettes.--Left-over chicken may be used to advantage for +croquettes made according to the following recipe. When the ingredients +listed are combined with chicken, an especially agreeable food will be +the result. If there is not sufficient cold chicken to meet the +requirements, a small quantity of cold veal or pork may be chopped with +the chicken. + +CHICKEN CROQUETTES + +3 Tb. fat +1/4 c. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/4 tsp. paprika +1 c. chicken stock or cream +2 c. cold chicken, chopped +1/4. mushrooms, chopped +1 tsp. parsley, chopped +1 egg +Fine bread crumbs + +Melt the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, and stir until well blended. +Add the salt, pepper, and paprika. Heat the stock or cream and add to +the mixture in the saucepan. Stir constantly until the sauce is +completely thickened. Then add the chopped chicken, mushrooms, and +parsley. When cold, shape into oblong croquettes, roll in the egg, +slightly beaten, and then in fine crumbs. Fry in deep fat until brown. +Serve with a garnish or some vegetable, such as peas, diced carrots, or +small pieces of cauliflower, as well as with left-over chicken gravy or +well-seasoned white sauce. + +76. TURKEY HASH.--Possibly the simplest way in which to utilize +left-over turkey meat is to make it up into hash. Such a dish may be +used for almost any meal, and when made according to the recipe here +given it will suit the taste of nearly every person. + +TURKEY HASH + +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. coarse rye-bread crumbs +1 small onion, sliced +2 c. finely chopped cold turkey +1/2 c. finely chopped raw potato +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 pt. milk + +Melt the butter in a saucepan. When brown, add to it the rye-bread +crumbs and mix well. Then add the sliced onion, chopped turkey, potato, +salt, and pepper. Cook for a short time on top of the stove, stirring +frequently to prevent burning. Pour the milk over the whole, and place +the pan in the oven or on the back of the stove. Cook slowly until the +milk is reduced and the hash is sufficiently dry to serve. Serve on +buttered toast. + +77. CHICKEN WITH RICE.--Left-over chicken may be readily combined with +rice to make a nutritious dish. To prepare chicken with rice, add to +left-over gravy any left-over cold chicken cut into small pieces. If +there is not enough gravy to cover the meat, add sufficient white sauce; +if no gravy remains, use white sauce entirely. Heat the chicken in the +gravy or the sauce to the boiling point. Then heap a mound of fresh +steamed or boiled rice in the center of a deep platter or a vegetable +dish and pour the chicken and sauce over it. Serve hot. + +78. Baked Poultry With Rice.--A casserole or a baking dish serves as a +good utensil in which to prepare a left-over dish of any kind of +poultry, because it permits vegetables to be added and cooked +thoroughly. Baked poultry with rice is a dish that may be prepared in +such a utensil. + +Line a casserole or a baking dish with a thick layer of fresh steamed or +boiled rice. Fill the center with chopped cold poultry, which may be +chicken, turkey, duck, or goose. Add peas, chopped carrots, potato, and +a few slices of onion in any desirable proportion. Over this pour +sufficient left-over gravy or white sauce to cover well. First, steam +thoroughly; then uncover the utensil and bake slowly until the +vegetables are cooked and the entire mixture is well heated. Serve from +the casserole or baking dish. + + +SERVING AND CARVING POULTRY + +79. Poultry of any kind should always be served on a platter or in a +dish that has been heated in the oven or by running hot water over it. +After placing the cooked bird on the platter or the dish from which it +is to be served, it should be taken to the dining room and placed before +the person who is to serve. If it is roasted, it will require carving. +If not, the pieces may be served as they are desired by the individuals +at the table. Poultry having both dark and white meat is usually served +according to the taste of each individual at the table. If no preference +is stated, however, a small portion of each kind of meat is +generally served. + +80. The carving of broiled or roast chicken, turkey, duck, or goose may +be done in the kitchen, but having the whole bird brought to the table +and carved there adds considerably to a meal. Carving is usually done by +the head of the family, but in a family in which there are boys each one +should be taught to carve properly, so that he may do the carving in the +absence of another person. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46] + +[Illustration: FIG. 47] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48] + +[Illustration: FIG. 49] + +For carving, the bird should be placed on the platter so that it rests +on its back; also, a well-sharpened carving knife and a fork should be +placed at the right of the platter and the person who is to serve. To +carve a bird, begin as shown in Fig. 46; that is, thrust the fork firmly +into the side or breast of the fowl and cut through the skin where the +leg joins the body, breaking the thigh joint. Cut through this joint, +severing the second joint and leg in one piece. Then, if desired, cut +the leg apart at the second joint. As the portions are thus cut, they +may be placed on a separate platter that is brought to the table heated. +Next, in the same manner, cut off the other leg and separate it at the +second joint. With the legs cut off, remove each wing at the joint where +it is attached to the body, proceeding as shown in Fig. 47. Then slice +the meat from the breast by cutting down from the ridge of the breast +bone toward the wing, as in Fig. 48. After this meat has been sliced +off, there still remains some meat around the thigh and on the back. +This should be sliced off or removed with the point of the knife, as in +Fig. 49, so that the entire skeleton will be clean, as in Fig. 50. If +the entire bird is not to be served, as much as is necessary may be cut +and the remainder left on the bones. With each serving of meat a +spoonful of dressing should be taken from the inside of the bird, +provided it is stuffed, and, together with some gravy, served on +the plate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50] + + * * * * * + +GAME + +GENERAL DESCRIPTION + +81. GAME, which includes the meat of deer, bear, rabbit, squirrel, wild +duck, wild goose, partridge, pheasant, and some less common animals, +such as possum, is not a particularly common food. However, it is +sufficiently common to warrant a few directions concerning its use. Game +can be purchased or caught only during certain seasons, designated by +the laws of various states. Such laws are quite stringent and have been +made for the protection of each particular species. + +82. The meat of wild animals and birds is usually strong in flavor. Just +why this is so, however, is not definitely known. Undoubtedly some of +the strong flavor is due to the particular food on which the animal or +the bird feeds, and much of this flavor is due to extractives contained +in the flesh. + +When game birds and animals have considerable fat surrounding the +tissues, the greater part of it is often rejected because of its +extremely high flavor. By proper cooking, however, much of this flavor, +if it happens to be a disagreeable one, can be driven off. + +The general composition of the flesh of various kinds of game does not +differ greatly from that of similar domestic animals or birds. For +instance, the flesh of bear is similar in its composition to that of fat +beef, as bear is one of the wild animals that is very fat. Venison, or +the meat obtained from deer, contains much less fat, and its composition +resembles closely that of very lean beef. Rabbits and most of the wild +birds are quite lean; in fact, they are so lean that it is necessary in +the preparation of them to supply sufficient fat to make them more +appetizing. + + +RECIPES FOR GAME + +83. Only a few recipes for the preparation of game are here given, +because, in the case of wild birds, the cookery methods do not differ +materially from those given for poultry, and, in the case of such +animals as bears, the directions for preparing steaks and other cuts are +identical with the cooking of similar cuts of beef. Rabbit and squirrel +are perhaps the most common game used as food in the home; therefore, +directions for cleaning and cooking them receive the most consideration. + +84. PREPARING A RABBIT FOR COOKING.--In order to prepare a rabbit for +cooking, it must first be skinned and drawn, after which it may be cut +up or left whole, depending on the cookery method that is to +be followed. + +To skin a rabbit, first chop off the feet at the first joint; then +remove the head at the first joint below the skull and slit the skin of +the stomach from a point between the forelegs to the hind legs. With +this done, remove the entrails carefully, proceeding in much the same +manner as in removing the entrails of a chicken. Then slit the skin from +the opening in the stomach around the back to the opposite side. Catch +hold on the back and pull the skin first from the hind legs and then +from the forelegs. If the rabbit is to be stewed, wash it thoroughly and +separate it into pieces at the joints. If it is to be roasted or +braized, it may be left whole. A rabbit that is left whole presents a +better appearance when it is trussed. To truss a rabbit, force the hind +legs toward the head and fasten them in place by passing a skewer +through the leg on one side, through the body, and into the leg on the +other side. Then skewer the front legs back under the body in the same +way. In such a case, the head may be left on or removed, as desired. + +85. ROAST RABBIT.--Roasting is the cookery process often used to prepare +rabbit. To cook it in this way, first skin and clean the animal and +stuff it. Any of the stuffings previously given may be used for this +purpose. Then skewer the legs in position, place strips of bacon across +the back, put in a roasting pan, and dredge with salt and pepper. Also, +add 1/2 cupful of hot water to which has been added a little butter or +bacon fat. Roast in a quick oven, and baste every 15 minutes during the +roasting. A few minutes before the rabbit is tender enough to be pierced +with a fork, remove the strips of bacon so that the flesh underneath may +brown. Then remove from the pan and serve. + +86. SAUTÉD RABBIT.--If it is desired to prepare a rabbit by sautéing, +skin and clean it, cut it into pieces, and dry all the pieces with a +soft cloth. Then melt bacon fat in a frying pan, and when it is hot +place the pieces of rabbit in it and allow them to brown. Add several +sprigs of parsley and two small onions, sliced, season with salt and +pepper, add a slice or two of bacon, and pour water over the whole until +it is nearly covered. Place a cover on the frying pan and simmer slowly. +Add water when it is necessary. When the meat is tender, remove it from +the frying pan. Then thicken the fluid that remains with a small amount +of flour so as to make a gravy. Serve hot. + +87. RABBIT PIE.--Rabbit made into pie is also a desirable way in which +to serve rabbit. To prepare such a dish, skin and clean one or more +rabbits and cut them up into as small pieces as possible, removing the +largest bones. Put these pieces into a baking dish, and over them place +bacon cut into small strips. Sprinkle all with chopped parsley, salt, +and pepper, and add a few slices of onion, as well as some strips of +carrot and potato, if desired. Pour a sufficient amount of boiling water +over the whole and allow to simmer slowly until the meat is partly +cooked. Then place in the oven and cook until the meat is tender. Next, +dredge the contents of the baking dish with flour and cover with a +1/4-inch layer of baking-powder biscuit dough. Make several slits +through the dough to allow the steam to escape. Bake until the dough +becomes a well-browned crust. Serve hot in the baking dish. + +88. BROILED SQUIRREL.--For cooking, squirrel is cleaned in practically +the same way as rabbit. Squirrel may be made ready to eat by stewing, +but as it is so small a creature, broiling is the usual method of +preparation. To broil a squirrel, first remove the skin and clean it. +Then break the bones along the spine, so that the squirrel can be spread +out flat. When thus made ready, place it on a well-greased hot broiler +and sear it quickly on one side; then turn it and sear the other side. +Next, sprinkle it with salt and pepper, place strips of bacon across the +back, and allow it to broil slowly until it is well browned. Squirrel +may be served in the same way as rabbit. + +89. CUTS OF VENISON.--The meat obtained from deer, called venison, as +has been mentioned, may be cut up to form cuts similar to those obtained +from beef, such as steaks and roasts. Although such meat is a rarity, it +will be well to be familiar with a few of the methods of cooking it. +These, however, do not differ materially from the methods of cooking +other meats. + +90. BROILED VENISON.--To prepare venison for broiling, cut a steak from +1 to 1-1/2 inches thick. Place this on a well-greased broiler and broil +until well done. Serve on a hot platter. Garnish the broiled venison +with parsley and pour over it sauce made as follows: + +SAUCE FOR BROILED VENISON + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. ground cinnamon +4 Tb. currant jelly +2 tsp. lemon juice +1/4 c. port wine +6 finely chopped Maraschino cherries + +Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, ground cinnamon, +currant jelly, lemon juice, and the port wine, which should be heated +with 1 cupful of water. Cook until the flour has thickened, remove from +the fire, and add the cherries. + +91. ROAST FILLET OF VENISON.--If a fillet of venison is to be roasted, +proceed by larding it with strips of salt pork. Then place it in a pan +with one small onion, sliced, a bay leaf, and a small quantity of +parsley, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and 1/4 teaspoonful of pepper. Dilute +1/4 cupful of vinegar with 3/4 cupful of water and add a teaspoonful of +Worcestershire sauce. Pour this over the fillet and place it in a hot +oven. Cook until the liquid has evaporated sufficiently to allow the +venison to brown. Turn, so as to brown on both sides, and when quite +tender and well browned, serve on a hot platter. + +92. ROAST LEG OF VENISON.--If a leg of venison is to be roasted, first +remove the skin, wipe the meat with a damp cloth, and cover it with a +paste made of flour and water. Then put it into a roasting pan and roast +in a very hot oven. Baste with hot water every 15 minutes for about 1 +1/2 hours. At the end of this time, remove the paste, spread the surface +with butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and continue to roast for 1 +to 1 1/4 hours longer. Baste every 15 minutes, basting during the last +hour with hot water in which has been melted a small quantity of butter. +Then remove the venison from the pan and serve it on a hot platter with +any desired sauce. + + +POULTRY AND GAME + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + + +(1) Of what value is poultry in the diet? + +(2) What effect do the feeding and care of poultry have upon it as food? + +(3) Mention briefly the proper preparation of poultry killed for market. + +(4) (_a_) What are the most important things to consider when poultry is +to be selected? (_b_) Give the points that indicate good quality +of poultry. + +(5) How would you determine the age of a chicken? + +(6) How would you determine the freshness of a chicken? + +(7) (_a_) What are the marks of cold-storage poultry? (_b_) Should +cold-storage poultry be drawn or undrawn? Tell why. + +(8) How should frozen poultry be thawed? + +(9) Tell briefly how turkey should be selected. + +(10) At what age and season is turkey best? + +(11) Discuss the selection of: (_a_) ducks; (_b_) geese. + +(12) (_a_) How does the composition of poultry compare with that of +meat? (_b_) What kind of chicken has a high food value? + +(13) (_a_) How should a chicken be dressed? (_b_) What care should be +given to the skin in plucking? + +(14) Give briefly the steps in drawing a chicken. + +(15) Give briefly the steps in cutting up a chicken. + +(16) How is poultry prepared for: (_a_) roasting? (_b_) frying? (_c_) +broiling? (_d_) stewing? + +(17) (_a_) Describe trussing, (_b_) Why is trussing done? + +(18) Give briefly the steps in boning a chicken. + +(19) Tell briefly how to serve and carve a roasted bird. + +(20) Discuss game in a general way. + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Select a fowl by applying the tests given for selection in the lesson. +Prepare it by what seems to you to be the most economical method. Tell +how many persons are served and the use made of the left-overs. Compute +the cost per serving by dividing the cost of the fowl by the number of +servings it made. + +At another time, select a chicken for frying by applying the tests given +in the lesson. Compute the cost per serving by dividing the cost of the +chicken by the number of servings it made. + +Compare the cost per serving of the fried chicken with that of the fowl, +to find which is the more economical. In each case, collect the bones +after the chicken is eaten and weigh them to determine which has the +greater proportion of bone to meat, the fowl or the frying chicken. +Whether you have raised the poultry yourself or have purchased it in the +market, use the market price in computing your costs. Weigh the birds +carefully before drawing them. + + * * * * * + + + + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + + * * * * * + +FISH + +FISH IN THE DIET + +1. FISH provides another class of high-protein or tissue-building food. +As this term is generally understood, it includes both vertebrate +fish--that is, fish having a backbone, such as salmon, cod, shad, +etc.--and many other water animals, such as lobsters, crabs, shrimp, +oysters, and clams. A distinction, however, is generally made between +these two groups, those having bones being regarded properly as _fish_ +and those partly or entirely encased in shells, as _shell fish_. It is +according to this distinction that this class of foods is considered in +this Section. Because all the varieties of both fish and shell fish are +in many respects similar, the term _sea food_ is often applied to them, +but, as a rule, this term is restricted to designate salt-water products +as distinguished from fresh-water fish. + +2. Fish can usually be purchased at a lower price than meat, and for +this reason possesses an economic advantage over it. Besides the price, +the substitution of fish for meat makes for economy in a number of ways +to which consideration is not usually given. These will become clearly +evident when it is remembered that nearly all land animals that furnish +meat live on many agricultural products that might be used for human +food. Then, too, other foods fed to animals, although not actually human +foods, require in their raising the use of soil that might otherwise be +utilized for the raising of food for human beings. This is not true in +the case of fish. They consume the vegetation that grows in lakes, +streams, and the ocean, as well as various kinds of insects, small fish, +etc., which cannot be used as human food and which do not require the +use of the soil. In addition, much of the food that animals, which are +warm-blooded, take into their bodies is required to maintain a constant +temperature above that of their surroundings, so that not all of what +they eat is used in building up the tissues of their bodies. With fish, +however, it is different. As they are cold-blooded and actually receive +heat from their surroundings, they do not require food for bodily +warmth. Practically all that they take into the body is built up into a +supply of flesh that may be used as food for human beings. + +3. With fish, as with other foods, some varieties are sought more than +others, the popularity of certain kinds depending on the individual +taste or the preference of the people in a particular locality. Such +popularity, however, is often a disadvantage to the purchaser, because a +large demand for certain varieties has a tendency to cause a rise in +price. The increased price does not indicate that the fish is of more +value to the consumer than some other fish that may be cheaper because +it is less popular, although quite as valuable from a food standpoint. +The preference for particular kinds of fish and the persistent disregard +of others that are edible is for the most part due to prejudice. In +certain localities, one kind of fish may be extremely popular while in +others the same fish may not be used for food at all. Such prejudice +should be overcome, for, as a matter of fact, practically every fish +taken from pure water is fit to eat, in the sense that it furnishes food +and is not injurious to health. + +In addition, any edible fish should be eaten in the locality where it is +caught. The transportation of this food is a rather difficult matter, +and, besides, it adds to the cost. It is therefore an excellent plan to +make use of the kind of fish that is most plentiful, as such practice +will insure both better quality and a lower market price. + +4. As is well known, fish is an extremely perishable food. Therefore, +when it is caught in quantities too great to be used at one time, it is +preserved in various ways. The preservation methods that have proved to +be the most satisfactory are canning, salting and drying, smoking, and +preserving in various kinds of brine and pickle. As such methods are +usually carried out in the locality where the fish is caught, many +varieties of fish can be conveniently stored for long periods of time +and so distributed as to meet the requirements of the consumer. This +plan enables persons far removed from the Source of supply to procure +fish frequently. + + * * * * * + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FISH + +COMPOSITION OF FISH + +5. COMPARISON OF FISH WITH MEAT.--In general, the composition of fish is +similar to that of meat, for both of them are high-protein foods. +However, some varieties of fish contain large quantities of fat and +others contain very little of this substance, so the food value of the +different kinds varies greatly. As in the case of meat, fish is lacking +in carbohydrate. Because of the close similarity between these two +foods, fish is a very desirable substitute for meat. In fact, fish is in +some respects a better food than meat, but it cannot be used so +continuously as meat without becoming monotonous; that is to say, a +person will grow tired of fish much more quickly than of most meats. The +similarity between the composition of fish and that of meat has much to +do with regulating the price of these protein foods, which, as has +already been learned, are the highest priced foods on the market. + +6. PROTEIN IN FISH.--In fish, as well as in shell fish, a very large +proportion of the food substances present is protein. This proportion +varies with the quantity of water, bone, and refuse that the particular +food contains, and with the physical structure of the food. In fresh +fish, the percentage of this material varies from 6 to 17 per cent. The +structure of fish is very similar to that of meat, as the flesh is +composed of tiny hollow fibers containing extractives, in which are +dissolved mineral salts and various other materials. The quantity of +extractives found in these foods, however, is less than that found in +meat. Fish extracts of any kind, such as clam juice, oyster juice, etc., +are similar in their composition to any of the extractives of meat, +differing only in the kind and proportions. In addition to the muscle +fibers of fish, which are, of course, composed of protein, fish contains +a small quantity of albumin, just as meat does. It is the protein +material in fish, as well as in shell fish, that is responsible for its +very rapid decomposition. + +The application of heat has the same effect on the protein of fish as it +has on that of meat, fowl, and other animal tissues. Consequently, the +same principles of cookery apply to both the retention and the +extraction of flavor. + +7. FAT IN FISH.--The percentage of fat in fish varies from less than 1 +per cent. in some cases to a trifle more than 14 per cent. in others, +but this high percentage is rare, as the average fish probably does not +exceed from 3 to 6 or 7 per cent. of fat. This variation affects the +total food value proportionately. The varieties of fish that contain the +most fat deteriorate most rapidly and withstand transportation the least +well, so that when these are secured in large quantities they are +usually canned or preserved in some manner. Fish containing a large +amount of fat, such as salmon, turbot, eel, herring, halibut, mackerel, +mullet, butterfish, and lake trout, have a more moist quality than those +which are without fat, such as cod. Therefore, as it is difficult to +cook fish that is lacking in fat and keep it from becoming dry, a fat +fish makes a more palatable food than a lean fish. The fat of fish is +very strongly flavored; consequently, any that cooks out of fish in its +preparation is not suitable for use in the cooking of other foods. + +8. CARBOHYDRATE IN FISH.--Like meat, fish does not contain carbohydrate +in any appreciable quantity. In fact, the small amount that is found in +the tissue, and that compares to the glycogen found in animal tissues, +is not present in sufficient quantities to merit consideration. + +9. MINERAL MATTER IN FISH.--In fish, mineral matter is quite as +prevalent as in meat. Through a notion that fish contains large +proportions of phosphorus, and because this mineral is also present in +the brain, the idea that fish is a brain food has become widespread. It +has been determined, however, that this belief has no foundation. + + +FOOD VALUE OF FISH + +10. FACTORS DETERMINING FOOD VALUE.--The total food value of fish, as +has been shown, is high or low, varying with the food substances it +contains. Therefore, since, weight for weight, the food value of fat is +much higher than that of protein, it follows that the fish containing +the most fat has the highest food value. Fat and protein, as is well +known, do not serve the same function in the body, but each has its +purpose and is valuable and necessary in the diet. Some varieties of +fish contain fat that is strong in flavor, and from these the fat should +be removed before cooking, especially if the flavor is disagreeable. +This procedure of course reduces the total food value of the fish, but +it should be done if it increases the palatability. + +11. RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH AND MEAT.--When fish and meat are +compared, it will be observed that some kinds of fish have a higher food +value than meat, particularly if the fish contains much fat and the meat +is lean. When the average of each of these foods is compared, however, +meat will be found to have a higher food value than fish. To show how +fish compares with meat and fowl, the composition and food value of +several varieties of each food are given in Table I, which is taken from +a United States government bulletin. + + +TABLE I + +COMPARISON OF COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FISH AND MEAT + +---------------------------------------------------------------- + | Composition | Total |Food Value| + |-------------------| Food | per Pound| + Edible Portion | Protein | Fat | Value | Due to | + |Per Cent.|Per Cent.|per Pound | Protein | + | | | Calories | Calories | +---------------------------------------------------------------- +_Fish_: | | | | | + Bass, black........| 20.6 | 1.7 | 443 | 373 | + Bluefish...........| 19.4 | 1.2 | 401 | 352 | + Carp...............| 17.4 | 2.6 | 421 | 315 | + Catfish............| 14.4 | 20.6 | 1,102 | 262 | + Halibut steak......| 18.6 | 5.2 | 550 | 337 | + Lake trout.........| 17.8 | 1.0 | 363 | 323 | + Red snapper........| 19.2 | 1.0 | 389 | 348 | + Salmon (canned)....| 21.8 | 12.1 | 888 | 396 | + Whitefish..........| 22.9 | 6.5 | 680 | 415 | + | | | | | +_Meat_: | | | | | + Beef, round, | | | | | + medium fat.......| 20.3 | 13.6 | 895 | 368 | + Chicken, broilers..| 21.5 | 2.5 | 492 | 390 | + Fowl...............| 19.3 | 16.3 | 1,016 | 350 | + Lamb, leg..........| 19.2 | 16.5 | 870 | 348 | + Pork chops.........| 16.6 | 30.1 | 1,455 | 301 | +---------------------------------------------------------------- + +12. A study of this table will show that on the whole the percentage of +protein in the various kinds of fish is as much as that in meat, while +in a few instances, it is greater. This proves that so far as the +quantity of protein is concerned, these two foods are equally valuable +in their tissue-forming and tissue-building qualities. It will be seen +also that the percentage of fat in fish varies greatly, some varieties +containing more than meat, but most of them containing less. +Furthermore, the total food value per pound, in calories, is for the +most part greater in meat than in fish, whereas the food value per pound +due to protein is equivalent in most cases, but higher in some of the +fish than in the meat. + +13. It must also be remembered that the drying or preserving of fish +does not in any way decrease its food value. In fact, pound for pound, +dried fish, both smoked and salt, contains more nutritive value than +fresh fish, because the water, which decreases the food value of fresh +fish, is driven off in drying. However, when prepared for eating, dried +fish in all probability has more food value than fresh fish, because +water or moisture of some sort must be supplied in its preparation. + +14. The method of preparing dried or preserved fish, as well as fresh +fish, has much to do with the food value obtained from it. Just as +nutritive value is lost in the cooking of meat by certain methods, so it +may be lost in the preparation of fish if the proper methods are not +applied. To obtain as much food value from fish as possible, the various +points that are involved in its cookery must be thoroughly understood. +Certain facts concerning the buying of fish must also be kept in mind. +For instance, in canned fish, almost all the bones, skin, and other +inedible parts, except the tails, heads, and fins of very small fish, +have been removed before packing, indicating that practically all the +material purchased is edible. In the case of fresh fish, a large +percentage of what is bought must be wasted in preparation and in +eating, the percentage of waste varying from 5 to 45 per cent. + +15. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH.--The food value of any food is an important +item when its usefulness as a food is taken into account, but of equal +importance is the manner in which the body uses the food; that is, +whether it digests the food with ease or with difficulty. Therefore, +when the value of fish as a food is to be determined, its digestibility +must receive definite consideration. As has already been explained, much +depends on the cooking of the food in question. On the whole, fish is +found to be more easily digested than meat, with the exception perhaps +of a few kinds or certain cuts. That physicians recognize this +characteristic is evidenced by the fact that fish is often used in the +feeding of invalids or sick people when meat is not permitted. + +16. The ease with which fish is digested is influenced largely by the +quantity of fat it contains, for this fat, acting in identically the +same way as the fat of meat, has the effect of slowing the digestion +that is carried on in the stomach. It follows, then, that with possibly +one or two exceptions the kinds of fish most easily digested are those +which are lean. + +17. In addition to the correct cooking of fish and the presence of fat, +a factor that largely influences the digestibility of this food is the +length of the fibers of the flesh. It will be remembered that the parts +of an animal having long fibers are tougher and less easily digested +than those having short fibers. This applies with equal force in the +case of fish. Its truth is evident when it is known that cod, a lean +fish, is digested with greater difficulty than some of the fat fish +because of the length and toughness of its fibers. This, however, is +comparative, and it must not be thought that fish on the whole is +digested with difficulty. + +18. Another factor that influences the digestibility of fish is the +salting of it. Whether fish is salted dry or in brine, the salt hardens +the fibers and tissues. While the salt acts as a preservative in causing +this hardening, it, at the same time, makes the fish preserved in this +manner a little more difficult to digest. This slight difference need +scarcely be considered so far as the normal adult is concerned, but in +case of children or persons whose digestion is not entirely normal its +effect is likely to be felt. + + +PURCHASE AND CARE OF FISH + + +TABLE II + +NAMES, SEASONS, AND USES OF FRESH FISH + +NAME OF FISH SEASON METHOD OF COOKERY +Bass, black....... All the year........... Fried, baked +Bass, sea......... All the year........... Baked, broiled, fried +Bass, striped..... All the year........... Baked, broiled, fried +Bass, lake........ June 1 to January 1.... Baked, broiled, fried +Bluefish.......... May 1 to November 1.... Baked, broiled +Butterfish........ October 1 to May 1..... Fried, sautéd +Carp.............. July 1 to November 1... Baked, broiled, fried +Catfish........... All the year........... Fried, sautéd +Codfish........... All the year........... Boiled, fried, sautéd, + baked, broiled +Eels.............. All the year........... Fried, boiled, baked +Flounder.......... All the year........... Sautéd, fried, baked +Haddock........... All the year........... Steamed, boiled, fried +Halibut........... All the year........... Boiled, fried, creamed +Herring........... October 1 to May 1..... Sautéd, fried, broiled +Kingfish.......... May 1 to November 1.... Boiled, steamed, baked +Mackerel.......... April 1 to October 1... Baked, broiled, + boiled, fried +Perch, fresh...... September 1 to June 1.. Fried, broiled + water +Pike, or.......... June 1 to January 1.... Fried, broiled, baked + pickerel, fresh + water +Porgies, salt..... June 15 to October 15.. Fried, sautéd + water +Red snapper....... October 1 to April 1... Boiled, steamed +Salmon, Kennebec.. June 1 to October 1.... Broiled, baked, boiled +Salmon, Oregon.... October 1 to June 1.... Broiled, baked, boiled +Shad.............. January 1 to June 1.... Baked, broiled, fried +Shad roe.......... January 1 to June 1.... Broiled, fried +Sheepshead........ June 1 to September 15. Boiled, fried +Smelts............ August 15 to April 15.. Fried, sautéd +Sole, English..... November 1 to May 1.... Baked, broiled, fried +Sunfish........... May 1 to December 1.... Fried, sautéd +Trout, fresh...... April 1 to September 1. Baked, broiled, fried, + water boiled, sautéd +Weakfish, or...... May 15 to October 15... Baked, broiled + sea trout +Whitebait......... May 1 to April 1....... Fried, sautéd +Whitefish,........ November 1 to March 1.. Baked, fried, sautéd, + fresh water broiled + +19. PURCHASE OF FISH.--The housewife has much to do with the market +price of fish and the varieties that are offered for sale, for these are +governed by the demand created by her. The fisherman's catch depends on +weather conditions, the season, and other uncertain factors. If the +kinds of fish he secures are not what the housewife demands, they either +will not be sent to market or will go begging on the market for want of +purchasers. Such a state of affairs should not exist, and it would not +if every housewife were to buy the kind of fish that is plentiful in her +home market. So that she may become familiar with the varieties that the +market affords, she should carefully study Tables II and III, which give +the names, seasons, and uses of both fresh fish and salt and smoked +fish. With the information given in these tables well in mind, she will +be able not only to select the kind she wants, but to cooperate better +with dealers. + +TABLE III + +NAMES, SEASONS, AND USES OF SALT AND SMOKED FISH + +NAME OF FISH SEASON METHOD OF COOKERY + + SALT FISH + +Anchovies........ All the year.. Served as a relish, stuffed + with various highly + seasoned mixtures, used + as flavor for sauce + +Codfish, dried... All the year.. Creamed, balls + +Herring, pickled. All the year.. Sautéd + +Mackerel......... All the year.. Broiled, fried, sautéd + +Salmon, salt..... All the year.. Fried, broiled, boiled + + SMOKED FISH + +Haddock, or...... October 15 to. Broiled, baked, creamed + finnan haddie April 1 + +Halibut.......... October 1 to.. Baked, broiled, fried + April 1 +Herring.......... All the year.. Served as a relish + without cooking + +Mackerel......... October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + November 1 + +Smoked salmon.... All the year.. Baked, boiled, fried + +Shad............. October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + May 1 + +Sturgeon......... October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + May 1 + +Whitefish........ October 1 to.. Baked, boiled, fried + May 1 + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +20. Another point to be considered in the purchase of fish is the size. +Some fish, such as halibut and salmon, are so large that they must +usually be cut into slices or steaks to permit the housewife to purchase +the quantity she requires for immediate use. Other fish are of such size +that one is sufficient for a meal, and others are so small that several +must be purchased to meet the requirements. An idea or the difference in +the size of fish can be gained from Figs. 1 and 2. The larger fish in +Fig. 1 is a medium-sized whitefish and the smaller one is a smelt. Fish +about the size of smelts lend themselves readily to frying and sautéing, +whereas the larger kinds, like whitefish, may be prepared to better +advantage by baking either with or without suitable stuffing. The larger +fish in Fig. 2 is a carp and the smaller one is a pike. Much use is made +of pike, but carp has been more shunned than sought after. However, when +carp is properly cooked, it is a very palatable food, and, besides, it +possesses high food value. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +21. In the purchase of fish, the housewife, provided she is not obliged +to have fish for a particular day, will do well also to get away from +the one-day-a-week purchasing of fish; that is, if she is not obliged to +serve fish on Friday, she should endeavor to serve it on some other day. +Even twice a week is not too often. If such a plan were followed out, +fishermen would be able to market their catch when it is procured and +the waste of fish or the necessity for keeping it until a particular day +would be overcome. + +22. Another way in which the housewife can help herself in the selection +of fish is to become familiar with all the varieties of edible fish +caught in or near her community. When she has done this, it will be a +splendid plan for her to give those with which she is unfamiliar a +trial. She will be surprised at the many excellent varieties that are +obtained in her locality and consequently come to her fresher than fish +that has to be shipped long distances. + +23. FRESHNESS OF FISH.--In the purchase of fish, the housewife should +not permit herself to be influenced by any prejudice she may have as to +the name or the appearance of the fish. However, too much attention +cannot be paid to its freshness. + +Several tests can be applied to fish to determine whether or not it is +fresh; therefore, when a housewife is in doubt, she should make an +effort to apply them. Fish should not give off any offensive odor. The +eyes should be bright and clear, not dull nor sunken. The gills should +have a bright-red color, and there should be no blubber showing. The +flesh should be so firm that no dent will be made when it is touched +with the finger. Fish may also be tested for freshness by placing it in +a pan of water; if it sinks, it may be known to be fresh, but if it +floats it is not fit for use. + +24. CARE OF FISH IN THE HOME.--If fish is purchased in good condition, +and every effort should be made to see that it is, the responsibility of +its care in the home until it is presented to the family as a cooked +dish rests on the housewife. If, upon reaching the housewife, it has not +been cleaned, it should be cleaned at once. In case it has been cleaned +either by the fish dealer or the housewife and cannot be cooked at once, +it should be looked over carefully, immediately washed in cold water, +salted slightly inside and out, placed in a covered enamel or porcelain +dish, and then put where it will keep as cold as possible. If a +refrigerator is used, the fish should be put in the compartment from +which odors cannot be carried to foods in the other compartments. In +cold weather, an excellent plan is to put the fish out of doors instead +of in the refrigerator, for there it will remain sufficiently cold +without the use of ice. However, the best and safest way is to cook the +fish at once, so that storing it for any length of time after its +delivery will not be necessary. + +Salt and smoked fish do not, of course, require the same care as fresh +fish. However, as many of these varieties are strong in flavor, it is +well to weaken their flavor before cooking them by soaking them or, if +possible, by parboiling them. + + +PREPARATION OF FISH FOR COOKING + +25. CLEANING FISH.--Fish is usually prepared for cooking at the market +where it is purchased, but frequently a fish comes into the home just as +it has been caught. In order to prepare such a fish properly for +cooking, the housewife must understand how to clean it. The various +steps in cleaning fish are illustrated in Figs. 3 to 6. The first step +consists in removing the scales. To do this, place the fish on its side, +as shown in Fig. 3, grasp it firmly by the tail, and [Illustration: FIG. +3] then with the cutting edge of a knife, preferably a dull one, scrape +off the scales by quick motions of the knife toward the head of the +fish. When one side has been scraped clean, or _scaled_, as this +operation is called, turn the fish over and scale the other side. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +With the fish scaled, proceed to remove the entrails. As shown in Fig. +4, cut a slit in the belly from the head end to the vent, using a sharp +knife. Run the opening up well toward the head, as Fig. 5 shows, and +then through the opening formed draw out the entrails with the fingers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +If the head is to be removed, it should be cut off at this time. When a +fish is to be baked or prepared in some other way in which the head may +be retained, it is allowed to remain on, but it is kept more for an +ornament than for any other reason. To remove the head, slip a sharp +knife under the gills as far as possible, as Fig. 6 shows, and then cut +it off in such a way as not to remove with it any of the body of +the fish. + +Whether the head is removed or not, make sure that the cavity formed by +taking out the entrails is perfectly clean. Then wash the fish with cold +water and, if desired, cut off the fins and tail, although this is not +usually done. The fish, which is now properly prepared, may be cooked at +once or placed in the refrigerator until time for cooking. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +26. BONING FISH.--In the preparation of some kinds of fish, it is often +desired to bone the fish; that is, to remove the backbone and the ribs. +Figs. 7 to 10 show the various steps in the process of boning. After the +fish has been thoroughly cleaned, insert a sharp-pointed knife in the +back where it is cut from the head, as shown in Fig. 7, and loosen the +backbone at this place. Then, as in Fig. 8, slip the knife along the +ribs away from the backbone on both sides. After getting the bone well +loosened at the end, cut it from the flesh all the way down to the tail, +as shown in Fig. 9. When thus separated from the flesh, the backbone and +the ribs, which comprise practically all the bones in a fish, may be +lifted out intact, as is shown in Fig. 10. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +27. SKINNING FISH.--Some kinds of fish, especially those having no +scales, such as flounder, catfish, and eels, are made more palatable by +being skinned. To skin a fish, cut a narrow strip of the skin along the +spine from the head to the tail, as shown in Fig. 11. At this opening, +loosen the skin on one side where it is fastened to the bony part of the +fish and then, as in Fig. 12, draw it off around toward the belly, +working carefully so as not to tear the flesh. Sometimes it is a good +plan to use a knife for this purpose, working the skin loose from the +flesh with the knife and at the same time pulling the skin with the +other hand. After removing the skin from one side, turn the fish and +take off the skin from the other side in the same way. Care should be +taken to clean the fish properly before attempting to skin it. If the +fish is frozen, it should first be thawed in cold water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +28. FILLETING FISH.--As many recipes require fish to be cut into +_fillets_, that is, thick, flat slices from which the bone is removed, +it is well for the housewife to understand just how to accomplish this +part of the preparation. Figs. 13 to 15 show the filleting of a +flounder. While this process varies somewhat in the different varieties +of fish, the usual steps are the ones here outlined. After thoroughly +cleaning the flounder and removing the skin, lay the fish out flat and +cut the flesh down through the center from the head end to the tail, as +shown in Fig. 13. Then, with a knife, work each half of the flesh loose +from the bones, as in Fig. 14. With these two pieces removed, turn the +fish over, cut the flesh down through the center, and separate it from +the bones in the same manner as before. If a meat board is on hand, it +is a good plan to place the fish on such a board before removing the +flesh. At the end of the filleting process, the flounder should appear +as shown in Fig. 15, the long, narrow strips on the right being the +flesh and that remaining on the board being the bones intact. The strips +thus produced may be cut into pieces of any preferred size. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + + * * * * * + +RECIPES FOR FISH AND FISH ACCOMPANIMENTS + +METHODS OF COOKING FISH + +29. As Tables II and III show, practically all methods of cookery are +applicable in the cooking of fish. For instance, fish may be boiled, +steamed, baked, fried, broiled, sautéd, and, in addition, used for +various kinds of bisques, chowders, and numerous other made dishes. The +effect of these different methods is exactly the same on fish as on +meat, since the two foods are the same in general construction. The +cookery method to select depends largely on the size, kind, quality, and +flavor of the fish. Just as an old chicken with well-developed muscles +is not suitable for broiling, so a very large fish should not be broiled +unless it can be cut into slices, steaks, or thin pieces. Cook cutting +fish with knife. Such a fish is usually either stuffed and baked or +baked without stuffing, but when it is cut into slices, the slices may +be sautéd, fried, broiled, or steamed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15 Fish on cutting board] + +Some varieties of fish are more or less tasteless. These should be +prepared by a cookery method that will improve their flavor, or if the +cooking fails to add flavor, a highly seasoned or highly flavored sauce +should be served with them. The acid of vinegar or lemon seems to assist +in bringing out the flavor of fish, so when a sauce is not used, a slice +of lemon is often served with the fish. + + +RECIPES FOR FISH SAUCES AND STUFFINGS + +30. As many of the recipes for fish call for sauce and stuffing, recipes +for these accompaniments are taken up before the methods of cooking fish +are considered. This plan will make it possible for the beginner to +become thoroughly familiar with these accompaniments and thus be better +prepared to carry out the recipes for cooking fish. + +31. SAUCES FOR FISH.--Sauces are generally served with fish to improve +their flavor and increase their nutritive value. Some kinds of fish, +such as salmon, shad, butterfish, Spanish mackerel, etc., contain more +than 6 per cent. of fat, but as many of the fish that are used for food +contain less than this, they are somewhat dry and are improved +considerably by the addition of a well-seasoned and highly flavored +sauce. Then, too, some fish contain very few extractives, which, when +present, as has been learned, are the source of flavor in food. As some +of the methods of cooking, boiling in particular, dissolve the few +extractives that fish contain and cause the loss of much of the +nutritive material, it becomes almost necessary to serve a sauce with +fish so prepared, if a tasty dish is to be the result. + +32. The sauces that may be used with fish are numerous, and the one to +select depends somewhat on the cookery method employed and the +preference of those to whom the fish is served. Among the recipes that +follow will be found sauces suitable for any method that may be used in +the preparation of fish. A little experience with them will enable the +housewife to determine the ones that are most satisfactory as to both +flavor and nutritive value for the different varieties of fish she uses +and the methods of cookery she employs. + +LEMON CREAM SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 c. thin cream +Salt and pepper +Juice of 1 lemon or 1 Tb. vinegar + +Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the flour, and continue stirring +until the two are well mixed. Add to this the thin cream and stir until +the mixture is thick and boils. Season with salt, pepper, and the juice +of the lemon or the vinegar. + +SPANISH SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +1 slice of onion +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. milk +1/4 c. tomato purée +1/4 c. chopped pimiento + +Brown the butter with the onion, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and +stir until well blended. Add the milk and allow the mixture to cook +until it thickens. To this add the tomato and pimiento. Heat thoroughly +and serve. + +NUT SAUCE + +1 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +2 Tb. peanut butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. meat stock + +Melt the butter and add the flour and peanut butter. When they are well +mixed, allow them to brown slightly. Add the salt and pepper to this +mixture and pour into it the meat stock. Bring to the boiling point +and serve. + +HORSERADISH SAUCE + +1/2 c. cream +1/4 c. boiled salad dressing +2 Tb. grated horseradish +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. paprika +1/4 tsp. mustard + +Whip the cream until stiff; then add the salad dressing, horseradish, +salt, paprika, and mustard. When well blended, the sauce is ready +to serve. + +EGG SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +3/4 c. milk +/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. vinegar +1 egg +1 Tb. chopped parsley + +Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir until well blended. Add the +milk, salt, and pepper, and cook until the mixture thickens. To this add +the vinegar, the egg chopped fine, and the chopped parsley. Heat +thoroughly and serve. + +TOMATO SAUCE + +2 c. tomato purée +1 small onion, sliced +1 bay leaf +6 cloves +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Strain stewed tomato to make the purée. Put this over the fire in a +saucepan with the sliced onion, the bay leaf, and the cloves. Cook +slowly for about 10 minutes. Strain to remove the onion, bay leaf, and +cloves. Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and into this +pour the hot tomato. Cook until it thickens and serve. + +MUSHROOM SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +1 slice of carrot +1 slice of onion +Sprig of parsley +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. flour +1 c. meat stock +1/2 c. mushrooms +2 tsp. lemon juice + +Put the butter in a frying pan with the carrot, onion, parsley, salt, +and pepper, and cook together until brown. Remove the onion, carrot, and +parsley. Stir in the flour, brown it slightly, and then add the meat +stock. Cook together until thickened. Just before removing from the +fire, add the mushrooms, chopped into fine pieces, and the lemon juice. +Allow it to heat thoroughly and then serve. + +DRAWN-BUTTER SAUCE + +1/4 c. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1-1/2 c. hot water +2 hard-cooked eggs + +Melt the butter, and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Pour into this the +hot water, and cook until the mixture thickens. Slice the eggs into +1/4-inch slices and add these to the sauce just before removing from +the stove. + +33. STUFFING FOR FISH.--As has been mentioned, fish that is to be baked +is often stuffed before it is put into the oven. The stuffing not only +helps to preserve the shape of the fish, but also provides a means of +extending the flavor of the fish to a starchy food, for bread or cracker +crumbs are used in the preparation of most stuffings. Three recipes for +fish stuffing are here given, the first being made of bread crumbs and +having hot water for the liquid, the second of cracker crumbs and having +milk for the liquid, and the third of bread crumbs and having stewed +tomato for the liquid. + +FISH STUFFING No. 1 + +1/4 c. butter +1/2 c. hot water +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 tsp. onion juice +1 Tb. chopped parsley +2 c. fine bread crumbs + +Melt the butter in the hot water, add the salt, pepper, onion juice, and +parsley, and pour over the crumbs. Mix thoroughly and use to stuff +the fish. + +FISH STUFFING No. 2 + +1/2 c. milk +2 c. cracker crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/4 c. melted butter +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 egg + +Warm the milk and add it to the crumbs, together with the salt, pepper, +melted butter, and parsley. To this mixture, add the beaten egg. When +well mixed, use as stuffing for fish. + +FISH STUFFING No. 3 + +2 Tb. butter +1 Tb. finely chopped onion +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. chopped sour pickles +1/2 c. stewed tomato +2 c. stale bread crumbs + +Melt the butter and add the onion, parsley, salt, pepper, pickles, and +tomato. Pour this mixture over the crumbs, mix all thoroughly, and use +to stuff the fish. If the dressing seems to require more liquid than the +stewed tomato, add a little water. + + +RECIPES FOR FRESH FISH + +34. BOILED FISH.--Boiling extracts flavor and, to some extent, nutriment +from the food to which this cookery method is applied. Therefore, unless +the fish to be cooked is one that has a very strong flavor and that will +be improved by the loss of flavor, it should not be boiled. Much care +should be exercised in boiling fish, because the meat is usually so +tender that it is likely to boil to pieces or to fall apart. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +35. A utensil in which fish can be boiled or steamed very satisfactorily +is shown in Fig. 16. This _fish boiler_, as it is called, is a long, +narrow, deep pan with a cover and a rack on which the fish is placed. +Attached to each end of the rack is an upright strip, or handle, that +permits the rack containing the fish to be lifted out of the pan and the +fish thus removed without breaking. To assist further in holding the +fish together while it is cooking, a piece of gauze or cheesecloth may +be wrapped around the fish before it is put into the pan. + +36. When a fish is to be boiled, clean it and, if desired, remove the +head. Pour sufficient boiling water to cover the fish well into the +vessel in which it is to be cooked, and add salt in the proportion of 1 +teaspoonful to each quart of water. Tie the fish in a strip of +cheesecloth or gauze if necessary, and lower it into the vessel of +slowly boiling water. Allow the fish to boil until it may be easily +pierced with a fork; then take it out of the water and remove the cloth, +provided one is used. Serve with a well-seasoned sauce, such as lemon +cream, horseradish, etc. + +37. BOILED COD.--A fish that lends itself well to boiling is fresh cod. +In fact, codfish prepared according to this method and served with a +sauce makes a very appetizing dish. + +Scale, clean, and skin a fresh cod and wrap it in a single layer of +gauze or cheesecloth. Place it in a kettle or a pan of freshly boiling +water to which has been added 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of +water. Boil until the fish may be easily pierced with a fork, take from +the water, and remove the gauze or cheesecloth carefully so as to keep +the fish intact. Serve with sauce and slices of lemon. + +38. STEAMED FISH.--The preparation of fish by steaming is practically +the same as that by boiling, and produces a dish similar to boiled fish. +The only difference is that steamed fish is suspended over the water and +is cooked by the steam that rises instead of being cooked directly in +the water. Because the fish is not surrounded by water, it does not lose +its nutriment and flavor so readily as does boiled fish. + +If fish is to be cooked by steaming, first clean it thoroughly. Wrap in +a strip of gauze or cheesecloth and place in a steamer. Steam until +tender, and then remove the cloth and place the fish on a platter. As +steaming does not add flavor, it is usually necessary to supply flavor +to fish cooked in this way by adding a sauce of some kind. + +39. BROILED FISH.--The best way in which to cook small fish, thin strips +of fish, or even good-sized fish that are comparatively thin when they +are split open is to broil them. Since in this method of cooking the +flavor is entirely retained, it is especially desirable for any fish of +delicate flavor. + +To broil fish, sear them quickly over a very hot fire and then cook them +more slowly until they are done, turning frequently to prevent burning. +As most fish, and particularly the small ones used for broiling, contain +almost no fat, it is necessary to supply fat for successful broiling and +improvement of flavor. It is difficult to add fat to the fish while it +is broiling, so, as a rule, the fat is spread over the surface of the +fish after it has been removed from the broiler. The fat may consist of +broiled strips of bacon or salt pork, or it may be merely melted butter +or other fat. + +40. BROILED SCROD WITH POTATO BORDER.--Young cod that is split down the +back and that has had the backbone removed with the exception of a small +portion near the tail is known as _scrod_. Such fish is nearly always +broiled, it may be served plain, but it is much more attractive when +potatoes are combined with it in the form of an artistic border. + +To prepare this dish, broil the scrod according to the directions given +in Art. 39. Then place it on a hot platter and spread butter over it. +Boil the desired number of potatoes until they are tender, and then +force them through a ricer or mash them until they are perfectly fine. +Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and add sufficient milk to make a +paste that is a trifle stiffer than for mashed potatoes. If desired, raw +eggs may also be beaten into the potatoes to serve as a part of the +moisture. Fill a pastry bag with the potatoes thus prepared and press +them through a rosette tube in any desired design on the platter around +the fish. Bake in a hot oven until the potatoes are thoroughly heated +and are browned slightly on the top. + +41. BROILED FRESH MACKEREL.--Probably no fish lends itself better to +broiling than fresh mackerel, as the flesh of this fish is tender and +contains sufficient fat to have a good flavor. To improve the flavor, +however, strips of bacon are usually placed over the fish and allowed to +broil with it. + +Clean and skin a fresh mackerel. Place the fish thus prepared in a +broiler, and broil first on one side and then on the other. When seared +all over, place strips of bacon over the fish and continue to broil +until it is done. Remove from the broiler, season with salt and pepper, +and serve. + +42. BROILED SHAD ROE.--The mass of eggs found in shad, as shown in Fig. +17, is known as the _roe_ of shad. Roe may be purchased separately, when +it is found in the markets from January 1 to June 1, or it may be +procured from the fish itself. It makes a delicious dish when broiled, +especially when it is rolled in fat and bread crumbs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +Wash the roe that is to be used and dry it carefully between towels. +Roll it in bacon fat or melted butter and then in fine crumbs. Place in +a broiler, broil until completely done on one side, turn and then broil +until entirely cooked on the other side. Remove from the broiler and +pour melted butter over each piece. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and +serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +43. BAKED FISH.--Good-sized fish, that is, fish weighing 4 or 5 pounds, +are usually baked. When prepared by this method, fish are very +satisfactory if they are spread out on a pan, flesh side up, and baked +in a very hot oven with sufficient fat to flavor them well. A fish of +large size, however, is especially delicious if its cavity is filled +with a stuffing before it is baked. + +When a fish is to be stuffed, any desired stuffing is prepared and then +filled into the fish in the manner shown in Fig. 18. With the cavity +well filled, the edges of the fish are drawn together over the stuffing +and sewed with a coarse needle and thread, as Fig. 19 shows. + +Whether the fish is stuffed or not, the same principles apply in its +baking as apply in the roasting of meat; that is, the heat of a quick, +hot oven sears the flesh, keeps in the juices, and prevents the loss of +flavor, while that of a slow oven causes the loss of much of the flavor +and moisture and produces a less tender dish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +44. Often, in the baking of fish, it is necessary to add fat. This may +be done by putting fat of some kind into the pan with the fish, by +spreading strips of bacon over the fish, or by larding it. In the dry +varieties of fish, larding, which is illustrated in Fig. 20, proves very +satisfactory, for it supplies the substance in which the fish is most +lacking. As will be observed, larding is done by inserting strips of +bacon or salt pork that are about 3 inches long and 1/4 inch thick into +gashes cut into the sides of the fish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +45. BAKED HADDOCK.--As haddock is a good-sized fish, it is an especially +suitable one for baking. However, it is a dry fish, so fat should be +added to it to improve its flavor. Any of the methods suggested in Art. +44 may be used to supply the fat that this fish needs. + +When haddock is to be baked, select a 4 or 5-pound fish, clean it +thoroughly, boning it if desired, and sprinkle it inside and out with +salt. Fill the cavity with any desired stuffing and sew up. Place in a +dripping pan, and add some bacon fat or a piece of salt pork, or place +several slices of bacon around it. Bake in a hot oven for about 1 hour. +After it has been in the oven for about 15 minutes, baste with the fat +that will be found in the bottom of the pan and continue to baste every +10 minutes until the fish is done. Remove from the pan to a platter, +garnish with parsley and slices of broiled bacon, and serve with any +desired sauce. + +46. BAKED HALIBUT.--Because of its size, halibut is cut into slices and +sold in the form of steaks. It is probably one of the most economical +varieties of fish to buy, for very little bone is contained in a slice +and the money that the housewife expends goes for almost solid meat. +Halibut slices are often sautéd, but they make a delicious dish when +baked with tomatoes and flavored with onion, lemon, and bay leaf, as +described in the accompanying recipe. + +BAKED HALIBUT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. tomatoes +Few slices onion +1 bay leaf +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 thin slices bacon +1 Tb. flour +2 lb. halibut steak + +Heat the tomatoes, onion, and bay leaf in water. Add the salt and pepper +and cook for a few minutes. Cut the bacon into small squares, try it out +in a pan, and into this fat stir the flour. Pour this into the hot +mixture, remove the bay leaf, and cook until the mixture thickens. Put +the steaks into a baking dish, pour the sauce over them, and bake in a +slow oven for about 45 minutes. Remove with the sauce to a hot platter +and serve. + +47. BAKED FILLETS OF WHITEFISH.--When whitefish of medium size can be +secured, it is very often stuffed and baked whole, but variety can be +had by cutting it into fillets before baking it. Besides producing a +delicious dish, this method of preparation eliminates carving at the +table, for the pieces can be cut the desired size for serving. + +Prepare fillets of whitefish according to the directions for filleting +fish in Art. 28. Sprinkle each one with salt and pepper, and dip it +first into beaten egg and then into bread crumbs. Brown some butter in a +pan, place the fish into it, and set the pan in a hot oven. Bake until +the fillets are a light brown, or about 30 minutes. Remove to a hot +dish, garnish with parsley and serve with any desired sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +48. FILLET OF FLOUNDER.--In appearance, flounder is not so attractive as +many other fish, but it is a source of excellent flesh and is therefore +much used. A very appetizing way in which to prepare flounder is to +fillet it and prepare it according to the accompanying recipe, when it +will appear as in Fig. 21. + +Secure a flounder and fillet it in the manner explained in Art. 28. Cut +each fillet into halves, making eight pieces from one flounder. Cut +small strips of salt pork or bacon, roll the pieces of flounder around +these, and fasten with a toothpick. Place in a baking dish with a small +quantity of water, and bake in a hot oven until a good brown. Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22] + +49. PLANKED FISH.--Like planked steak, planked fish, which is +illustrated in Fig. 22, is a dish that appeals to the eye and pleases +the taste. The fish is baked on the plank and then surrounded with a +border of potatoes, the fish and potatoes making an excellent food. + +To prepare planked fish, thoroughly clean and bone a medium-size +whitefish, shad, haddock, or any desired fish. Grease a plank and place +the fish on it. Lay some strips of bacon across the top of the fish, +place in a hot oven, and bake for about 30 minutes or a little longer if +necessary. Boil potatoes and prepare them for piping by mashing them, +using 4 tablespoonfuls of milk, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and one egg +to each 2 cupfuls of potato. Then, with a rosette pastry tube, pipe a +border of potatoes around the edge of the plank, so that it will appear +as in Fig. 22. Likewise, pipe rosettes of potatoes on the strips of +bacon placed on top of the fish. Then replace the plank with the fish +and potatoes in the oven, and bake until the potatoes are brown. Garnish +with parsley and serve. + +50. FRIED FISH.--Very small fish or slices of larger fish are often +fried in deep fat. When they are prepared in this way, they are first +dipped into beaten egg and then into crumbs or corn meal to form a +coating that will cling to their surface. Coated with such a material, +they are fried in deep fat until the surface is nicely browned. After +being removed from the fat, they should be drained well before serving. + +51. FRIED PERCH.--When fried in deep fat, perch is found to be very +appetizing. To prepare it in this way, secure a perch and scale and +clean it. Cut it crosswise into 2-inch strips, roll each piece in flour, +and fry in deep fat until nicely browned. Serve hot with lemon or with a +sauce of some kind. + +52. FRIED EEL.--If an appetizing way to cook eel is desired, it will be +found advisable to fry it in deep fat. When it is to be cooked in this +way, skin and clean the eel and cut it into thick slices. Pour some +vinegar over the slices, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and allow +them to stand for several hours. Remove the pieces from the vinegar, dip +each one into slightly beaten egg and then into flour, and fry in deep +fat until well browned. Serve plain or with a sauce. + +53. SAUTÉD FISH.--Without doubt, the most popular way to prepare fish is +to sauté them. This method may be applied to practically the same kinds +of fish that are fried or broiled, and it is especially desirable for +the more tasteless varieties. It consists in browning the fish well in a +small quantity of fat, first on one side and then on the other. If fat +of good flavor is used, such as bacon or ham fat, the flavor of the +fish will be very much improved. Before sautéing, the fish or pieces of +fish are often dipped into slightly beaten egg and then rolled in flour, +very fine cracker crumbs, or corn meal, or the egg is omitted and they +are merely covered with the dry, starchy material. The effect of this +method of cooking is very similar to that of deep-fat frying, except +that the outside tissues are apt to become, very hard from the +application of the hot fat because of the coating that is generally +used. Since most fish breaks very easily, it is necessary that it be +handled carefully in this method in order that the pieces may be +kept whole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23] + +54. SAUTÉD SMELTS.--To be most satisfactory, smelts are generally +sautéd, as shown in Fig. 23. Fish of this kind are prepared for cooking +by cutting off the heads and removing the entrails through the opening +thus made; or, if it is desired to leave the heads on, the entrails may +be removed through the gill or a small slit cut below the mouth. At any +rate, these fish are not cut open as are most other fish. + +With the fish thus prepared, roll them in fine cracker crumbs and sauté +them in melted butter until they are nicely browned. Serve with +slices of lemon. + +55. SAUTÉD HALIBUT STEAK.--Slices of halibut, when firm in texture and +cut about 3/4 inch thick, lend themselves very well to sautéing. Secure +the required number of such slices and sprinkle each with salt and +pepper. Then spread melted butter over each steak, and roll it in fine +crumbs. Place fat in a frying pan, allow it to become hot, and sauté the +halibut in this until well browned. + +56. SAUTÉD PICKEREL.--A variety of fresh-water fish that finds favor +with most persons is pickerel. When this fish is to be sautéd, scale +and clean it and cut it crosswise into 2-inch strips. Then roll each +piece in flour, sprinkle it with salt and pepper, and sauté the slices +in hot fat. When one side is sufficiently brown, turn and brown on the +other side. + +57. STEWED FISH.--Like boiling, stewing extracts flavor and nutriment +from fish. The process differs, however, in that the fish is cooked +gently by simmering. This cookery method is employed for fish that is +inclined to be tough. Usually, vegetables, such as carrots and onions, +are cooked with the fish in order to impart flavor. To prevent the fish +from falling apart, it may be wrapped in cheesecloth or gauze. + +58. STEWED FRESH HERRING.--When fresh herring can be obtained, it can be +made into a delicious dish by stewing it with onions, parsley, and +carrots. In this method of preparation, the herring should not be +permitted to stew rapidly; it will become more tender if it simmers +gently. As herring are rather small fish, weighing only about 1/2 pound, +it will usually be necessary to obtain more than one for a meal. + +Clean the required number of fresh herring, place them in a saucepan, +and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Brown some slices of onion in +butter, and add the same number of slices of carrots and a generous +quantity of parsley. Add enough boiling water to these vegetables to +cover them and the fish, and pour both over the fish. Place all on the +fire and simmer gently until the fish is tender. Remove the fish from +the water and serve. The vegetables are used merely to add flavor, and +they will have practically boiled away by the time the fish is cooked. + +59. STEWED EEL.--Eel is delicious when stewed. When allowed to simmer +slowly with several slices of onion and a little parsley, it becomes +both tasty and tender. + +Skin and clean the eel that is to be stewed, remove all the fat, and cut +into pieces about 2 inches long. Season well with salt and pepper and +place in a saucepan with several slices of onion, 1 tablespoonful of +chopped parsley, and 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Add enough cold water +to cover well, and allow the eel to simmer gently until it is tender +enough to be pierced with a fork. Remove from the water and serve hot. + + +RECIPES FOR SALT AND SMOKED FISH + +60. PLACE OF SALT AND SMOKED FISH IN THE DIET.--In regions where fresh +fish cannot be obtained or in seasons when they are scarce everywhere, +the housewife will do well to use salt and smoked fish. These varieties +of fish not only will give her a chance to vary the diet, but will +enable her to provide at a more economical price, food that, pound for +pound, contains more nutriment than the same fish when fresh. While some +of the varieties of smoked and salt fish may not be obtainable in all +communities, the housewife will do much toward bringing the supply to +her community by requesting them from the dealer. When a dealer knows +that there is a demand for certain kinds, he will make an effort to +secure the varieties wanted. + +61. FRESHENING SALT AND SMOKED FISH.--The cooking of salt and smoked +fish is not a difficult matter, but it always involves the freshening of +the fish before any cooking method can be applied. This consists in +placing the fish in a large quantity of water and allowing it to stand +until enough of the salt has been extracted to suit the taste. Some +kinds of fish are so salty that they require considerable soaking, +whereas others require only a little freshening. However, it is usually +advisable to change the water several times. If it is desired to hasten +the extraction of the salt, the fish should be raised above the bottom +of the vessel by means of a wire rack or several clean sticks. In the +case of very thick fish, several gashes may be cut into the flesh to +permit the salt to pass out more readily. + +62. CREAMED CODFISH.--Since codfish is a rather dry fish, containing +little fat, it is usually combined with some other food to make it more +appetizing. In the case of creamed codfish, the cream sauce supplies the +food substances in which the fish is lacking and at the same time +provides a very palatable dish. When codfish is prepared in this way, +boiled potatoes are usually served with it. + +To make creamed codfish, freshen the required amount of codfish by +pouring lukewarm water over it. Shred the fish by breaking it into small +pieces with the fingers. Pour off the water, add fresh warm water, and +allow the fish to stand until it is not too salty. When it is +sufficiently freshened, drain off all the water. Melt a little butter in +a frying pan, add the fish, and sauté until slightly browned. Make a +medium white sauce and pour it over the codfish. Serve hot with +boiled potatoes. + +63. CODFISH BALLS.--Another excellent way in which to serve codfish is +to combine it with mashed potatoes, make these into balls, and fry them +in deep fat. These give variety to meals and also afford an opportunity +to serve a nutritious food. + +Freshen the codfish as explained in Art. 61, and then mince it very +fine. Add an equal amount of freshly cooked hot potato that has been put +through a potato ricer or mashed fine. Mix thoroughly and, if necessary, +season with salt and pepper. Shape into balls and fry in deep fat. Drain +well and serve hot. + +64. SAUTÉD SALT MACKEREL.--When an extremely tasty dish that will afford +a change from the usual daily routine of meals is desired, sautéd salt +mackerel will be found very satisfactory. + +Freshen salt mackerel that is to be sautéd by putting it into a saucepan +and covering it with cold water. Place this over the fire, and allow the +water to heat to almost the boiling point. Pour off the water, and sauté +the fish in butter or other fat until nicely browned. If desired, pour a +small amount of thin cream over the mackerel just before removing it +from the pan, allow this to heat, and serve it as a sauce with +the mackerel. + +65. BAKED FINNAN HADDIE.--When haddock is cured by smoking, it is known +as _finnan haddie_. As fish of this kind has considerable thick flesh, +it is very good for baking. Other methods of cookery may, of course, be +applied to it, but none is more satisfactory than baking. + +To bake a finnan haddie, wash it in warm water and put it to soak in +fresh warm water. After it has soaked for 1/2 hour, allow it to come +gradually to nearly the boiling point and then pour off the water. Place +the fish in a baking pan, add a piece of butter, sprinkle with pepper, +and pour a little water over it. Bake in a hot oven until it is nicely +browned. Serve hot. + +66. CREAMED FINNAN HADDIE.--The flavor of finnan haddie is such that +this fish becomes very appetizing when prepared with a cream sauce. If, +after combining the sauce with the fish, the fish is baked in the oven, +an especially palatable dish is the result. + +To prepare creamed finnan haddie, freshen the fish and shred it into +small pieces. Then measure the fish, put it into a baking dish, and +pour an equal amount of white sauce over it. Sprinkle generously with +crumbs and bake in a hot oven until the crumbs are browned. Serve hot. + +67. BOILED SALMON.--When smoked salmon can be secured, it makes a +splendid fish for boiling. If it is cooked until tender and then served +with a well-seasoned sauce, it will find favor with most persons. + +Freshen smoked salmon in warm water as much as seems necessary, +remembering that the cooking to which it will be subjected will remove a +large amount of the superfluous salt. Cover the salmon with hot water, +and simmer slowly until it becomes tender. Remove from the water, pour a +little melted butter over it, and serve with any desired sauce. + + +RECIPES FOR CANNED FISH + +68. CANNED FISH IN THE DIET.--As a rule, canned fish is a comparatively +cheap food and there is no reason why the economical housewife should +not make frequent use of the various kinds. It should be bought, +however, from a reputable firm, in order that the greatest value may be +obtained for the money spent. In addition, it should be used as soon as +possible after the can has been opened; if all of it cannot be utilized +at one time, it should be placed in a covered receptacle--not a metal +one--and kept cold to prevent it from spoiling. Often canned fish can be +served without any further preparation than removing it from the can. +However, as some varieties, particularly salmon and tuna fish, are much +used in the preparation of both cold and cooked dishes, several recipes +are here given for these varieties. + +69. CREAMED TUNA FISH.--Combining tuna fish with a cream sauce and +serving it over toast makes a dish that is both delicate and +palatable--one that will prove very satisfactory when something to take +the place of meat in a light meal is desired. + +CREAMED TUNA FISH +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 Tb. butter +3 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/8 tsp. paprika +1-1/2 c. hot milk +1-1/2 c. tuna fish +1 egg + +Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the flour, salt, pepper, and +paprika. Stir well, pour in the milk, and when this has thickened add +the tuna fish. Allow this to heat thoroughly in the sauce. Just before +serving, add the slightly beaten egg and cook until this has thickened. +Pour over toast and serve. + +70. SALMON MOLD.--A change from the usual way of serving salmon can be +had by making a salmon mold such as is illustrated in Fig. 24. Besides +being a delicious dish and providing variety in the diet, salmon mold is +very attractive. + +SALMON MOLD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. salmon +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. gelatine +1-1/2 c. boiling water + +[Illustration: FIG. 24] + +Remove all skin and bones from the salmon when it is taken from the can, +and mince it thoroughly with a fork. Add the vinegar, salt, and pepper. +Prepare the gelatine by dissolving it in the boiling water. Add the +seasoned salmon to the prepared gelatine. With cold water, wet a +ring-shaped mold having an open space in the center. Pour the +salmon-and-gelatine mixture into this mold, and allow it to stand until +it solidifies. Arrange a bed of lettuce leaves on a chop plate, turn the +mold out on this, and fill the center with dressing. Serve at once. A +very desirable dressing for this purpose is made as follows: + +DRESSING FOR SALMON MOLD + +1 c. cream +2 Tb. vinegar +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. sugar +1 c. finely chopped cucumber + +Whip the cream until it is stiff, and add the vinegar, salt, and sugar. +Fold into this the finely chopped cucumber. + +71. SALMON PATTIES.--Delicious patties can be made from salmon by +combining it with bread crumbs and using a thick white sauce to hold the +ingredients together. These may be either sautéd in shallow fat or fried +in deep fat. + +SALMON PATTIES +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +2 c. finely minced salmon +1 c. fresh bread crumbs +1 c. thick white sauce +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +Dry bread crumbs + +With the salmon, mix the fresh bread crumbs and the white sauce. Season +with salt and pepper. Shape into round patties, roll in the dry bread +crumbs, and fry in deep fat or sauté in shallow fat. Serve hot with or +without sauce. + +72. CREAMED SALMON WITH RICE.--A creamed protein dish is always more +satisfactory if it is served on some other food, particularly one high +in carbohydrate. When this is done, a better balanced dish is the +result. Creamed salmon and rice make a very nutritious and appetizing +combination. + +CREAMED SALMON WITH RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. salmon +1 c. medium white sauce +Steamed rice + +Break the salmon into moderately small pieces and carefully fold these +into the hot white sauce. Serve this on a mound of hot steamed rice. + + +RECIPES FOR LEFT-OVER FISH + +73. So as not to waste any food material, it is necessary that all +left-over fish be utilized in some way. This is not so simple a matter +as in the case of meat, because fish is one of the foods that are not +popular as a left-over dish. Still fish left-overs can be used if a +little thought is given to the matter. Of course, it is a wise plan to +prepare only the quantity of fish that can be consumed at the meal for +which it is cooked, but should any remain it should not be thrown away, +for some use can be made of it. A point to remember, however, is that +fish is not satisfactory in soup of any kind except a fish soup; +therefore, bits of left-over fish may be added to only such soups as +clam chowder or other fish chowder. + +Whether the fish has been boiled, steamed, baked, fried, sautéd, or +prepared in any other way, it may always be made into croquettes. When +used for this purpose, all the bones should be carefully removed. These +may be easily taken out after the fish has become cold. If the fish has +been stuffed and part of the stuffing remains, it may be broken into +pieces and used with the flesh of the fish. A recipe for croquettes in +which fish is combined with rice follows. + +74. FISH CROQUETTES.--If any quantity of left-over fish is on hand, it +may be combined with rice to make very tasty croquettes. + +FISH CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. cold fish +1 c. cold steamed rice +1 c. thick white sauce +Salt and pepper +1 egg +Crumbs + +Mince the fish into small pieces, mix with the rice, and add the white +sauce. Season with salt and pepper and shape into croquettes. Dip into +slightly beaten egg, roll in crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Drain and +serve with any desired sauce. + +75. CREAMED FISH IN POTATO NEST.--Fish may also be combined with mashed +potato to produce a most appetizing dish. Line a baking dish with hot +mashed potato, leaving a good-sized hollow in the center. Into this pour +creamed fish made by mixing equal proportions of left-over cold fish and +white sauce. Season well with salt and pepper, sprinkle with crumbs, and +dot the top with butter. Bake until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot. + + * * * * * + +SHELL FISH + +NATURE, VARIETIES, AND USE OF SHELL FISH + +76. Besides the varieties of fish that have already been considered, the +general term fish also includes SHELL FISH. Fish of this kind are +different in structure from bony fish, for they are acquatic animals +that are entirely or partly encased in shells. They include _mollusks_, +or _bivalves_, such as oysters, clams, and scallops, and _crustaceans_, +such as lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. + +77. The popularity of the edible varieties of mollusks and crustaceans +mentioned depends largely on whether they can be easily obtained and +whether they are pleasing to the local or individual taste. As they are +found in salt rivers, bays, and other shallow salt-water sources, their +greatest use is among people living near the seashore, but they are much +favored where they can be procured in edible condition. They are not so +cheap as many other fish foods; that is, a certain amount of money will +not purchase so great a quantity of shell fish, lobster for instance, as +some of the well-known varieties of fish proper, such as halibut or +whitefish. Lobsters and crabs are usually more expensive than oysters +and clams; consequently, they are used more often to provide a delicacy +or to supply something more or less uncommon for a special meal. + +78. Several precautions should be observed in purchasing shell fish. For +instance, crabs and lobsters should be purchased alive. They are usually +shipped on ice so that they will remain in this condition for some time, +and they are displayed on ice in the markets for the same reason. Such +shell fish should be kept alive until they are plunged into boiling +water to cook. Oysters and clams bought in the shell must also be alive +when purchased. A tightly closed shell indicates that they are alive, +whereas a slightly open shell proves that they are dead. If these two +varieties are bought out of the shells, the fish themselves should not +be accompanied by a great quantity of liquid. Considerable liquid is an +indication that the oysters or clams have been adulterated by the +addition of water. Formerly it was the custom to keep oysters in fresh +water, as the water they absorb bloats or fattens them. This practice, +however, has fallen into disfavor. + +79. Shell fish lend themselves admirably to a large variety of dishes, +including soups, entrees, salads, and substitutes for meat dishes. They +possess a great deal of distinctive flavor, their food value is +comparatively high, and, provided they are in good condition and are +properly prepared, they are healthful and easily digested. It can +therefore be seen that shell fish have much to recommend their use. +There is considerable danger, however, in using any varieties that are +not perfectly fresh or freshly cooked. In the case of mollusks, or +bivalves, much harm has resulted from the use of those which have been +grown or bred in unsanitary surroundings. Because of these facts, it is +of the utmost importance that great care be exercised in selecting and +preparing shell fish. + +80. COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL FISH.--In composition, the +varieties of fish included under shell fish do not differ greatly from +fish proper. Most of them, however, contain more waste and less of the +food substances than fish, so that their food value is somewhat lower. +Table IV will serve to give a good idea of the composition and food +value of the several varieties of shell fish, and in studying it, a good +plan will be to compare it with Table I, which gives the food value of +fish. As will be observed, protein forms a very large proportion of the +food substance of shell fish. Also, they contain more carbohydrates than +fish, the amount ranging from .4 to 5.2 per cent., which is in the form +of sugar. Although this amount is too small to warrant much +consideration as a supply of carbohydrates, it is mentioned because it +is an interesting fact. + +TABLE IV + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL FISH + +Name of Fish Water Protein Fat Total Ash Food Value + Carbo- Per Pound + hydrates Calories +Clams, removed + from shell 80.8 10.6 1.1 5.2 2.3 340 +Crabs, whole 77.1 16.6 2.0 1.2 3.1 415 +Lobsters, whole 79.2 16.4 1.8 .4 2.2 390 +Oysters, in shell 86.9 6.2 1.2 3.7 2.0 235 +Scallops 80.3 14.8 .1 3.4 1.4 345 + + + + +TABLE V + +SEASONS FOR SHELL FISH + +NAME OF FISH SEASON + +Clams, hard shelled..............All the year +Clams, soft shelled..............May 1 to October 15 +Crabs, hard shelled..............All the year +Crabs, soft shelled..............March 1 to October 15 +Lobsters.........................All the year +Oysters..........................September 1 to May 1 +Scallops.........................September 15 to April 1 +Shrimp...........................March 15 to June 1, and + September 15 to October 15 + + +81. SEASONS FOR SHELL FISH.--With the exception of clams and lobster, +which can be obtained all the year around, shell fish have particular +seasons; that is, there is a certain time of the year when they are not +suitable for food. It is very important that every housewife know just +what these seasons are, so that she will not include the foods in the +diet of her family when they should not be used. Table V, which will +furnish her with the information she needs, should therefore be +carefully studied. + + * * * * * + +OYSTERS, CLAMS, AND SCALLOPS + +OYSTERS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +[Illustration: FIG. 25] + +82. OYSTERS, CLAMS, and SCALLOPS are salt-water fish that belong to the +family of mollusks, or soft-bodied animals. They are entirely encased in +hard shells, which, though of the same general shape, differ somewhat +from each other in appearance. Fig. 25 shows a group of oysters and +clams, the three on the left being oysters and the three on the right, +clams. Oysters are larger than clams and have a rough, uneven shell, +whereas clams have a smooth, roundish shell. The three varieties of +mollusks are closely related in their composition and in their use as +food, but as oysters are probably used more commonly than the others +they are considered first. + +83. COMPOSITION OF OYSTERS.--Oysters occupy a prominent place among +animal foods, because they are comparatively high in protein. In +addition, they contain a substance that most flesh foods lack in any +quantity, namely, carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, and for this +reason are said to resemble milk closely in composition. A comparison +of the following figures will show how these foods resemble each other: + + WATER PROTEIN FAT CARBOHYDRATE MINERAL SALTS +Milk......... 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 .7 +Oysters...... 86.9 6.2 1.2 3.7 2.0 + +Oysters, as will be observed, contain only a small quantity of fat, and +for this reason their total food value is somewhat lower than that of +milk. A pint of milk has a value of 325 calories, while the same +quantity of oysters has an approximate value of only 250 calories. +Because of the difference in the cost of these two foods, oysters +costing several times as much as milk, the use of oysters is not so +cheap a way of supplying food material. + +84. DIGESTIBILITY OF OYSTERS.--When merely the ability of the digestive +tract to handle oysters is taken into consideration, they are said to be +easily digested if they are served raw or are properly prepared. This is +due to the fact that when taken as a food they are disposed of in a +comparatively short time by the stomach. In addition, their absorption +from the alimentary tract is quite complete; that is, they contain +little or no waste material. But, just as cooking has much to do with +the digestibility of other protein foods, so it has with oysters. For +this reason, the housewife who wishes to feed her family this food in +its most digestible form must thoroughly understand all phases of +its cooking. + +85. HEALTHFULNESS OF OYSTERS.--Much illness has been attributed to +oysters, and without doubt they have been the cause of some typhoid and +some ptomaine poisoning. A knowledge of the reason for these diseases +has done much to eliminate them. It is now definitely known that much of +the typhoid caused from eating oysters was due to the conditions under +which they were grown. In their growth, oysters fasten themselves to +stationary things, such as rocks or piles driven into the ground +underneath the water, and they obtain their food by simply opening the +shell and making use of minute particles of plant and animal life that +they are able to extract from the water. When the water was not clean or +when sewage was turned into it, typhoid germs were transmitted to +persons who took oysters as food. At present, there is scarcely any +danger from such causes, for more care is now given to the conditions +under which oysters grow. Ptomaine poisoning from oysters was caused by +eating them when they had been improperly cared for in storage or had +been taken from the shells after they were dead. Unless persons handling +oysters know how to take care of them, this danger is still likely +to exist. + +86. PURCHASING OYSTERS.--To be able to purchase oysters intelligently, +the housewife should be familiar with the names of the various kinds. +These names are dependent on the locality from which the oysters come, +and include _Blue Points, Cape Cods, Cotuits, Lynn Havens_, and numerous +other varieties. It should be remembered that the varieties raised in +different localities are quite distinctive, differing to some extent in +both size and appearance. Unless the purchaser is familiar with the +different varieties, almost any of the small oysters are likely to be +sold to her for one of the small varieties and, likewise, any of the +large oysters for one of the large varieties. While this is of small +consequence, provided the quality is satisfactory and the price is +right, it is well for every housewife to familiarize herself with the +names of the various kinds, so that she may know just what variety she +is purchasing. + +87. When oysters are bought in the shell, they should be alive, a fact +that can be determined by the tightly closed shell, as has already been +stated. If the shells are not closed or can be easily pried apart, it +may be known that the oysters are not good and that they should be +rejected. When it is possible to procure them, oysters that have been +removed from the shells immediately after being taken from the beds are +preferable to those which have not been removed from the shells before +shipping. When purchased out of the shells, oysters should be grayish in +color, should have no disagreeable odor, and should contain no excess +water or liquid. After being purchased, oysters should be kept on ice +unless they can be cooked at once. + +The season for oysters is from September to April, inclusive. While in +some localities they can be purchased at other times during the year, +they are not likely to be so good. In fact, it is not safe to use +oysters during the warm months. + +88. IMPORTANT POINTS IN COOKING OYSTERS.--The protein of oysters, like +that found in other foods, is coagulated by heat. Long heat, provided it +is sufficiently intense, makes oysters tough, and in this condition they +are neither agreeable to eat nor readily digested. When they are to be +cooked at a high temperature, therefore, the cooking should be done +quickly. If they are to be cooked at a temperature below the boiling +point, they may be subjected to heat for a longer time without becoming +so tough as when a high temperature is used. Cooking quickly at a high +temperature, however, is preferable in most cases to long, slow cooking. +For example, in the preparation of oyster stew, long cooking produces no +better flavor than short cooking at a high temperature and renders +oysters far less digestible. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +89. OPENING OYSTERS.--Unless oysters are bought already opened, it +becomes necessary to open them in the home before they can be served raw +or cooked. To open oysters is not difficult, and with a little +experience the work can be done with ease. It will be well to note that +the two shells of an oyster, which are called _valves_, are held +together by a single muscle, known as the _adductor muscle_, that lies +near the center, and that this muscle must be cut before the shell will +open readily. Before attempting to open oysters, however, they should be +scrubbed with clean water, so as to remove any sand that may be on the +shells. When the oysters are cleaned, proceed to open them in the manner +shown in Figs. 26 and 27. First, as in Fig. 26, insert the point of a +knife into the hinged, or pointed, end and push the blade between the +valves until they appear to separate, when it will be known that the +muscle has been cut. Then, as in Fig. 27, lay the valves open and loosen +the oyster from the shell by slipping the knife under it. + +If the oysters that are being opened are to be cooked before serving, +simply drop them with their liquid into a suitable vessel and discard +the shells. Before using the oysters, remove them from the liquid, look +them over carefully to see that no small particles of shells cling to +them, and wash them in clean, cold water to remove any sand that may be +present. Also, strain the liquid through a cloth, so that it will be +free from sand when used in the preparation of the dish for which the +oysters are to be used or for the making of soup or broth. + +Oysters that are to be eaten raw are frequently served on the half +shell. Therefore, if they are to be used in this way, place each oyster, +as it is loosened in the process of opening, into the deeper shell, as +Fig. 27 shows, and discard the other one. Very often good-looking oyster +shells are saved in order that they may be used from time to time in +serving raw oysters that are bought already opened. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27] + +90. RAW OYSTERS.--When an appetizer is desired in a meal that is to +consist of several courses, raw oysters are often used for the first +course. Oysters that are to be eaten raw may be served in the shells or +removed from them. They are bland in flavor, however, and require some +sharp, highly seasoned sauce in order to give them sufficient snap. The +sauces commonly used for this purpose include cocktail sauce, chilli +sauce, catsup, horseradish, and tobasco sauce. Sometimes, though, lemon +juice or vinegar and pepper and salt are preferred to sauce. As a rule, +crisp crackers, small squares of toast, or wafers and butter accompany +raw oysters in any form, and sometimes celery and radishes are +served, too. + +91. When a cocktail sauce is served with raw oysters, they are generally +referred to as OYSTER COCKTAILS. Two methods of serving these are in +practice. In one, as shown in Fig. 28, the cocktail sauce is put into a +small glass placed in the center of a soup plate filled with cracked +ice, and the oysters, usually six in half shells, are arranged around +the glass, on the ice. In the other, as shown in Fig. 29, the desired +number of oysters that have been removed from the shells are dropped +into a stemmed glass containing the cocktail sauce, and the glass is +placed in a bowl of cracked ice. An _oyster fork_, which is a small, +three-pronged fork, is always served with raw oysters, and usually a +piece of lemon is supplied in addition to the cocktail sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29] + +92. OYSTER STEW.--If an extremely nutritious way of preparing oysters is +desired, oyster stew should be selected. This is perhaps the simplest +way in which to cook oysters, and yet care must be exercised in making +this dish, for the oysters should not be cooked too long and the milk, +which must be brought to the boiling point, should not be allowed to +burn. Oyster stew makes an excellent dish for lunch. It should not be +served as the first course of a heavy meal because of the large amount +of nutriment it contains. + +OYSTER STEW +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. oysters +1 qt. milk +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Pour 1 cupful of water over the oysters, look them over carefully, and +remove any pieces of shell that may cling to the oysters, making sure +that any particles of sand are washed off. Heat this liquid to the +boiling point and then strain it through a cloth. Put the milk on the +fire to heat, and when hot, add the butter, salt, and pepper, and +strained liquid. After the whole mixture has come to the boiling point, +pour in the oysters and cook until they look plump and the edges begin +to curl. Remove from the heat and serve with crisp crackers. + +93. CREAMED OYSTERS.--Another nutritious way in which to prepare oysters +and at the same time produce a dish that is pleasing to most persons is +to cream them. After being creamed, oysters may be served over toast or +in timbale cases. + +CREAMED OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +24 oysters +1-1/2 c. medium white sauce +Salt and pepper +6 slices toast or 6 timbale cases + +Melt the butter in a frying pan, add the oysters, and heat them in the +butter until the edges begin to curl slightly. Pour the hot oysters into +the hot white sauce, season to taste with salt and pepper, and serve +over toast or in timbale cases. + +94. SCALLOPED OYSTERS.--No food makes a more palatable scalloped dish +than oysters. Oysters so prepared are liked by nearly every one, and the +ingredients with which they are combined help to give such a dish +balance so far as the food substances are concerned. Care should be +taken, however, in the baking of scalloped oysters, for they are likely +to become tough if they are cooked too long. + +SCALLOPED OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. bread crumbs +2 Tb. butter +1 c. cracker crumbs +1 pt. oysters +Salt and pepper +1 c. milk + +Butter the bread crumbs with the butter, and then mix them with the +cracker crumbs. Sprinkle the bottom of a greased baking dish with +one-fourth of the crumbs, and over this put a layer of oysters that have +been previously cleaned. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and add +one-fourth more of the crumbs. Add another layer of oysters, sprinkle +with salt and pepper, and place the remainder of the crumbs on top. +Strain the liquid from the oysters through a piece of cloth, mix this +with the milk, and pour over the dish thus prepared. Place in a hot +oven, and bake until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the top +is brown. + +95. FRIED OYSTERS.--Of all the dishes prepared from oysters, fried +oysters undoubtedly find favor with the greatest number of persons. +However, unless care is taken in frying the oysters, they are likely to +be somewhat indigestible. Deep fat should be used for this purpose, and +it should be hot enough to brown a 1-inch cube of bread a golden brown +in 40 seconds. + +FRIED OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +24 large oysters +1 egg +1/4 c. milk +Fine cracker crumbs +Salt +Pepper + +Thoroughly dry the oysters by laying them on one end of a soft cloth and +patting them with the other. Beat the egg and add the milk to it. Dip +the oysters into the cracker crumbs, then into the egg-and-milk mixture, +and again into the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until brown. Remove from the +fat, drain well, and place on oiled paper. Sprinkle with salt and pepper +and serve hot. + +96. OYSTER PIE.--Baking oysters into a pie is another means of combining +a protein food with foods that are high in other food substances. As +oyster pie is somewhat hearty, it may be used as the main dish of a +heavy meal. + +OYSTER PIE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. oysters +1 c. medium white sauce +Salt and pepper +Baking-powder biscuit dough + +Cut each of the oysters into three or four pieces, and place them in a +greased baking dish. Pour over them the hot white sauce and the juice +from the oysters. Season with salt and pepper. Over the top, place a +layer of the biscuit dough rolled about 1/4 inch thick. Set in a hot +oven and bake until the crust is brown. + +97. PIGS IN BLANKETS.--When something entirely different in the way of +oysters is desired, pigs in blankets should be tried. This is a very +good name for the dish given in the accompanying recipe, for the oysters +are rolled up in a strip of bacon, which serves as a blanket. They are +especially suitable for a light meal, such as luncheon or a dainty lunch +that is to be served to company. + +PIGS IN BLANKETS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +18 large oysters +18 thin strips of bacon + +After the oysters have been cleaned, roll each one in a strip of bacon. +Fasten the bacon where the edges meet by running a toothpick through at +this point. Place in a broiler and broil on one side until brown; then +turn them and broil until the other side is brown. Serve hot. + +98. OYSTER FRITTERS.--Variety may also be secured in the use of oysters +by making oyster fritters. When such fritters are nicely browned and +served with an appetizing sauce, an attractive as well as a tasty dish +is the result. + +OYSTER FRITTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. oysters +1 egg muffin batter + +Clean the oysters and cut each into four or five pieces. Make a one-egg +muffin batter and to it add the cut oysters. Drop the mixture by +spoonfuls into deep fat and fry until brown. Remove from the fat, drain, +and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Serve with a desired sauce. + + +CLAMS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +99. NATURE AND DIGESTIBILITY OF CLAMS.--Clams are bivalves similar to +oysters in both form and composition. Because of the similarity in +composition, they are utilized in much the same ways as oysters, being +used extensively for food in parts of the country where the supply is +large. There are numerous varieties of clams, and some of them differ +slightly from each other in appearance, color, and flavor. Preference +for the different varieties is largely a matter of individual taste. + +Clams may be purchased loose or in the shell and they may be served in +or out of the shell. However, when bought in the shell, they must be +purchased alive and must be subjected to the same tests as are oysters. +As in the case of oysters, they may be eaten raw or cooked. Their +preparation for cooking is similar to that of oysters. In the raw state, +they are easily digested, but upon the application of heat they become +tough, and the longer they are cooked, the tougher they become. It can +therefore be seen that the digestibility of clams is influenced very +much by cooking. + +100. OPENING CLAMS.--If clams are to be opened in the home, the method +illustrated in Fig. 30 may be employed. First wash the clams to remove +the sand, and then place a clam on a hard surface so that the pointed +edge is up. Insert the thin edge of a knife into the very slight groove +between the shells, or valves, and with a heavy utensil of some kind +strike the top of the knife several times so as to separate the valves. +Then, as in opening oysters, spread the shells apart, as shown, and +loosen the clam from the shell it adheres to. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30] + +101. RAW CLAMS.--Like oysters, raw clams are generally served as a +cocktail, or an appetizer, at the beginning of a meal. If they are to be +served in the half shell, place them in a dish of cracked ice; if they +are to be served without the shells, place the required number in a +stemmed glass that is set in a dish of cracked ice. In either case, +lemon or a suitable sauce, or both, should be supplied. + +102. STEAMED CLAMS.--Steaming is the method generally adopted when clams +in large numbers are cooked for a "clam bake," but there is no reason +why it cannot be used by the housewife when she wishes to cook only +enough for her family. When large quantities are to be steamed, use is +generally made of a steamer, but the housewife will find that she can +steam a few clams very satisfactorily in a saucepan or a similar vessel. + +To prepare steamed clams, scrub the shells of the clams until they are +perfectly clean. Place the desired number thus cleaned in a saucepan and +add enough water to cover the bottom of the pan about 1 inch. Allow this +to cook until the shells of the clams open. Remove the clams from the +pan and serve them in the shells. Provide each person with a small dish +of melted butter into which to dip the clams as they are removed from +the shells to be eaten. The liquid found in the clams may be poured from +the shell before the clams are served, and after being well seasoned may +be served as clam broth. + +103. BAKED CLAMS.--Another very appetizing way in which to prepare clams +is to combine them with bread crumbs, season them well, and then bake +them until they are well browned. Select several good-sized clams for +each person to be served. Scrub the shells well and open them. Remove +the clams and chop them into small pieces. To each cupful of chopped +clams, add 2 cupfuls of buttered bread crumbs, 1 tablespoonful of +chopped parsley, 1 tablespoonful of chopped pimiento, and 1 +tablespoonful of onion juice. Season the mixture with salt and pepper +and fill the shells with it. Place these in a shallow pan and bake in a +very hot oven until the crumbs are well browned on top. Serve hot. + +104. FRIED CLAMS.--As oysters make a very desirable dish when fried in +deep fat, so clams may be treated in this way, too. Remove the desired +number of clams from the shells, wash them thoroughly, and dry them on a +clean towel. Dip them into beaten egg, and finally into the crumbs. Fry +in deep fat until they are a golden brown. Serve with slices of lemon. + + +SCALLOPS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +105. NATURE OF SCALLOPS.--Scallops, which are another form of bivalves, +are less commonly used for food than oysters and clams. Scalloped dishes +get their name from the fact that scallop shells were originally used +for their preparation. Not all of the scallop is used for food; merely +the heavy muscle that holds the two shells together is edible. Scallops +are slightly higher in protein than oysters and clams and they also have +a higher food value than these two mollusks. The most common method of +preparation for scallops is to fry them, but they may also be baked in +the shells. + +106. FRIED SCALLOPS.--If scallops are properly fried, they make an +appetizing dish. As they are a rather bland food, a sauce of some kind, +preferably a sour one, is generally served with them. + +Select the desired number of scallops and wash thoroughly. Dip first +into either fine bread crumbs or cracker crumbs, then into beaten egg, +and again into the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden brown, remove, +and drain. Serve with lemon or a sour sauce, such as horseradish or +tomato sauce. + +107. BAKED SCALLOPS.--If a tasty as well as a slightly unusual dish is +desired to give variety to the diet, baked scallops will undoubtedly +find favor. As shown in the accompanying recipe, mushrooms are one of +the ingredients in baked scallops and these not only provide additional +material, but improve the flavor. + +To prepare baked scallops, clean the desired number, parboil for 15 +minutes, drain, and cut into small pieces. For each cupful of scallops, +melt 2 tablespoonfuls of butter in a frying pan, sauté in it 1 +tablespoonful of chopped onion, and add 1/2 cupful of chopped mushrooms. +When these have browned, add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour and 1 cupful of +milk. Cook until thick and then add the scallops. Fill the scallop +shells with the mixture, sprinkle with buttered bread crumbs, place in +the oven, and bake until the crumbs are brown. + + * * * * * + +LOBSTERS, CRABS, AND SHRIMP + +GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS + +108. The shell fish, LOBSTERS, CRABS, and SHRIMP, come under the head of +crustaceans; that is, animals consisting of jointed sections, each of +which is covered with a hard shell. Their flesh is similar in +composition to that of other fish, but it is tougher and harder to +digest. However, it is popular because of its unique and delicate +flavor. In fact, whenever these varieties of fish can be obtained along +the seacoast or within a reasonable distance from the place where they +are caught, they are considered a delicacy. If they can be shipped alive +to any point, they are perfectly safe to use, although quite high in +price because of their perishable nature. + +109. Unless such shell fish can be procured alive in the markets, the +use of a good brand of any of them canned is recommended. In fact, +canned lobster, crab, and shrimp are very satisfactory and may be +substituted for any of the fresh cooked varieties in the recipes that +follow. It is true that some persons object to canned food because +ptomaine poisoning sometimes results, but it has been found that +ptomaine poisoning is more liable to result from eating these foods when +they are bought in the market in poor condition than when they are +secured in canned form. Care must be exercised, however, whenever use is +made of canned food of any kind. Upon opening a can of any of these +varieties of fish, the entire contents should be removed from the can at +once and used as soon as possible. It must be remembered that the +ptomaine poisoning that is sometimes caused by eating canned foods is +not due to the fact that the foods come in tin cans, but that they are +allowed to stand in the cans after they are opened. Upon their being +exposed to the air, putrefaction sets in and causes the harmful effect. + +110. Lobsters, crabs, and shrimp are very similar in composition, shrimp +being slightly higher in protein and total food value than the others. +If they are not prepared in an indigestible way, they are comparatively +easy to digest. It has been proved a fallacy that lobster and ice cream +are a dangerous combination, for if both are in good condition they may +be combined with no ill effects to the normal individual. + + +LOBSTERS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +111. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES.--Of these three types of sea food, +lobsters are perhaps the most popular. They are found along the North +Atlantic and North Pacific seacoasts. Alive, they are mottled +bluish-green in color, but upon being cooked they change to bright red. +As soon as they are caught, many of them are packed in ice and shipped +alive to various points, while others are plunged immediately into +boiling water and sold cooked. A live lobster ready for cooking is shown +in Fig. 31. Lobsters vary greatly in size. Only those 9 inches or more +in length can be sold, the smaller ones being thrown back into the +water. When they are purchased either raw or cooked, they should be +heavy for their size; that is, they should be heavy because of their +plumpness and good condition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31] + +112. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION.--To prepare a lobster, which should be +alive, grasp it firmly by the back, as shown in Fig. 32, plunge it +quickly, head first, into a kettle of rapidly boiling water, and then +submerge the rest of the body. Be sure to have a sufficient amount of +water to cover the lobster completely. Boil rapidly for 5 minutes; then +lower the flame or remove to a cooler part of the stove and cook slowly +for 1/2 hour. Remove from the water and allow to cool. + +After being prepared in this way, a lobster may be served cold or it may +be used in the preparation of various made dishes. If it is to be used +without further preparation, it is often served from the shell, which is +usually split open. Mayonnaise or some other sauce is generally served +with lobster. The flesh is removed from the shell with a small fork as +it is eaten. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32] + +113. REMOVING LOBSTER FROM THE SHELL.--The majority of the dishes made +from lobster require that the flesh be removed from the shell. To do +this, first pull off the two large claws and the four pairs of small +claws, as shown in Fig. 33, and break the tail from the body. +Then with scissors, as in Fig. 34, cut a single slit the entire +length of the shell covering the under part of the tail and +remove the flesh inside the tail in a whole, large piece, as shown in +Fig. 35. The intestinal tract, which can be readily observed, will be +found embedded in this piece and running the entire length. Slash the +flesh and remove it. Next remove the flesh of the body from the shell, +retaining only that part which appears to be fibrous, like the flesh of +the tail. The stomach, which is called "the lady" because its inside +appearance closely resembles a lady sitting in a chair, should not be +removed from the shell. However, care should be taken to obtain all the +flesh surrounding the bones in the bony part of the lobster. The coral +substance, that is, the roe of the lobster, should also be removed, as +it can be used for a garnish. + +[Illustration FIG. 33] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34] + +With the flesh removed from the shell, proceed to take out that +contained in the claws. Break open the large claws, using a nut cracker +or a small hammer for this purpose, and, as in Fig. 36, remove the flesh +that they contain. If the small claws are to be used for a garnish, as +is often done, remove the flesh without breaking them; otherwise break +them as in the case of the large ones. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35] + +114. LOBSTER COCKTAIL.--Practically all varieties of shell fish make +most satisfactory cocktails, and lobster is no exception. To make a +lobster cocktail, shred or cut into small pieces the flesh of a lobster +that has been prepared according to the directions just given. Chill the +shreds or pieces and then serve them in stemmed cocktail glasses with +any desirable cocktail sauce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36] + +115. SCALLOPED LOBSTER.--Persons who care for the flavor of lobster will +find scalloped lobster a very attractive dish. When prepared in this +way, it is suitable either for luncheon or for dinner. + +SCALLOPED LOBSTER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. lobster meat +1 c. medium white sauce +2/3 c. buttered bread crumbs +1 hard-cooked egg +Salt +Pepper + +Mix the lobster with the medium white sauce. Butter a baking dish, place +half of the crumbs in the bottom, and pour over them the lobster and +white sauce. Slice the hard-cooked egg over the top of the lobster, +season the whole well with salt and pepper, and sprinkle the remainder +of the crumbs over the top. Place in a hot oven and bake until the +crumbs are brown. Garnish with sprays of parsley and serve at once. + +116. DEVILED LOBSTER.--A dish that is delicious and at the same time +very attractive is deviled lobster. After removing the flesh from the +shell, the shell should be cleaned thoroughly, as it is to be used as a +receptacle in which to put the lobster mixture for baking. When removed +from the oven, this dish can be made more attractive by garnishing it +with the lobster claws and tail. + +DEVILED LOBSTER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 Tb. chopped onion +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +Dash of Cayenne pepper +1/8 tsp. paprika +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. lemon juice +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1 c. milk +2 c. lobster meat +1/4 c. buttered cracker crumbs + +Sauté the onion in the butter, and to this add the flour, salt, Cayenne +pepper, paprika, pepper, lemon juice, and parsley. Mix well and add the +milk. When the whole has cooked until it is thick, add the lobster. Pour +the mixture into the clean shell of the lobster, sprinkle with cracker +crumbs, and place in the oven long enough to brown the crumbs. Remove +from the oven, place on a serving dish, garnish with the claws and tail +of the lobster, if desired, and serve at once. + +117. LOBSTER À LA NEWBURG.--When lobster à la Newburg is mentioned, one +naturally thinks of a chafing dish, for this is one of the dishes that +is very often made in a chafing dish and served at small social +gatherings. However, it can be made just as satisfactorily on the +kitchen stove and is a dish suitable for a home luncheon or +small dinner. + +LOBSTER À LA NEWBURG +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +2 c. lobster +1/2 tsp. salt +Few grains of Cayenne pepper +1/2 c. milk +1/2 c. thin cream +1 tsp. vinegar +1 Tb. lemon juice +2 egg yolks + +Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, and into this pour the +lobster meat cut into rather large pieces. Add the salt, pepper, milk, +and cream; cook together until thick, and then pour in the vinegar and +lemon juice. Beat the egg yolks and stir them into the cooked mixture, +using care to prevent them from curdling. When the mixture has +thickened, remove from the stove and serve over toast. + +118. LOBSTER CROQUETTES.--Probably the most attractive dish that can be +made out of lobster is the one explained in the accompanying recipe. As +this is artistically garnished, and at the same time extremely +appetizing, it is suitable for a meal that is intended to be very nice, +such as a dainty luncheon. If the elaborate garnishing here suggested is +not desired, the croquettes may be served with merely a suitable sauce. + +LOBSTER CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. thick white sauce +2 eggs +2 c. diced lobster meat +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +Fine bread crumbs + +Prepare the white sauce and allow it to cool. Add one beaten egg and the +lobster meat. Season with the salt and pepper. Shape into croquettes, +roll in beaten egg, then in crumbs, and fry in deep fat until an even +brown. Drain, stick a lobster claw into the end of each, and arrange on +a platter with the claws around the outside. Pour a medium white sauce +over the opposite ends and the centers of the croquettes and over this +sprinkle the lobster coral and hard-cooked egg yolks, which have been +forced through a sieve. In the center of the platter, arrange a small +mound of parsley and one of the large claws of the lobster. + + +CRABS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +119. NATURE OF CRABS.--Numerous varieties of crabs are obtained along +the seashores of the United States, and most of them measure not more +than 5 or 6 inches across. Shell fish in this form are used for food +both before the shells have hardened, when they are known as +_soft-shelled crabs_, and after the shells have grown hard, when they +are called _hard-shelled crabs_. To be at their best, crabs should be as +heavy as lobsters in proportion to their size. Their flesh should be +firm and stiff and their eyes should be bright. The male crab has a +smaller body and longer claws than the female. In food value, crabs are +quite similar to lobsters. + +Tiny _oyster crabs_ are found in the shells of crabs as well as in +oysters. These are considered a great delicacy and are used chiefly for +garnishing, because they are very small and, as a rule, are not found in +large numbers. + +120. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION.--Before either soft-shelled or +hard-shelled crabs can be used as food, a certain amount of preparation +is necessary. In the case of hard-shelled crabs, plunge them alive into +hot water, allow them to come to the boiling point, and cook slowly for +1/2 hour. It is a good plan to add 1 tablespoonful of salt for each crab +that is being boiled. While the crabs are cooking, remove the scum that +rises to the top. When they are sufficiently cooked, open the shells and +take out the meat, being careful to remove all the meat from the claws. + +Soft-shelled crabs require a somewhat different kind of preparation. +With this variety, lift up the points on each side of the back shell and +remove the spongy substance that is found under them. In addition, take +off the apron, which is the small piece that occurs at the lower part of +the shell and that terminates in points. The crabs are then ready for +frying, which is the method of cooking that is usually applied to +this variety. + +121. CRAB-FLAKE COCKTAIL.--Crab meat is used for cocktails in the same +way as oysters, clams, and lobster. In fact, no better appetizer to +serve at the beginning of a meal can be found. To make crab-flake +cocktail, remove the meat from the shells of cooked hard-shelled crabs +in the way just explained, and chill it. Then place it in stemmed +glasses and serve with cocktail sauce. + +122. DEVILED CRABS.--Variety in the cooking of hard-shelled crabs can be +secured by deviling them according to the accompanying directions. As +will be observed, this is done in practically the same way that lobster +is deviled. + +DEVILED CRABS +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +2 Tb. butter +4 crabs +1 c. cream sauce +1 Tb. onion juice +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash Cayenne pepper +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 egg +Cracker crumbs + +Put the butter in a frying pan, add the meat from the four crabs, and +pour into this the cream sauce. Season with the onion juice, salt, +Cayenne pepper, and pepper. Add the well-beaten egg and allow the +mixture to cook until the egg has thickened, being careful not to let it +curd. Fill the back shells of the crabs with this mixture, sprinkle with +cracker crumbs, place in a hot oven, and bake until brown. Serve hot +or cold. + +123. FRIED SOFT-SHELLED CRABS.--After soft-shelled crabs are prepared in +the manner explained in Art. 120, they are usually fried in deep fat. +Egg and cracker dust or flour are used to make a coating for the crabs. + +FRIED SOFT-SHELLED CRABS +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +4 soft-shelled crabs +1 egg +Cracker dust or flour +Salt and pepper + +Prepare the crabs by removing the apron and the spongy substance under +the shell of each crab. Beat the egg slightly. Roll the crabs first in +the egg and then in the cracker dust or the flour. Fry in hot, deep fat +until a golden brown. Remove from the fat, drain, and sprinkle well with +salt and pepper to season. Serve hot or cold. + +124. CREAMED CRAB MEAT.--When the meat of hard-shelled crabs is creamed, +it makes a very dainty dish, especially if it is served over toast or in +timbale cases. To give a touch of color and at the same time add a +little flavor, chopped pimiento is generally added. + +Boil the desired number of hard-shelled crabs and remove the meat from +the shells. For each cupful of crab meat, prepare 1 cupful of medium +white sauce. Add the crab meat, season well, and, if desired, add some +chopped pimiento. Serve hot over toast or in timbale cases. + + +SHRIMP AND THEIR PREPARATION + +125. NATURE OF SHRIMP.--Shrimp are similar to crabs and lobsters in +composition and in the methods of preparation. They differ considerably +in appearance, however, and are smaller in size. When alive, shrimp are +a mottled greenish color, but upon being dropped into boiling-hot water +they turn red. When they have cooked sufficiently, the meat, which is +very delicious, may be easily removed from the shells. After the meat of +shrimp is thus prepared, it may be used cold in a salad or a cocktail or +it may be utilized in a number of ways for hot dishes. Very often a +chafing dish is used in the preparation of such dishes, but this utensil +is not necessary, as they may be cooked in an ordinary utensil on a +stove of any kind. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37] + +126. CREAMED SHRIMP.--The usual way of preparing shrimp is to cook it +with mushrooms and then serve it over toast, or, as shown in Fig. 37, in +timbale cases. Creamed shrimp is dainty in appearance, pleasing to the +taste, and highly nutritious. + +CREAMED SHRIMP +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. medium white sauce +1 c. diced shrimp +1 c. chopped mushrooms +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Heat the white sauce, and to it add the shrimp, mushrooms, salt, and +pepper. Beat a little butter into the mixture to improve the flavor, +heat, and serve in timbale cases, as shown, or over toast. + +127. SHRIMP À LA SALLE.--Shrimp also makes an appetizing and attractive +dish when combined with tomato and green pepper. The accompanying recipe +gives directions for the preparation of such a dish, which is called +shrimp à La Salle. + +SHRIMP À LA SALLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 c. shredded shrimp +1 c. stewed tomato +1 small green pepper, chopped +1 Tb. chopped onion +1 tsp. celery salt +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Brown the butter in a saucepan and add the shrimp, tomato, green pepper, +onion, celery salt, salt, and pepper. Heat all together thoroughly, and +serve over toast. + +COCKTAIL SAUCES + +128. The various kinds of shell fish are served so frequently as +cocktails that cocktail sauces are much in demand. The foundation of +these sauces is always tomato catsup, but the ingredients used for +seasoning usually vary according to individual taste. The following +recipes make amounts sufficient for one serving: + +COCKTAIL SAUCE I + +1/4 tsp. grated horseradish +Juice of 1/4 lemon +12 drops tobasco sauce +10 drops Worcestershire sauce +1 Tb. tomato catsup + +COCKTAIL SAUCE II + +1 Tb. tomato catsup +1 Tb. grapefruit juice +1 tsp. spiced vinegar +Dash of tobasco sauce +Sprinkling of salt +Dusting of chopped parsley + +Mix the ingredients thoroughly and serve with oysters, clams, lobster, +shrimp, or crab meat thoroughly chilled. + + +FISH AND SHELL FISH + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) For what food may fish be substituted in the diet? (_b_) How +does fish compare with meat as to its usefulness as food? + +(2) (_a_) What food substances are present in fish? (_b_) How does the +food value of fish compare with that of meat? + +(3) (_a_) Discuss the digestibility of fish. (_b_) How does the salting +of fish for preservation affect its digestibility? + +(4) How does the housewife's purchase of fish affect the market price? + +(5) What methods of cookery should be used in preparing: (_a_) large +fish? (_b_) small fish? + +(6) Mention the tests for determining the freshness of fish. + +(7) Discuss the care of fish in the home. + +(8) Give the steps in the preparation of a fish for cooking. + +(9) Give the steps in the boning of a fish. + +(10) (_a_) What are fillets? (_b_) Tell briefly how fillets are +obtained. + +(11) Why are sauces frequently served with fish? + +(12) (_a_) What is larding? (_b_) How may fish be larded? (_c_) For what +purpose is larding done? + +(13) How may salt fish be freshened? + +(14) (_a_) Mention the shell fish. (_b_) Discuss their usefulness in the +diet. + +(15) What precautions should be taken in the purchase of shell fish? + +(16) Discuss the composition and food value of shell fish. + +(17) Compare the composition of milk with that of oysters. + +(18) (_a_) What is the season for oysters? (_b_) How are oysters opened? + +(19) (_a_) How are clams opened? (_b_) What is the effect of long +cooking on clams? + +(20) (_a_) How are lobsters prepared? (_b_) Mention the two kinds of +crabs. (_c_) How do these differ? + + +ADDITIONAL WORK + +Mention the varieties of fish most common in your local market. + +Compare the cost of a sufficient amount of fish to serve your family +with the cost of beef and either veal or lamb served to the same number +of persons at other times. Submit your results. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDEX + +A + +Adductor muscle of an oyster, +American forcemeat balls, +Apples, Bacon with sliced, + Cold pork with fried, +Asparagus soup, Cream of, + +B + +Bacon, + and eggs, + Calves' liver and, + combined with cereals, + combined with other foods, + with sliced apples, + with tomatoes, +Baked clams, + fillet of whitefish, + finnan haddie, + fish, + haddock, + halibut, + ham, + poultry with rice, + scallops, +Balls, American forcemeat, + Codfish, + Egg, + Forcemeat, +Bass, Food value and composition of black, +Basting of meat, +Batter, Timbale-case, +Béchamel, Chicken, +Beef, + Boiled corned, + Braized, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of, + Corned, + Cuts of, + Fillet of, + for stewing and coming, Cuts of, + Frizzled, + General characteristics of, + hash, + loaf, Recipe for, + loin, Steaks obtained from, + Mexican, + organs and their preparation, + pie, + Pot-roasted, + Preparation of stews and corned, + Roast, + stew, + Tenderloin of, +Beefsteak, Broiled, +Beefsteaks and their preparation, +Birds, Preparation of small, + Roast small, +Biscuits, Creamed veal on, +Bisques, +Bivalves, +Blue points, +Bluefish, Composition and food value of, +Bob veal, +Boiled cod, + corned beef, + dinner, + fish, + ham, + salmon, + tongue, +Boiler, Fish, +Boiling, Cooking meat by, +Bologna, +Bone stock, +Boned chicken, +Boning a chicken, + a fish, +Borsch, +Bouillon, + Tomato, +Braized beef, + beef, Recipe for, + tongue, +Braizing, +Bread sticks, + stuffing, +Broiled beefsteak, + fillet, + fish, + fresh mackerel, + ham, + pork, Sautéd or, + poultry, + scrod with potato border, + shad roe, + squirrel, + sweetbreads, + venison, + venison, Sauce for, +Broiler, +Broilers, Composition and food value of, +Broiling, cooking meat by, +Broth, +Brown sauce, Veal cutlets in, +Buying meats, Points to consider in, + +C + +Cabbage, Scalloped pork and, +Calves' liver and bacon, +Canned fish in the diet, +Cape Cods, +Capons, +Carbohydrate in fish, + in meat, +Care, nature, and use of stock pot, + of fish in the home, + of meat, + of meat in the home, + of meat in the market, +Carp, Composition and food value of, +Carving meat, Serving and, + poultry, Serving and, +Casserole, Chicken en, +Catfish, Composition and food value of, +Caul, +Celery and radishes, +Cereals, Bacon combined with, +Chestnut purée, + stuffing, +Chicken à la king, + Béchamel, + Boned, + broilers, Composition and food value of, + Crop of a, + croquettes, + curry, + Cutting up a, + Definition of, + Determining the age of, + Determining the freshness of, + Drawing a, + Dressing a, + en casserole, + feet, Preparing, + Fricassee of, + Fried, + Frying, + General marks of good quality in, + giblets, + Gravy for fried, + Jellied, + Maryland fried, + pie, + Plucking a, + Poultry other than, + Preparation of, + Roast, + Roasting, + salad, + salad, Mock, + Selection of, + Singeing a, + stew with dumplings or noodles, + with paprika sauce, Fried, + with rice, +Chickens, Live, +Chops in tomato sauce, pork, + Lamb and mutton, + Veal, +Chowder, Clam, + Corn, + Fish, + Potato, +Chowders, +Chuck roasts, +Clam chowder, +Clams, and scallops, Oysters, + Baked, + Composition and food value of, + Fried, + Nature and digestibility of, + Opening of, + Preparation of, + Raw, + Steamed, +Classes of soup, General, + of soups denoting consistency, +Classification of poultry, + of soups, +Cleaning fish, +Clear soup or bouillon, Stock for, + soups, + soups and stocks, +Clearing soup, +Cocktail, Crab-flake, + Lobster, + Oyster, +Cod, Boiled, +Codfish balls, +Creamed, +Cold pork with fried apples, + -storage poultry, +Comparison of fish and meat, Table showing the, + of fish with meat, + of mutton and lamb, +Composition and food value of beef, + and food value of black bass, + and food value of bluefish, + and food value of canned salmon, + and food value of carp, + and food value of catfish, + and food value of chicken broilers, + and food value of clams, + and food value of crabs, + and food value of fowl, + and food value of halibut steak, + and food value of lake trout, + and food value of lamb, + and food value of leg of lamb, + and food value of lobsters, + and food value of mutton, + and food value of oysters, + and food value of pork, + and food value of pork chops, + and food value of red snapper, + and food value of scallops, + and food value of shell fish, + and food value of shell fish, Tables showing, + and food value of veal, + and food value of whitefish, + and structure of meat, + of fish, + of oysters, + of poultry, +Connective tissue, +Consommé, +Cooking meat for soup, + meat, Methods of, + meat, Purposes of, + meat, Time required for, + meats, Time table for, + of beef, + of fish, + of giblets, + of mutton and lamb, + of pork, + of poultry, +Cooking of veal, + oysters, Important points in, + Preparing rabbit for, +Corn chowder, + soup, Cream of, +Corned beef, + beef, Boiled, + beef, Preparation of stews and, +Cottage pie, +Cotuits, +Crab, Deviled, + flake cocktail, + meat, Creamed, +Crabs, and shrimp, General characteristics of lobsters, + Composition and food value of, + Fried soft-shelled, + Hard-shelled, + Nature of, + Oyster, + Preliminary preparation of, + Preparation of, + Soft-shelled, +Cracker stuffing, +Crackers, +Cream-of-asparagus soup, + of-corn soup, + of-onion soup, + of-pea soup, + of-potato soup, + of-spinach soup, + of-tomato soup, +sauce, Lemon, +soups, +Creamed codfish, + crab meat, + finnan haddie, + fish in potato nest, + oysters, + salmon with rice, + shrimp, + sweetbreads, + tuna fish, + veal on biscuits, +Crop of a chicken, +Croquettes, + Chicken, + Fish, + Frying of, + Lobster, + Sweetbread, + Veal, +Croutons, +Crown roast of lamb, + roast of pork, +Crustaceans, +Cured pork, Preparation of, +Curry, Chicken, +Cutlets in brown sauce, Veal, + Pan-broiled veal steak or, +Cutlets, Veal steaks or, +Cuts, Names and uses of beef, + Names of pork, + obtained from a side of beef and their uses, Table of, + of beef, + of beef for stewing and corning, + of beef, Method of obtaining, + of beef, Table of, + of beef, Uses of, + of mutton and lamb, Distinguishing features of, + of mutton and lamb, Method of obtaining, + of mutton and lamb, Names and uses of, + of mutton and lamb, Table of, + of pork, + of pork, Uses of, + of veal and their uses, + Preparation of veal, + Table of pork, + Table of veal, +Cutting up a chicken, + +D + +Daikan, +Deep-fat frying, Principles of, +Delmonico steak, +Deviled crab, + lobster, +Diet, Canned fish in the, + Fish in the, + Meat in the, + Salt and smoked fish in the, +Digestibility of clams, Nature and, + of fish, + of oysters, +Drawing a chicken, +Drawn-butter sauce, +Dressing a chicken, + for salmon mold, +Dry plucking, +Duck, Liver stuffing for, + Peanut stuffing for roast, + Preparation of, + Roast, + Spring, + Young, +Ducks, Selection of, +Dumplings, + or noodles, Chicken stew with, + +E + +Economic value of soup, +Economy in the purchase of poultry, +Eel, Fried, + Stewed, +Egg balls, +Egg sauce, +Eggs and bacon, +Extractives, + in meat, +Extracts, Meat, + Soup, + Vegetable, + +F + +Fat in fish, + in meat, + Trying out suet and other, +Feathers, Pin, +Feeding and care on quality of poultry, Influence of, +Fillet, Broiled, + mignon, + of beef, + of flounder, + of venison, Roast, + of whitefish, Baked, +Filleting fish, +Finnan haddie, Baked, + haddie, Creamed, +First soup stock, +Fish, + and meat, Relative nutritive value of, + and meat, Table showing the comparison of, + Baked, + Boiled, + boiler, + Boning a, + Broiled, + Carbohydrate in, + chowder, + Cleaning, + Composition and food value of shell, + Composition of, + Cooking of, + Creamed tuna, + croquettes, + Digestibility of, + Fat in, + Filleting, + Food value of, + Freshness of, + Fried, + in potato nest, Creamed, + in the diet, + in the diet, Canned, + in the diet, Salt and smoked, + in the home, Care of, + Left-over, + Mineral matter in, + Planked, + Protein in, + Purchase of, + Sauces for, + Scaling a, + Seasons for shell, + Shell, + Skinning, + Steamed, + Stewed, + stock, + Stuffing for, + Table showing composition and food value of shell, + Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of fresh, + Table showing names, seasons, and uses of salt and smoked, + Table showing seasons for shell, + with meat, Comparison of, +Flat-bone steak, +Flavoring stock, +Flounder, Fillet of, +Food, Poultry as a, + Sea, + suitable for the stock pot, + value and composition of beef, + value and composition of black bass, + value and composition of bluefish, + value and composition of canned salmon, + value and composition of carp, + value and composition of catfish, + value and composition of chicken broilers, + value and composition of clams, + value and composition of crabs, + value and composition of fowl, + value and composition of halibut steak, + value and composition of lake trout, + value and composition of lamb, + value and composition of leg of lamb, + value and composition of lobsters, + value and composition of mutton, + value and composition of oysters, + value and composition of pork, + value and composition of pork chops, + value and composition of red snapper, + value and composition of scallops, + value and composition of veal, + value and composition of whitefish, + value of fish, + value of fish, Factors determining, + Value of meat as, + value of shell fish, Composition and, + value of shell fish, Tables showing composition and, +Forcemeat balls, +Fore quarter of veal, +Fork, Oyster, +Fowl, Composition and food value of, + Definition of, +Fowls, Selection of guinea, +Frankfurters, +Fresh fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of, + herring, Stewed, + mackerel, Broiled, + pork, Preparation of, +Freshening salt and smoked fish, +Freshness of fish, +Fricassee of chicken, +Fricasseeing applied to meat and fowl, +Fried apples, Cold pork with, + chicken, + chicken, Gravy for, + chicken, Maryland, + chicken with paprika sauce, + clams, + eel, + fish, + oysters, + perch, + scallops, + soft-shelled crabs, +Fritters, Oyster, + Soup, +Frizzled beef, +Frying and sautéing applied to meat, + chicken, + of croquettes, + Principles of deep-fat, + +G + +Gall bladder, +Game, Definition of, + General description of, + stock, +Garnishes, Soup accompaniments and, +Geese, Selection of, +Gelatine in meat, +Giblets, Cooking of, + of a chicken, +Glycogen, or muscle sugar, +Goose, Preparation of, + Roast, +Gravy for fried chicken, + Making, +Green-pepper stuffing, +Guinea fowls, Selection of, +H + +Haddock, Baked, +Halibut, Baked, + steak, Composition and food value of, + steak, Sautéd, +Ham, + Baked, + baked in milk, + Boiled, + Broiled, +Hamburger steak, +Hard-shelled crabs, +Hash, Beef, + Turkey, +Headcheese, +Healthfulness of oysters, +Heart, Stuffed, + sweetbread, +Heavy thick soups, +Herring, Stewed fresh, +Hind quarter of veal, +Hip-bone steak, +Home, Care of fish in the, +Horseradish sauce, +Household stock, + +I + +Individual lamb pies, +Influence of feeding and care on quality of poultry, +Iron, Timbale, + +J + +Jellied chicken, + veal, + veal, Left-over, +Julienne soup, + +K + +Keeping stock, +Kidneys, +Kouskous, +Krishara, + +L + +Lake trout, Composition and food value of, +Lamb, + and mutton chops, + and mutton cuts, Distinguishing features of, + and mutton cuts, Names and uses of, + and mutton, Left-over, + and mutton stews, + Comparison of mutton and, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of mutton and, + Crown roast of, + cuts, Method of obtaining mutton and, + cuts, Table of mutton and, + Food value and composition of leg of, + on toast, Minced, + or mutton, Scalloped, + pies, Individual, + Rack of, + Roast leg of, + Saddle of, + Spring, + Turkish, +Lard, Leaf, +Larding, +Leaf lard, +Lebaba, +Left-over beef, + -over fish, + -over Jellied veal, + -over lamb and mutton, + -over Pork, + -over Poultry, + -over veal, +Leg of venison, Roast, +Lemon cream sauce, +Live chickens, +Liver and bacon, + stuffing for roast duck, +Liverwurst, +Loaf, beef, +Lobster à la Newburg, + cocktail, + croquettes, + Deviled, + from the shell, Removing, + Scalloped, +Lobsters, Composition and food value of, + crabs and shrimp, + Distinguishing features of, + Preparation of, +Loin, Steaks obtained from beef, +Lynn Havens, + +M + +Mackerel, Broiled fresh, + Sautéd salt, +Making gravy, + soup, +Market, Preparation of poultry for, +Maryland fried chicken, +Meaning and use of soup stock, +Meat as food, Value of, + Basting of, + Carbohydrate in, + Care of, + Comparison of fish with, + Cooking of, +Meat, Creamed crab, + cuts, Names and uses of, + Definition of, + extracts, + Extractives in, + Fat in, + Gelatine in, + in the diet, + in the home, Care of, + in the market, Care of, + Methods of cooking, + Minerals in, + preparations, Sausages and, + Protein in, + Purchase of, + Purposes of cooking, + Relative nutritive value of fish and, + Serving and carving of, + Structure and composition of, + Time required for cooking, + used for soup making, + Water in, + +Meats, Points to consider in buying, + Time table for cooking, + +Method of obtaining beef cuts, + of obtaining mutton and lamb cuts, +Methods of cooking meat, +Mexican beef, +Mignon, Fillet, +Milk, Ham baked in, +Minced lamb on toast, +Mineral matter in fish, +Minerals in meat, +Minestra, +Mint sauce, +Mock chicken salad, +Mock duck, or rolled steak, +Mold, Salmon, +Mollusks, +Mulligatawny soup, +Muscle sugar, Glycogen or, +Mushroom sauce, +Mutton, + and lamb chops, + and lamb, Comparison of, + and lamb, Cooking of, + and lamb cuts, Distinguishing features of, + and lamb cuts, Method of obtaining, + and lamb cuts, Names and uses of, + and lamb cuts, Table of, + Composition and food value of, + Left-over lamb and, + Rack of, + Roast leg of, + Roast saddle of, + Saddle of, + Scalloped lamb or, + stews, Lamb and, + +N + +Noodle soup, +Noodles, Chicken stew with dumplings or, + Vegetable soup with, +Nut sauce, +Nutritive value of fish, Relative, + +O + +Onion soup, Cream of, +Opening clams, + oysters, +Organs, Veal, +Ox-tail soup, +Oyster, Adductor muscle of an, + cocktails, + crabs, + fork, + fritters, + pie, + stew, + stuffing, + Valves of an, +Oysters, clams, and scallops, + Composition of, + Creamed, + Digestibility of, + Food value of, + Fried, + Healthfulness of, + Important points in cooking, + Opening, + Preparation of, + Purchasing, + Raw, + Scalloped, + +P + +Pan-broiled steak, + -broiled veal steaks or cutlets, + broiling, Cooking meat by, +Paprika sauce, Fried chicken with, +Partridge, Selection of, +Pastry strips, +Pâté de fois gras, +Patties, Rice and meat, + Salmon, +Pea soup, Cream of, +Peanut stuffing for roast duck, +Perch, Fried, +Pheasant, partridge, and quail, + Selection of, +Pickerel, Sautéd, +Pickled pig's feet, + tongue, +Pie, Beef, +Pie, Chicken, + Cottage, + Oyster, + Rabbit, +Pies, Individual lamb, +Pig, Roast, +Pigeons, Selection of, +Pig's feet, Pickled, +Pigs in blankets, +Pin feathers, +Planked fish, + steak, +Plucking a chicken, + Dry, +Poisoning, Ptomaine, +Ponhasse, +Pork, + and cabbage, Scalloped, + chops and tomato sauce, + chops, Composition and food value of, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of, + Crown roast, of, + Cuts of, + Cuts, Table of, + cuts, Uses of, + General characteristics of, + Left-over, + Preparation of cured, + Preparation of fresh, + Roast, + Salt, + sausage, + Sautéd or broiled, + Sautéd tenderloin of, + Tenderloin of, + with fried apples, Cold, +Porterhouse roast, + steak, +Pot-au-feu, + -roasted beef, + Stock, +Potato border, Broiled scrod with, + chowder, + nest, Creamed fish in, + soup, Cream-of-, +Potpie, Veal, +Potroka, +Poulards, +Poultry as a food, + Broiled, + Classification of, + Cold-storage, + Composition of, + Definition of, + Effect of sex on quality of, + for cooking, Preparation of, + for the market, Preparation of, + Indication of cold-storage, + Left-over, + other than chicken, + Selection of, + Serving and carving, + Stuffing for roast, + Table for the selection of, + with rice, Baked, +Preparation of beef organs, + of beefsteak, + of chicken, + of clams, + of crabs, + of cured pork, + of duck, + of fresh pork, + of goose, + of lobsters, + of oysters, + of poultry for cooking, + of poultry for the market, + of roasts, + of scallops, + of shrimp, + of small birds, + of stews and corned beef, + of sweetbreads, + of turkey, + of veal cuts, +Preparing chicken feet, + rabbit for cooking, +Principles of deep-fat frying, +Processes involved in making stock, +Protein in fish, + in meat, +Ptomaine poisoning, +Purchase of fish, + of meat, + of poultry, Economy in the, +Purchasing oysters, +Purée, Chestnut, + Split-pea, +Purées, +Purpose of soup in the meal, +Purposes of cooking meat, + +Q + +Quail, Selection of, +Quality in chicken, General marks of good, + of poultry, Effect of sex on, + of poultry, Influence of feeding and care on, + +R + +Rabbit for cooking, Preparing, + pie, + Roast, + Sautéd, +Rack of lamb, + of mutton, +Radishes and celery, +Raw clams, + oysters, +Red snapper, Food value and composition of, +Relative nutritive value of fish, +Removing grease from soup, + lobster from the shell, +Rib roast, Standing, + roasts, +Rice and meat patties, + Baked poultry with, + Chicken with, + Creamed salmon with, + Scalloped veal with, + stuffing, +Rigor mortis, +Roast beef, + chicken, + duck, + duck, Liver stuffing for, + duck, Peanut stuffing for, + fillet of venison, + goose, + leg of lamb, + leg of mutton, + leg of venison, + of lamb, Crown, + of pork, Crown, + pig, + pork, + Porterhouse, + poultry, Stuffing for, + rabbit, + saddle of mutton, + small birds, + Standing rib, + turkey, +Roasting, + chicken, +Roasts, Chuck, + Preparation of, + Rib, + Rump, + Veal, +Roe, Broiled shad, +Rolled steak, or mock duck, + steak, Stuffing for, +Rolls, Veal, +Rump roasts, + +S + +Saddle of lamb, + of mutton, + of mutton, Roast, +Salad, Chicken, + Mock chicken, + Veal, +Salmon, Boiled, + Composition and food value of canned, +Salmon mold, + mold, Dressing for, + patties, + with rice, Creamed, +Salt and smoked fish, Freshening, + and smoked fish in the diet, + and smoked fish, Table showing names, seasons, and uses of, + mackerel, Sautéd, + pork, +Sauce, Drawn-butter, + Egg, + for broiled venison, + Fried chicken with paprika, + Horseradish, + Lemon cream, + Mint, + Mushroom, + Nut, + Spanish, + Thin white, + Tomato, +Sauces for fish, +Sausage, Pork, +Sausages and meat preparations, +Sautéd fish, + halibut steak, + or broiled pork, + pickerel, + rabbit, + salt mackerel, + smelts, + tenderloin of pork, +Sautéing and frying, +Scaling a fish, +Scalloped lamb or mutton, + lobster, + oysters, + pork with cabbage, + veal with rice, +Scallops, Baked, + Composition and food value of, + Fried, + Oysters, clams, and, + Preparation of, +Scrapple, +Scrod with potato border, Broiled, +Sea food, +Seasons, and uses of fresh fish, Table showing the names, + and uses of smoked fish, Table showing the names, + for shell fish, + for shell fish, Table showing, +Second soup stock, +Selection of chicken, + of ducks, + of poultry, + of turkeys, +Serving and carving meat, +Serving and carving poultry, + soup, +Shad roe, Broiled, +Shell fish, + fish, Composition and food value of, + fish, Seasons for, + fish, Tables showing composition and food value of, + fish, Table showing seasons for, +Shrimp à La Salle, + Creamed, + General characteristics of lobsters, crabs, and, + Lobsters, crabs, and, + Nature of, + Preparation of, +Simmering, or stewing, +Singeing a chicken, +Sirloin steak, +Skinning fish, +Skirt steak, +Small birds, Preparation of, + birds, Roast, +Smelts, Sautéd, +Smoked fish, Freshening salt and, + fish in the diet, Salt and, + fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of, +Soft-shelled crabs, + -shelled crabs, Fried, +Soljinka, +Soup, + accompaniments and garnishes, + accompaniments, Recipes for, + and its place in the meal, + and soup accompaniments, + Clearing of, + Cooking meat for, + Cream-of-asparagus, + Cream-of-corn, + Cream-of-onion, + Cream-of-pea, + Cream-of-potato, + Cream-of-spinach, + Cream-of-tomato, + Definition of, + Economic value of, + extracts, + fritters, + General classes of, + in the meal, Purpose of, + in the meal, Value of, + Julienne, + making, Meat used for, + Making of, + making, Vegetables used for, + Mulligatawny, + Noodle, + Ox-tail, + Principal ingredients of, + Recipes for, + Removing grease from, + Serving, + stock, Meaning and use of, + stock, Uses of, + stock, Varieties of, + Thickening, + Value of, +Soups, Classification of, + Clear, + Cream, + denoting consistency, Classes of, + Heavy thick, + Thick, + typical of particular countries, +Spanish sauce, + stew, +Spinach soup, Cream-of-, +Split-pea purée, +Spring duck, + lamb, +Squabs, +Squirrel, Broiled, +Standing rib roast, +Steak, Club, + Delmonico, + Flat-bone, + Hamburger, + Hip-bone, + or cutlets, Veal, + Pan-broiled, + Planked, + Porterhouse, + Sautéd halibut, + Sirloin, + Skirt, + Stuffing for rolled, + Swiss, + Vegetables served with, +Steaks obtained from the beef loin, + obtained from the round, + Preparation of beef, +Steamed clams, + fish, +Stew, Beef, + Oyster, + Spanish, + Veal, +Stewed eel, + fish, + fresh herring, +Stewing and corning, Beef for, + or simmering, +Stews and corned beef, Preparation of, + Lamb and mutton, +Sticks, Bread, +Stock, Bone, +Stock, + First, + Fish, + flavoring, + for clear soup or bouillon, + for soup, + Game, + Household, + Keeping, + Meaning and use of soup, + pot, + pot, Food suitable for the, + pot, Nature, use, and care of, + Second, + Varieties of soup, + Vegetable, + White, +Stocks and clear soups, +Stomach sweetbread, +Strips, Pastry, +Structure and composition of meat, +Stuffed heart, + veal breast, +Stuffing, Bread, + Chestnut, + Cracker, + for fish, + for roast duck, Liver, + for roast poultry, + for rolled steak, + for veal, + Green-pepper, + Oyster, + Rice, +Suet, Trying out, +Sweetbread croquettes, + Heart, + Stomach, + Throat, +Sweetbreads, + Broiled, + Creamed, + Preparation of, +Swiss steak, + +T + +Table for the selection of poultry, + of cuts obtained from a side of beef and their uses, + of mutton and lamb cuts, + of pork cuts, + of veal cuts, + showing composition and food value of shell fish, + showing seasons for shell fish, + showing the comparison of fish and meat, + showing the names, seasons, and uses of fresh fish, + showing the names, seasons, and uses of smoked fish, +Tarhonya, +Tenderloin of beef, + of pork, + of pork, Sautéd, +Thick soups, +Thickening soup, +Thin white sauce, +Throat sweetbread, +Timbale-case batter, + cases, + iron, +Time required for cooking meat, +Tissue, Connective, +Toast, Minced lamb on, +Tomato bouillon, + sauce, + sauce, Pork chops and, + soup, Cream-of-, +Tomatoes, Bacon with, +Tongue, Boiled, + Braized, + Pickled, +Trout, Food value of lake, +Trying out suet, +Tuna fish, Creamed, +Turkey hash, + Preparation of, + Roast, +Turkeys, Selection of, +Turkish lamb, + +U + +Use of soup stock, + of stock pot, +Uses of beef cuts, + of fresh fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and, + of lamb and mutton cuts, + of smoked fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and, + of veal cuts, + +V + +Value of fish, Food, + of fish, Relative nutritive, + of meat as food, + of shell fish, Tables showing composition and food, + of soup in the meal, +Valves of an oyster, +Varieties and uses of soup stock, + of soup stock, +Veal, Bob, + breast, Stuffed, + chops, + Composition and food value of, + Cooking of, + croquettes, + cuts and their preparation, + cuts and their uses, + cuts, Table of, + cutlets in brown sauce, + Fore quarter of, + Hind quarter of, + Jellied, + kidneys, + Left-over, + Left-over jellied, + Nature of, + on biscuits, Creamed, + organs, + potpie, + roasts, + rolls, + salad, + steak or cutlets, Pan-broiled, + stew, + Stuffing for, + sweetbreads, Broiled, + sweetbreads, Creamed, + with rice, Scalloped, +Vegetable extracts, + soup with noodles, + stock, +Vegetables served with steak, + used for soup making, +Venison, Broiled, + Cuts of, + Roast fillet of, + Roast leg of, + Sauce for, + +W + +Water in meat, +White stock, +Whitefish, Baked fillet of, + Composition and food value of, +Wing tips of chicken, + +Y + +Yearling, Meaning of, +Young, or spring, duck, + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +Vol. 3, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 3 *** + +This file should be named 8loc310.txt or 8loc310.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8loc311.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8loc310a.txt + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, +Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + diff --git a/old/8loc310.zip b/old/8loc310.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ecc3a84 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8loc310.zip diff --git a/old/8loc310h.htm b/old/8loc310h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..35873fb --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8loc310h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11222 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOLUME THREE. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + <!-- + * { font-family: Times;} + P { text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + HR { width: 33%; } + // --> + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 3 +by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 3 + Volume 3: Soup; Meat; Poultry and Game; Fish and Shell Fish + +Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9937] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on November 2, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, +Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + +</pre> + + +<center> +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h1>WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY</h1> + +<h1>VOLUME THREE</h1> +<br> + +<h2>SOUP</h2> + +<h2>MEAT</h2> + +<h2>POULTRY AND GAME</h2> + +<h2>FISH AND SHELL FISH</h2> + + +<br><br> +<h3>WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.</h3> +</center> + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>This volume, which is the third of the Woman's Institute Library of +Cookery, includes soups and the high-protein foods, meat, poultry, game, +and fish. It therefore contains information that is of interest to every +housewife, for these foods occupy an important place in the majority +of meals.</p> + +<p>In her study of <i>Soup,</i> she will come to a thorough appreciation of the +place that soup occupies in the meal, its chief purposes, and its +economic value. All the different kinds of soups are classified and +discussed, recipes for making them, as well as the stocks used in their +preparation, receiving the necessary attention. The correct serving of +soup is not overlooked; nor are the accompaniments and garnishes so +often required to make the soup course of the meal an attractive one.</p> + +<p>In <i>Meat,</i> Parts 1 and 2, are described the various cuts of the +different kinds of meat--beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and pork--and the +part of the animal from which they are obtained, the way in which to +judge a good piece of meat by its appearance, and what to do with it +from the time it is purchased until all of it is used. All the methods +applicable to the cooking of meats are emphasized in this section. +Supplementing the text are numerous illustrations showing the ways in +which meat cuts are obtained. Besides, many of them are so reproduced +that actual cuts of meat may be readily recognized. Equipped with this +knowledge, the housewife need give no concern to the selection, care, +and cooking of every variety of meat.</p> + +<p>In <i>Poultry and Game,</i> the selection and preparation of all kinds of +poultry receive attention. While such food is somewhat of a luxury in a +great many homes, it helps to relieve the monotony of the usual protein +foods, and it often supplies just what is desired for special occasions. +Familiarity with poultry and game is a decided asset to any housewife, +and success with their cooking and serving is assured through a study +of this text, for every step in their preparation is clearly explained +and illustrated.</p> + +<p>In <i>Fish and Shell Fish,</i> the other high-protein food is treated in full +as to its composition, food value, purchase, care, and preparation. Such +interesting processes as the boning, skinning, and filleting of fish are +not only carefully explained but clearly illustrated. In addition to +recipes for fresh, salt, smoked, and canned fish are given directions +for the preparation of all edible shell fish and recipes for the various +stuffings and sauces served with fish.</p> + +<p>Too much cannot be said about the importance of the subjects covered in +this volume and the necessity for a thorough understanding of them on +the part of every housewife. Indeed, a mastery of them will mean for her +an acquaintance with the main part of the meal, and when she knows how +to prepare these foods, the other dishes will prove a simple matter.</p> +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> + + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<h3><a href="#SOUP">SOUP</a></h3> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#VALUE_OF_SOUP">Value of Soup</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CLASSIFICATION_OF_SOUPS">Classification of Soups</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#VALUE_OF_SOUP">Uses and Varieties of Soup Stock</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#THE_STOCK_POT">The Stock Pot</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PRINCIPAL_INGREDIENTS">Principal Ingredients in Soup</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PROCESSES_INVOLVED_IN_MAKING_STOCK">Processes Involved in Making Stock</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_SOUP">Serving Soup</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_SOUP_AND_SOUP_ACCOMPANIMENTS">Recipes for Soup and Soup Accompaniments</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#STOCKS_AND_CLEAR_SOUPS">Stocks and Clear Soups</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#HEAVY_THICK_SOUPS">Heavy Thick Soups</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CREAM_SOUPS">Cream Soups</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PUREES">Purées</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CHOWDERS">Chowders</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SOUP_ACCOMPANIMENTS_AND_GARNISHES">Soup Accompaniments and Garnishes</a><br></span> + +<h3><a href="#MEAT_(PART_1)">MEAT</a></h3> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#VALUE_OF_MEAT_AS_FOOD">Value of Meat as Food</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#STRUCTURE_AND_COMPOSITION_OF_MEAT">Structure and Composition of Meat</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PURCHASE_AND_CARE_OF_MEAT">Purchase and Care of Meat</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PURPOSES_OF_COOKING_MEAT">Purposes of Cooking Meat</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#METHODS_OF_COOKING_MEAT">Methods of Cooking Meat</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TIME_REQUIRED_FOR_COOKING_MEAT">Time Required for Cooking Meat</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#GENERAL_CHARACTERISTICS_OF_BEEF">Beef--General Characteristics</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CUTS_OF_BEEF">Cuts of Beef</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#STEAKS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Steaks and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#ROASTS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Roasts and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OP_STEWS_AND_CORNED_BEEF">Preparation of Stews and Corned Beef</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BEEF_ORGANS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Beef Organs and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MAKING_GRAVY">Making Gravy</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TRYING_OUT_SUET_AND_OTHER_FATS">Trying Out Suet and Other Fats</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_LEFT-OVER_BEEF">Preparation of Left-Over Beef</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#VEAL">Veal</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CUTS_OF_VEAL,_AND_THEIR_USES">Cuts of Veal and Their Uses</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#VEAL_CUTS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Veal Cuts and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#VEAL_ORGANS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Veal Organs and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_LEFT-OVER_VEAL">Preparation of Left-Over Veal</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#MUTTON_AND_LAMB">Mutton and Lamb--Comparison</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CUTS_OF_MUTTON_AND_LAMB">Cuts of Mutton and Lamb</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_ROASTS,_CHOPS,_AND_STEWS">Preparation of Roasts, Chops, and Stews</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_LEFT-OVER_LAMB_AND_MUTTON">Preparation of Left-Over Lamb and Mutton</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PORK">Pork</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CUTS_OF_PORK">Cuts of Pork</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FRESH_PORK_AND_ITS_PREPARATION">Fresh Pork and Its Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CURED_PORK_AND_ITS_PREPARATION">Cured Pork and Its Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OP_LEFT-OVER_PORK">Preparation of Left-Over Pork</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_AND_CARVING_OF_MEAT">Serving and Carving of Meat</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SAUSAGES_AND_MEAT_PREPARATIONS">Sausages and Meat Preparations</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PRINCIPLES_OF_DEEP-FAT_FRYING">Principles of Deep-Fat Frying</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#APPLICATION_OF_DEEP-FAT_FRYING">Application of Deep-Fat Frying</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#TIMBALE_CASES">Timbale Cases</a><br></span> + +<h3><a href="#POULTRY">POULTRY AND GAME</a></h3> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#POULTRY_AS_A_FOOD">Poultry as a Food</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SELECTION_OF_POULTRY">Selection of Poultry</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SELECTION_OF_CHICKEN">Selection of Chicken</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SELECTION_OF_POULTRY_OTHER_THAN_CHICKEN">Selection of Poultry Other Than Chicken</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#COMPOSITION_OF_POULTRY">Composition of Poultry</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_POULTRY_FOR_COOKING">Preparation of Chicken for Cooking</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PREPARATION_OF_POULTRY_OTHER_THAN_CHICKEN">Preparation of Poultry Other Than Chicken for Cooking</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#COOKING_OF_POULTRY">Cooking of Poultry</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#STUFFING_FOR_ROAST_POULTRY">Stuffing for Roast Poultry</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BONED_CHICKEN">Boned Chicken</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#DISHES_FROM_LEFT-OVER_POULTRY">Dishes from Left-Over Poultry</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SERVING_AND_CARVING_POULTRY">Serving and Carving of Poultry</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#GAME">Game</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_GAME">Recipes for Game</a><br></span> + +<h3><a href="#FISH_AND_SHELL_FISH">FISH AND SHELL FISH</a></h3> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FISH_IN_THE_DIET">Fish in the Diet</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#COMPOSITION_AND_FOOD_VALUE_OF_FISH">Composition and Food Value of Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#PURCHASE_AND_CARE_OF_FISH">Purchase and Care of Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CLEANING_FISH">Cleaning Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#BONING_FISH">Boning Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SKINNING_FISH">Skinning Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#FILLETING_FISH">Filleting Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#METHODS_OF_COOKING_FISH">Methods of Cooking Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_FISH_SAUCES_AND_STUFFINGS">Recipes for Fish Sauces and Stuffings</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_FRESH_FISH">Recipes for Fresh Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_SALT_AND_SMOKED_FISH">Recipes for Salt and Smoked Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_CANNED_FISH">Recipes for Canned Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#RECIPES_FOR_LEFT-OVER_FISH">Recipes for Left-Over Fish</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#NATURE,_VARIETIES,_AND_USE_OF_SHELL_FISH">Shell Fish--Nature, Varieties, and Use</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#OYSTERS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Oysters and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CLAMS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Clams and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SCALLOPS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Scallops and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#LOBSTERS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Lobsters and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#CRABS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Crabs and Their Preparation</a><br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em"><a href="#SHRIMP_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION">Shrimp and Their Preparation</a><br></span> + +<h3><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></h3> + + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<a name="SOUP"></a><h2>SOUP</h2> + +<b>SOUP AND ITS PLACE IN THE MEAL</b> + +<a name="VALUE_OF_SOUP"></a><h3>VALUE OF SOUP</h3> + +<p><b>1. SOUP</b> is a liquid food that is prepared by boiling meat or vegetables, +or both, in water and then seasoning and sometimes thickening the liquid +that is produced. It is usually served as the first course of a dinner, +but it is often included in a light meal, such as luncheon. While some +persons regard the making of soup as difficult, nothing is easier when +one knows just what is required and how to proceed. The purpose of this +Section, therefore, is to acquaint the housewife with the details of +soup making, so that she may provide her family with appetizing and +nutritious soups that make for both economy and healthfulness.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> It is interesting to note the advancement that has been made with +this food. The origin of soup, like that of many foods, dates back to +practically the beginning of history. However, the first soup known was +probably not made with meat. For instance, the mess of pottage for which +Esau sold his birthright was soup made of red lentils. Later on meat +came to be used as the basis for soup because of the agreeable and +appetizing flavor it provides. Then, at one time in France a scarcity of +butter and other fats that had been used to produce moistness and +richness in foods, brought about such clear soups as bouillon and +consommé. These, as well as other liquid foods, found much favor, for +about the time they were devised it came to be considered vulgar to chew +food. Thus, at various periods, and because of different emergencies, +particular kinds of soup have been introduced, until now there are many +kinds from which the housewife may choose when she desires a dish that +will start a meal in the right way and at the same time appeal to +the appetite.</p> + +<p><b>3. VALUE OF SOUP IN THE MEAL.</b>--Not all persons have the same idea +regarding the value of soup as a part of a meal. Some consider it to be +of no more value than so much water, claiming that it should be fed to +none but children or sick persons who are unable to take solid food. On +the other hand, many persons believe that soup contains the very essence +of all that is nourishing and sustaining in the foods of which it is +made. This difference of opinion is well demonstrated by the ideas that +have been advanced concerning this food. Some one has said that soup is +to a meal what a portico is to a palace or an overture to an opera, +while another person, who evidently does not appreciate this food, has +said that soup is the preface to a dinner and that any work really worth +while is sufficient in itself and needs no preface. Such opinions, +however, must be reconciled if the true value of this food is to be +appreciated.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> Probably the best way in which to come to a definite conclusion as to +the importance of soup is to consider the purposes it serves in a meal. +When its variety and the ingredients of which it is composed are thought +of, soup serves two purposes: first, as an appetizer taken at the +beginning of a meal to stimulate the appetite and aid in the flow of +digestive juices in the stomach; and, secondly, as an actual part of the +meal, when it must contain sufficient nutritive material to permit it to +be considered as a part of the meal instead of merely an addition. Even +in its first and minor purpose, the important part that soup plays in +many meals is not hard to realize, for it is just what is needed to +arouse the flagging appetite and create a desire for nourishing food. +But in its second purpose, the real value of soup is evident. Whenever +soup contains enough nutritive material for it to take the place of some +dish that would otherwise be necessary, its value cannot be +overestimated.</p> + +<p>If soup is thought of in this way, the prejudice that exists against it +in many households will be entirely overcome. But since much of this +prejudice is due to the fact that the soup served is often unappetizing +in both flavor and appearance, sufficient attention should be given to +the making of soup to have this food attractive enough to appeal to the +appetite rather than discourage it. Soup should not be greasy nor +insipid in flavor, neither should it be served in large quantities nor +without the proper accompaniment. A small quantity of well-flavored, +attractively served soup cannot fail to meet the approval of any family +when it is served as the first course of the meal.</p> + +<p><b>5. GENERAL CLASSES OF SOUP.</b>--Soups are named in various ways, according +to material, quality, etc.; but the two purposes for which soup is used +have led to the placing of the numerous kinds into two general classes. +In the first class are grouped those which serve as appetizers, such as +bouillon, consommé, and some other broths and clear soups. In the second +class are included those eaten for their nutritive effect, such as cream +soups, purées, and bisques. From these two classes of soup, the one that +will correspond with the rest of the meal and make it balance properly +is the one to choose. For instance, a light soup that is merely an +appetizer should be served with a heavy dinner, whereas a heavy, highly +nutritious soup should be used with a luncheon or a light meal.</p> + +<p><b>6. ECONOMIC VALUE OF SOUP.</b>--Besides having an important place in the +meal of which it forms a part, soup is very often an economy, for it +affords the housewife a splendid opportunity to utilize many left-overs. +With the French people, who excel in the art of soup making chiefly +because of their clever adaptation of seasoning to foods, their +<i>pot-au-feu</i> is a national institution and every kitchen has its stock +pot. Persons who believe in the strictest food economy use a stock pot, +since it permits left-overs to be utilized in an attractive and +palatable way. In fact, there is scarcely anything in the way of fish, +meat, fowl, vegetables, and cereals that cannot be used in soup making, +provided such ingredients are cared for in the proper way. Very often +the first glance at the large number of ingredients listed in a soup +recipe creates the impression that soup must be a very complicated +thing. Such, however, is not the case. In reality, most of the soup +ingredients are small quantities of things used for flavoring, and it is +by the proper blending of these that appetizing soups are secured.</p> +<br> + +<a name="CLASSIFICATION_OF_SOUPS"></a><h3>CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS</h3> + +<p><b>7.</b> The two general classes of soup already mentioned permit of numerous +methods of classification. For instance, soups are sometimes named from +the principal ingredient or an imitation of it, as the names potato +soup, beef soup, macaroni soup, mock-turtle soup testify. Again, both +stimulating and nutritious soups may be divided into thin and thick +soups, thin soups usually being clear, and thick soups, because of their +nature, cloudy. When the quality of soups is considered, they are placed +in still different classes and are called broth, bisque, consommé, +purée, and so on. Another important classification of soups results from +the nationality of the people who use them. While soups are classified +in other ways, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes if the +housewife understands these three principal classes.</p> + +<p><b>8. CLASSES DENOTING CONSISTENCY.</b>--As has already been pointed out, soups +are of only two kinds when their consistency is thought of, namely, +<i>clear soups</i> and <i>thick soups.</i></p> + +<p><b>CLEAR SOUPS</b> are those made from carefully cleared stock, or soup +foundation, and flavored or garnished with a material from which the +soup usually takes its name. There are not many soups of this kind, +<i>bouillon</i> and <i>consommé</i> being the two leading varieties, but in order +to be palatable, they require considerable care in making.</p> + +<p><b>THICK SOUPS</b> are also made from stock, but milk, cream, water, or any +mixture of these may also be used as a basis, and to it may be added for +thickening meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, or grain or some other starchy +material. Soups of this kind are often made too thick, and as such soups +are not appetizing, care must be taken to have them just right in +consistency.</p> + +<p><b>9. CLASSES DENOTING QUALITY.</b>--When attention is given to the quality of +soup, this food divides itself into several varieties, namely, <i>broth, +cream soup, bisque, chowder,</i> and <i>purée.</i></p> + +<p><b>BROTHS</b> have for their foundation a clear stock. They are sometimes a +thin soup, but other times they are made quite thick with vegetables, +rice, barley, or other material, when they are served as a substantial +part of a meal.</p> + +<p><b>CREAM SOUPS</b> are highly nutritious and are of great variety. They have +for their foundation a thin cream sauce, but to this are always added +vegetables, meat, fish, or grains.</p> + +<p><b>BISQUES</b> are thick, rich soups made from game, fish, or shell fish, +particularly crabs, shrimp, etc. Occasionally, vegetables are used in +soup of this kind.</p> + +<p><b>CHOWDERS</b> are soups that have sea food for their basis. Vegetables and +crackers are generally added for thickening and to impart flavor.</p> + +<p><b>PURÉES</b> are soups made thick partly or entirely by the addition of some +material obtained by boiling an article of food and then straining it to +form a pulp. When vegetables containing starch, such as beans, peas, +lentils, and potatoes, are used for this purpose, it is unnecessary to +thicken the soup with any additional starch; but when meat, fish, or +watery vegetables are used, other thickening is required. To be right, a +purée should be nearly as smooth as thick cream and of the same +consistency.</p> + +<p><b>10. CLASSES TYPICAL OF PARTICULAR COUNTRIES.</b>--Certain kinds of soup have +been made so universally by the people of various countries that they +have come to be regarded as national dishes and are always thought of as +typical of the particular people by whom they are used. Among the best +known of these soups are <i>Borsch,</i> a soup much used by the Russian +people and made from beets, leeks, and sour cream; <i>Daikan,</i> a Japanese +soup in which radishes are the principal ingredient; <i>Kouskous,</i> a soup +favored by the people of Abyssinia and made from vegetables; <i>Krishara</i>, +a rice soup that finds much favor in India; <i>Lebaba,</i> an Egyptian soup +whose chief ingredients are honey, butter, and raisin water; <i>Minestra,</i> +an Italian soup in which vegetables are combined; <i>Mulligatawny,</i> an +Indian rice soup that is flavored with curry; <i>Potroka,</i> another kind of +Russian soup, having giblets for its foundation; <i>Soljinka,</i> an entirely +different variety of Russian soup, being made from fish and onions; and +<i>Tarhonya,</i> a Hungarian soup containing noodles.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> +<br> + +<b>STOCK FOR SOUP</b><br><br> + +<b>USES AND VARIETIES OF STOCK</b><br><br> + +<p><b>11. MEANING AND USE OF STOCK.</b>--In order that soup-making processes may +be readily grasped by the housewife, she should be thoroughly familiar +with what is meant by <i>stock,</i> which forms the foundation of many soups. +In looking into the derivation of this term, it will be found that the +word stock comes from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning to stick, and that +while it has many different uses, the idea of fixedness is expressed in +every one of them. As is generally known, a stock of anything means a +reserve supply of that thing stored away for future use. When applied to +soup, stock is similar in meaning, for it refers to material stored or +prepared in such a way that it may be kept for use in the making of +certain kinds of soup. In a more definite sense, soup stock may be +regarded as a liquid containing the juices and soluble parts of meat, +bone, and vegetables, which have been extracted by long, slow cooking +and which can be utilized in the making of soups, sauces, and gravies.</p> + +<p><b>12.</b> Soups in which stock is utilized include all the varieties made from +beef, veal, mutton, and poultry. If clear stock is desired for the +making of soup, only fresh meat and bones should be used and all +material that will discolor the liquid in any way carefully avoided. For +ordinary, unclarified soups, the trimmings and bones of roast, steak, or +chops and the carcass of fowl can generally be utilized. However, very +strongly flavored meat, such as mutton, or the fat from mutton should be +used sparingly, if at all, on account of the strong flavor that +it imparts.</p> + +<p><b>13. VARIETIES OF STOCK.</b>--Several kinds of stock are utilized in the +making of soup, and the kind to employ depends on the soup desired. In +determining the kind of stock required for the foundation of a soup, the +housewife may be guided by the following classification:</p> + +<p><b>FIRST STOCK</b> is made from meat and bones and then clarified and used for +well-flavored, clear soups.</p> + +<p><b>SECOND STOCK</b> is made from the meat and the bones that remain after the +first stock is strained off. More water is added to the remaining +material, and this is then cooked with vegetables, which supply the +needed flavor. Such stock serves very well for adding flavor to a +nutritious soup made from vegetables or cereal foods.</p> + +<p><b>HOUSEHOLD STOCK</b> is made by cooking meat and bones, either fresh or +cooked, with vegetables or other material that will impart flavor and +add nutritive value. Stock of this kind is used for ordinary soups.</p> + +<p><b>BONE STOCK</b> is made from meat bones to which vegetables are added for +flavor, and it is used for making any of the ordinary soups.</p> + +<p><b>VEGETABLE STOCK</b> is made from either dried or fresh vegetables or both. +Such stock is employed in making vegetable soups.</p> + +<p><b>GAME STOCK</b> is made from the bones and trimmings of game to which +vegetables are added for flavor. This kind of stock is used for making +game soups.</p> + +<p><b>FISH STOCK</b> is made from fish or fish trimmings to which vegetables are +added for flavor. Shell fish make especially good stock of this kind. +Fish stock is employed for making chowders and fish soups.</p> + +<p><b>14. ADDITIONAL USES OF STOCK.</b>--As has already been shown, stock is used +principally as a foundation for certain varieties of soup. This +material, however, may be utilized in many other ways, being especially +valuable in the use of left-over foods. Any bits of meat or fowl that +are left over can be made into an appetizing dish by adding thickened +stock to them and serving the combination over toast or rice. In fact, a +large variety of made dishes can be devised if there is stock on hand to +add for flavor. The convenience of a supply of stock will be apparent +when it is realized that gravy or sauce for almost any purpose can be +made from the contents of the stock pot.</p> + +<p><b>15. SOUP EXTRACTS.</b>--If a housewife does not have sufficient time to go +through the various processes involved in making soup, her family need +not be deprived of this article of diet, for there are a number of +concentrated meat and vegetable extracts on the market for making soups +quickly. The <i>meat extracts</i> are made of the same flavoring material as +that which is drawn from meat in the making of stock. Almost all the +liquid is evaporated and the result is a thick, dark substance that must +be diluted greatly with water to obtain the basis for a soup or a broth. +Some of the <i>vegetable extracts,</i> such as Japanese soy and English +marmite, are so similar in appearance and taste to the meat extracts as +to make it quite difficult to detect any difference. Both varieties of +these extracts may be used for sauces and gravies, as well as for soups, +but it should be remembered that they are not highly nutritious and are +valuable merely for flavoring.</p> +<br> + +<a name="THE_STOCK_POT"></a><h3>THE STOCK POT</h3> + +<p><b>16. NATURE, USE, AND CARE OF STOCK POT.</b>--Among the utensils used for +cooking there is probably none more convenient and useful than the stock +pot. It is nothing more or less than a covered crock or pot like that +shown in Fig. 1, into which materials that will make a well-flavored +stock are put from time to time. From such a supply, stock can be drawn +when it is needed for soup; then, when some is taken out, more water +and materials may be added to replenish the pot. The stock pot should be +made of either enamel or earthenware, since a metal pot of any kind is +liable to impart flavor to the food. Likewise, its lid, or cover, should +be tight-fitting, for then it will be an excellent utensil in which the +materials may be stored until they are to be heated, when they can be +poured or dipped into a saucepan or a kettle.</p> + +<p>The stock pot, like any other utensil used for making soup, should +receive considerable care, as it must be kept scrupulously clean. No +stock pot should ever be allowed to stand from day to day without being +emptied, thoroughly washed, and then exposed to the air for a while +to dry.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1]</p> + +<p><b>17. FOOD SUITABLE FOR THE STOCK POT.</b>--Some one has said that nothing +edible is out of place in the stock pot, and, to a great extent, this +statement is true. Here should be put the bones from the cooked roast, +as well as the trimmings cut from it before it went into the oven; the +tough ends and bones of beefsteak; the trimmings or bones sent home by +the butcher; the carcasses of fowls, together with any remains of +stuffing and tough or left-over bits of meat; any left-over vegetables; +the remains of the gravy or any unsweetened sauces used for meats or +vegetables; the spoonful of left-over hash, stew, or stuffing; a +left-over stuffed tomato or pepper; and the water in which rice, +macaroni, or certain vegetables have been cooked. Of course, plain water +can be used for the liquid, but the water in which such vegetables as +cauliflower, carrots, beans, peas, asparagus, celery, and potatoes have +been cooked is especially desirable, for, besides imparting flavor to +the soup, it adds valuable mineral salts. However, when such things as +left-over cereals, rice, macaroni, and green vegetables are to be +utilized in soup, they should not be put in the stock pot; rather, they +should be added to the stock after it is removed from the pot.</p> +<br><br> + +<b>MAKING OF SOUP</b> + +<a name="PRINCIPAL_INGREDIENTS"></a><h3>PRINCIPAL INGREDIENTS</h3> + +<p><b>18.</b> The making of the stock that is used in soup is the most important +of the soup-making processes; in fact, these two things--soup and +stock--may be regarded, in many instances, as one and the same. The +housewife will do well, therefore, to keep in mind that whenever +reference is made to the making of soup usually stock making is also +involved and meant. Before the actual soup-making processes are taken +up, however, the nature of the ingredients required should be well +understood; for this reason, suitable meats and vegetables, which are +the principal ingredients in soups, are first discussed.</p> + +<p><b>19. MEAT USED FOR SOUP MAKING.</b>--With the exception of pork, almost every +kind of meat, including beef, veal, mutton, lamb, game, and poultry, is +used for soup making. Occasionally, ham is employed, but most other +forms of pork are seldom used to any extent. When soup stock is made +from these meats, they may be cooked separately, or, as a combination is +often an improvement over a single variety, several kinds may be +combined. For instance, mutton used alone makes a very strongly flavored +soup, so that it is usually advisable to combine this kind of meat with +another meat that has a less distinctive flavor. On the other hand, veal +alone does not have sufficient flavor, so it must be combined with lamb, +game, fowl, or some other well-flavored meat.</p> + +<p><b>20.</b> Certain cuts of meats are preferred to others in the making of +soups, because of the difference in their texture. The tender cuts, +which are the expensive ones, should not be used for soups, as they do +not produce enough flavor. The tough cuts, which come from the muscles +that the animal uses constantly and that therefore grow hard and tough, +are usually cheaper, but they are more suitable, because they contain +the material that makes the best soup. The pieces best adapted to soup +making are the shins, the shanks, the lower part of the round, the neck, +the flank, the shoulder, the tail, and the brisket. The parts of the +animal from which these cuts are taken are clearly shown in Fig. 2. +Although beef is obtained from the animal shown, the same cuts come from +practically the same places in other animals. Stock made from one of +these cuts will be improved if a small amount of the fat of the meat is +cooked with it; but to avoid soup that is too greasy, any excess fat +that remains after cooking should be carefully removed. The marrow of +the shin bone is the best fat for soup making.</p> + +<p>If soup is to be made from fish, a white variety should be selected. The +head and trimmings may be utilized, but these alone are not sufficient, +because soup requires some solid pieces of meat. The same is true of +meat bones; they are valuable only when they are used with meat, an +equal proportion of bone and meat being required for the best stock.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 2]</p> + +<p><b>21. VEGETABLES USED FOR SOUP MAKING.</b>--In soup making, the housewife has +also a large number of vegetables from which to select, for any +vegetable that has a decided flavor may be used. Among those from which +soups can be made successfully are cabbage, cauliflower, asparagus, +corn, onions, turnips, carrots, parsnips, tomatoes, beans, peas, +lentils, salsify, potatoes, spinach, celery, mushrooms, okra, and even +sweet potatoes. These vegetables are used for two purposes: to provide +flavoring and to form part of the soup itself as well as to furnish +flavor. When they are used simply for flavoring, they are cooked until +their flavor is obtained and then removed from the stock. When they are +to form part of the soup, as well as to impart flavor, they are left in +the soup in small pieces or made into a purée and eaten with the soup.</p> + +<p>Attention, too, must be given to the condition of the vegetables that +are used in soup. The fresh vegetables that are used should be in +perfect condition. They should have no decayed places that might taint +or discolor the soups, and they should be as crisp and solid as +possible. If they are somewhat withered or faded, they can be freshened +by allowing them to stand in cold water for a short time. When dried +vegetables are to be used for soup making, they should first be soaked +well in cold water and then, before being added to the stock, either +partly cooked or entirely cooked and made into a purée.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PROCESSES_INVOLVED_IN_MAKING_STOCK"></a><h3>PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MAKING STOCK</h3> + +<p><b>22.</b> Although the making of stock or soup is a simple process, it must +necessarily be a rather long one. The reason for this is that all flavor +cannot be drawn from the soup materials unless they are subjected to +long, slow cooking at a temperature lower than the boiling point. With +this point definitely understood, the actual work of soup making may +be taken up.</p> + +<p><b>23. COOKING MEAT FOR SOUP.</b>--When clear stock is to be made from fresh +meat, the required quantity of meat should be cut into small pieces +rather than large ones, so as to expose as much of the surface as +possible from which the flavor of the meat can be drawn. A little more +flavor is obtained and a brown color developed if a small part, perhaps +a fourth, of the pieces of meat are first browned in the frying pan. The +pieces thus browned, together with the pieces of fresh meat, are put +into a kettle and a quart of cold water for each pound of meat is +then added.</p> + +<p>The reason for using cold rather than hot water will be evident when the +action of water on raw meat is understood. The fiber of meat is composed +of innumerable thread-like tubes containing the flavor that is to be +drawn out into the water in order to make the stock appetizing. When the +meat is cut, these tiny tubes are laid open. Putting the meat thus +prepared into cold water and allowing it to heat gradually tend to +extract the contents of the tubes. This material is known as +<i>extractives</i>, and it contains in its composition stimulating +substances. On the other hand, plunging the meat into hot water and +subjecting it quickly to a high temperature will coagulate the protein +in the tissue and prevent the extractives from leaving the tubes.</p> + +<p><b>24.</b> To obtain the most flavor from meat that is properly prepared, it +should be put over a slow fire and allowed to come gradually to the +boiling point. As the water approaches the boiling point, a scum +consisting of coagulated albumin, blood, and foreign material will begin +to rise to the top, but this should be skimmed off at once and the +process of skimming continued until no scum remains. When the water +begins to boil rapidly, either the fire should be lowered or the kettle +should be removed to a cooler part of the stove so that the water will +bubble only enough for a very slight motion to be observed. Throughout +the cooking, the meat should not be allowed to boil violently nor to +cease bubbling entirely.</p> + +<p>The meat should be allowed to cook for at least 4 hours, but longer if +possible. If, during this long cooking, too much water evaporates, more +should be added to dilute the stock. The salt that is required for +seasoning may be added just a few minutes before the stock is removed +from the kettle. However, it is better to add the salt, together with +the other seasonings, after the stock has been drawn off, for salt, like +heat, has a tendency to harden the tissues of meat and to prevent the +flavor from being readily extracted.</p> + +<p><b>25.</b> Although, as has been explained, flavor is drawn from the fibers of +meat by boiling it slowly for a long time, the cooking of meat for soup +does not extract the nourishment from it to any extent. In reality, the +meat itself largely retains its original nutritive value after it has +been cooked for soup, although a small quantity of protein is drawn out +and much of the fat is removed. This meat should never be wasted; +rather, it should be used carefully with materials that will take the +place of the flavor that has been cooked from it.</p> + +<p><b>26. FLAVORING STOCK.</b>--It is the flavoring of stock that indicates real +skill in soup making, so this is an extremely important part of the +work. In fact, the large number of ingredients found in soup recipes +are, as a rule, the various flavorings, which give the distinctive +flavor and individuality to a soup. However, the housewife whose +larder will not produce all of the many things that may be called for in +a recipe should not feel that she must forego making a particular kind +of soup. Very often certain spices or certain flavoring materials may be +omitted without any appreciable difference, or something that is on hand +may be substituted for an ingredient that is lacking.</p> + +<p><b>27.</b> The flavorings used most for soup include cloves, peppercorns, +red, black, and white pepper, paprika, bay leaf, sage, marjoram, thyme, +summer savory, tarragon, celery seed, fennel, mint, and rosemary. While +all of these are not absolutely necessary, the majority of them may well +be kept on the pantry shelf. In addition, a bottle of Worcestershire +sauce should be kept on hand. Celery and parsley, which are also much +used for flavoring, can usually be purchased fresh, but as they are +scarce at times it is advisable to dry some of the leaves during the +season when they can be secured, so as to have a supply when they are +not in the market. A small amount of lemon peel often improves soup, so +some of this should be kept in store. Another group of vegetables that +lend themselves admirably to soup flavoring includes leeks, shallots, +chives, garlic, and onions, all of which belong to the same family. They +must be used judiciously, however, as a strong flavor of any of them is +offensive to most persons.</p> + +<p><b>28.</b> As many of the flavorings used for soup lose their strength when +they are exposed to the air, every effort should be made to keep them in +good condition. Many of them can be kept an indefinite length of time if +they are placed in tightly closed metal boxes or glass jars. Flavorings +and spices bought from the grocer or the druggist in paper packages +should be transferred to, and enclosed in, a receptacle that will not +allow them to deteriorate. If proper attention is given to these +materials, the supply will not have to be replenished often; likewise, +the cost of a sufficient number to produce the proper flavorings will be +very slight.</p> + +<p><b>29.</b> In the use of any of the flavorings mentioned or the strongly +flavored vegetables, care should be taken not to allow any one +particular flavor to predominate. Each should be used in such quantity +that it will blend well with the others. A very good way in which to fix +spices and herbs that are to flavor soup is to tie them in a small piece +of cheesecloth and drop the bag thus made into the soup pot. When +prepared in this way, they will remain together, so that, while the +flavor can be cooked out, they can be more readily removed from the +liquid than if they are allowed to spread through the contents of the +pot. Salt, which is, of course, always used to season soup, should be +added in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful to each quart of liquid.</p> + +<p><b>30. REMOVING GREASE FROM SOUP.</b>--A greasy soup is always unpalatable. +Therefore, a very important feature of soup making, whether a thin or a +thick soup is being made, is the removal of all grease. Various ways of +removing grease have been devised, depending on whether the soup is hot +or cold. In the case of hot or warm soup, all the grease that it is +possible to remove with a spoon may be skimmed from the top, and the +remainder then taken up with a piece of clean blotting paper, +tissue-paper, or absorbent cotton. Another plan, by which the fat may be +hardened and then collected, consists in tying a few small pieces of ice +in a piece of cloth and drawing them over the surface of the soup. A +very simple method is to allow the soup or stock to become cold, and +then remove the fat, which collects on the top and hardens, by merely +lifting off the cake that forms.</p> + +<p><b>31. CLEARING SOUP.</b>--Sometimes it is desired to improve the appearance of +soup stock, particularly a small amount of soup that is to be served at +a very dainty luncheon or dinner. In order to do this, the stock may be +treated by a certain process that will cause it to become clear. After +being cleared, it may be served as a thin soup or, if it is heavy +enough, it may be made into a clear, sparkling jelly into which many +desirable things may be molded for salad or for a dish to accompany a +heavy course. Clearing soup is rather extravagant; however, while it +does not improve the taste, it does improve the appearance.</p> + +<p>A very satisfactory way in which to clear stock is to use egg whites and +crushed egg shell. To each quart of cold stock should be added the +crushed shell and a slightly beaten egg white. These should be mixed +well, placed on the fire, and the mixture stirred constantly until it +boils. As the egg coagulates, some of the floating particles in the +stock are caught and carried to the top, while others are carried to the +bottom by the particles of shell as they settle. After the mixture has +boiled for 5 or 10 minutes, the top should be skimmed carefully and the +stock then strained through a fine cloth. When it has been reheated, the +cleared stock will be ready to serve.</p> + +<p><b>32. THICKENING SOUP.</b>--Although thin, clear soups are preferred by some +and are particularly desirable for their stimulating effect, thick soups +find much favor when they are used to form a substantial part of a meal. +Besides giving consistency to soup, thickening usually improves the +flavor, but its chief purpose is to give nutritive value to this food. +In fact, whenever a soup is thickened, its food value is increased by +the ingredient thus added. For this reason, it is advisable to thicken +soups when they are desired for any other purpose than their +stimulating effect.</p> + +<p><b>33.</b> The substance used to thicken soups may be either a starchy material +or food or a purée of some food. The starchy materials generally used +for this purpose are plain flour, browned flour, corn starch, and +arrowroot flour. Any one of these should be moistened with enough cold +water to make a mixture that will pour easily, and then added to the hot +liquid while the soup is stirred constantly to prevent the formation of +lumps. A sufficient amount of this thickening material should be used to +make a soup of the consistency of heavy cream.</p> + +<p>The starchy foods that are used for thickening include rice, barley, +oatmeal, noodles, tapioca, sago, and macaroni. Many unusual and fancy +forms of macaroni can be secured, or the plain varieties of Italian +pastes may be broken into small pieces and cooked with the soup. When +any of these foods are used, they should be added long enough before the +soup is removed to be cooked thoroughly.</p> + +<p>Purées of beans, peas, lentils, potatoes, and other vegetables are +especially desirable for the thickening of soups, for they not only give +consistency, but add nutritive value and flavor as well. Another +excellent thickening may be obtained by beating raw eggs and then adding +them carefully to the soup just before it is to be served. After eggs +have been added for thickening, the soup should not be allowed to boil, +as it is liable to curdle.</p> + +<p><b>34. KEEPING STOCK.</b>--Soup stock, like many other foods, spoils quite +readily. Therefore, in order to keep it for at least a few days, it must +receive proper attention. At all times, the vessel containing stock +should be tightly closed and, especially in warm weather, the stock +should be kept as cold as possible. Stock that is heavy enough to +solidify into a jellylike consistency when it is cold will keep better +than stock that remains liquid. The addition of salt or any spicy +flavoring also helps to keep stock from deteriorating, because these +materials act as preservatives and prevent the action of bacteria that +cause spoiling. Bacteria may be kept from entering soup if, instead of +removing the grease, it is allowed to form in a solid cake over the +top. No matter which of these precautions is taken to prevent stock from +spoiling, it should be heated to boiling point once a day when it is to +be kept for several days.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SERVING_SOUP"></a><h3>SERVING SOUP</h3> + +<p><b>35.</b> Soup may be correctly served in several different ways, the method +to adopt usually depending on the kind of soup. Thin, clear soups are +generally served in bouillon cups, as shown in Fig. 3, which may be +placed on the table immediately before the family assembles or passed +after the members are seated. Heavier soups may be served at the table +from a soup tureen, or each person's portion may be served before the +family comes to the table. For soups of this kind, the flat soup plate, +like that shown in Fig. 4, is found preferable.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 3]</p> + +<p>The spoon to be served with soup also depends on the kind of soup, but a +larger spoon than a teaspoon is always necessary. When soup is served in +a soup plate, a dessert spoon is used, as will be observed in Fig. 4. A +bouillon spoon is the best kind to use with any thin soup served in +bouillon cups. Such a spoon, as shown in Fig. 3, is about the length of +a teaspoon, but has a round bowl.</p> + +<p><b>36.</b> To increase the attractiveness of soup and at the same time make it +more appetizing and nutritious, various accompaniments and relishes are +served with it. When the accompaniment is in the form of crackers, +croutons, or bread sticks, they may be passed after the soup is served, +or, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, a few of them may be placed on the +bread-and-butter plate at each person's place. The relishes should be +passed while the soup is being eaten. Plain whipped cream or whipped +cream into which a little mashed pimiento has been stirred adds much to +the flavor and appearance of soup when served on the top of any hot or +cold variety. Then, too, many soups, especially vegetable soups, are +improved in flavor by the addition of a spoonful of grated cheese, which +should be sprinkled into the dish at the time of serving. For this +purpose, a hard, dry cheese, such as Parmesan, which can often be +purchased already grated in bottles, is the most satisfactory.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 4]</p> + +<p><b>37.</b> In summer, clear soups are sometimes served cold, as cold soups are +found more desirable for warm weather than hot ones. However, when a +soup is intended to be hot, it should be hot when it is ready to be +eaten, and every effort should be made to have it in this condition if +an appetizing soup is desired. This can be accomplished if the soup is +thoroughly heated before it is removed from the stove and the dishes in +which it is to be served are warmed before the soup is put into them.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_SOUP_AND_SOUP_ACCOMPANIMENTS"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR SOUP AND SOUP ACCOMPANIMENTS</h3> + +<b>NECESSITY FOR CAREFUL WORK</b><br><br> + +<p><b>38.</b> So that the housewife may put into practice the knowledge she has +gained about soup making, there are here given recipes for various kinds +of soup. As will be observed, these recipes are classified according to +the consistency and nature of the soups, all those of one class being +placed in the same group. As it is important, too, for the housewife to +know how to prepare the various accompaniments and garnishes that are +generally served with soup, directions for the making of these are also +given and they follow the soup recipes.</p> + +<p><b>39.</b> In carrying out these recipes, it will be well to note that +exactness in fulfilling the requirements and care in working out the +details of the recipes are essential. These points cannot be ignored in +the making of soup any more than in other parts of cookery, provided +successful results and excellent appearance are desired. It is therefore +wise to form habits of exactness. For instance, when vegetables are to +be cut for soups, they should be cut into pieces of equal size, or, if +they are to be diced, they should be cut so that the dice are alike. All +the pieces must be of the same thickness in order to insure uniform +cooking; if this precaution is not observed, some of the pieces are +likely to overcook and fall to pieces before the others are done.</p> + +<p>Strict attention should also be given to the preparation of other +ingredients and the accompaniments. The meat used must be cut very +carefully rather than in ragged, uneven pieces. Noodles, which are often +used in soup, may be of various widths; but all those used at one time +should be uniform in width--that is, all wide or all narrow. If +different widths are used, an impression of careless cutting will be +given. Croutons and bread sticks, to be most satisfactory, should be cut +straight and even, and, in order to toast uniformly, all those made at +one time should be of the same size.</p> +<br> + +<a name="STOCKS_AND_CLEAR_SOUPS"></a><h3>STOCKS AND CLEAR SOUPS</h3> + +<p><b>40. Stock for Clear Soup or Bouillon.</b>--A plain, but well-flavored, beef +stock may be made according to the accompanying recipe and used as a +basis for any clear soup served as bouillon without the addition of +anything else. However, as the addition of rice, barley, chopped +macaroni, or any other such food will increase the food value of the +soup, any of them may be supplied to produce a more nutritious soup. +When this stock is served clear, it should be used as the first course +in a comparatively heavy meal.</p> + +<b>STOCK FOR CLEAR SOUP OR BOUILLON</b> + +<ul> +<li>4 lb. beef</li> +<li>4 qt. cold water</li> +<li>1 medium-sized onion</li> +<li>1 stalk celery</li> +<li>2 sprigs parsley</li> +<li></li> +<li>6 whole cloves</li> +<li>12 peppercorns</li> +<li>1 bay leaf</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cut the meat into small pieces. Pour the cold water over it, place on a +slow fire, and let it come to a boil. Skim off all scum that rises to +the top. Cover tightly and keep at the simmering point for 6 to 8 hours. +Then strain and remove the fat. Add the onion and celery cut into +pieces, the parsley, cloves, peppercorns, and bay leaf. Simmer gently +for about 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper to taste. Strain through +a cloth.</p> + +<p><b>41. Household Stock.</b>--If it is desired to make a stock that may be kept +on hand constantly and that may be used as a foundation for various +kinds of soups, sauces, and gravies, or as a broth for making casserole +dishes, household stock will be found very satisfactory. Such stock made +in quantity and kept in a sufficiently cool place may be used for +several days before it spoils. Since most of the materials used in this +stock cannot be put to any other particularly good use, and since the +labor required in making it is slight, this may be regarded as an +extremely economical stock.</p> + +<b>HOUSEHOLD STOCK</b> + +<ul> +<li>3 qt. cold water</li> +<li>3 lb. meat (trimmings of fresh</li> +<li>meat, bones, and tough pieces</li> +<li>from roasts, steaks, etc.)</li> +<li>1 medium-sized onion</li> +<li>4 cloves</li> +<li>6 peppercorns</li> +<li>Herbs</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Pour the cold water over the meat and bones and put them on the fire to +cook. When they come to a boil skim well. Then cover and simmer 4 to 6 +hours. Add the onion, cloves, peppercorns, and herbs and cook for +another hour. Add salt and pepper to taste. Strain and set aside to +cool. Remove the fat.</p> + +<p><b>42. White Stock.</b>--An especially nice broth having a delicate flavor and +generally used for special functions when an attractive meal is being +served to a large number of persons is made from veal and fowl and known +as white stock. If allowed to remain in a cool place, this stock will +solidify, and then it may be used as the basis for a jellied meat +dish or salad.</p> + +<b>WHITE STOCK</b> + +<ul> +<li>5 lb. veal</li> +<li>1 fowl, 3 or 4 lb.</li> +<li>8 qt. cold water</li> +<li>2 medium-sized onions</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 stalks celery</li> +<li>1 blade mace</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cut the veal and fowl into pieces and add the cold water. Place on a +slow fire, and let come gradually to the boiling point. Skim carefully +and place where it will simmer gently for 6 hours. Slice the onions, +brown slightly in the butter, and add to the stock with the celery and +mace. Salt and pepper to suit taste. Cook 1 hour longer and then strain +and cool. Remove the fat before using.</p> + +<p><b>43. Consommé.</b>--One of the most delicious of the thin, clear broths is +consommé. This is usually served plain, but any material that will not +cloud it, such as finely diced vegetables, green peas, tiny pieces of +fowl or meat, may, if desired, be added to it before it is served. As a +rule, only a very small quantity of such material is used for +each serving.</p> + +<b>CONSOMMÉ</b> + +<ul> +<li>4 lb. lower round of beef</li> +<li>4 lb. shin of veal</li> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>8 qt. cold water</li> +<li>1 small carrot</li> +<li>1 large onion</li> +<li>2 stalks celery</li> +<li>12 peppercorns</li> +<li>5 cloves</li> +<li>4 sprigs parsley</li> +<li>Pinch summer savory</li> +<li>Pinch thyme</li> +<li>2 bay leaves</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cut the beef and veal into small pieces. Put the butter and meat into +the stock kettle, and stir over the fire until the meat begins to brown. +Add the cold water, and let come to the boiling point. Skim carefully +and let simmer for 6 hours. Cut the vegetables into small pieces and +add to the stock with the spices and herbs. Cook for 1 hour, adding salt +and pepper to suit taste. Strain and cool. Remove the fat and clear +according to directions previously given.</p> + +<p><b>44. Tomato Bouillon.</b>--It is possible to make a clear tomato soup +without meat stock, but the recipe here given, which is made with meat +stock, has the advantage of possessing a better flavor. The tomato in +this bouillon lends an agreeable color and flavor and affords a change +from the usual clear soup. Cooked rice, macaroni, spaghetti, or +vermicelli may be added to tomato bouillon to provide an additional +quantity of nutrition and vary the plain soup.</p> + +<b>TOMATO BOUILLON</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 qt, meat stock</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1 Tb. sugar</li> +<li></li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 can tomatoes</li> +</ul> + +<p>Heat the stock, and to it add the salt, sugar, and pepper. Rub the +tomatoes through a fine sieve, and add them to the stock. Cook together +for a few minutes and serve.</p> + +<a name="HEAVY_THICK_SOUPS"></a><h3>HEAVY THICK SOUPS</h3> + +<p><b>45. Julienne Soup.</b>--A very good way in which to utilize any small +quantities of vegetables that may be in supply but are not sufficient to +serve alone is to use them in julienne soup. For soup of this kind, +vegetables are often cut into fancy shapes, but this is a more or less +wasteful practice and should not be followed, as tiny strips or dice cut +finely and carefully are quite as agreeable. The vegetables do not add a +large amount of nutriment to this soup, but they introduce into the soup +mineral salts that the soups would otherwise not have and they also add +a variety of flavor.</p> + +<b>JULIENNE SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. mixed vegetables</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1 qt. stock</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cut into tiny dice or into strips such vegetables as celery, carrots, +and turnips, making them as nearly the same size and shape as possible. +Put them on to cook in enough boiling salted water to cover well. Cook +until they are soft enough to be pierced with a fork, but do not lose +their shape. Drain off the water and put the vegetables into the stock. +Bring to the boiling point, season with the pepper, and serve.</p> + +<p><b>46. Ox-Tail Soup.</b>--The use of ox tails for soup helps to utilize a part +of the beef that would ordinarily be wasted, and, as a rule, ox tails +are comparatively cheap. Usually the little bits of meat that cook off +the bones are allowed to remain in the soup. Variety may be obtained by +the addition of different kinds of vegetables.</p> + +<b>OX-TAIL SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 ox tails</li> +<li>1 large onion</li> +<li>1 Tb. beef drippings</li> +<li>4 qt. cold water</li> +<li>1 Tb. mixed herbs</li> +<li>4 peppercorns</li> +<li>1 Tb. salt</li> +</ul> + +<p>Wash and cut up the ox tails, separating them at the joints. Slice the +onion and brown it and half of the ox tails in the beef drippings. When +they are browned, put them and the remainder of the ox tails into a +kettle. Add the water and the herbs and peppercorns tied in a little +piece of cheesecloth. Bring to the boiling point, and then simmer for 3 +to 4 hours or until the meat separates from the bones. Add the salt an +hour before serving the soup. Remove the fat and serve some of the +nicest joints with the soup. If vegetables are desired, they should be +diced and added 20 minutes before serving, so that they will be +cooked soft.</p> + +<p><b>47. Mulligatawny Soup.</b>--If a highly seasoned soup is desired, +mulligatawny, although not a particularly cheap soup, will be found very +satisfactory. The curry powder that is used adds an unusual flavor that +is pleasing to many people, but if it is not desired, it may be omitted.</p> + +<b>MULLIGATAWNY SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>3 lb. chicken</li> +<li>1 lb. veal</li> +<li>4 qt. cold water</li> +<li>2 onions</li> +<li>1 Tb. butter</li> +<li>4 peppercorns</li> +<li>4 cloves</li> +<li>1 stalk celery</li> +<li>1 Tb. curry powder</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 lemon</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cut up the chicken and veal, add the cold water to them, and place over +a slow fire. Slice the onions and brown them in the butter. Add them and +the peppercorns, cloves, chopped celery, and curry powder stirred to a +smooth paste with a little water to the meat. Simmer together slowly +until the chicken is tender. Remove the meat from the bones and cut it +into small pieces. Put the bones into the kettle and simmer for another +hour. Strain the liquid from the veal and bones and remove the fat. Add +the salt, pepper, chicken, and the juice of the lemon. Return to the +fire and cook for a few minutes. Serve with a tablespoonful or two of +cooked rice in each soup dish.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 5]</p> + +<p><b>48. Noodle Soup.</b>--The addition of noodles to soup increases its food +value to a considerable extent by providing carbohydrate from the flour +and protein from the egg and flour. Noodle soup is a very attractive +dish if the noodles are properly made, for then they will not cause the +soup to become cloudy when they are put into it. Little difficulty will +be experienced if the directions here given for making noodles are +followed explicitly.</p> + +<b>NOODLE SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>1 Tb. milk</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Flour</li> +<li>1 qt. household stock</li> +<li>3 sprigs parsley</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +</ul> + +<p>To make noodles, beat the egg slightly, add to it the milk, and stir in +the salt and enough flour to make a stiff dough. Toss upon a floured +board and roll very thin. Allow the dough to dry for hour or more, and +then, as shown in Fig. 5, cut it into strips about 4 inches wide. Place +several strips together, one on top of the other, and roll them up +tight, in the manner indicated. Cut each roll into thin slices with a +sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 6. When the slices are separated the +noodles should appear as shown in the pile at the right. If it is +desired not to follow this plan, the dough may be rolled into a thin +sheet and cut into strips with a noodle cutter.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 6]</p> + +<p>Such a supply of noodles may be used at once, or they may be dried +thoroughly and sealed tightly in a jar for future use. The very dry +ones, however, require a little longer cooking than those which are +freshly made. With the noodles prepared, heat the stock with the parsley +and onion chopped very fine. Add the noodles and cook for 15 or 20 +minutes or until the noodles are thoroughly cooked.</p> + +<p>Rice, barley, macaroni, and other starchy materials may be added to +stock in the same way as the noodles.</p> + +<p><b>49. Vegetable Soup With Noodles.</b>--The combination of noodles and +vegetables in soup is a very excellent one, since the vegetables add +flavor and the noodles add nutritive value. If the vegetables given in +the accompanying recipe cannot be readily obtained, others may be +substituted.</p> + +<b>VEGETABLE SOUP WITH NOODLES</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 carrot</li> +<li>1 onion</li> +<li>1 turnip</li> +<li>1 stalk celery</li> +<li>1 c. boiling water</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/2 c. noodles</li> +<li>2 sprigs parsley</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 qt. household stock</li> +</ul> + +<p>Dice the vegetables and put them on to cook with the boiling water and +the salt. Cook for a few minutes or until partly soft. Add the noodles, +parsley, pepper, and stock and cook for 15 minutes longer. Serve.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p> + +<a name="CREAM_SOUPS"></a><h3>CREAM SOUPS</h3> + +<p><b>50.</b> Soups classed as cream soups consist of a thin white sauce to which +is added a vegetable in the form of a purée or cut into small pieces. +Because of their nature, cream soups are usually high in food value; but +they are not highly flavored, so their use is that of supplying +nutrition rather than stimulating the appetite. Considerable variety can +be secured in cream soups, for there are scarcely any vegetables that +cannot be used in the making of them. Potatoes, corn, asparagus, +spinach, peas, tomatoes, and onions are the vegetables that are used +oftenest, but cream soups may also be made of vegetable oysters, okra, +carrots, watercress, celery, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, lentils, and +dried peas. The vegetables may be cooked especially for the soup, or +left-over or canned vegetables may be utilized. It is an excellent plan +to cook more than enough of some vegetables for one day, so that some +will be left over and ready for soup the next day.</p> + +<p>If the vegetable is not cut up into small pieces, it must be put through +a sieve and made into the form of a purée before it can be added to the +liquid. Two kinds of sieves for this purpose are shown in Fig. 7. It +will be observed that with the large, round sieve, a potato masher must +be used to mash the vegetables, the pulp of which is caught by the +utensil in which the sieve is held. In making use of the smaller sieve, +or ricer, the vegetable is placed in it and then mashed by pressing the +top down over the contents with the aid of the handles.</p> + +<p><b>51. THIN WHITE SAUCE.</b>--The liquid for cream soups should be thin white +sauce made entirely of milk or of milk and cream. The flavor of the soup +will be improved, however, by using with the milk some meat stock, or +the stock that remains from cooking celery, asparagus, or any vegetables +that will lend a good flavor to the soup. The recipe here given makes a +sauce that may be used for any kind of cream soup.</p> + +<b>THIN WHITE SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. milk, or milk and cream or stock</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +</ul> + +<p>Heat the liquid, salt, and butter in a double boiler. Stir the flour and +some of the cold liquid that has been reserved to a perfectly smooth, +thin paste and add to the hot liquid. Stir constantly after adding the +flour, so that no lumps will form. When the sauce becomes thick, it is +ready for the addition of any flavoring material that will make a +palatable soup. If thick material, such as any vegetable in the form of +a purée, rice, or potato, is used without additional liquid, only half +as much flour will be required to thicken the sauce.</p> + +<p><b>52. CREAM-OF-POTATO SOUP.</b>--Because of the large quantity of carbohydrate +derived from the potato, cream-of-potato soup is high in food value. For +persons who are fond of the flavor of the potato, this makes a delicious +soup and one that may be served as the main dish in a light meal.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-POTATO SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 slices of onion</li> +<li>1 sprig parsley</li> +<li>2 medium-sized potatoes</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +<li>1 c. potato water</li> +<li>1 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cook the onion and parsley with the potatoes, and, when cooked soft, +drain and mash. Make a sauce of the milk, potato water, flour, and +butter. Season with the salt and pepper, add the mashed potato, +and serve.</p> + +<p><b>53. CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP.</b>--The flavor of corn is excellent in a cream +soup, the basis of the soup being milk, butter, and flour. Then, too, +the addition of the corn, which is comparatively high in food value, +makes a very nutritious soup.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. milk</li> +<li>1 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 c. canned corn</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Make a white sauce of the milk, butter, and flour. Force the corn +through a colander or a sieve, and add the purée to the white sauce. +Season with the salt and pepper, and serve.</p> + +<p><b>54. Cream-of-Asparagus Soup.</b>--The asparagus used in cream-of-asparagus +soup adds very little besides flavor, but this is of sufficient value to +warrant its use. If a pinch of soda is used in asparagus soup, there is +less danger of the curdling that sometimes occurs. In making this soup, +the asparagus should be combined with the white sauce just +before serving.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-ASPARAGUS SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 c. asparagus purée</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Add to it the cup of +purée made by forcing freshly cooked or canned asparagus through a +sieve. Season with the salt and pepper, and serve.</p> + +<p><b>55. Cream-of-Spinach Soup.</b>--Although cream-of-spinach soup is not +especially attractive in appearance, most persons enjoy its flavor, and +the soup serves as another way of adding an iron-containing food to the +diet. Children may often be induced to take the soup when they would +refuse the spinach as a vegetable.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-SPINACH SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/2 c. spinach purée</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Add the spinach purée, +made by forcing freshly cooked or canned spinach through a sieve. Season +with the salt and pepper, heat thoroughly, and serve.</p> + +<p><b>56. Cream-of-Pea Soup.</b>--Either dried peas or canned green peas may be +used to make cream-of-pea soup. If dried peas are used, they must first +be cooked soft enough to pass through a sieve. The flavor is quite +different from that of green peas. With the use of green peas, a fair +amount of both protein and carbohydrate is added to the soup, but more +protein is provided when dried peas are used.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-PEA SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. milk</li> +<li>1 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/2 c. pea purée</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. Put enough freshly +cooked or canned peas through a sieve to make 1/2 cupful of purée. Then +add the pea purée, the salt, and the pepper to the white sauce. Heat +thoroughly and serve.</p> + +<p><b>57. CREAM-OF-TOMATO SOUP.</b>--As a rule, cream-of-tomato soup is popular +with every one. Besides being pleasing to the taste, it is comparatively +high in food value, because its basis is cream sauce. However, the +tomatoes themselves add very little else besides flavor and +mineral salts.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-TOMATO SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. canned tomatoes</li> +<li>1 pt. milk</li> +<li>3 Tb. flour</li> +<li>3 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. soda</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Force the tomatoes through a sieve and heat them. Make white sauce of +the milk, flour, and butter. Add the soda to the tomatoes, and pour them +slowly into the white sauce, stirring rapidly. If the sauce begins to +curdle, beat the soup quickly with a rotary egg beater. Add the salt and +pepper and serve.</p> + +<p><b>58. CREAM-OF-ONION SOUP.</b>--Many persons who are not fond of onions can +often eat soup made of this vegetable. This is probably due to the fact +that the browning of the onions before they are used in the soup +improves the flavor very decidedly. In addition, this treatment of the +onions gives just a little color to the soup.</p> + +<b>CREAM-OF-ONION SOUP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>4 medium-sized onions</li> +<li>4 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2-1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Slice the onions and brown them in a frying pan with 2 tablespoonfuls of +the butter. Make white sauce of the flour, the remaining butter, and the +milk. Add to this the browned onions, salt, and pepper. Heat thoroughly +and serve.</p> + +<a name="PUREES"></a><h3>PURÉES</h3> + +<p><b>59. CHESTNUT PURÉE.</b>--There are many recipes for the use of chestnuts in +the making of foods, but probably none is any more popular than that for +chestnut purée. The chestnuts develop a light-tan color in the soup. The +very large ones should be purchased for this purpose, since chestnuts of +ordinary size are very tedious to work with.</p> + +CHESTNUT PURÉE<br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. mashed chestnuts</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. celery salt</li> +<li>1 c. white stock</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cook Spanish chestnuts for 10 minutes; then remove the shells and skins +and mash the chestnuts. Make white sauce of the milk, flour, and butter. +Add to this the mashed chestnuts, salt, pepper, celery salt, and stock. +Heat thoroughly and serve.</p> + +<p><b>60. SPLIT-PEA PURÉE.</b>--Dried peas or split peas are extremely high in +food value, and their addition to soup stock makes a highly nutritious +soup of very delightful flavor. Such a purée served in quantity does +nicely for the main dish in a light meal. Instead of the peas, dried +beans or lentils may be used if they are preferred.</p> + +<b>SPLIT-PEA PURÉE</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>3/4 c. split peas</li> +<li>1 pt. white stock</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +</ul> + +<p>Soak the peas overnight, and cook in sufficient water to cover well +until they are soft. When thoroughly soft, drain the water from the peas +and put them through a colander. Heat the stock and add to it the pea +purée, salt, and pepper. Rub the butter and flour together, moisten with +some of the warm liquid, and add to the soup. Cook for a few minutes +and serve.</p> + +<a name="CHOWDERS"></a><h3>CHOWDERS</h3> + +<p><b>61. CLAM CHOWDER.</b>--The flavor of clams, like that of oysters and other +kinds of sea food, is offensive to some persons, but where this is not +the case, clam chowder is a popular dish of high food value. This kind +of soup is much used in localities where clams are plentiful.</p> + +<b>CLAM CHOWDER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. water</li> +<li>1 qt. clams</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +<li>1 c. sliced potatoes</li> +<li>1/2 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1/2 c. diced carrots</li> +<li>1/2 c. diced celery</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Add the water to the clams, and pick them over carefully to remove any +shell. Strain the liquid through cheesecloth, and then scald the clams +in it. Remove the clams and cook the vegetables in the liquid until they +are soft. Add the milk, butter, salt, and pepper and return the clams. +Heat thoroughly and serve over crackers.</p> + +<p><b>62. FISH CHOWDER.</b>--An excellent way in which to utilize a small quantity +of fish is afforded by fish chowder. In addition, this dish is quite +high in food value, so that when it is served with crackers, little of +anything else need be served with it to make an entire meal if it be +luncheon or supper. Cod, haddock, or fresh-water fish may be used in the +accompanying recipe.</p> + +<b>FISH CHOWDER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 lb. fish</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +<li>1 c. sliced potatoes</li> +<li>1/2 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li> +</ul> + +<p>Skin the fish, remove the flesh, and cut it into small pieces. Simmer +the head, bones, and skin of the fish and the onion in water for 1/2 +hour. Strain, and add to this stock the fish, potatoes, tomatoes, salt, +and pepper. Simmer together until the potatoes are soft. Add the butter +and milk. Serve over crackers.</p> + +<p><b>63. POTATO CHOWDER.</b>--A vegetable mixture such as the one suggested in +the accompanying recipe is in reality not a chowder, for this form of +soup requires sea food for its basis. However, when it is impossible to +procure the sea food, potato chowder does nicely as a change from the +usual soup. This chowder differs in no material way from soup stock in +this form.</p> + +<b>POTATO CHOWDER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1-1/2 c. sliced potatoes</li> +<li>1 small onion, sliced</li> +<li>1 c. water</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cook the potatoes and onion in the water until they are soft, but not +soft enough to fall to pieces. Rub half of the potatoes through a sieve +and return to the sliced ones. Add the milk, salt, pepper, and butter. +Cook together for a few minutes and serve.</p> + +<p><b>64. CORN CHOWDER.</b>--The addition of corn to potato chowder adds variety +of flavor and makes a delicious mixture of vegetables. This dish is +rather high in food value, especially if the soup is served over +crackers. A small amount of tomato, although not mentioned in the +recipe, may be added to this combination to improve the flavor.</p> + +<b>CORN CHOWDER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. sliced potatoes</li> +<li>1 small onion, sliced</li> +<li>1 c. water</li> +<li>1 c. canned corn</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cook the potatoes and onions in the water until they are soft. Add the +corn, milk, butter, salt, and pepper, and cook together for a few +minutes. Serve over crackers.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SOUP_ACCOMPANIMENTS_AND_GARNISHES"></a><h3>SOUP ACCOMPANIMENTS AND GARNISHES</h3> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 8]</p> + +<p><b>65.</b> The soup course of a meal is a more or less unattractive one, but it +may be improved considerably if some tempting thing in the way of a +garnish or an accompaniment is served with it. But whatever is selected +to accompany soup should be, in a great measure, a contrast to it in +both consistency and color. The reason why a difference in consistency +is necessary is due to the nature of soup, which, being liquid in form, +is merely swallowed and does not stimulate the flow of the gastric +juices by mastication. Therefore, the accompaniment should be something +that requires chewing and that will consequently cause the digestive +juices, which respond to the mechanical action of chewing, to flow. The +garnish may add the color that is needed to make soup attractive. The +green and red of olives and radishes or of celery and radishes make a +decided contrast, so that when any of these things are served with soup, +an appetizing first course is the result. It is not necessary to serve +more than one of them, but if celery and radishes or celery, radishes, +and olives can be combined in the same relish dish, they become more +attractive than when each is served by itself.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 9]</p> + +<p><b>66. RADISHES AND CELERY.</b>--Before radishes and celery are used on the +table, whether with soup or some other part of a meal, they should be +put into cold water and allowed to stand for some time, so that they +will be perfectly crisp when they are served. In the case of radishes, +the tops and roots should first be cut from them, and the radishes then +scrubbed thoroughly. They may be served without any further treatment, +or they may be prepared to resemble flowers, as is shown in Fig. 8. This +may be done by peeling the red skin back to show the white inside, and +then cutting the sections to look like the petals of a flower. Little +difficulty will be experienced in preparing radishes in this artistic +way if a sharp knife is used, for, with a little practice, the work can +be done quickly and skilfully.</p> + +<p><b>67.</b> Celery that is to be served with soup may be prepared in two ways, +as Fig. 9 illustrates. The stems may be pulled from the stalk and served +separately, as in the group on the right, or the stalk may be cut down +through the center with a knife into four or more pieces, as shown at +the left of the illustration. The first of these methods is not so good +as the second, for by it one person gets all of the tender heart and the +coarse outside stems are left for all the others. By the second method, +every piece consists of some of the heart and some of the outside stems +attached to the root and makes a similar serving for each person. +Whichever way is adopted, however, the celery should be scrubbed and +cleansed thoroughly. This is often a difficult task, because the dirt +sticks tightly between the stems. Still, an effort should be made to +have the celery entirely free from dirt before it goes to the table. A +few tender yellow leaves may be left on the pieces to improve the +appearance of the celery.</p> + +<p><b>68. CRACKERS.</b>--Various kinds of wafers and crackers can be purchased to +serve with soup, and the selection, as well as the serving of them, is +entirely a matter of individual taste. One point, however, that must not +be overlooked is that crackers of any kind must be crisp in order to be +appetizing. Dry foods of this sort absorb moisture from the air when +they are exposed to it and consequently become tough. As heat drives off +this moisture and restores the original crispness, crackers should +always be heated before they are served. Their flavor can be improved by +toasting them until they are light brown in color.</p> + +<p><b>69. CROUTONS.</b>--As has already been learned, croutons are small pieces of +bread that have been fried or toasted to serve with soup. These are +usually made in the form of cubes, or dice, as is shown in the front +group in Fig. 10; but they may be cut into triangles, circles, ovals, +hearts, or, in fact, any fancy shape, by means of small cutters that can +be purchased for such purposes. The bread used for croutons should not +be fresh bread, as such bread does not toast nor fry very well; +left-over toast, stale bread, or slices of bread that have been cut from +the loaf and not eaten are usually found more satisfactory. If the +croutons are not made from slices already cut, the bread should be cut +into slices 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick, and, after the crusts have been +closely trimmed, the slices should be cut into cubes. When the cubes +have been obtained, they may be put into a shallow pan and toasted on +all sides quickly, placed in a frying basket and browned in deep fat, or +put into a frying pan and sautéd in butter. If toast is used, it should +merely be cut in the desired shape.</p> + +<p>Various methods of serving croutons are in practice. Some housewives +prefer to place them in the soup tureen and pour the soup over them, +while others like to put a few in each individual serving of soup. A +better plan, however, and one that is much followed, is to serve a +number of croutons on a small plate or dish at each person's place, as +shown in Figs. 3 and 4, for then every one may eat them in the way +preferred.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 10]</p> + +<p><b>70. BREAD STICKS.</b>--A soup accompaniment similar in nature to croutons, +and known as <i>bread sticks</i>, is made of pieces of bread 1/2 inch wide, +1/2 inch thick, and several inches long. These are toasted on each side +and are served in place of crackers. A number of them are shown in the +back row in Fig. 10. Variety in bread sticks may be secured by spreading +butter over them before the toasting is begun or by sprinkling grated +cheese over them a few minutes before they are removed from the oven. +Bread sticks are usually served on a bread-and-butter plate to the left +of each person's place at the table.</p> + +<p><b>71. PASTRY STRIPS.</b>--A very appetizing addition to soup may be made by +cutting pastry into narrow strips and then baking these strips in the +oven until they are brown or frying them in deep fat and draining them. +Strips prepared in this way may be served in place of crackers, +croutons, or bread sticks, and are considered delicious by those who are +fond of pastry. Details regarding pastry are given in another Section.</p> + +<p><b>72. SOUP FRITTERS.</b>--If an entirely different kind of soup accompaniment +from those already mentioned is desired, soup fritters will no doubt +find favor. These are made by combining certain ingredients to form a +batter and then dropping small amounts of this into hot fat and frying +them until they are crisp and brown. The accompanying recipe, provided +it is followed carefully, will produce good results.</p> + +<b>SOUP FRITTERS</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>2 Tb. milk</li> +<li>3/4 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/2 c. flour</li> +</ul> + +<p>Beat the egg, and to it add the milk, salt, and flour. Drop the batter +in tiny drops into hot fat, and fry until brown and crisp. Drain on +paper and serve with the soup.</p> + +<p><b>73. EGG BALLS.</b>--To serve with a soup that is well flavored but not +highly nutritious, egg balls are very satisfactory. In addition to +supplying nutrition, these balls are extremely appetizing, and so they +greatly improve a course that is often unattractive. Careful attention +given to the ingredients and the directions in the accompanying recipe +will produce good results.</p> + +<b>EGG BALLS</b> + +<ul> +<li>3 yolks of hard-cooked eggs</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. melted butter</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>1 uncooked yolk</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mash the cooked yolks, and to them add the butter, salt, and pepper, and +enough of the uncooked yolk to make the mixture of a consistency to +handle easily. Shape into tiny balls. Roll in the white of egg and then +in flour and sauté in butter. Serve in the individual dishes of soup.</p> + +<p><b>74. FORCEMEAT BALLS.</b>--Another delicious form of accompaniment that +improves certain soups by adding nutrition is forcemeat balls. These +contain various nutritious ingredients combined into small balls, and +the balls are then either sautéd or fried in deep fat. They may be +placed in the soup tureen or in each person's soup.</p> + +<b>FORCEMEAT BALLS</b> + +<ul> +<li>1/2 c. fine stale-bread crumbs</li> +<li>1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>White of 1 egg</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Few grains of pepper</li> +<li>2/3 c. breast of raw chicken or raw fish</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cook the bread crumbs and milk to form a paste, and to this add the +butter, beaten egg white, and seasonings. Pound the chicken or fish to a +pulp, or force it through a food chopper and then through a purée +strainer. Add this to the first mixture. Form into tiny balls. Roll in +flour and either sauté or fry in deep fat. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>75. AMERICAN FORCEMEAT BALLS.</b>--A simple kind of forcemeat balls may be +made according to the accompanying recipe. The meat used may be sausage +provided especially for the purpose or some that is left over from a +previous meal. If it is not possible to obtain sausage, some other +highly seasoned meat, such as ham first ground very fine and then +pounded to a pulp, may be substituted.</p> + +<b>AMERICAN FORCEMEAT BALLS</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. bread, without crusts</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>Dash of nutmeg</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1/2 c. sausage meat</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the onion finely chopped. Fry for +several minutes over the fire. Soak the bread in water until thoroughly +softened and then squeeze out all the water. Mix with the bread the egg, +salt, pepper, nutmeg, parsley, and meat, and to this add also the butter +and fried onion. Form small balls of this mixture and sauté them in +shallow fat, fry them in deep fat, or, after brushing them over with +fat, bake them in the oven. Place a few in each serving of soup.</p> +<br> + +<b>SOUP</b><br><br> + +<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br> + +<p>(1) (<i>a</i>) Mention the two purposes that soups serve in a meal, (<i>b</i>) What +are the qualities of a good soup?</p> + +<p>(2) (<i>a</i>) Mention the two general classes of soup. (<i>b</i>) Explain and +illustrate how to choose a soup.</p> + +<p>(3) Why is soup an economical dish?</p> + +<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) Explain in full the meaning of stock as applied to soup. (<i>b</i>) For +what purposes other than soup making is stock used?</p> + +<p>(5) (<i>a</i>) What is the value of the stock pot? (<i>b</i>) What care should be +given to it?</p> + +<p>(6) Mention some of the materials that may be put into the stock pot.</p> + +<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) Why are the tough cuts of meat more suitable for soup than the +tender ones? (<i>b</i>) Name the pieces that are best adapted to soup making.</p> + +<p>(8) (<i>a</i>) What proportion of bone to meat should be used in making soup +from fresh meat? (<i>b</i>) For what two purposes are vegetables used in soup?</p> + +<p>(9) Explain briefly the making of stock from meat.</p> + +<p>(10) (<i>a</i>) Why should the cooking of the meat for stock be started with +cold water rather than with hot water? (<i>b</i>) What disposal should be made +of meat from which stock is made?</p> + +<p>(11) (<i>a</i>) Of what value are flavorings in the making of soups? (<i>b</i>) What +precaution should be taken in the use of flavorings?</p> + +<p>(12) Explain how grease may be removed from soup.</p> + +<p>(13) How may soup be cleared?</p> + +<p>(14) (<i>a</i>) For what purposes is thickening used in soups? (<i>b</i>) Mention the +materials most used to thicken soups.</p> + +<p>(15) What precaution should be taken to keep soup or stock from +spoiling.</p> + +<p>(16) What point about the serving of soup should be observed if an +appetizing soup is desired?</p> + +<p>(17) What kind of dish is used for serving: (<i>a</i>) thin soup? (<i>b</i>) thick +soup?</p> + +<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) What is a cream soup? (<i>b</i>) Give the general directions for +making soup of this kind.</p> + +<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) How may the soup course of a meal be made more attractive? (<i>b</i>) +In what ways should soup accompaniments be a contrast to the soup?</p> + +<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) Explain the making of croutons. (<i>b</i>) What is the most +satisfactory way in which to prepare celery that is to be served +with soup?</p> +<br> + +<b>ADDITIONAL WORK</b><br><br> + +<p>Plan and prepare a dinner menu from the recipes given in the lessons +that you have studied. Submit the menu for this dinner and give the +order in which you prepared the dishes. In addition, tell the number of +persons you served, as well as what remained after the meal and whether +or not you made use of it for another meal. Send this information with +your answers to the Examination Questions.</p> + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<a name="MEAT_(PART_1)"></a><h2>MEAT (PART 1)</h2> + +<b>MEAT IN THE DIET</b> + +<a name="VALUE_OF_MEAT_AS_FOOD"></a><h3>VALUE OF MEAT AS FOOD</h3> + +<p><b>1.</b> In its broadest sense, MEAT may be considered as "any clean, sound, +dressed or properly prepared edible part of animals that are in good +health at the time of slaughter." However, the flesh of carnivorous +animals--that is, animals that eat the flesh of other animals--is so +seldom eaten by man, that the term meat is usually restricted to the +flesh of all animals except these. But even this meaning of meat is too +broad; indeed, as the term is generally used it refers particularly to +the flesh of the so-called domestic animals, and does not include +poultry, game, fish, and the like. It is in this limited sense that meat +is considered in these Sections, and the kinds to which attention is +given are beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and pork. Meat, including these +varieties, forms one of the principal sources of the family's food +supply. As such, it is valuable chiefly as a food; but, in the form of +broths and extracts made from it, meat stimulates the appetite and +actually assists the flow of gastric juice. Therefore, so that the +outlay for meat will not be greater than it should be and this food will +provide the greatest amount of nourishment, every housewife should be +thoroughly familiar with the place it occupies in the dietary.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> In the first place, it should be remembered that the food eaten by +human beings comes from two sources--animal and vegetable. The foods of +animal origin, which include milk, eggs, and meat, have a certain +similarity that causes them to be classed together and this is the fact +that they are high-protein foods. Milk is the first protein food fed to +the young, but a little later it is partly replaced by eggs, and, +finally, or in adult life, meat largely takes the place of both. For +this reason, meat has considerable importance in the dietary. In +reality, from this food is obtained the greatest amount of protein that +the average person eats. However, it will be well to note that milk and +eggs, as well as cheese and even cereals and vegetables, can be made to +take the place of meat when the use of less of this food is deemed +advisable.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> As the work of protein foods is to build and repair tissue, it is on +them that the human race largely depends. Of course, protein also yields +energy; but the amount is so small that if one variety of protein food, +such as meat, were eaten simply to supply energy to the body, huge +quantities of it would be needed to do the same work that a small amount +of less expensive food would accomplish. Some persons have an idea that +meat produces the necessary strength and energy of those who perform +hard work. This is entirely erroneous, because fats and carbohydrates +are the food substances that produce the energy required to do work. +Some kind of protein is, of course, absolutely necessary to the health +of every normal person, but a fact that cannot be emphasized too +strongly is that an oversupply of it does more harm than good.</p> + +<p>Scientists have been trying for a long time to determine just how much +of these tissue-building foods is necessary for individuals, but they +have found this a difficult matter. Nevertheless, it is generally +conceded that most persons are likely to use too much rather than too +little of them. It is essential then, not only from the standpoint of +economy, but from the far more important principle of health, that the +modern housewife should know the nutritive value of meats.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> In her efforts to familiarize herself with these matters, the +housewife should ever remember that meat is the most expensive of the +daily foods of a family. Hence, to get the greatest value for the money +expended, meat must be bought judiciously, cared for properly, and +prepared carefully. Too many housewives trust the not over-scrupulous +butcher to give them the kind of meat they should have, and very often +they do not have a clear idea as to whether it is the best piece that +can be purchased for the desired purpose and for the price that is +asked. Every housewife ought to be so familiar with the various cuts of +meat that she need not depend on any one except herself in the purchase +of this food. She will find that both the buying and the preparation of +meats will be a simple matter for her if she learns these three +important things: (1) From what part of the animal the particular piece +she desires is cut and how to ask for that piece; (2) how to judge a +good piece of meat by its appearance; and (3) what to do with it from +the moment it is purchased until the last bit of it is used.</p> + +<p><b>5.</b> Of these three things, the cooking of meat is the one that demands +the most attention, because it has a decided effect on the quality and +digestibility of this food. Proper cooking is just as essential in the +case of meat as for any other food, for a tender, digestible piece of +meat may be made tough and indigestible by improper preparation, while a +tough piece may be made tender and very appetizing by careful, +intelligent preparation. The cheaper cuts of meat, which are often +scorned as being too tough for use, may be converted into delicious +dishes by the skilful cook who understands how to apply the various +methods of cookery and knows what their effect will be on the +meat tissues.</p> + +<p><b>6.</b> Unfortunately, thorough cooking affects the digestibility of meat +unfavorably; but it is doubtless a wise procedure in some cases because, +as is definitely known, some of the parasites that attack man find their +way into the system through the meat that is eaten. These are carried to +meat from external sources, such as dust, flies, and the soiled hands of +persons handling it, and they multiply and thrive. It is known, too, +that some of the germs that cause disease in the animal remain in its +flesh and are thus transmitted to human beings that eat such meat. If +there is any question as to its good condition, meat must be thoroughly +cooked, because long cooking completely eliminates the danger from +such sources.</p> +<br> + +<a name="STRUCTURE_AND_COMPOSITION_OF_MEAT"></a><h3>STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT</h3> + +<p><b>7.</b> An understanding of the physical structure of meat is essential to +its successful cooking. Meat consists of muscular tissue, or lean; +varying quantities of visible fat that lie between and within the +membranes and tendons; and also particles of fat that are too small to +be distinguished except with the aid of a microscope. The general nature +of the lean part of meat can be determined by examining a piece of it +with merely the unaided eye. On close observation, it will be noted +that, especially in the case of meat that has been cooked, innumerable +thread-like fibers make up the structure. With a microscope, it can be +observed that these visible fibers are made up of still smaller ones, +the length of which varies in different parts of the animal. It is to +the length of these fibers that the tenderness of meat is due. Short +fibers are much easier to chew than long ones; consequently, the pieces +containing them are the most tender. These muscle fibers, which are in +the form of tiny tubes, are filled with a protein substance. They are +held together with a tough, stringy material called <i>connective tissue</i>. +As the animal grows older and its muscles are used more, the walls of +these tubes or fibers become dense and tough; likewise, the amount of +connective tissue increases and becomes tougher. Among the muscle fibers +are embedded layers and particles of fat, the quantity of which varies +greatly in different animals and depends largely on the age of the +animal. For instance, lamb and veal usually have very little fat in the +tissues, mutton and beef always contain more, while pork contains a +greater amount of fat than the meat of any other domestic animal.</p> + +<p><b>8.</b> The composition of meat depends to a large extent on the breed of the +animal, the degree to which it has been fattened, and the particular cut +of meat in question. However, the muscle fibers are made up of protein +and contain more protein, mineral salts, or ash, and certain substances +called <i>extractives</i>, all of which are held in solution by water. The +younger the animal, the greater is the proportion of water and the lower +the nutritive value of meat. It should be understood, however, that not +all of meat is edible material; indeed, a large part of it is made up of +gristle, bones, cartilage, nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue. +The amount of these indigestible materials also varies in different +animals and different cuts, but the average proportion in a piece of +meat is usually considered to be 15 per cent. of the whole. Because of +the variation of both the edible and inedible material of meat, a +standard composition for this food cannot readily be given. However, an +idea of the average composition of the various kinds can be obtained +from Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig 1.]</p> + + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + + +<tr><td align="left"><b>BEEF</b></td><td align="right">Fuel value<br>per pound</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chuck, medium fat</td><td align="right">735</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Loin, medium fat</td><td align="right">1040</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ribs, medium fat</td><td align="right">1155</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Round, very lean</td><td align="right">475</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Round, medium fat</td><td align="right">895</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Round, very fat</td><td align="right">1275</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rump, medium fat</td><td align="right">1110</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=2 align="left"><b>VEAL</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Breast, medium fat</td><td align="right">740</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg, medium fat</td><td align="right">620</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Loin, medium fat</td><td align="right">690</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=2 align="left"><b>LAMB</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg, medium fat</td><td align="right">870</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=2 align="left"><b>MUTTON</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg, medium fat</td><td align="right">900</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=2 align="left"><b>PORK</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ham, fresh, medium fat</td><td align="right">1345</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ham, smoked</td><td align="right">1675</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Loin</td><td align="right">1455</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bacon, medium fat</td><td align="right">2795</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><b>9. PROTEIN IN MEAT.</b>--The value of meat as food is due to the proteins +that it contains. Numerous kinds of protein occur in meat, but the +chief varieties are myosin and muscle albumin. The <i>myosin</i>, which is +the most important protein and occurs in the greatest quantity, hardens +after the animal has been killed and the muscles have become cold. The +tissues then become tough and hard, a condition known as <i>rigor +mortis</i>. As meat in this condition is not desirable, it should be used +before rigor mortis sets in, or else it should be put aside until this +condition of toughness disappears. The length of time necessary for this +to occur varies with the size of the animal that is killed. It may be +from 24 hours to 3 or 4 days. The disappearance is due to the +development of certain acids that cause the softening of the tissues. +The <i>albumin</i>, which is contained in solution in the muscle fibers, is +similar in composition to the albumen of eggs and milk, and it is +affected by the application of heat in the cooking processes in much +the same way.</p> + +<p><b>10. GELATINE IN MEAT.</b>--The gelatine that is found in meat is a substance +very similar in composition to protein, but it has less value as food. +It is contained in the connective tissue and can be extracted by +boiling, being apparent as a jellylike substance after the water in +which meat has been cooked has cooled. Use is made of this material in +the preparation of pressed meats and fowl and in various salads and +other cold-meat dishes. Some kinds of commercial gelatine are also made +from it, being first extracted from the meat and then evaporated to form +a dry substance.</p> + +<p><b>11. FAT IN MEAT.</b>--All meat, no matter how lean it appears, contains some +fat. As already explained, a part of the fat contained in meat occurs in +small particles so embedded in the muscle fibers as not to be readily +seen, while the other part occurs in sufficient amounts to be visible. +In the flesh of some animals, such as veal and rabbit, there is almost +no visible fat, but in very fat hogs or fowls, one-third or one-half of +the weight may be fat. Meats that are very fat are higher in nutritive +value than meats that contain only a small amount of this substance, as +will be observed on referring to the table of meat compositions in Fig. +1. However, an excessive amount of fat prevents the protein materials +from digesting normally.</p> + +<p>The quality of fat varies greatly, there being two distinct kinds of +this material in animals. That which covers or lies between the muscles +or occurs on the outside of the body just beneath the skin has a lower +melting point, is less firm, and is of a poorer grade for most purposes +than that which is found inside the bony structure and surrounds the +internal organs. The suet of beef is an example of this internal fat.</p> + +<p>Fat is a valuable constituent of food, for it is the most concentrated +form in which the fuel elements of food are found. In supplying the body +with fuel, it serves to maintain the body temperature and to yield +energy in the form of muscular and other power. Since this is such a +valuable food material, it is important that the best possible use be +made of all drippings and left-over fats and that not even the smallest +amount of any kind be wasted.</p> + +<p><b>12. CARBOHYDRATE IN MEAT.</b>--In the liver and all muscle fibers of animals +is stored a small supply of carbohydrate in a form that is called +<i>glycogen</i>, or <i>muscle sugar</i>. However, there is not enough of this +substance to be of any appreciable value, and, so far as the methods of +cookery and the uses of meat as food are concerned, it is of no +importance.</p> + +<p><b>13. WATER IN MEAT.</b>--The proportion of water in meat varies from +one-third to three-fourths of the whole, depending on the amount of fat +the meat contains and the age of the animal. This water carries with it +the flavor, much of the mineral matter, and some food material, so that +when the water is removed from the tissues these things are to a great +extent lost. The methods of cookery applied to meat are based on the +principle of either retaining or extracting the water that it contains. +The meat in which water is retained is more easily chewed and swallowed +than that which is dry. However, the water contained in flesh has no +greater value as food than other water. Therefore, as will be seen in +Fig. 1, the greater the amount of water in a given weight of food, the +less is its nutritive value.</p> + +<p><b>14. MINERALS IN MEAT.</b>--Eight or more kinds of minerals in sufficient +quantities to be of importance in the diet are to be found in meat. Lean +meat contains the most minerals; they decrease in proportion as the +amount of fat increases. These salts assist in the building of hard +tissues and have a decided effect on the blood. They are lost from the +tissues of meat by certain methods of cookery, but as they are in +solution in the water in which the meat is cooked, they need not be lost +to the diet if use is made of this water for soups, sauces, and gravies.</p> + +<p><b>15. EXTRACTIVES IN MEAT.</b>--The appetizing flavor of meat is due to +substances called <i>extractives</i>. The typical flavor that serves to +distinguish pork from beef or mutton is due to the difference in the +extractives. Although necessary for flavoring, these have no nutritive +value; in fact, the body throws them off as waste material when they are +taken with the food. In some methods of cookery, such as broiling and +roasting, the extractives are retained, while in others, such as those +employed for making stews and soups, they are drawn out.</p> + +<p>Extractives occur in the greatest quantity in the muscles that the +animal exercises a great deal and that in reality have become tough. +Likewise, a certain part of an old animal contains more extractives than +the same part of a young one. For these reasons a very young chicken is +broiled while an old one is used for stew, and ribs of beef are roasted +while the shins are used for soup.</p> + +<p>Meat that is allowed to hang and ripen develops compounds that are +similar to extractives and that impart additional flavor. A ripened +steak is usually preferred to one cut from an animal that has been +killed only a short time. However, as the ripening is in reality a +decomposition process, the meat is said to become "high" if it is +allowed to hang too long.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PURCHASE_AND_CARE_OF_MEAT"></a><h3>PURCHASE AND CARE OF MEAT</h3> + +<p><b>16. PURCHASE OF MEAT.</b>--Of all the money that is spent for food in the +United States nearly one-third is spent for meat. This proportion is +greater than that of any European country and is probably more than is +necessary to provide diets that are properly balanced. If it is found +that the meat bill is running too high, one or more of several things +may be the cause. The one who does the purchasing may not understand the +buying of meat, the cheaper cuts may not be used because of a lack of +knowledge as to how they should be prepared to make them appetizing, or +more meat may be served than is necessary to supply the needs of +the family.</p> + +<p>Much of this difficulty can be overcome if the person purchasing meat +goes to the market personally to see the meat cut and weighed instead of +telephoning the order. It is true, of course, that the method of cutting +an animal varies in different parts of the country, as does also the +naming of the different pieces. However, this need give the housewife no +concern, for the dealer from whom the meat is purchased is usually +willing to supply any information that is desired about the cutting of +meat and the best use for certain pieces. In fact, if the butcher is +competent, this is a very good source from which to obtain a knowledge +of such matters.</p> + +<p>Another way in which to reduce the meat bill is to utilize the trimmings +of bone and fat from pieces of meat. In most cases, these are of no +value to the butcher, so that if a request for them is made, he will, as +a rule, be glad to wrap them up with the meat that is purchased. They +are of considerable value to the housewife, for the bones may go into +the stock pot, while the fat, if it is tried out, can be used for +many things.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> The quantity of meat to purchase depends, of course, on the number +of persons that are to be served with it. However, it is often a good +plan to purchase a larger piece than is required for a single meal and +then use what remains for another meal. For instance, a large roast is +always better than a small one, because it does not dry out in the +process of cookery and the part that remains after one meal may be +served cold in slices or used for making some other dish, such as meat +pie or hash. Such a plan also saves both time and fuel, because +sufficient meat for several meals may be cooked at one time.</p> + +<p>In purchasing meat, there are certain pieces that should never be asked +for by the pound or by the price. For instance, the housewife should not +say to the butcher, "Give me 2 pounds of porterhouse steak," nor should +she say, "Give me 25 cents worth of chops." Steak should be bought by +the cut, and the thickness that is desired should be designated. For +example, the housewife may ask for an inch-thick sirloin steak, a 2-inch +porterhouse steak, and so on. Chops should be bought according to the +number of persons that are to be served, usually a chop to a person +being quite sufficient. Rib roasts should be bought by designating the +number of ribs. Thus, the housewife may ask for a rib roast containing +two, three, four, or more ribs, depending on the size desired. Roasts +from other parts of beef, such as chuck or rump roasts, may be cut into +chunks of almost any desirable size without working a disadvantage to +either the butcher or the customer, and may therefore be bought by the +pound. Round bought for steaks should be purchased by the cut, as are +other steaks; or, if an entire cut is too large, it may be purchased as +upper round or lower round, but the price paid should vary with the +piece that is purchased. Round bought for roasts, however, may be +purchased by the pound.</p> + +<p><b>18. CARE OF MEAT IN THE MARKET.</b>--Animal foods decompose more readily +than any other kind, and the products of their decomposition are +extremely dangerous to the health. It is therefore a serious matter when +everything that comes in contact with meat is not clean. Regarding the +proper care of meat, the sanitary condition of the market is the first +consideration. The light and ventilation of the room and the cleanliness +of the walls, floors, tables, counters, and other equipment are points +of the greatest importance and should be noted by the housewife when she +is purchasing meat. Whether the windows and doors are screened and all +the meat is carefully covered during the fly season are also matters +that should not be overlooked. Then, too, the cleanliness and physical +condition of the persons who handle the meat should be of as great +concern as the sanitary condition of the market. The housewife who +desires to supply her family with the safest and cleanest meat should +endeavor to purchase it in markets where all the points pertaining to +the sanitary condition are as ideal as possible. If she is at all +doubtful as to the freshness and cleanliness of what is sold to her, she +should give it thorough cooking in the process of preparation so that no +harm will be done to the persons who are to eat it.</p> + +<p><b>19. CARE OF MEAT IN THE HOME.</b>--Because of the perishable nature of meat, +the care given it in the market must be continued in the home in order +that no deterioration may take place before it is cooked. This is not +much of a problem during cold weather, but through the summer months a +cool place in which to keep it must be provided unless the meat can be +cooked very soon after it is delivered. Meat that must be shipped long +distances is frozen before it is shipped and is kept frozen until just +before it is used. If such meat is still frozen when it enters the home, +it should not be put into a warm place, for then it will thaw too +quickly. Instead, it should be put in the refrigerator or in some place +where the temperature is a few degrees above freezing point, so that it +will thaw slowly and still remain too cold for bacteria to +become active.</p> + +<p>Even if meat is not frozen, it must receive proper attention after it +enters the home. As soon as it is received, it should be removed from +the wrapping paper or the wooden or cardboard dish in which it is +delivered. If the meat has not been purchased personally, it is +advisable to weigh it in order to verify the butcher's bill. When the +housewife is satisfied about the weight, she should place the meat in +an earthenware, china, or enameled bowl, cover it, and then put it away +in the coolest available place until it is used. Some persons put salt +on meat when they desire to keep it, but this practice should be +avoided, as salt draws out the juices from raw meat and hardens the +tissues to a certain extent.</p> + +<p>If such precautions are taken with meat, it will be in good condition +when it is to be cooked. However, before any cooking method is applied +to it, it should always be wiped with a clean, damp cloth. In addition, +all fat should be removed, except just enough to assist in cooking the +meat and give it a good flavor. Bone or tough portions may also be +removed if they can be used to better advantage for soups or stews.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>COOKING OF MEAT</b><br> + +<a name="PURPOSES_OF_COOKING_MEAT"></a><h3>PURPOSES OF COOKING MEAT</h3> + +<p><b>20.</b> It is in the preparation of food, and of meat in particular, that +one of the marked differences between uncivilized and civilized man is +evident. Raw meat, which is preferred by the savage, does not appeal to +the appetite of most civilized persons; in fact, to the majority of them +the idea of using it for food is disgusting. Therefore, civilized man +prepares his meat before eating it, and the higher his culture, the more +perfect are his methods of preparation.</p> + +<p>While it is probably true that most of the methods of cookery render +meat less easy to digest than in its raw condition, this disadvantage is +offset by the several purposes for which this food is cooked. Meat is +cooked chiefly to loosen and soften the connective tissue and thus cause +the muscle tissues to be exposed more fully to the action of the +digestive juices. Another important reason for cooking meat is that +subjecting it to the action of heat helps to kill bacteria and +parasites. In addition, meat is cooked to make it more attractive to the +eye and to develop and improve its flavor.</p> +<br> + +<a name="METHODS_OF_COOKING_MEAT"></a><h3>METHODS OF COOKING MEAT</h3> + +<p><b>21.</b> The result desired when meat is cooked has much to do with the +method of cookery to choose, for different methods produce different +results. To understand this, it will be necessary to know just what the +action of cooking is on the material that meat contains. When raw meat +is cut, the tiny meat fibers are laid open, with the result that, in the +application of the cooking process, the albuminous material either is +lost, or, like the albumen of eggs, is coagulated, or hardened, and thus +retained. Therefore, before preparing a piece of meat, the housewife +should determine which of these two things she wishes to accomplish and +then proceed to carry out the process intelligently.</p> + +<p>The methods of cookery that may be applied to meat include broiling, pan +broiling, roasting, stewing or simmering, braizing, frying, sautéing, +and fricasseeing. All of these methods are explained in a general way in +<i>Essentials of Cookery</i>, Part 1, but explanations of them as they apply +to meat are here given in order to acquaint the housewife with the +advantages and disadvantages of the various ways by which this food can +be prepared.</p> + +<p><b>22. BROILING AND PAN BROILING.</b>--Only such cuts of meats as require short +cooking can be prepared by the methods of broiling and pan broiling. To +carry out these methods successfully, severe heat must be applied to the +surface of the meat so that the albumin in the ends of the muscle fibers +may be coagulated at once. This presents, during the remainder of the +preparation, a loss of the meat juices.</p> + +<p>Meat to which either of these methods is applied will be indigestible on +the surface and many times almost uncooked in the center, as in the case +of rare steak. Such meat, however, is more digestible than thin pieces +that are thoroughly cooked at the very high temperature required +for broiling.</p> + +<p><b>23. ROASTING.</b>--The process of roasting, either in the oven or in a pot +on top of the stove, to be properly done, requires that the piece of +meat to be roasted must first be seared over the entire surface by the +application of severe heat. In the case of a pot roast, the searing can +be done conveniently in the pot before the pot-roasting process begins. +If the meat is to be roasted in the oven, it may be seared first in a +pan on top of the stove. However, it may be seared to some extent by +placing it in a very hot oven and turning it over so that all the +surface is exposed. Then, to continue the roasting process, the +temperature must be lowered just a little.</p> + +<p>The roasting pan may be of any desirable size and shape that is +convenient and sufficiently large to accommodate the meat to be +prepared. A pan like that shown in Fig. 2 is both convenient and +satisfactory. It is provided with a cover that fits tight. In this +cover, as shown, is an opening that may be closed or opened so as to +regulate the amount of moisture inside the pan. In the bottom of the pan +is a rack upon which the meat may rest.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 2]</p> + +<p><b>24.</b> To prepare meat for roasting, flour should be sprinkled or rubbed +over its lean surface before it is put in the pan. This forms a paste +that cooks into a crust and prevents the loss of juices from the meat. +In roasting, the heat is applied longer and more slowly than in broiling +or frying, so that there is more possibility for the connective tissue +beneath the surface to soften. The surface is, however, as indigestible +as that of broiled meat.</p> + +<p>An important point for every housewife to remember in this connection is +that the larger the roast the slower should be the fire. This is due to +the fact that long before the heat could penetrate to the center, the +outside would be burned. A small roast, however, will be more delicious +if it is prepared with a very hot fire, for then the juices will not +have a chance to evaporate and the tissues will be more moist and tasty.</p> + +<p><b>25. FRYING AND SAUTÉING.</b>--When meat is fried or sautéd, that is, brought +directly in contact with hot fat, it is made doubly indigestible, +because of the hardening of the surface tissues and the indigestibility +of the fat that penetrates these tissues. This is especially true of +meat that is sautéd slowly in a small quantity of hot fat. Much of this +difficulty can be overcome, however, if meat prepared by these methods, +like that which is broiled or roasted, is subjected quickly to intense +heat. In addition, the fat used for cooking should be made hot before +the meat is put into it.</p> + +<p><b>26. BOILING.</b>--To boil meat means to cook it a long time in water at a +temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit. This method of preparing meat is +not strongly advocated, for there is seldom a time when better results +cannot be obtained by cooking meat at a lower temperature than boiling +point. The best plan is to bring the meat to the boiling point, allow +it to boil for a short time, and then reduce the temperature so that the +meat will simmer for the remainder of the cooking.</p> + +<p>In cooking meat by boiling, a grayish scum appears on the surface just +before the boiling point is reached. This scum is caused by the gradual +extraction of a part of the soluble albumin that is present in the +hollow fibers of the muscle tissue. After its extraction, it is +coagulated by the heat in the water. As it coagulates and rises, it +carries with it to the top particles of dirt and other foreign material +present in the water or on the surface of the meat. In addition, this +scum contains a little blood, which is extracted and coagulated and +which tends to make it grayish in color. Such scum should be skimmed +off, as it is unappetizing in appearance.</p> + +<p><b>27.</b> Whether the meat should be put into cold water or boiling water +depends on the result that is desired. It is impossible to make a rich, +tasty broth and at the same time have a juicy, well-flavored piece of +boiled meat. If meat is cooked for the purpose of making soup or broth, +it should be put into cold water and then brought to a boil. By this +method, some of the nutritive material and much of the flavoring +substance will be drawn out before the water becomes hot enough to +harden them. However, in case only the meat is to be used, it should be +plunged directly into boiling water in order to coagulate the surface at +once, as in the application of dry heat. If it is allowed to boil for 10 +minutes or so and the temperature then reduced, the coating that is +formed will prevent the nutritive material and the flavor from being +lost to any great extent. But if the action of the boiling water is +permitted to continue during the entire time of cooking, the tissues +will become tough and dry.</p> + +<p><b>28. STEWING OR SIMMERING.</b>--The cheap cuts of meat, which contain a great +deal of flavor and are so likely to be tough, cannot be prepared by the +quick methods of cookery nor by the application of high temperature, for +the result would be a tough, indigestible, and unpalatable dish. The +long, slow cooking at a temperature lower than boiling point, which is +known as stewing or simmering, should be applied. In fact, no better +method for the preparation of tough pieces of meat and old fowl can be +found than this process, for by it the connective tissue and the muscle +fibers are softened. If the method is carried out in a tightly closed +vessel and only a small amount of liquid is used, there is no +appreciable loss of flavor except that carried into the liquid in which +the meat cooks. But since such liquid is always used, the meat being +usually served in it, as in the case of stews, there is no actual loss.</p> + +<p>To secure the best results in the use of this method, the meat should be +cut into small pieces so as to expose as much surface as possible. Then +the pieces should be put into cold water rather than hot, in order that +much of the juices and flavoring materials may be dissolved. When this +has been accomplished, the temperature should be gradually raised until +it nearly reaches the boiling point. If it is kept at this point for +several hours, the meat will become tender and juicy and a rich, tasty +broth will also be obtained.</p> + +<p><b>29. BRAIZING.</b>--Meat cooked by the method of braizing, which is in +reality a combination of stewing and baking, is first subjected to the +intense dry heat of the oven and then cooked slowly in the steam of the +water that surrounds it. To cook meat in this way, a pan must be used +that will permit the meat to be raised on a rack that extends above a +small quantity of water. By this method a certain amount of juice from +the meat is taken up by the water, but the connective tissue is well +softened unless the cooking is done at too high a temperature.</p> + +<p><b>30. FRICASSEEING.</b>--As has already been learned, fricasseeing is a +combination of sautéing and stewing. The sautéing coagulates the surface +proteins and prevents, to some extent, the loss of flavor that would +occur in the subsequent stewing if the surface were not hardened. To +produce a tender, tasty dish, fricasseeing should be a long, slow +process. This method is seldom applied to tender, expensive cuts of meat +and to young chickens, but is used for fowl and for pieces of meat that +would not make appetizing dishes if prepared by a quicker method.</p> +<br> + +<a name="TIME_REQUIRED_FOR_COOKING_MEAT"></a><h3>TIME REQUIRED FOR COOKING MEAT</h3> + +<p><b>31.</b> The length of time required for cooking various kinds of meat is +usually puzzling to those inexperienced in cookery. The difference +between a dry, hard beef roast and a tender, moist, juicy one is due to +the length of time allowed for cooking. Overdone meats of any kind are +not likely to be tasty. Therefore, it should be remembered that when dry +heat is used, as in baking, roasting, broiling, etc., the longer the +heat is applied the greater will be the evaporation of moisture and the +consequent shrinkage in the meat.</p> + +<p>A general rule for cooking meat in the oven is to allow 15 minutes for +each pound and 15 minutes extra. If it is to be cooked by broiling, +allow 10 minutes for each pound and 10 minutes extra; by boiling, 20 +minutes for each pound and 20 minutes extra; and by simmering, 30 +minutes for each pound. In Table I is given the number of minutes +generally allowed for cooking 1 pound of each of the various cuts of +beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork by the different cookery methods. +This table should be referred to in studying the two Sections +pertaining to meat.</p> +<br><br> +<center><b>TABLE I</b><br> +TIME TABLE FOR COOKING MEATS</center> + + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td align="center"><b>NAME OF CUT</b></td><td align="center"><b>COOKERY METHOD</b></td><td align="center"><b>TIME PER POUND</b><br><b>MINUTES</b></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan=3 align="left"><b>BEEF</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Round</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">12 to 15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ribs</td><td align="center">Roasting, well done</td><td align="right">12 to 15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ribs</td><td align="center">Roasting, rare</td><td align="right">8 to 10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rump</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">12 to 15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sirloin</td><td align="center">Roasting, rare</td><td align="right">8 to 10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rolled roast</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">12 to 15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Steaks</td><td align="center">Broiling, well done</td><td align="right">12 to 15</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Steaks</td><td align="center">Broiling, rare</td><td align="right">8 to 10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Fresh beef</td><td align="center">Boiling</td><td align="right">20 to 25</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Corned beef</td><td align="center">Boiling</td><td align="right">25 to 30</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Any cut</td><td align="center">Simmering</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chuck</td><td align="center">Braizing</td><td align="right">25 to 30</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=3 align="left"><b>VEAL</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chops or steak</td><td align="center">Broiling</td><td align="right">8 to 30</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Shoulder</td><td align="center">Braizing</td><td align="right">30 to 40</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=3 align="left"><b>MUTTON</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">15 to 20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Shoulder</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">15 to 20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg</td><td align="center">Braizing</td><td align="right">40 to 50</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg</td><td align="center">Boiling</td><td align="right">15 to 25</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chops</td><td align="center">Broiling</td><td align="right">10 to 12</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=3 align="left"><b>LAMB</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Loin or saddle</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">15 to 20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leg</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">15 to 20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chops</td><td align="center">Broiling</td><td align="right">8 to 10</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan=3 align="left"><b>PORK</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Shoulder or ribs</td><td align="center">Roasting</td><td align="right">20 to 25</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Ham</td><td align="center">Boiled</td><td align="right">20 to 30</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chops</td><td align="center">Broiled</td><td align="right">8 to 10</td></tr> +</table> + + +<br><br> +<hr style="width: 25%;"> +<br> + +<b>BEEF</b><br><br> + +<a name="GENERAL_CHARACTERISTICS_OF_BEEF"></a><h3>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF</h3> + +<p><b>32.</b> As is generally known, BEEF is the flesh of a slaughtered steer, +cow, or other adult bovine animal. These animals may be sold to be +slaughtered as young as 1-1/2 to 2 years old, but beef of the best +quality is obtained from them when they are from 3 to 4 years of age. +Ranging from the highest quality down to the lowest, beef is designated +by the butcher as prime, extra fancy, fancy, extra choice, choice, good, +and poor. In a market where trade is large and varied, it is possible to +make such use of meat as to get a higher price for the better qualities +than can be obtained in other markets.</p> + +<p><b>33.</b> When the quality of beef is to be determined, the amount, quality, +and color of the flesh, bone, and fat must be considered. The surface of +a freshly cut piece of beef should be bright red in color. When it is +exposed to the air for some time, the action of the air on the blood +causes it to become darker, but even this color should be a good clear +red. Any unusual color is looked on with suspicion by a person who +understands the requirements of good meat. To obtain beef of the best +quality, it should be cut crosswise of the fiber. In fact, the way in +which meat is cut determines to a great extent the difference between +tender and tough meat and, consequently, the price that is charged. This +difference can be readily seen by examining the surface of a cut. It +will be noted that the tender parts are made up of short fibers that are +cut directly across at right angles with the surface of the meat, while +the tougher parts contain long fibers that run either slanting or almost +parallel to the surface.</p> + +<p><b>34.</b> The amount of bone and cartilage in proportion to meat in a cut of +beef usually makes a difference in price and determines the usefulness +of the piece to the housewife. Therefore, these are matters that should +be carefully considered. For instance, a certain cut of beef that is +suitable for a roast may cost a few cents less than another cut, but if +its proportion of bone to meat is greater than in the more expensive +piece, nothing is gained by purchasing it. Bones, however, possess some +value and can be utilized in various ways. Those containing <i>marrow</i>, +which is the soft tissue found in the cavities of bones and composed +largely of fat, are more valuable for soup making and for stews and +gravies than are solid bones.</p> + +<p>In young beef in good condition, the fat is creamy white in color. +However, as the animal grows older, the color grows darker until it +becomes a deep yellow.</p> + +<p>Besides the flesh, bone, and fat, the general shape and thickness of a +piece of beef should be noted when its quality is to be determined. In +addition, its adaptability to the purpose for which it is selected and +the method of cookery to be used in its preparation are also points that +should not be overlooked.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="CUTS_OF_BEEF"></a><h3>CUTS OF BEEF</h3> + +<b>METHOD OF OBTAINING CUTS</b><br><br> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 3]</p> + +<p><b>35.</b> With the general characteristics of beef well in mind, the housewife +is prepared to learn of the way in which the animal is cut to produce +the different pieces that she sees in the butcher shop and the names +that are given to the various cuts. The cutting of the animal, as well +as the naming of the pieces, varies in different localities, but the +difference is not sufficient to be confusing. Therefore, if the +information here given is thoroughly mastered, the housewife will be +able to select meat intelligently in whatever section of the country she +may reside. An important point for her to remember concerning meat of +any kind is that the cheaper cuts are found near the neck, legs, and +shins, and that the pieces increase in price as they go toward the back.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 4 divisions of a cow into cuts]</p> + +<p><b>36.</b> The general method of cutting up a whole beef into large cuts is +shown in Fig. 3. After the head, feet, and intestines are removed, the +carcass is cut down along the spine and divided into halves. Each half +includes an entire side and is known as a <i>side of beef</i>. Then each side +is divided into <i>fore</i> and <i>hind quarters</i> along the diagonal line that +occurs about midway between the front and the back. It is in this form +that the butcher usually receives the beef. He first separates it into +the large pieces here indicated and then cuts these pieces into numerous +smaller ones having names that indicate their location. For instance, +the piece marked <i>a</i> includes the <i>chuck</i>; <i>b</i>, the <i>ribs</i>; <i>c</i>, the +<i>loin</i>; <i>d</i>, the <i>round</i>; <i>e</i>, the <i>flank</i>; <i>f</i>, the <i>plate</i>; and <i>g</i>, +the <i>shin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>37.</b> The cuts that are obtained from these larger pieces are shown in +Fig. 4. For instance, from the chuck, as illustrated in (<i>a</i>), are +secured numerous cuts, including the neck, shoulder clod, shoulder, and +chuck ribs. The same is true of the other pieces, as a careful study of +these illustrations will reveal. Besides indicating the various cuts, +each one of these illustrations serves an additional purpose. From +(<i>a</i>), which shows the skeleton of the beef, the amount and the shape of +the bone that the various cuts contain can be readily observed. From +(<i>b</i>), which shows the directions in which the surface muscle fibers +run, can be told whether the cutting of the pieces is done across the +fibers or in the same direction as the fibers. Both of these matters are +of such importance to the housewife that constant reference to these +illustrations should be made until the points that they serve to +indicate are thoroughly understood.</p> +<br> + +<b>NAMES AND USES OF CUTS</b><br><br> + +<p><b>38.</b> So that a still better idea may be formed of the pieces into which a +side of beef may be cut, reference should be made to Fig. 5. The heavy +line through the center shows where the side is divided in order to cut +it into the fore and hind quarters. As will be observed, the fore +quarter includes the chuck, prime ribs, and whole plate, and the hind +quarter, the loin and the round, each of these large pieces being +indicated by a different color.</p> + +<p>To make these large pieces of a size suitable for sale to the consumer, +the butcher cuts each one of them into still smaller pieces, all of +which are indicated in the illustration. The names of these cuts, +together with their respective uses, and the names of the beef organs +and their uses, are given in Table II.</p> +<br><br> +<center><b>TABLE II</b><br><br> +CUTS OBTAINED FROM A SIDE OF BEEF AND THEIR USES</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td><b>NAME OF<br>LARGE PIECE</b></td><td ><b>NAME OF CUT</b></td><td ><b>USES OF CUTS</b></td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=8 valign="middle">Chuck</td> +<td>Neck</td><td >Soups, broths, stews</td></tr> +<tr><td>Shoulder clod</td><td >Soups, broths, stews, boiling, corning</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ribs (11th, 12th, and 13th)</td><td >Brown stews, braizing, poor roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ribs (9th and 10th)</td><td >Braizing, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Shoulder</td><td >Soups, stews, corning, roast</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cross-ribs</td><td >Roast</td></tr> +<tr><td>Brisket</td><td >Soups, stews, corning</td></tr> +<tr><td>Shin</td><td >Soups</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Prime Ribs</td><td >Ribs (1st to 8th, inclusive)</td><td >Roasts</td></tr> + + +<tr><td rowspan=2 valign=middle>Whole Plate</td><td >Plate</td><td >Soups, stews, corning</td></tr> +<tr><td>Navel</td><td >Soups, stews, corning</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=9 valign="middle">Loin</td><td >Short steak</td><td >Steaks, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Porterhouse cuts</td><td >Steaks, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hip-bone steak</td><td >Steaks, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Flat-bone steak</td><td >Steaks, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Round-bone steak</td><td >Steaks, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sirloin</td><td >Steaks</td></tr> +<tr><td>Top sirloin</td><td >Roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Flank</td><td >Rolled steak, braizing, boiling</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tenderloin</td><td >Roast</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=5 valign="middle">Round</td><td >Rump</td><td >Roasts, corning</td></tr> +<tr><td>Upper round</td><td >Steaks, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lower round</td><td >Steaks, pot roasts, stews</td></tr> +<tr><td>Vein</td><td >Stews, soups</td></tr> +<tr><td>Shank</td><td >Soups</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=4 valign="middle">Beef Organs</td><td >Liver</td><td >Broiling, frying</td></tr> +<tr><td>Heart</td><td >Baking, braizing</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tongue</td><td >Boiling, baking, braizing</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tail</td><td >Soup</td></tr> +</table> + + +<br><br> + + +<p><b>39.</b> As will be observed from Fig. 5, the ribs are numbered in the +opposite direction from the way in which they are ordinarily counted; +that is, the first rib in a cut of beef is the one farthest from the +head and the thirteenth is the one just back of the neck. The first and +second ribs are called the <i>back ribs</i>; the third, fourth, fifth, and +sixth, the <i>middle ribs</i>. To prepare the ribs for sale, they are usually +cut into pieces that contain two ribs, the first and second ribs being +known as the first cut, the third and fourth as <i>the second</i> cut, etc. +After being sawed across, the rib bones are either left in to make a +<i>standing rib roast</i> or taken out and the meat then rolled and fastened +together with skewers to make a <i>rolled roast</i>. <i>Skewers,</i> which are +long wooden or metal pins that may be pushed through meat to fasten it +together, will be found useful to the housewife in preparing many cuts +of meat for cooking. They may usually be obtained at a meat market or a +hardware store.</p> + +<p><b>40.</b> Certain of the organs of beef are utilized to a considerable extent, +so that while they cannot be shown in Fig. 5, they are included in Table +II. The heart and the tongue are valuable both because they are +economical and because they add variety to the meat diet of the family. +The tongue, either smoked or fresh, may be boiled and then served hot, +or it may be pickled in vinegar and served cold. The heart may be +prepared in the same way, or it may be stuffed and then baked. The tail +of beef makes excellent soup and is much used for this purpose.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>COOKING OF BEEF</b> + +<a name="STEAKS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>STEAKS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>41. Steaks Obtained From the Loin.</b>--The way in which a loin of beef is +cut into steaks is shown in Fig. 6. From <i>a</i> to <i>b</i> are cut <i>Delmonico +steaks;</i> from <i>b</i> to <i>c</i>, <i>porterhouse steaks;</i> from <i>c</i> to <i>d</i>, +<i>hip-bone steaks;</i> from <i>d</i> to <i>e</i>, <i>flat-bone steaks;</i> and from <i>e</i> to +<i>f</i>, <i>sirloin steaks</i>. The <i>loin</i> is cut from the rump at <i>f</i> and from +the flank and plate at <i>h</i> to <i>j</i>. When steaks are cut from the flesh of +animals in good condition, they are all very tender and may be used for +the quick methods of cookery, such as broiling. A very good idea of what +each of these steaks looks like can be obtained from Figs. 7 to 11, +inclusive. Each of these illustrations shows the entire section of +steak, as well as one steak cut from the piece.</p> + +<p>DELMONICO STEAK, which is shown in Fig. 7, is the smallest steak that +can be cut from the loin and is therefore an excellent cut for a small +family. It contains little or no tenderloin. Sometimes this steak is +wrongly called a club steak, but no confusion will result if it is +remembered that a <i>club steak</i> is a porterhouse steak that has most of +the bone and the flank end, or "tail," removed.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p> + +<p>Porterhouse steak, which is illustrated in Fig 8, contains more +tenderloin than any other steak. This steak also being small in size is +a very good cut for a small number of persons.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 8]</p> + +<p><i>Hip-bone steak</i>, shown in Fig. 9, contains a good-sized piece of +tenderloin. Steak of this kind finds much favor, as it can be served +quite advantageously.</p> + +<p>Flat-bone steak, as shown in Fig. 10, has a large bone, but it also +contains a considerable amount of fairly solid meat. When a large +number of persons are to be served, this is a very good steak to select.</p> + +<p>Sirloin steak is shown in Fig. 11. As will be observed, this steak +contains more solid meat than any of the other steaks cut from the loin. +For this reason, it serves a large number of persons more advantageously +than the others do.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 9]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 10]</p> + +<p><b>42. Steaks Obtained From the Round.</b>--While the steaks cut from the loin +are usually preferred because of their tenderness, those cut from the +upper round and across the rump are very desirable for many purposes. If +these are not so tender as is desired, the surface may be chopped with +a dull knife in order to make tiny cuts through the fibers, or it may be +pounded with some blunt object, as, for instance, a wooden potato +masher. In Fig. 12, the entire round and the way it is sometimes +subdivided into the upper and lower round are shown. What is known as a +round steak is a slice that is cut across the entire round. However, +such a steak is often cut into two parts where the line dividing the +round is shown, and either the upper or the lower piece may be +purchased. The upper round is the better piece and brings a higher price +than the whole round or the lower round including the vein. The quick +methods of cookery may be applied to the more desirable cuts of the +round, but the lower round or the vein is generally used for roasting, +braizing, or stewing.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 11]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 12]</p> + +<p><b>43. Broiled Beefsteak.</b>--As has already been explained, the steaks cut +from the loin are the ones that are generally used for broiling. When +one of these steaks is to be broiled, it should never be less than 1 +inch thick, but it may be from 1 to 2-1/2 inches in thickness, according +to the preference of the persons for whom it is prepared. As the flank +end, or "tail," of such steaks is always tough, it should be cut off +before cooking and utilized in the making of soups and such dishes as +require chopped meats. In addition, all superfluous fat should be +removed and then tried out. Beef fat, especially if it is mixed with +lard or other fats, makes excellent shortening; likewise, it may be used +for sautéing various foods.</p> + +<p>When a steak has been prepared in this manner, wipe it carefully with a +clean, damp cloth. Heat the broiler very hot and grease the rack with a +little of the beef fat. Then place the steak on the rack, expose it +directly to the rays of a very hot fire, and turn it every 10 seconds +until each side has been exposed several times to the blaze. This is +done in order to sear the entire surface and thus prevent the loss of +the juice. When the surface is sufficiently seared, lower the fire or +move the steak to a cooler place on the stove and then, turning it +frequently, allow it to cook more slowly until it reaches the desired +condition. The broiling of a steak requires from 10 to 20 minutes, +depending on its thickness and whether it is preferred well done or +rare. Place the broiled steak on a hot platter, dot it with butter, +season it with salt and pepper, and serve at once.</p> + +<p><b>44. Pan-Broiled Steak.</b>--If it is impossible to prepare the steak in a +broiler, it may be pan-broiled. In fact, this is a very satisfactory way +to cook any of the tender cuts. To carry out this method, place a heavy +frying pan directly over the fire and allow it to become so hot that the +fat will smoke when put into it. Grease the pan with a small piece of +the beef fat, just enough to prevent the steak from sticking fast. Put +the steak into the hot pan and turn it as soon as it is seared on the +side that touches the pan. After it is seared on the other side, turn it +again and continue to turn it frequently until it has broiled for about +15 minutes. When it is cooked sufficiently to serve, dot it with butter +and season it with salt and pepper. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>45. ROLLED STEAK, OR MOCK DUCK.</b>--To have a delicious meat, it is not +always necessary to secure the tender, expensive cuts, for excellent +dishes can be prepared from the cheaper pieces. For instance, steaks cut +from the entire round or thin cuts from the rump can be filled with a +stuffing and then rolled to make rolled steak, or mock duck. This is an +extremely appetizing dish and affords the housewife a chance to give her +family a pleasing variety in the way of meat. The steak used for this +purpose should first be broiled in the way explained in Art. 43. Then it +should be filled with a stuffing made as follows:</p> + +<b>STUFFING FOR ROLLED STEAK</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 qt. stale bread crumbs</li> +<li>1 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +<li>1 Tb. salt</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/4 Tb. pepper</li> +<li>1 c. hot water</li> +</ul> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 13] Mix all together. Pile on top of the broiled +steak and roll the steak so that the edges lap over each other and the +dressing is completely covered. Fasten together with skewers or tie by +wrapping a cord around the roll. Strips of bacon or salt pork tied to +the outside or fastened with small skewers improve the flavor of the +meat. Place in a roasting pan and bake in a hot oven until the steak is +thoroughly baked. This will require not less than 40 minutes. Cut into +slices and serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>46. SKIRT STEAK.</b>--Lying inside the ribs and extending from the second +or third rib to the breast bone is a thin strip of muscle known as a +skirt steak. This is removed before the ribs are cut for roasts, and, as +shown in Fig. 13, is slit through the center with a long, sharp knife to +form a pocket into which stuffing can be put. As a skirt steak is not +expensive and has excellent flavor, it is a very desirable piece +of meat.</p> + +<p>To prepare such a steak for the table, stuff it with the stuffing given +for rolled steak in Art. 45, and then fasten the edges together with +skewers. Bake in a hot oven until the steak is well done. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>47. SWISS STEAK.</b>--Another very appetizing dish that can be made from the +cheaper steaks is Swiss steak. To be most satisfactory, the steak used +for this purpose should be about an inch thick.</p> + +<p>Pound as much dry flour as possible into both sides of the steak by +means of a wooden potato masher. Then brown it on both sides in a hot +frying pan with some of the beef fat. When it is thoroughly browned, +pour a cup of hot water over it, cover the pan tight, and remove to the +back of the stove. Have just enough water on the steak and apply just +enough heat to keep it simmering very slowly for about 1/2 hour. As the +meat cooks, the water will form a gravy by becoming thickened with the +flour that has been pounded into the steak. Serve the steak with +this gravy.</p> + +<p><b>48. HAMBURGER STEAK.</b>--The tougher pieces of beef, such as the flank ends +of the steak and parts of the rump, the round, and the chuck, may be +ground fine by being forced through a food chopper. Such meat is very +frequently combined with egg and then formed into small cakes or patties +to make Hamburger steak. Besides providing a way to utilize pieces of +meat that might otherwise be wasted, this dish affords variety to +the diet.</p> + +<b>HAMBURGER STEAK</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 lb. chopped beef</li> +<li>1 small onion, chopped</li> +<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1 egg (if desired)</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the ingredients thoroughly and shape into thin patties. Cook by +broiling in a pan placed in the broiler or by pan-broiling in a hot, +well-greased frying pan. Spread with butter when ready to serve.</p> + +<p><b>49. PLANKED STEAK.</b>--A dish that the housewife generally considers too +complicated for her, but that may very readily be prepared in the home, +is planked steak. Such a steak gets its name from the fact that a part +of its cooking is done on a hardwood plank, and that the steak, together +with vegetables of various kinds, is served on the plank. Potatoes are +always used as one of the vegetables that are combined with planked +steak, but besides them almost any combination or variety of vegetables +may be used as a garnish. Asparagus tips, string beans, peas, tiny +onions, small carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, stuffed peppers, and +stuffed tomatoes are the vegetables from which a selection is usually +made. When a tender steak is selected for this purpose and is properly +cooked, and when the vegetables are well prepared and artistically +arranged, no dish can be found that appeals more to the eye and +the taste.</p> + +<p>To prepare this dish, broil or pan-broil one of the better cuts of steak +for about 8 minutes. Butter the plank, place the steak on the center of +it and season with salt and pepper. Mash potatoes and to each 2 cupfuls +use 4 tablespoonfuls of milk, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and one egg. +After these materials have been mixed well into the potatoes, arrange a +border of potatoes around the edge of the plank. Then garnish the steak +with whatever vegetables have been selected. Care should be taken to see +that these are properly cooked and well seasoned. If onions, mushrooms, +or carrots are used, it is well to sauté them in butter after they are +thoroughly cooked. With the steak thus prepared, place the plank under +the broiler or in a hot oven and allow it to remain there long enough to +brown the potatoes, cook the steak a little more, and thoroughly heat +all the vegetables.</p> + +<p><b>50. VEGETABLES SERVED WITH STEAK.</b>--If an attractive, as well as a tasty, +dish is desired and the housewife has not sufficient time nor the +facilities to prepare a planked steak, a good plan is to sauté a +vegetable of some kind and serve it over the steak. For this purpose +numerous vegetables are suitable, but onions, small mushrooms, and +sliced tomatoes are especially desirable. When onions are used, they +should be sliced thin and then sautéd in butter until they are soft and +brown. Small mushrooms may be prepared in the same way, or they may be +sautéd in the fat that remains in the pan after the steak has been +removed. Tomatoes that are served over steak should be sliced, rolled in +crumbs, and then sautéd.</p> + +<a name="ROASTS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>ROASTS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 14]</p> + +<p><b>51. FILLET OF BEEF.</b>--A large variety of roasts can be obtained from a +side of beef, but by far the most delicious one is the tenderloin, or +fillet of beef. This is a long strip of meat lying directly under the +chine, or back bone. It is either taken out as a whole, or it is left in +the loin to be cut as a part of the steaks that are obtained from this +section. When it is removed in a whole piece, as shown in Fig. 14, the +steaks that remain in the loin are not so desirable and do not bring +such a good price, because the most tender part of each of them +is removed.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 15]</p> + +<p>Two different methods of cookery are usually applied to the tenderloin +of beef. Very often, as Fig. 14 shows, it is cut into slices about 2 +inches thick and then broiled, when it is called <i>broiled fillet</i>, or +<i>fillet</i> mignon. If it is not treated in this way, the whole tenderloin +is roasted after being rolled, or larded, with salt pork to supply the +fat that it lacks. Whichever way it is cooked, the tenderloin always +proves to be an exceptionally tender and delicious cut of beef. However, +it is the most expensive piece that can be bought, and so is not +recommended when economy must be practiced.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 16]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 17]</p> + +<p><b>52. CHUCK ROASTS.</b>--While the pieces cut from the chuck are not so +desirable as those obtained from the loin or as the prime ribs, still +the chuck yields very good roasts, as Figs. 15 and 16 show. The roast +shown in Fig. 15 is the piece just back of the shoulder, and that +illustrated in Fig. 16 is cut from the ribs in the chuck. These pieces +are of a fairly good quality and if a roast as large as 8 or 10 pounds +is desired, they make an economical one to purchase.</p> + +<p><b>53. RIB ROASTS.</b>--Directly back of the chuck, as has already been +learned, are the prime ribs. From this part of the beef, which is shown +in Figs. 17 and 18, the best rib roasts are secured. Fig. 17 shows the +ribs cut off at about the eighth rib and Fig. 18 shows the same set +turned around so that the cut surface is at about the first rib, where +the best cuts occur. To prepare this piece for roasting, it is often cut +around the dark line shown in Fig. 18, and after the back bone and ribs +have been removed, is rolled into a roll of solid meat. The thin lower +part that is cut off is used for boiling.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 18]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 19]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 20]</p> + +<p><b>54.</b> When only a small roast is wanted, a single rib, such as is shown in +Fig. 19, is often used. In a roast of this kind, the bone is not +removed, but, as will be observed, is sawed in half. Such a roast is +called a <i>standing rib roast</i>. Another small roast, called a +<i>porterhouse roast</i>, is illustrated in Fig. 20. This is obtained by +cutting a porterhouse steak rather thick. It is therefore a very tender +and delicious, although somewhat expensive, roast. Other parts of the +loin may also be cut for roasts, the portion from which sirloin steaks +are cut making large and very delicious roasts.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 21]</p> + +<p><b>55. RUMP ROASTS.</b>--Between the loin and the bottom round lies the rump, +and from this may be cut roasts of different kinds. The entire rump with +its cut surface next to the round is shown in Fig. 21, and the various +pieces into which the rump may be cut are illustrated in Figs. 22 to 25. +These roasts have a very good flavor and are very juicy, and if beef in +prime condition can be obtained, they are extremely tender. Besides +these advantages, rump roasts are economical, so they are much favored. +To prepare them for cooking, the butcher generally removes the bone and +rolls them in the manner shown in Fig. 26.</p> + +<p><b>56. ROAST BEEF.</b>--The usual method of preparing the roasts that have just +been described, particularly the tender ones, is to cook them in the +oven. For this purpose a roasting pan, such as the one previously +described and illustrated, produces the best results, but if one of +these cannot be obtained, a dripping pan may be substituted. When the +meat is first placed in the oven, the oven temperature should be 400 to +450 degrees Fahrenheit, but after the meat has cooked for about 15 +minutes, the temperature should be lowered so that the meat will cook +more slowly.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 22]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 23]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 24]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 25]</p> + +<p>Before putting the roast in the oven, wipe it thoroughly with a damp +cloth. If its surface is not well covered with a layer of fat, place +several pieces of salt pork on it and tie or skewer them fast. Then, +having one of the cut sides up so that it will be exposed to the heat of +the oven, set the piece of meat in a roasting pan or the utensil that is +to be substituted. Dredge, or sprinkle, the surface with flour, salt, +and pepper, and place the pan in the oven, first making sure that the +oven is sufficiently hot. Every 10 or 15 minutes baste the meat with the +fat and the juice that cooks out of it; that is, spoon up this liquid +and pour it over the meat in order to improve the flavor and to prevent +the roast from becoming dry. If necessary, a little water may be added +for basting, but the use of water for this purpose should generally be +avoided. Allow the meat to roast until it is either well done or rare, +according to the way it is preferred. The length of time required for +this process depends so much on the size of the roast, the temperature +of the oven, and the preference of the persons who are to eat the meat, +that definite directions cannot well be given. However, a general idea +of this matter can be obtained by referring to the Cookery Time Table +given in <i>Essentials of Cookery</i>, Part 2, and also to Table I of this +Section, which gives the time required for cooking each pound of meat. +If desired, gravy may be made from the juice that remains in the pan, +the directions for making gravy being given later.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 26]</p> + +<p><b>57. BRAIZED BEEF.</b>--An excellent way in which to cook a piece of beef +that is cut from the rump or lower round is to braize it. This method +consists in placing the meat on a rack over a small quantity of water in +a closed pan and then baking it in the oven for about 4 hours. +Vegetables cut into small pieces are placed in the water and they cook +while the meat is baking. As meat prepared in this way really cooks in +the flavored steam that rises from the vegetables, it becomes very +tender and has a splendid flavor; also, the gravy that may be made from +the liquid that remains adds to its value. In serving it, a spoonful of +the vegetables is generally put on the plate with each piece of meat.</p> + +<b>BRAIZED BEEF</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>3 lb. beef from rump or lower round</li> +<li>Flour</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +<li>2 thin slices salt pork</li> +<li>1/4 c. diced carrots</li> +<li>1/4 c. diced turnips</li> +<li>1/4 c. diced onions</li> +<li>1/4 c. diced celery</li> +<li>3 c. boiling water</li> +</ul> + +<p>Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, and dredge, or sprinkle, it with the +flour, salt, and pepper. Try out the pork and brown the entire surface +of the meat in the fat thus obtained. Then place the meat on a rack in a +deep granite pan, an earthen bowl, or a baking dish, and surround it +with the diced vegetables. Add the boiling water, cover the dish tight, +and place in a slow oven. Bake for about 4 hours at a low temperature. +Then remove the meat to a hot platter, strain out the vegetables, and +make a thickened gravy of the liquid that remains, as explained later.</p> + +<p><b>58. POT-ROASTED BEEF.</b>--The usual, and probably the most satisfactory, +method of preparing the cheaper cuts of beef is to cook them in a heavy +iron pot over a slow fire for several hours. If the proper attention is +given to the preparation of such a roast, usually called a pot roast, it +will prove a very appetizing dish. Potatoes may also be cooked in the +pot with the meat. This is a good plan to follow for it saves fuel and +at the same time offers variety in the cooking of potatoes.</p> + +<p>When a piece of beef is to be roasted in a pot, try out in the pot a +little of the beef fat. Then wipe the meat carefully and brown it on all +sides in the fat. Add salt, pepper, and 1/2 cupful of boiling water and +cover the pot tightly. Cook over a slow fire until the water is +evaporated and the meat begins to brown; then add another 1/2 cupful of +water. Continue to do this until the meat has cooked for several hours, +or until the entire surface is well browned and the meat tissue very +tender. Then place the meat on a hot platter and, if desired, make gravy +of the fat that remains in the pan, following the directions given +later. If potatoes are to be cooked with the roast, put them into the +pot around the meat about 45 minutes before the meat is to be removed, +as they will be cooked sufficiently when the roast is done.</p> + +<p><b>59. BEEF LOAF.</b>--Hamburger steak is not always made into small patties +and broiled or sautéd. In fact, it is very often combined with cracker +crumbs, milk, and egg, and then well seasoned to make a beef loaf. Since +there are no bones nor fat to be cut away in serving, this is an +economical dish and should be used occasionally to give variety to the +diet. If desired, a small quantity of salt pork may be combined with the +beef to add flavor.</p> + +<b>BEEF LOAF</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Ten</i>) + +<ul> +<li>3 lb. beef</li> +<li>2 Tb. salt</li> +<li>1/4 lb. salt pork</li> +<li>1/4 Tb. pepper</li> +<li>1 c. cracker crumbs</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +</ul> + +<p>Put the beef and pork through the food chopper; then mix thoroughly with +the other ingredients. Pack tightly into a loaf-cake pan. Bake in a +moderate oven for 2 1/2 to 3 hours. During the baking, baste frequently +with hot water to which a little butter has been added. Serve either hot +or cold, as desired.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OP_STEWS_AND_CORNED_BEEF"></a><h3>PREPARATION OP STEWS AND CORNED BEEF</h3> + +<p><b>60. Cuts Suitable for Stewing and Corning.</b>--Because of the large variety +of cuts obtained from a beef, numerous ways of cooking this meat have +been devised. The tender cuts are, of course, the most desirable and the +most expensive and they do not require the same preparation as the +cheaper cuts. However, the poorer cuts, while not suitable for some +purposes, make very good stews and corned beef. The cuts that are most +satisfactory for stewing and coming are shown in Figs. 27 to 30. A part +of the chuck that is much used for stewing and coming is shown in Fig. +27, <i>a</i> being the upper chuck, <i>b</i> the shoulder, and <i>c</i> the lower +chuck. Fig. 28 shows a piece of the shoulder cut off just at the leg +joint, Fig. 29, the neck, and Fig. 30, a piece of the plate called a +flat-rib piece. Besides these pieces, the brisket, the lower part of the +round, and any of the other chuck pieces that do not make good roasts +are excellent for this purpose. In fact, any part that contains bone and +fat, as well as lean, makes well-flavored stew.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 27]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 28]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 29]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 30]</p> + +<p><b>61. Beef Stew.</b>--Any of the pieces of beef just mentioned may be used +with vegetables of various kinds to make beef stew. Also left-over +pieces of a roast or a steak may be utilized with other meats in the +making of this dish. If the recipe here given is carefully followed, a +very appetizing as well as nutritious stew will be the result.</p> + +<b>BEEF STEW</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>4 lb. beef</li> +<li>2/3 c. diced carrots</li> +<li>2 Tb. salt</li> +<li>1 small onion, sliced</li> +<li>1/4 Tb. pepper</li> +<li>3 c. potatoes cut into 1/4 in. slices</li> +<li>2/3 c. diced turnips</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +</ul> + +<p>Wipe the meat and cut it into pieces about 2 inches long. Try out some +of the fat in a frying pan and brown the pieces of meat in it, stirring +the meat constantly so that it will brown evenly. Put the browned meat +into a kettle with the remaining fat and the bone, cover well with +boiling water, and add the salt and pepper. Cover the kettle with a +tight-fitting lid. Let the meat boil for a minute or two, then reduce +the heat, and allow it to simmer for about 2 hours. For the last hour, +cook the diced turnips, carrots, and onions with the meat, and 20 +minutes before serving, add the potatoes. When the meat and vegetables +are sufficiently cooked, remove the bones, fat, and skin; then thicken +the stew with the flour moistened with enough cold water to pour. Pour +into a deep platter or dish and serve with or without dumplings.</p> + +<p><b>62.</b> When dumplings are to be served with beef stew or any dish of this +kind, they may be prepared as follows:</p> + +<b>DUMPLINGS</b><br> + +<ul> +<li>2 c. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. fat</li> +<li>1/2 Tb. salt</li> +<li>3/4 to 1 c. milk</li> +<li>4 tsp. baking powder</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop in the fat with a +knife. Add the milk gradually and mix to form a dough. Toss on a floured +board and roll out or pat until it is about 1 inch thick. Cut into +pieces with a small biscuit cutter. Place these close together in a +buttered steamer and steam over a kettle of hot water for 15 to 18 +minutes. Serve with the stew.</p> + +<p>If a softer dough that can be cooked with the stew is preferred, 1 1/2 +cupfuls of milk instead of 3/4 to 1 cupful should be used. Drop the +dough thus prepared by the spoonful into the stew and boil for about 15 +minutes. Keep the kettle tightly covered while the dumplings +are boiling.</p> + +<p><b>63. CORNED BEEF.</b>--It is generally the custom to purchase corned beef, +that is, beef preserved in a brine, at the market; but this is not +necessary, as meat of this kind may be prepared in the home. When the +housewife wishes to corn beef, she will find it an advantage to procure +a large portion of a quarter of beef, part of which may be corned and +kept to be used after the fresh beef has been eaten. Of course, this +plan should be followed only in cold weather, for fresh meat soon spoils +unless it is kept very cold.</p> + +<p>To corn beef, prepare a mixture of 10 parts salt to 1 part saltpeter and +rub this into the beef until the salt remains dry on the surface. Put +the meat aside for 24 hours and then rub it again with some of the same +mixture. On the following day, put the beef into a large crock or stone +jar and cover it with a brine made by boiling 2-1/2 gallons of water +into which have been added 2 quarts salt, 2 ounces saltpeter, and 3/4 +pound brown sugar. Be careful to cool the brine until it entirely cold +before using it. Allow the beef to remain in the brine for a week before +attempting to use it. Inspect it occasionally, and if it does not appear +to be keeping well, remove it from the brine, rub it again with the salt +mixture, and place it in fresh brine. Beef that is properly corned will +keep an indefinite length of time, but it should be examined, every 2 or +3 days for the first few weeks to see that it is not spoiling.</p> + +<p><b>64. BOILED CORNED BEEF.</b>--The usual way to prepare beef corned in the +manner just explained or corned beef bought at the market is to boil it. +After it becomes sufficiently tender by this method of cooking, it may +be pressed into a desired shape and when cold cut into thin slices. Meat +of this kind makes an excellent dish for a light meal such as luncheon +or supper.</p> + +<p>To boil corned beef, first wipe it thoroughly and roll and tie it. Then +put it into a kettle, cover it with boiling water, and set it over the +fire. When it comes to the boiling point, skim off the scum that forms +on the top. Cook at a low temperature until the meat is tender enough to +be pierced easily with a fork. Then place the meat in a dish or a pan, +pour the broth over it, put a plate on top that will rest on the meat, +and weight it down with something heavy enough to press the meat into +shape. Allow it to remain thus overnight. When cold and thoroughly set, +remove from the pan, cut into thin slices, and serve.</p> + +<p><b>65. BOILED DINNER.</b>--Corned beef is especially adaptable to what is +commonly termed a boiled dinner. Occasionally it is advisable for the +housewife to vary her meals by serving a dinner of this kind. In +addition to offering variety, such a dinner affords her an opportunity +to economize on fuel, especially if gas or electricity is used, for all +of it may be prepared in the same pot and cooked over the same burner.</p> + +<b>BOILED DINNER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>3 lb. corned beef</li> +<li>1 c. sliced turnips</li> +<li>1 small head of cabbage cut into eighths</li> +<li>1 c. sliced potatoes</li> +<li>Pepper and salt</li> +<li>1 c. sliced carrots</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cook the corned beef in the manner explained in Art. 64. When it has +cooked sufficiently, remove it from the water. Into this water, put the +cabbage, carrots, turnips, and potatoes; then add the salt and pepper, +seasoning to taste. Cook until the vegetables are tender. Remove the +vegetables and serve them in vegetable dishes with some of the meat +broth. Reheat the meat before serving.</p> +<br> + +<a name="BEEF_ORGANS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>BEEF ORGANS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>66. BOILED TONGUE.</b>--The tongue of beef is much used, for if properly +prepared it makes a delicious meat that may be served hot or cold. It is +usually corned or smoked to preserve it until it can be used. In either +of these forms or in its fresh state, it must be boiled in order to +remove the skin and prepare the meat for further use. If it has been +corned or smoked, it is likely to be very salty, so that it should +usually be soaked overnight to remove the salt.</p> + +<p>When boiled tongue is desired, put a fresh tongue or a smoked or a +corned tongue from which the salt has been removed into a kettle of cold +water and allow it to come to a boil. Skim and continue to cook at a low +temperature for 2 hours. Cool enough to handle and then remove the skin +and the roots. Cut into slices and serve hot or cold.</p> + +<p><b>67. PICKLED TONGUE.</b>--A beef tongue prepared in the manner just explained +may be treated in various ways, but a method of preparation that meets +with much favor consists in pickling it. Pickled tongue makes an +excellent meat when a cold dish is required for a light meal or meat for +sandwiches is desired. The pickle required for one tongue contains the +following ingredients:</p> + +<b>PICKLE</b> + +<ul> +<li>1-1/2 c. vinegar</li> +<li>2 c. water</li> +<li>1/4 c. sugar</li> +<li>1 Tb. salt</li> +<li>1/4 Tb. pepper</li> +<li>6 cloves</li> +<li>1 stick cinnamon</li> +</ul> + +<p>Boil all of these ingredients for a few minutes, then add the tongue, +and boil for 15 minutes. Remove from the stove and let stand for 24 +hours. Slice and serve cold.</p> + +<p><b>68. BRAIZED TONGUE.</b>--The process of braizing may be applied to tongue as +well as to other parts of beef. In fact, when tongue is cooked in this +way with several kinds of vegetables, it makes a delicious dish that is +pleasing to most persons.</p> + +<b>BRAIZED TONGUE</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 fresh tongue</li> +<li>1/3 c. diced carrots</li> +<li>1/3 c. diced onions</li> +<li>1/3 c. diced celery</li> +<li>1 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>2 c. water in which tongue is boiled</li> +</ul> + +<p>Boil the tongue as previously directed, and then skin it and remove the +roots. Place it in a long pan and pour over it the carrots, onions, +celery, stewed tomatoes, and the water. Cover tight and bake in a slow +oven for 2 hours. Serve on a platter with the vegetables and sauce.</p> + +<p><b>69. STUFFED HEART.</b>--If a stuffed meat is desired, nothing more +appetizing can be found than stuffed heart. For this purpose the heart +of a young beef should be selected in order that a tender dish +will result.</p> + +<p>After washing the heart and removing the veins and the arteries, make a +stuffing like that given for rolled beefsteak in Art. 45. Stuff the +heart with this dressing, sprinkle salt and pepper over it, and roll it +in flour. Lay several strips of bacon or salt pork across the top, place +in a baking pan, and pour 1 cupful of water into the pan. Cover the pan +tight, set it in a hot oven, and bake slowly for 2 or 3 hours, depending +on the size of the heart. Add water as the water in the pan evaporates, +and baste the heart frequently. When it has baked sufficiently, remove +to a platter and serve at once.</p> +<br> + +<a name="MAKING_GRAVY"></a><h3>MAKING GRAVY</h3> + +<p><b>70. To meats prepared in various ways, gravy</b>--that is, the sauce made +from the drippings or juices that cook out of steaks, roasts, and stews, +or from the broth actually cooked from the meat as for soup--is a +valuable addition, particularly if it is well made and properly +seasoned. A point to remember in this connection is that gravy should be +entirely free from lumps and not too thick. It will be of the right +thickness if 1 to 2 level tablespoonfuls of flour is used for each pint +of liquid. It should also be kept in mind that the best gravy is made +from the brown drippings that contain some fat.</p> + +<p>To make gravy, remove any excess of fat that is not required, and then +pour a little hot water into the pan in order to dissolve the drippings +that are to be used. Add the flour to the fat, stirring until a smooth +paste is formed. Then add the liquid, which may be water or milk, and +stir quickly to prevent the formation of lumps. Season well with salt +and pepper. Another method that also proves satisfactory is to mix the +flour and liquid and then add them to the fat that remains in the pan in +which the meat has been cooked.</p> +<br> + +<a name="TRYING_OUT_SUET_AND_OTHER_FATS"></a><h3>TRYING OUT SUET AND OTHER FATS</h3> + +<p><b>71.</b> The suet obtained from beef is a valuable source of fat for cooking, +and it should therefore never be thrown away. The process of obtaining +the fat from suet is called <i>trying</i>, and it is always practiced in +homes where economy is the rule.</p> + +<p>To try out suet, cut the pieces into half-inch cubes, place them in a +heavy frying pan, and cover them with hot water. Allow this to come to a +boil and cook until the water has evaporated. Continue the heating until +all the fat has been drawn from the tissue. Then pour off all the liquid +fat and squeeze the remaining suet with a potato masher or in a fruit +press. Clean glass or earthen jars are good receptacles in which to keep +the fat thus recovered from the suet.</p> + +<p>To try out other fats, proceed in the same way as for trying out suet. +Such fats may be tried by heating them in a pan without water, provided +the work is done carefully enough to prevent them from scorching.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OF_LEFT-OVER_BEEF"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER BEEF</h3> + +<p><b>72.</b> As has been shown, meat is both an expensive and a perishable food. +Therefore, some use should be made of every left-over bit of it, no +matter how small, and it should be disposed of quickly in order to +prevent it from spoiling. A point that should not be overlooked in the +use of left-over meats, however, is that they should be prepared so as +to be a contrast to the original preparation and thus avoid monotony in +the food served. This variation may be accomplished by adding other +foods and seasonings and by changing the appearance as much as possible. +For instance, what remains from a roast of beef may be cut in thin +slices and garnished to make an attractive dish; or, left-over meat may +be made very appetizing by cutting it into cubes, reheating it in gravy +or white sauce, and serving it over toast or potato patties. Then there +is the sandwich, which always finds a place in the luncheon. The meat +used for this purpose may be sliced thin or it may be chopped fine, and +then, to increase the quantity, mixed with salad dressing, celery, +olives, chopped pickles, etc. An excellent sandwich is made by placing +thin slices of roast beef between two slices of bread and serving hot +roast-beef gravy over the sandwich thus formed. Still other appetizing +dishes may be prepared from left-over beef as the accompanying +recipes show.</p> + +<p><b>73. MEXICAN BEEF</b>--An extremely appetizing dish, known as Mexican beef, +can be made from any quantity of left-over beef by serving it with a +vegetable sauce. Such a dish needs few accompaniments when it is served +in a light meal, but it may be used very satisfactorily as the main dish +in a heavy meal.</p> + +<b>MEXICAN BEEF</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1 onion, chopped</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 red pepper</li> +<li>1 tsp. celery salt</li> +<li>1 green pepper</li> +<li>Thin slices roast beef</li> +<li>3/4 c. canned tomatoes</li> +</ul> + +<p>Brown the butter, add the chopped onion, and cook for a few minutes. +Then add the chopped peppers, tomatoes, salt, pepper, and celery salt. +Cook all together for a few minutes and add the thinly sliced roast +beef. When the meat has become thoroughly heated, it is ready to serve.</p> + +<p><b>74. COTTAGE PIE.</b>--A very good way to use up left-over mashed potatoes +as well as roast beef is to combine them and make a cottage pie. In this +dish, mashed potatoes take the place of the crust that is generally put +over the top of a meat pie. If well seasoned and served hot, it makes a +very palatable dish.</p> + +<p>To make a cottage pie, cover the bottom of a baking dish with a 2-inch +layer of well-seasoned mashed potatoes. Over this spread left-over roast +beef cut into small pieces. Pour over the meat and potatoes any +left-over gravy and a few drops of onion juice made by grating raw +onion. Cover with a layer of mashed potatoes 1 inch deep. Dot with +butter and place in a hot oven until the pie has heated through and +browned on top. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>75. BEEF PIE.</b>--No housewife need be at a loss for a dish that will tempt +her family if she has on hand some left-over pieces of beef, for out of +them she may prepare a beef pie, which is always in favor. Cold roast +beef makes a very good pie, but it is not necessary that roast beef be +used, as left-over steak or even a combination of left-over meats, will +do very well.</p> + +<p>Cut into 1-inch cubes whatever kinds of left-over meats are on hand. +Cover with hot water, add a sliced onion, and cook slowly for 1 hour. +Thicken the liquid with flour and season well with salt and pepper. Add +two or three potatoes, cut into 1/4-inch slices, and let them boil for +several minutes. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking dish and cover +it with a baking-powder biscuit mixture. Bake in a hot oven until the +crust is brown. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>76. BEEF HASH.</b>--One of the most satisfactory ways in which to utilize +left-over roast beef or corned beef is to cut it into small pieces and +make it into a hash. Cold boiled potatoes that remain from a previous +meal are usually combined with the beef, and onion is added for flavor. +When hash is prepared to resemble an omelet and is garnished with +parsley, it makes an attractive dish.</p> + +<p>To make beef hash, remove all skin and bone from the meat, chop quite +fine, and add an equal quantity of chopped cold-boiled potatoes and one +chopped onion. Season with salt and pepper. Put the mixture into a +well-buttered frying pan, moisten with milk, meat stock, or left-over +gravy, and place over a fire. Let the hash brown slowly on the bottom +and then fold over as for an omelet. Serve on a platter garnished +with parsley.</p> + +<p><b>77. FRIZZLED BEEF.</b>--While the dried beef used in the preparation of +frizzled beef is not necessarily a left-over meat, the recipe for this +dish is given here, as it is usually served at a meal when the preceding +left-over beef dishes are appropriate. Prepared according to this +recipe, frizzled beef will be found both nutritious and appetizing.</p> + +<b>FRIZZLED BEEF</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/4 lb. thinly sliced dried beef</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +<li>4 slices of toast</li> +</ul> + +<p>Brown the butter in a frying pan and add the beef torn into small +pieces. Allow it to cock until the beef becomes brown. Add the flour and +brown it. Pour the milk over all, and cook until the flour thickens the +milk. Serve over the toast.</p> +<br> + +<b>MEAT (PART 1)</b><br><br> + +<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br> + +<p>(1) (<i>a</i>) What is meat? (<i>b</i>) What substance in meat makes it a valuable +food?</p> + +<p>(2) (<i>a</i>) What do protein foods do for the body? (<i>b</i>) How does meat compare +in cost with the other daily foods?</p> + +<p>(3) What harm may occur from eating meat that is not thoroughly cooked?</p> + +<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) Describe the structure of meat, (<i>b</i>) How do the length and the +direction of the fibers affect the tenderness of meat?</p> + +<p>(5) (<i>a</i>) How may gelatine be obtained from meat? (<i>b</i>) What use is made of +this material?</p> + +<p>(6) (<i>a</i>) Describe the two kinds of fat found in meat, (<i>b</i>) What does this +substance supply to the body?</p> + +<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) What is the value of water in the tissues of meat? (<i>b</i>) How does +its presence affect the cookery method to choose for preparing meat?</p> + +<p>(8) (<i>a</i>) What are extractives? (<i>b</i>) Why are they of value in meat?</p> + +<p>(9) (<i>a</i>) Name the ways by which the housewife may reduce her meat bill, +(<i>b</i>) How should meat be cared for in the home?</p> + +<p>(10) Give three reasons for cooking meat.</p> + +<p>(11) (<i>a</i>) Describe the effect of cooking on the materials contained in +meat, (<i>b</i>) How does cooking affect the digestibility of meat?</p> + +<p>(12) What methods of cookery are used for: (<i>a</i>) the tender cuts of meat? +(<i>b</i>) the tough cuts? (<i>c</i>) Mention the cuts of meat that have the +most flavor.</p> + +<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) How should the temperature of the oven vary with the size of +the roast to be cooked? (<i>b</i>) Give the reason for this.</p> + +<p>(14) Describe beef of good quality.</p> + +<p>(15) In what parts of the animal are found: (<i>a</i>) the cheaper cuts of +beef? (<i>b</i>) the more expensive cuts?</p> + +<p>(16) (<i>a</i>) Name the steaks obtained from the loin, (<i>b</i>) Which of these is +best for a large family? (<i>c</i>) Which is best for a small family?</p> + +<p>(17) Describe the way in which to broil steak.</p> + +<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) What is the tenderloin of beef? (<i>b</i>) Explain the two ways of +cooking it.</p> + +<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) Name the various kinds of roasts, (<i>b</i>) Describe the roasting of +beef in the oven.</p> + +<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) What cuts of beef are most satisfactory for stews? (<i>b</i>) Explain +how beef stew is made.</p> + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<h2>MEAT (PART 2)</h2> + + +<a name="VEAL"></a><h3>VEAL</h3> + +<b>NATURE OF VEAL</b><br><br> + +<p><b>1.</b> Veal is the name applied to the flesh of a slaughtered calf. This +kind of meat is at its best in animals that are from 6 weeks to 3 months +old when killed. Calves younger than 6 weeks are sometimes slaughtered, +but their meat is of poor quality and should be avoided. Meat from a +calf that has not reached the age of 3 weeks is called bob veal. Such +meat is pale, dry, tough, and indigestible and, consequently, unfit for +food. In most states the laws strictly forbid the sale of bob veal for +food, but constant vigilance must be exercised to safeguard the public +from unscrupulous dealers. A calf that goes beyond the age of 3 months +without being slaughtered must be kept and fattened until it reaches the +age at which it can be profitably sold as beef, for it is too old to be +used as veal.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> The nature of veal can be more readily comprehended by comparing it +with beef, the characteristics of which are now understood. Veal is +lighter in color than beef, being more nearly pink than red, and it +contains very little fat, as reference to Fig. 1, <i>Meat</i>, Part 1, will +show. The tissues of veal contain less nutriment than those of beef, but +they contain more gelatine. The flavor of veal is less pronounced than +that of beef, the difference between the age of animals used for veal +and those used for beef being responsible for this lack of flavor. These +characteristics, as well as the difference in size of corresponding +cuts, make it easy to distinguish veal from beef in the market.</p> + +<a name="CUTS_OF_VEAL,_AND_THEIR_USES"></a><h3>CUTS OF VEAL, AND THEIR USES</h3> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 1]</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> The slaughtered calf from which veal is obtained is generally +delivered to the butcher in the form shown in Fig. 1; that is, with the +head, feet, and intestines removed and the carcass split into halves +through the spine. He divides each half into quarters, known as the +<i>fore quarter</i> and the <i>hind quarter</i>, and cuts these into +smaller pieces.</p> + +<p><b>4. FORE QUARTER.</b>--The fore quarter, as shown in Fig. 1, is composed of +the neck, chuck, shoulder, fore shank, breast, and ribs. Frequently, no +distinction is made between the neck and the chuck, both of these pieces +and the fore shank being used for soups and stews. The shoulder is cut +from the ribs lying underneath, and it is generally used for roasting, +often with stuffing rolled inside of it. The breast, which is the under +part of the fore quarter and corresponds to the plate in beef, is +suitable for either roasting or stewing. When the rib bones are removed +from it, a pocket that will hold stuffing can be cut into this piece. +The ribs between the shoulder and the loin are called the <i>rack</i>; they +may be cut into chops or used as one piece for roasting.</p> + +<p><b>5. HIND QUARTER.</b>--The hind quarter, as Fig. 1 shows, is divided into the +loin, flank, leg, and hind shank. The loin and the flank are located +similarly to these same cuts in beef. In some localities, the part of +veal corresponding to the rump of beef is included with the loin, and in +others it is cut as part of the leg. When it is part of the leg, the leg +is cut off just in front of the hip bone and is separated from the lower +part of the leg, or hind shank, immediately below the hip joint. This +piece is often used for roasting, although cutlets or steaks may be cut +from it. The hind shank, which, together with the fore shank, is called +a <i>knuckle</i>, is used for soup making. When the loin and flank are cut in +a single piece, they are used for roasting.</p> + +<p><b>6. VEAL ORGANS.</b>--Certain of the organs of the calf, like those of beef +animals, are used for food. They include the heart, tongue, liver, and +kidneys, as well as the thymus and thyroid glands and the pancreas. The +heart and tongue of veal are more delicate in texture and flavor than +those of beef, but the methods of cooking them are practically the same. +The liver and kidneys of calves make very appetizing dishes and find +favor with many persons. The thymus and thyroid glands and the pancreas +are included under the term <i>sweetbreads</i>. The thymus gland, which lies +near the heart and is often called the <i>heart sweetbread</i>, is the best +one. The thyroid gland lies in the throat and is called the <i>throat +sweetbread</i>. These two glands are joined by a connecting membrane, but +this is often broken and each gland sold as a separate sweetbread. The +pancreas, which is the <i>stomach sweetbread</i>, is used less often than +the others.</p> + +<p><b>7. Table of Veal Cuts.</b>--The various cuts of veal, together with their +uses, are arranged for ready reference in Table I. Therefore, so that +the housewife may become thoroughly familiar with these facts about +veal, she is urged to make a careful study of this table.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE I</b><br> +NAMES OF VEAL CUTS AND ORGANS AND THEIR USES</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td ><b>NAME OF LARGE CUT</b></td><td ><b>NAME OF SMALL CUT</b></td><td ><b>USES OF CUTS</b></td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=5 valign="middle" >Fore Quarter</td><td >Head</td><td >Soup, made dishes, gelatine</td></tr> +<tr><td >Breast</td><td >Stew, made dishes, gelatine</td></tr> +<tr><td >Ribs</td><td >Stew, made dishes, chops</td></tr> +<tr><td >Shoulder</td><td >Stew, made dishes</td></tr> +<tr><td >Neck</td><td >Stew or stock, made dishes</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=3 valign="middle">Hind Quarter</td><td >Loin</td><td >Chops, roasts</td></tr> +<tr><td >Leg</td><td >Cutlets or fillet, sautéing, or roasting</td></tr> +<tr><td >Knuckle</td><td >Stocks, stews</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=6 valign="middle">Veal Organs</td><td >Brains</td><td >Made dishes, chafing dish</td></tr> +<tr><td >Liver</td><td >Broiling, sautéing</td></tr> +<tr><td >Heart</td><td >Stuffed, baked</td></tr> +<tr><td >Tongue</td><td >Broiled, braised</td></tr> +<tr><td >Sweetbreads</td><td >Made dishes, chafing dish</td></tr> +<tr><td >Kidneys</td><td >Boiled, stew</td></tr> +</table> +<br><br> + + +<b>COOKING OF VEAL</b> + +<a name="VEAL_CUTS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>VEAL CUTS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>8.</b> In the preparation of veal, an important point to remember is that +meat of this kind always requires thorough cooking. It should never be +served rare. Because of the long cooking veal needs, together with the +difficulty encountered in chewing it and its somewhat insipid flavor, +which fails to excite the free flow of gastric juice, this meat is more +indigestable than beef. In order to render it easier to digest, since it +must be thoroughly cooked, the long, slow methods of cookery should be +selected, as these soften the connective tissue. Because of the lack of +flavor, veal is not so good as beef when the extraction of flavor is +desired for broth. However, the absence of flavor makes veal a valuable +meat to combine with chicken and the more expensive meats, particularly +in highly seasoned made dishes or salads. Although lacking in flavor, +veal contains more gelatine than other meats. While this substance is +not very valuable as a food, it lends body to soup or broth and assists +in the preparation of certain made dishes. To supply the flavor needed +in dishes of this kind, pork is sometimes used with the veal.</p> + +<p><b>9. Veal Steaks or Cutlets.</b>--Strictly speaking, veal cutlets are cut from +the ribs; however, a thin slice cut from the leg, as shown in Fig. 2, +while in reality a steak, is considered by most housewives and butchers +as a cutlet. A piece cut from the leg of veal corresponds to a cut of +round steak in beef.</p> + +<p><b>10. Pan-Broiled Veal Steak or Cutlets.</b>--Several methods of preparing +veal steak or cutlets are in practice, but a very satisfactory one is to +pan-broil them. This method prevents the juices from being drawn out of +the meat and consequently produces a tender, palatable dish.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 2]</p> + +<p>To pan-broil veal steak or cutlets, grease a hot frying pan with fat of +any desirable kind, place the pieces of meat in it, and allow them to +sear, first on one side and then on the other. When they are completely +seared, lower the temperature, and broil for 15 to 20 minutes, or longer +if necessary. Season well with salt and pepper. When cooked, remove to a +platter and, just before serving, pour melted butter over the meat.</p> + +<p><b>11. Veal Cutlets in Brown Sauce.</b>--To improve the flavor of veal cutlets, +a brown sauce is often prepared and served with them. In fact, the +cutlets are cooked in this sauce, which becomes thickened by the flour +that is used to dredge the meat.</p> + +<p>To cook cutlets in this way, dredge them with flour, season them with +salt and pepper, and sauté them in hot fat until the flour is quite +brown. Then pour 1 cupful of milk and 1 cupful of water over the meat, +cover the pan securely, and allow to cook slowly for about 3/4 hour. The +sauce should be slightly thick and quite brown. Serve the cutlets in the +brown sauce.</p> + +<p><b>12. Veal Roasts.</b>--Several different cuts of veal make very good roasts. +The most economical one is a 5 or 6-inch slice cut from the leg of veal +in the same way as the steak shown in Fig. 2.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 3, Shoulder of veal.]</p> + +<p>Both the loin and the best end of the neck are excellent for roasting. +The shoulder of veal, which is shown in Fig. 3, is sometimes roasted, +but it is more often used for stew. Veal breast from which the ribs have +been removed and veal rack, which is the portion of the ribs attached to +the neck, may also be used for roasting. When they are, they are usually +cut so as to contain a deep slit, or pocket, that may be filled with +stuffing. In fact, whenever it is possible, the bone is removed from a +piece of roasting veal and stuffing is put in its place.</p> + +<p>To roast any of these pieces, wipe the meat, dredge it with flour, and +season it with salt and pepper. Place it in a roasting pan and put it +into a hot oven. Bake for 15 minutes; then lower the temperature of the +oven and continue to bake slowly until the meat is well done, the +length of time depending on the size of the roast. Baste frequently +during the roasting. Remove the roast to a hot platter. Then place the +roasting pan over the flame, and make gravy by browning 2 tablespoonfuls +of flour in the fat that it contains, adding to this 1-1/2 cupfuls of +water, and cooking until the flour has thickened the water. Serve the +gravy thus prepared in a gravy bowl.</p> + +<p><b>13. Stuffed Veal Breast.</b>--A breast of veal in which a pocket has been +cut for stuffing is shown in Fig. 4. When such a piece is</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 4]</p> + +<p>desired for roasting, it is advisable to have the butcher prepare it. +The stuffing required should be made as follows:</p> + +<b>STUFFING FOR VEAL</b> + +<ul> +<li>4 Tb. butter or bacon or ham fat</li> +<li>1/2 Tb. salt</li> +<li>1/8 Tb. pepper</li> +<li>1 Tb. celery salt</li> +<li>2 sprigs of parsley, chopped</li> +<li>1 pimiento, chopped</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. water</li> +<li>1 qt. stale bread crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the fat, and to it add the salt, pepper, celery salt, parsley, +pimiento, and water. Pour this mixture over the crumbs, and mix all +thoroughly. Stuff into the opening in the breast. Place the meat thus +stuffed in a baking pan and bake in a moderately hot oven for 1 to +1-1/2 hours.</p> + +<p><b>14. Veal Potpie.</b>--A good way in which to impart the flavor of meat to a +starchy material and thus not only economize on meat, but also provide +an appetizing dish, is to serve meat with dumplings in a veal potpie. +For such a dish, a piece of veal from the shoulder, like that shown in +Fig. 3, is the best cut. To give variety, potatoes may be used, and to +improve the flavor at least one onion is cooked with the meat.</p> + +<p>To prepare a veal potpie, wipe the meat, cut it into pieces of the right +size for serving, and to it add a few pieces of salt pork or bacon. Put +these over the fire in enough cold water to cover the meat well and add +a small onion, sliced. Bring to the boiling point and skim; then simmer +until the meat is tender. Season with salt and pepper a few minutes +before the meat has finished cooking. Next, make a baking-powder biscuit +dough, roll it 1/4 inch thick, and cut it into 1-1/2-inch squares. Then +examine the meat to see how much of the liquid has evaporated. If the +liquid is too thick, add boiling water to thin it. Drop in the squares +of dough, cover the pot tight, and boil for 15 minutes without +uncovering.</p> + +<p>If potatoes are desired in a pie of this kind, cut them into thick +slices and add the slices about 10 minutes before the dough is to be put +into the broth, so that they will have sufficient time in which to cook.</p> + +<p><b>15. Veal Stew.</b>--The cheaper cuts of veal can be used to advantage for +making veal stew. Such a dish is prepared in the same way as beef stew, +which is explained in <i>Meat</i>, Part 1, except that veal is substituted +for the beef. Vegetables of any desired kind may be used in veal stew, +and the stewed or boiled dumplings mentioned in the beef-stew recipe may +or may not be used. As the vegetables and the dumplings, provided +dumplings are used, increase the quantity of meat-flavored food, only +small portions of the meat need be served.</p> + +<p><b>16. Jellied Veal.</b>--The large amount of gelatine contained in veal may be +utilized in the preparation of jellied veal. The most satisfactory piece +for making jellied veal is the knuckle, or shank. No more attractive +meat dish than this can be found for luncheon or supper, for it can be +cut into thin slices and served on a nicely garnished platter.</p> + +<b>JELLIED VEAL</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>Knuckle of veal</li> +<li>1 Tb. salt</li> +<li>1/4 c. chopped celery</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped onion</li> +</ul> + +<p>Put the knuckle in a pot and add enough water to cover it. Add the salt, +celery, parsley, and onion. Cook until the meat is very tender and then +strain off the liquid. Cut the meat from the bones and chop it very +fine. Boil the liquid until it is reduced to 1 pint, and then set aside +to cool. Place the meat in a mold and when cold pour the broth over it. +Keep in a cool place until it has set. Slice and serve cold.</p> +<br> + +<a name="VEAL_ORGANS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>VEAL ORGANS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>17. Getting Sweetbreads Ready for Cooking</b>--The throat glands and the +pancreas of calves, which, as has already been learned, are called +sweetbreads, can be cooked in various ways for the table. The first +process in their preparation, however, is the same for all recipes. When +this is understood, it will be a simple matter to make up attractive +dishes in which sweetbreads are used. It is generally advisable to buy +sweetbreads in pairs, as the heart and throat sweetbreads are preferable +to the one that lies near the stomach. Sweetbreads spoil very quickly. +Therefore, as soon as they are brought into the kitchen, put them in +cold water and allow them to remain there for 1/2 hour or more. Then put +them to cook in boiling water for 20 minutes in order to parboil them, +after which place them in cold water again. Unless they are to be used +immediately, keep them in cold water, as this will prevent them from +discoloring. Before using sweetbreads in the recipes that follow, remove +the skin and stringy parts.</p> + +<p><b>18. Broiled Sweetbreads.</b>--Because of their tenderness, sweetbreads are +especially suitable for broiling. When prepared in this way and served +with sauce of some kind, they are very palatable.</p> + +<p>In order to broil sweetbreads, first parboil them in the manner just +explained. Then split each one lengthwise and broil them over a clear +fire for 5 minutes or pan-broil them with a small amount of butter until +both surfaces are slightly browned. Season with salt and pepper. +Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>19. Creamed Sweetbreads.</b>--If an especially dainty dish is desired for a +light meal, sweetbreads may be creamed and then served over toast or in +patty shells or timbale cases, the making of which is taken up later. If +desired, mushrooms may be combined with sweetbreads that are served in +this way. Diced cold veal or calves' brains creamed and served in this +way are also delicious. Instead of creaming sweetbreads and calves' +brains, however, these organs are sometimes scrambled with eggs.</p> + +<p>To prepare creamed sweetbreads, parboil them and then separate them +into small pieces with a fork or cut them into cubes. Reheat them in a +cupful of white sauce, season well, and then serve them in any of the +ways just mentioned. If mushrooms are to be used, cook and dice them +before combining them with the sweetbreads.</p> + +<p><b>20. Kidneys.</b>--The kidneys of both lamb and veal are used for food. The +cooking of them, however, must be either a quick, short process or a +long, slow one. When a quick method is applied, the tissues remain +tender. Additional cooking renders them tough, so that a great deal more +cooking must be done to make them tender again. Whatever method is +applied, kidneys must always be soaked in water for 1 hour or more so as +to cleanse them, the outside covering then pared off, and the meat +sliced or cut into cubes or strips. After being thus prepared, kidneys +may be broiled or sautéd, or, if a long method of cookery is preferred, +they may be boiled or stewed with or without vegetables.</p> + +<p><b>21. Calves' Liver and Bacon.</b>--Beef liver is sometimes used for food, but +it is not so good as liver from the calf. In fact, calves' liver, +especially when combined with bacon, is very appetizing. The bacon +supplies the fat that the liver lacks and at the same time +provides flavor.</p> + +<p>To prepare calves' liver and bacon, cut the liver into 1/2-inch slices, +cover these with boiling water, and let them stand for 5 minutes. Remove +from the water, dip into flour, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. For +each slice of liver pan-broil a slice of bacon. Remove the bacon to a +hot platter, and then place the slices of liver in the bacon fat and +sauté them for about 10 minutes, turning them frequently. Serve the +liver and bacon together.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OF_LEFT-OVER_VEAL"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER VEAL</h3> + +<p><b>22. Veal Rolls.</b>--The portion of a veal roast that remains after it has +been served hot can be combined with dressing to make veal rolls, a dish +that will be a pleasing change from the usual cold sliced meat.</p> + +<p>To make veal rolls, slice the veal and into each slice roll a spoonful +of stuffing. Tie with a string, roll in flour, and sprinkle with salt +and pepper. Brown the rolls in hot butter. Then pour milk, stock, or +gravy over the rolls and simmer for 10 minutes. Remove the strings and +serve on toast.</p> + +<p><b>23. Left-Over Jellied Veal.</b>--While jellied veal is usually made from a +piece of veal bought especially for this purpose, it can be made from +the left-overs of a veal roast. However, when the roast is purchased, +some veal bones should be secured. Wash these bones, cover them with +cold water, and to them add 1 onion, 1 bay leaf, and 1 cupful of diced +vegetables, preferably celery, carrots, and turnips. Allow these to +simmer for 2 hours. To this stock add the bones that remain after the +roast has been served and simmer for 1 or 2 hours more. Strain the +stock, skim off the fat, and season well with salt and pepper. Chop fine +the left-over veal and 2 hard-cooked eggs. Put in a loaf-cake pan and +pour the stock over it. When it has formed a mold, slice and serve cold.</p> + +<p><b>24. Creamed Veal on Biscuits.</b>--A very good substitute for chicken and +hot biscuits is creamed veal served on biscuits. This is an especially +good dish for a light meal, such as luncheon or supper. Any left-over +veal may be chopped or cut up into small pieces and used for this +purpose. After the veal has been thus prepared, reheat it with white +sauce and season it well with paprika, salt, and pepper. Make +baking-powder biscuits. To serve, split the hot biscuits, lay them open +on a platter or a plate, and pour the hot creamed veal over them.</p> + +<p><b>25. Scalloped Veal with Rice.</b>--A very palatable dish can be prepared +from left-over veal by combining it with rice and tomatoes. To prepare +such a dish, season cooked rice with 1 teaspoonful of bacon fat to each +cupful of rice. Place a layer of rice in a baking dish, and over it put +a layer of chopped veal. Pour a good quantity of stewed tomatoes over +the veal and season well with salt and pepper. Over the tomatoes put a +layer of rice, and cover the top with buttered crumbs. Set in a hot oven +and bake until the crumbs are browned and the ingredients +thoroughly heated.</p> + +<p><b>26. Veal Salad.</b>--A salad is always a delightful addition to a meal and +so usually finds favor. When it is made of meat, such as veal, it can be +used as the main dish for luncheon or supper. As shown in the +accompanying recipe, other things, such as celery, peas, and hard-cooked +eggs, are usually put in a salad of this kind.</p> + +<b>VEAL SALAD</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 c. cold diced veal</li> +<li>1 c. diced celery</li> +<li>1/2 c. canned peas</li> +<li>3 hard-cooked eggs</li> +<li>4 Tb. olive oil</li> +<li>2 Tb. vinegar</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Combine the veal, celery, peas, and eggs chopped fine. Mix the olive +oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper to make a dressing. Marinate the +ingredients with this dressing. Serve on lettuce leaves with any salad +dressing desired.</p> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<a name="MUTTON_AND_LAMB"></a><h2>MUTTON AND LAMB</h2> + +<b>COMPARISON OF MUTTON AND LAMB</b><br><br> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 5]</p> + +<p><b>27.</b> The term mutton is usually applied to the flesh of a sheep that is 1 +year or more old, while lamb is the flesh of sheep under 1 year of age. +The popularity of these meats varies very much with the locality. In the +United States, a preference for lamb has become noticeable, but in +England mutton is more popular and is more commonly used. Both of these +meats, however, are very palatable and nutritious, so that the choice +of one or the other will always be determined by the taste or market +conditions.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 6]</p> + +<p><b>28.</b> Lamb that is 6 weeks to 3 months old is called <i>spring lamb</i>, and +usually comes into the market in January or February. The meat of sheep +1 year old is called <i>yearling</i>. Good mutton is cut from sheep that is +about 3 years old. Lamb may be eaten as soon as it is killed, but mutton +requires ripening for 2 or 3 weeks to be in the best condition for food. +Mutton differs from lamb very much as beef differs from veal, or as the +meat of any other mature animal differs from a young one of the same +kind. In mutton there is a smaller percentage of water and a larger +percentage of fat, protein, extractives, and flavoring substances.</p> + +<p>There is also a difference in the appearance of these two meats. Lamb is +pink and contains only small amounts of fat, while mutton is brick red +and usually has considerable firm white fat. The bones of lamb are pink, +while those of mutton are white. The outside of lamb is covered with a +thin white skin that becomes pink in mutton. The size of the pieces of +meat often aids in distinguishing between these two meats, mutton, of +course, coming in larger pieces than lamb.</p> + +<p><b>29.</b> If there is any question as to whether the meat from sheep is lamb +or mutton, and it cannot be settled by any of the characteristics already +mentioned, the front leg of the dressed animal may be examined at the +first joint above the foot. Fig. 5 shows this joint in both lamb and +mutton. In lamb, which is shown at the left, the end of the bone can be +separated from the long bone at the leg, as indicated, while in mutton +this joint grows fast and looks like the illustration at the right. The +joint is jagged in lamb, but smooth and round in mutton.</p> +<br> + +<a name="CUTS_OF_MUTTON_AND_LAMB"></a><h3>CUTS OF MUTTON AND LAMB</h3> + +<b>METHOD OF OBTAINING CUTS</b><br><br> + +<p><b>30.</b> Mutton and lamb are usually cut up in the same way, the dressed +animal being divided into two pieces of almost equal weight. The line of +division occurs between the first and second ribs, as is indicated by +the heavy middle line in Fig. 6. The back half of the animal is called +the <i>saddle</i> and the front half, the <i>rack</i>. In addition to being cut in +this way, the animal is cut down the entire length of the backbone and +is thus divided into the fore and hind quarters.</p> + +<p>The method of cutting up the racks and saddles varies in different +localities, but, as a rule, the method illustrated in Fig. 7 is the one +that is used. As here shown, the rack, or fore quarter, is cut up into +the neck, chuck, shoulder, rib chops, and breast; and the saddle, or +hind quarter, is divided into the loin, flank, and leg.</p> + +<p>The way in which the front and the back of a dressed sheep appear is +shown in Fig. 8. The membrane, which extends from the legs down over the +ribs, is the omentum, or covering of the intestines, and is known as the +<i>caul</i>. This must be removed from any part that it covers before the +meat is cooked. The kidneys incased in fat are also shown in the view +at the left.</p> +<br> + +<b>NAMES AND USES OF CUTS</b><br><br> + +<p><b>31. Distinguishing Features of Cuts.</b>--When the uses of the cuts of lamb +and mutton are to be considered, attention must be given to the anatomy +of the animal and the exercise that the different parts have received +during life. This is important, because the continued action of the +muscles tends to make the flesh tough, but, at the same time, it +increases the amount of extractives or flavoring material. Therefore, +meat taken from a part that has been subjected to much muscular action +is likely to need longer cooking than that taken from portions that have +not been exercised so much.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 8]</p> + +<p>In lamb and mutton, as in beef and veal, the hind quarter is exercised +less in life than the fore quarter and consequently is, on the average, +more tender. The cuts from this part are therefore more expensive and +more suitable for roasting and broiling. The fore quarter, although +having the disadvantage of containing more bone and being tougher, is +more abundantly supplied with extractives and flavoring materials. Most +of the pieces obtained from this portion are particularly suitable for +broths, soups, stews, etc. The rib is an exception, for this is usually +higher in price than the hind-quarter pieces and is used for chops +and roasts.</p> + +<p><b>32. Table of Mutton and Lamb Cuts.</b>--The various cuts of mutton and lamb +and the uses to which they can be put are given in Table II, which may +be followed as a guide whenever there is doubt as to the way in which a +cut of either of these meats should be cooked.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE II</b><br> + +NAMES AND USES OF MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td ><b>NAME OF LARGE CUT</b></td><td ><b>NAME OF SMALL CUT</b></td><td ><b>USES OF CUTS</b></td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan=5 valign="middle">Fore quarter:</td><td >Neck</td><td >Broth, stew</td></tr> +<tr><td >Chuck</td><td >Stew, steamed</td></tr> +<tr><td >Shoulder</td><td >Boiled, steamed, braised, roast</td></tr> +<tr><td >Rack ribs</td><td >Chops, crown roast</td></tr> +<tr><td >Breast</td><td >Stew, roast, braised, stuffed</td></tr> + +<tr><td rowspan=4 valign="middle">Hind quarter:</td><td >Loin</td><td >Seven chops, roast, boiling</td></tr> +<tr><td >Flank</td><td >Stew</td></tr> +<tr><td >Leg</td><td >Roast, braising, broiling</td></tr> +<tr><td >Saddle</td><td >Roast</td></tr> +</table> + +<br><br> + +<b>COOKING OF MUTTON AND LAMB</b> +<br> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OF_ROASTS,_CHOPS,_AND_STEWS"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF ROASTS, CHOPS, AND STEWS</h3> + +<p><b>33.</b> The cookery processes applied in preparing mutton and lamb for the +table do not differ materially from those applied in the preparation of +other meats. However, directions for cooking mutton and lamb in the most +practical ways are here given, so that the housewife may become +thoroughly familiar with the procedure in preparing roasts, chops, +and stews.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 9 (<i>a</i>)]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 9 (<i>b</i>)]</p> + +<p><b>34. Roast Leg of Mutton or Lamb.</b>--Of all the principal cuts of mutton or +lamb, the leg contains the smallest percentage of waste. It is, +therefore, especially suitable for roasting and is generally used for +this purpose. In Fig. 9 are shown two views of a leg of lamb or mutton. +That in (<i>a</i>) illustrates the leg with part of the loin attached, and +that in (<i>b</i>), the leg trimmed and ready for cooking. In order to make +the leg smaller, a slice resembling a round steak of beef is sometimes +cut for broiling, as here shown. If desired, the leg may be boned and +then stuffed before roasting. Since these meats are characterized by a +very marked flavor, something tart or acid is generally served +with them.</p> + +<p>To roast a leg of lamb or mutton, remove the caul, the pink skin, and +the superfluous fat. Dredge the leg with flour, salt, and pepper, set in +a roasting pan, and place in a hot oven. After the meat has cooked for +15 minutes, lower the temperature, and bake for 2 hours. Baste +frequently with water to which has been added a small amount of bacon or +ham fat and which should be put in the pan with the meat. Serve hot with +something acid, such as mint sauce, currant or mint jelly, or +spiced fruit.</p> + +<p>A mint sauce that will be found satisfactory for this purpose is made as +follows:</p> + +<b>MINT SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. powdered sugar</li> +<li>1/2 c. vinegar</li> +<li>1/4 c. finely chopped mint leaves, or 2 Tb. dried mint</li> +</ul> + +<p>Add the sugar to the vinegar and heat. Pour this over the mint and steep +on the back of the stove for 30 minutes.</p> + +<p><b>35. Roast Saddle of Mutton.</b>--While saddle is the name applied to the +hind quarters of lamb and mutton, this term, as used in the cooking of +such meat, refers to the piece that consists of the two sides of the +loin cut off in one piece. It may be cut with or without the flank. In +either form, it is rolled and then skewered or tied into shape.</p> + +<p>To roast such a piece, remove all superfluous fat, dredge with flour, +salt, and pepper, place in a pan, and sear in a hot oven. Then reduce +the heat, place a small quantity of water in the pan, and bake for 2-1/2 +to 3 hours, basting from time to time during this cooking process. Serve +with or without mint sauce, as desired.</p> + +<p><b>36. Crown Roast of Lamb.</b>--A very attractive roast is made by cutting the +same number of corresponding ribs from each side of the lamb and +trimming back the meat from the end of each rib. Such a roast is called +a crown roast. Fig. 10 shows a crown roast with the ribs trimmed, the +two pieces fastened together, and paper frills placed on the ends of the +bones. Such frills are usually added by the butcher, but they may be +purchased in supply stores and put on in the home.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 10]</p> + +<p>To prepare a roast of this kind, cook in the same way as a roast leg or +saddle. When it is sufficiently baked, fill the center with a cooked and +seasoned vegetable. Brussels sprouts, peas, string beans, asparagus, and +cauliflower are especially suitable for this purpose. Just before +serving, cover the ends of the bones with paper frills, as shown in the +illustration.</p> + +<p><b>37. Lamb and Mutton Chops.</b>--Chops of mutton or lamb are obtained from +two sources. They may be cut from the ribs and have one bone in each cut +or they may be cut from the loin,</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 11]</p> + +<p>when they correspond to the steaks in beef. The loins and ribs of lamb, +which are sometimes used for rolled racks, but from which chops are +usually cut, are shown in Fig. 11. A rib chop cut from this piece has +only a small part of solid lean meat and contains one rib bone. Such a +chop can be made into a French chop, as shown in Fig. 12, by trimming +the meat from the bone down to the lean part, or "eye," of the chop. +Just before being served, a paper frill may be placed over the bone of a +chop of this kind. Chops cut from the</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 12]</p> + +<p>loin often have a strip of bacon or salt pork rolled around the edge and +fastened with a skewer, as shown in Fig. 13.</p> + +<p><b>38.</b> The most satisfactory way in which to prepare chops is either to +broil them in a broiler or to pan-broil them. Apply to the cooking of +them the same principles that relate to the preparation of steaks; that +is, have the pan or broiler hot, sear the chops quickly on both sides, +and then cook them more slowly until well done, turning them +frequently. The broiling of lamb chops should require only from 8 to 10 +minutes, as they are seldom more than 1 inch thick.</p> + +<p><b>39. Lamb and Mutton Stews.</b>--The cheaper cuts of lamb and mutton, such as +the neck, chuck, and flank, are used for the making of stews. Mutton, +however, is not so satisfactory as lamb for such dishes, as its flavor +is too strong. If mutton must be used, its flavor can be improved by +adding 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar during the cooking. The chief +object in the making of lamb and mutton stews is, as in the case of beef +and veal stews, to draw from the meat as much as possible of the +flavoring and nutritive materials.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 13]</p> + +<p>This can be accomplished by cutting up the meat into small pieces so as +to increase the amount of surface exposed and by keeping the temperature +low enough to prevent the proteins from coagulating.</p> + +<p>With these points in mind, proceed in the making of lamb or mutton stew +in the same way as for beef stew. To improve the flavor of the stew, +cook with it savory herbs and spices, such as bay leaf, parsley, +and cloves.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OF_LEFT-OVER_LAMB_AND_MUTTON"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF LEFT-OVER LAMB AND MUTTON</h3> + +<p><b>40. Turkish Lamb.</b>--No left-over meat lends itself more readily to the +preparation of made dishes than lamb. Combined with tomatoes and rice +and flavored with horseradish, it makes a very appetizing dish called +Turkish lamb. The accompanying recipe should be carefully followed in +preparing this dish.</p> + +<b>TURKISH LAMB</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 onion, chopped</li> +<li>1/2 c. rice</li> +<li>1 c. water</li> +<li>1 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. diced lamb or mutton</li> +<li>1 Tb. horseradish</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Put the butter in a frying pan and to it add the chopped onion and the +dry rice. Cook until the rice is browned. Then pour in the water and +tomatoes and add the meat, horseradish, salt, and pepper. Simmer gently +until the rice is completely cooked.</p> + +<p><b>41. MINCED LAMB ON TOAST.</b>--Any lamb that remains after a meal may be +minced by chopping it fine or putting it through the food chopper. If it +is then heated, moistened well with water or stock, and thickened +slightly, it makes an excellent preparation to serve on toast.</p> + +<p>After mincing lean pieces of left-over lamb until they are very fine, +put them in a buttered frying pan. Dredge the meat well with flour and +allow it to brown slightly. Add enough water or stock to moisten well. +Season with salt and pepper, cook until the flour has thickened, and +then serve on toast.</p> + +<p><b>42. SCALLOPED LAMB OR MUTTON.</b>--As a scalloped dish is usually pleasing +to most persons, the accompanying recipe for scalloped lamb or mutton +will undoubtedly find favor. Both macaroni and tomatoes are combined +with the meat in this dish, but rice could be substituted for the +macaroni, if desired.</p> + +<p>To make scalloped lamb or mutton, arrange a layer of buttered crumbs in +a baking dish, and on top of them place a layer of cooked macaroni, a +layer of meat, and then another layer of macaroni. Over this pour enough +stewed tomato to moisten the whole well. Season each layer with salt, +pepper, and butter. Over the top, place a layer of buttered crumbs. Bake +in a medium-hot oven until the whole is thoroughly heated.</p> + +<p><b>43. SPANISH STEW.</b>--Left-over pieces of mutton or lamb may also form the +foundation of a very appetizing dish known as Spanish stew. Here +tomatoes are also used, and to give the stew flavor chilli sauce +is added.</p> + +<b>SPANISH STEW</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter.</li> +<li>1 onion, sliced</li> +<li>1 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 c. lamb or mutton, diced</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1 c. stock or gravy</li> +<li>1 Tb. chilli sauce</li> +<li>1 red pepper, cut fine</li> +<li>2 tsp. salt</li> +</ul> + +<p>Put the butter in a frying pan and brown the sliced onion in it. Add the +flour and meat, and after browning them pour in the stewed tomatoes and +the stock or gravy. Season with the chilli sauce, the red pepper, and +the salt. Cover and let simmer until the whole is well thickened +and blended.</p> + +<p><b>44. INDIVIDUAL LAMB PIES.</b>--Individual pies are always welcome, but when +they are made of lamb or mutton they are especially attractive. The +proportions required for pies of this kind are given in the +accompanying recipe.</p> + +<b>INDIVIDUAL LAMB PIES</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 c. diced lamb or mutton</li> +<li>1/2 c. diced carrots</li> +<li>1/2 c. peas, cooked or canned</li> +<li>1 c. gravy or thickened stock</li> +</ul> + +<p>Cut into small pieces any left-over lamb or mutton. Cook the carrots +until they are soft, add them, together with the peas, to the meat, and +pour the gravy or thickened stock over all. Simmer gently for a few +minutes. Line patty pans with a thin layer of baking-powder biscuit +dough, fill with the mixture, and cover the top with another thin layer +of the dough. Bake in a quick oven until the dough is baked.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="PORK"></a><h3>PORK</h3> + +<b>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PORK</b><br><br> + +<p><b>45.</b> PORK is the flesh of slaughtered swine used as food. It is believed +to be more indigestible than other meats, but if it is obtained from a +young and properly fed animal, it is not only digestible, but highly +appetizing, and, when eaten occasionally, it is very wholesome.</p> + +<p>The age of the animal from which pork is cut can be determined by the +thickness of the skin; the older the animal, the thicker the skin. To be +of the best kind, pork should have pink, not red, flesh composed of +fine-grained tissues, and its fat, which, in a well-fattened animal, +equals about one-eighth of the entire weight, should be white and firm. +Although all cuts of pork contain some fat, the proportion should not be +too great, or the pieces will not contain as much lean as they should. +However, the large amount of fat contained in pork makes its food value +higher than that of other meats, unless they are excessively fat, and +consequently difficult of digestion.</p> + +<p><b>46.</b> One of the chief advantages of pork is that about nine-tenths of +the entire dressed animal may be preserved by curing and smoking. +Originally, these processes required a period of 2 to 3 months for their +completion, but they have gradually been shortened until now only a few +days are required for the work. Pork cured and smoked by the new +methods, however, does not possess such excellent flavor and such good +keeping qualities as that so treated by the longer process. Any one who +has the right storage facilities to care for the meat properly will find +it much more economical to purchase a whole carcass or a part of one and +then salt, smoke, or pickle the various pieces that can be treated in +this way than to purchase this meat cut by cut as it is needed +or desired.</p> +<br> + +<a name="CUTS_OF_PORK"></a><h3>CUTS OF PORK</h3> + +<p><b>47. NAMES OF PORK CUTS.</b>--The butcher usually buys a whole carcass of +pork. He first divides it into halves by splitting it through the spine, +and then cuts it up into smaller pieces according to the divisions shown +in Fig. 14, which illustrates the outside and the inside of a dressed +hog. As will be observed, the method of cutting up a hog differs greatly +from the cutting of the animals already studied. After the head is +removed, each side is divided into the shoulder, clear back fat, ribs, +loin, middle cut, belly, ham, and two hocks.</p> + +<p><b>48. USES OF PORK CUTS.</b>--Hogs are usually fattened before they are +slaughtered, and as a result there is a layer of fat under the skin +which is trimmed off and used in the making of lard. The best quality of +lard, however, is made from the fat that surrounds the kidneys. This is +called <i>leaf lard</i>, because the pieces of fat are similar in shape to +leaves. Such lard has a higher melting point and is more flaky than that +made from fat covering the muscles.</p> + +<p><b>49.</b> The head of pork does not contain a great deal of meat, but, as the +quality of this meat is very good, it is valuable for a number of +special dishes, such as headcheese and scrapple.</p> + +<p>The hocks contain considerable gelatine, so they are used for dishes +that solidify, or become firm, after they are made.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 14]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 15]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 16]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 17]</p> + +<p><b>50.</b> A shoulder of pork cut roughly from the carcass is shown in Fig. 15. +This piece provides both roasts and steaks, or, when trimmed, it may +be cured or smoked. The front leg, which is usually cut to include the +lower part of the shoulder, is shown in Fig. 16. The ribs inside this +cut, when cut from underneath, are sold as spareribs. This piece, as +shown in Fig. 17, is generally trimmed to make what is known as +shoulder ham.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 18]</p> + +<p><b>51.</b> The ribs and the loin cut in one piece are shown in Fig. 18. From +this piece are obtained the most desirable chops and roasts. When a +roast is desired, the rib bones are removed from the rib cut, which then +resembles the piece shown in Fig. 19. Directly under the backbone in +these cuts is the tenderest piece of pork to be had. When this is +removed in one piece, it is, as in beef, called the <i>tenderloin</i>. Very +often, however, it is left in to be cut up with the rest of the loin.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 19]</p> + +<p><b>52.</b> The middle cut is commonly used for bacon, while the belly is most +suitable for salt pork. These two cuts consist of large quantities of +fat and only narrow layers of lean. They are especially valuable for +enriching and flavoring foods, such as beans, that are neither rich in +fat nor highly flavored.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 20]</p> + +<p><b>53.</b> The hind leg, or untrimmed ham, just as it is cut from the carcass, +is shown in Fig. 20. When this piece is trimmed and ready for curing or +for roasting, it appears as shown in Fig. 21. As will be noticed, the +outside skin, or rind, is not removed from either the shoulder or +the ham.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 21]</p> + +<p><b>54. TABLE OF PORK CUTS.</b>--As is done in explaining the meats that have +been considered previously, there is here presented a table, designated +as Table III, that gives the names of the pork cuts and the uses to +which they may be put. This table will assist the housewife materially +in learning the names and uses of the various cuts of pork.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE III</b><br> + +NAMES AND USES OF PORK CUTS +</center> +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td ><b>NAMES OF CUTS</b></td><td ><b>USES OF CUTS</b></td></tr> +<tr><td >Head</td><td >Headcheese, boiling, baking</td></tr> +<tr><td >Shoulder</td><td >Steaks, roasting, curing, smoking</td></tr> +<tr><td >Spareribs</td><td >Roasting, boiling</td></tr> +<tr><td >Belly</td><td >Salt pork, curing</td></tr> +<tr><td >Middle cut</td><td >Bacon, curing, smoking</td></tr> +<tr><td >Ribs</td><td >Chops, roasting</td></tr> +<tr><td >Loin</td><td >Chops, roasting</td></tr> +<tr><td >Ham</td><td >Roasting, curing, smoking</td></tr> +<tr><td >Back fat</td><td >Lard</td></tr> +<tr><td >Hock</td><td >Boiling, making jelly</td></tr> +<tr><td >Internal organs and trimmings</td><td >Sausage</td></tr> +</table> + +<br><br> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>COOKING OF PORK</b> + +<a name="FRESH_PORK_AND_ITS_PREPARATION"></a><h3>FRESH PORK AND ITS PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>55. ROAST PORK.</b>--In the preparation of pork for the table, and a roast +in particular, several points must be taken into consideration. Unlike +beef, which is often served rare, pork must be well done in order to be +satisfactory. Rare pork to most persons is repulsive. Also, as a large +part of the surface of a pork roast, especially one cut from the +shoulder, loin, or ribs, is covered with a layer of fat, pork does not +have to be seared to prevent the loss of juice, nor does it have to be +put into such a hot oven as that required for beef. In fact, if the +temperature of the oven is very high, the outside will finish cooking +before the heat has had a chance to penetrate sufficiently to cook the +center. While this makes no difference with meat that does not need to +be thoroughly cooked, it is a decided disadvantage in the case of pork.</p> + +<p><b>56.</b> When a shoulder of pork is to be roasted, it makes a very +satisfactory dish if it is boned and stuffed before roasting. To bone +such a piece, run a long, narrow knife all around the bone and cut it +loose; then pick up the bone by one end and shake it until it will pull +out. Fill the opening thus formed with bread or cracker stuffing.</p> + +<p>If an especially inviting roast of pork is desired, a <i>crown roast</i> +should be selected, for this is just as attractive as a crown roast of +lamb. It is made by cutting corresponding pieces from each side of the +rib piece, trimming the bones clean as far back as the lean part of the +chops, and fastening the pieces together. A garnish of fried apple rings +is very attractive for such a roast.</p> + +<p><b>57.</b> To cook a roast of any of these varieties, wipe the meat thoroughly, +dredge it with flour, salt, and pepper, and place it on a rack in a +dripping pan. Bake about 3 hours, depending on the size of the roast, +and baste every 15 minutes with fat from the bottom of the dripping pan.</p> + +<p>After the roast is removed from the roasting pan, make a gravy as for +any other roast. Serve with apple sauce, baked apples, cranberry sauce, +chilli sauce, pickles, or some other acid dish. Such an accompaniment +aids considerably in the digestion of pork, for it cuts the large amount +of fat that this meat contains and that so often retards the digestion, +and hastens the fat through the stomach.</p> + +<p><b>58. ROAST PIG.</b>--In some households, roasted pig is the favorite meat for +the Thanksgiving or the Christmas dinner. There is sufficient reason for +its popularity, for when properly prepared and attractively garnished, +roasted pig offers a pleasing change from the meat usually served on +such days.</p> + +<p>To be suitable for roasting, a pig should be not more than 1 month or 6 +weeks old and should not weigh more than 7 or 8 pounds after it is +cleaned. The butcher should prepare it for cooking by scalding off the +hair, washing the pig thoroughly, inside and out, and withdrawing the +entrails of the animal through an incision made in the under part of +the body.</p> + +<p><b>59.</b> When the pig is received in the home, wash it thoroughly, within and +without, wipe it dry, and fill it with stuffing. To make a stuffing +suitable for this purpose, season 2 quarts of fine bread crumbs with 4 +tablespoonfuls of chopped onion, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoonful +of pepper, and cupful of melted butter. Mix thoroughly and add 3 beaten +eggs. If the stuffing needs moisture, add water or milk. Stuff the pig +firmly with this stuffing, using every effort to restore its original +shape. Then sew up the opening and truss the animal; that is, draw the +hind legs forwards and bend the front legs backwards under the body, and +skewer and tie them into place.</p> + +<p>With the animal in this shape, wipe it off with a damp cloth, dredge it +with flour, and place it in a dripping pan, adding 1 cupful of boiling +water in which 1 teaspoonful of salt has been dissolved. Roast in a +moderate oven for at least 1-1/2 hours, or 20 minutes for each pound of +pig. Baste frequently, first with butter and water and later with +drippings. When the skin begins to brown slightly, rub over it a clean +piece of cloth dipped in melted butter. Repeat this operation every 10 +minutes until the meat is well done. Then remove the pig to a hot +platter and garnish with parsley, lettuce, celery, or fried or baked +apples. If a more ornamental garnishing is desired, place a lemon in the +mouth and use cranberries for the eyes. In carving, cut the head off, +split through the spine lengthwise, remove the legs, and cut the ribs so +as to form chops.</p> + +<p><b>60. SAUTÉD OR BROILED PORK.</b>--Slices cut from the ribs and loin of pork +are called chops, and those obtained from the shoulder and hind legs are +called steaks. These, together with the tenderloin, the small piece of +lean, tender meat lying under the bones of the loin and seldom weighing +more than a pound, are especially suitable for sautéing or broiling. +When they are to be prepared by these processes, sauté or broil them as +any other meat, remembering, however, that pork must be well done. +Because of this fact, a more moderate temperature must be employed than +that used for beefsteak.</p> + +<p><b>61. PORK CHOPS IN TOMATO SAUCE.</b>--A slight change from the usual way of +preparing pork chops can be had by cooking them with tomatoes. The +combination of these two foods produces a dish having a very +agreeable flavor.</p> + +<p>First brown the chops in their own fat in a frying pan, turning them +frequently so that the surfaces will become evenly browned. When they +have cooked for 15 minutes, pour enough strained stewed tomatoes over +them to cover them well, and season with salt and pepper. Cover the pan +tight, and allow them to simmer until the tomatoes become quite thick. +Place the chops on a hot platter, pour the tomato sauce over them, and +serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>62. SAUTÉD TENDERLOIN OF PORK.</b>--Since the tenderloin of pork is a very +tender piece of meat, it needs no accompaniment to make it a delicious +dish, but sometimes a change of preparation is welcomed in order to give +variety to the diet. The accompanying directions should therefore be +followed when something different from broiled tenderloin is desired.</p> + +<p>Cut the tenderloin into lengthwise slices and brown these slices in +melted butter, turning them several times. Then remove to a cooler part +of the stove, and let them cook slowly in the butter for 15 minutes, +taking care to have them closely covered and turning them once or twice +so that they will cook evenly. At the end of this time, pour enough milk +or cream in the pan to cover the meat well and cook for 15 minutes +longer. With a skimmer, remove the meat, which should be very tender by +this time, from the pan, and put it where it will keep hot. Make a gravy +of the drippings that remain in the pan by thickening it with 1 +tablespoonful of flour, stirring it until it is thick and smooth and +seasoning it to taste with salt and pepper. Pour the gravy over the meat +and serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>63. PORK SAUSAGE.</b>--The trimmings and some of the internal organs of pork +are generally utilized to make sausage by chopping them very fine and +then highly seasoning the chopped meat. Pork in this form may be bought +fresh or smoked and loose or in casings. It usually contains +considerable fat and therefore shrinks upon being cooked, for the fat is +melted by the heat and runs out of the sausage.</p> + +<p>To cook pork sausages put up in casings, place the required number in a +hot frying pan with a small quantity of hot water. Cover the pan with a +lid and allow the sausages to cook. When they have swelled up and the +skins, or casings, look as if they would burst, remove the cover and +thoroughly prick each one with a sharp fork, so as to allow the fat and +the water to run out. Then allow the water to evaporate and sauté the +sausages in their own fat, turning them frequently until they are +well browned.</p> + +<p>To cook loose pork sausage, shape it into thin, flat cakes. Grease a +frying pan slightly, in order to keep the cakes from sticking to the +surface, place the cakes in the pan, and allow them to cook in the fat +that fries out, turning them occasionally until both sides are +well browned.</p> +<br> + +<a name="CURED_PORK_AND_ITS_PREPARATION"></a><h3>CURED PORK AND ITS PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>64.</b> Under the heading of cured pork may be included many of the cuts of +pork, for a large part of a pork carcass can be preserved by curing. +However, this term is usually restricted to include salt pork, bacon, +and ham. As has already been learned, salt pork is obtained from the +belly; bacon, from the middle cut; and ham, from the two hind legs +of pork.</p> + +<p><b>65. SALT PORK.</b>--As the cut used for salt pork is almost entirely fat, +this piece is seldom used alone for the table. Occasionally, it is +broiled to be served with some special food, such as fried apples, but +for the most part it is used for <i>larding</i>; that is, slices of it are +laid across the surface of meat and fish that are lacking in fat and +that therefore cook better and have a more agreeable flavor when fat in +some form is added. Pork of this kind is usually bought by the pound and +then sliced by the housewife as it is needed for cooking purposes.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 22]</p> + +<p><b>66. BACON.</b>--The middle cut of pork, upon being cured by smoking, is +regarded as bacon. It is sometimes used for larding purposes, but as it +contains more lean than salt pork, has a very pleasing flavor, and is +the most easily digested fat known, it is much used for food. A piece +that contains the usual proportion of fat and lean is shown in Fig. 22. +The strip of fat that occurs between the rind, or outer coat, and the +first layer of lean is the firmest and the best for larding. The fat +that fries out of bacon is excellent for use in the cooking and +seasoning of other foods, such as vegetables and meats. When bacon is +cooked for the table, its flavor will be improved if it is broiled +rather than fried in its own fat. The rind of bacon should, as a rule, +be trimmed off, but it should never be wasted, for it may be used to +grease a pancake griddle or any pan in which food is to be cooked, +provided the bacon flavor will not be objectionable.</p> + +<p>In purchasing bacon, it is usually more economical to buy the whole +side, or the entire middle cut, but if smaller quantities are desired, +any amount, either in one piece or in slices, may be bought. The +commercially cut bacon, which is very thin and becomes very crisp in its +preparation, may be bought with the rind retained or removed. In both of +these forms, it is often put up in jars or packed neatly in flat +pasteboard boxes. While such bacon is undoubtedly the most popular kind, +it should be remembered that the more preparation that is put on such a +food before it enters the home, the more expensive it becomes. Very +satisfactory results can be obtained from bacon bought in the piece if +care is used in cutting it. To secure very thin, even slices, a knife +having a thin blade that is kept sharp and in good condition should +always be used.</p> + +<p><b>67. BACON AND EGGS.</b>--There are many combinations in which bacon is one +of the foods, but no more palatable one can be found than bacon and +eggs. This is generally a breakfast dish; still there is no reason why +it cannot be used at times for luncheon or supper to give variety.</p> + +<p>To prepare this combination of foods, first pan-broil the desired number +of slices of bacon in a hot frying pan until they are crisp and then +remove them to a warm platter. Into the fat that has fried out of the +bacon, put the required number of eggs, which have first been broken +into a saucer. Fry them until they reach the desired degree of hardness, +and then remove to the platter containing the bacon. Serve by placing a +slice or two of bacon on the plate with each egg.</p> + +<p><b>68. BACON COMBINED WITH OTHER FOODS.</b>--Many other foods may be fried in +the same way as eggs and served with bacon. For instance, sliced apples +or sliced tomatoes fried in bacon fat until they become tender, but not +mushy, are delicious when served with crisp pieces of bacon. Also, cold +cereals, such as cream of wheat, oatmeal, corn-meal mush, etc., may be +sliced and fried until crisp and then served with bacon.</p> + +<p><b>69. HAM.</b>--The hind leg of pork, when cured and smoked, is usually known +as ham. Fig. 23 shows a ham from which the rind has not been removed. In +such a ham, the proportion of fat and lean is about right, but when ham +is bought with the rind removed, much of the fat is also taken off. The +best hams weigh from 8 to 15 pounds, and have a thin skin, solid fat, +and a small, short tapering leg or shank.</p> + +<p>Several ways of cooking ham are in practice. Very often slices +resembling slices of round steak are cut from the whole ham and then +fried or broiled. If a larger quantity is desired, the entire ham or a +thick cut may be purchased. This is boiled or baked and then served hot +or cold. It is a good idea to purchase an entire ham and keep it in +supply, cutting off slices as they are desired. In such an event, the +ham should be kept carefully wrapped and should be hung in a cool, dry +place. In cutting a ham, begin at the large end, as in Fig. 23, and cut +off slices until the opposite end becomes too small to make good slices. +The piece that remains may be cooked with vegetables, may be boiled and +served either hot or cold, or, if it is only a small piece, may be used +for making soup.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 23]</p> + +<p><b>70. BROILED HAM.</b>--The methods of broiling and pan broiling are very +satisfactory when applied to ham that is cut in slices. Ham is +pan-broiled in the same way as other meats. To broil ham, place slices 1 +inch thick on the hot broiler rack and sear quickly on both sides. Then +reduce the temperature and broil for 15 to 18 minutes, turning the ham +every few minutes until done. Remove to a hot platter. Add a little +water to the drippings in the broiler pan, pour this over the meat, and +serve at once.</p> + +<p><b>71. HAM BAKED IN MILK.</b>--A change from the usual ways of preparing +slices of ham can be had by baking them in milk. A point to remember in +carrying out this method is that the meat must bake slowly in order to +be tender when it is done.</p> + +<p>Secure a 2-inch slice of ham, place it in a dripping pan, and completely +cover it with milk. Put in a moderate oven and cook for 2 or more hours. +When the ham is done, its surface should be brown and the milk should be +almost entirely evaporated. If the liquid added in the beginning is not +sufficient, more may be added during the baking.</p> + +<p><b>72. BOILED HAM.</b>--Sometimes it is desired to cook an entire ham, +particularly when a large number of persons are to be served. The usual +way to prepare a whole ham is to boil it. When it is sufficiently +cooked, it may be served hot or kept until it is cold and then served in +slices. Nothing is more appetizing for a light meal, as luncheon or +supper, or for picnic lunches than cold sliced ham. Then, too, boiled +ham is very delicious when it is fried until the edges are crisp.</p> + +<p>To prepare boiled ham, first soak the ham in cold water for several +hours and then remove it and scrub it. Place it in a large kettle with +the fat side down and cover well with cold water. Put over a slow fire +and allow to come to the boiling point very slowly. Boil for 15 minutes +and skim off the scum that has risen. Simmer slowly for about 5 hours, +or at least 25 minutes for each pound of ham. Take from the kettle and +remove the skin about two-thirds of the way back. It will be found that +the skin will peel off easily when the ham is cooked enough. Garnish in +any desirable way and serve hot or cold.</p> + +<p><b>73. BAKED HAM.</b>--Another very appetizing way in which to cook an entire +ham is to bake it. This involves both cooking in water on the top of the +stove and baking in the oven. While this recipe, as well as those +preceding, specifies ham, it should be remembered that shoulder may be +cooked in the same ways.</p> + +<p>For baked ham, proceed in the way just explained for boiled ham, but +boil only 12 minutes for each pound. Take the ham from the kettle and +allow it to cool enough to permit it to be handled. Remove the skin. +Then place the ham in a roasting pan and pour over it 1 cupful of water. +Bake 12 minutes for each pound and baste frequently while baking. Serve +hot or cold.</p> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OP_LEFT-OVER_PORK"></a><h3>PREPARATION OP LEFT-OVER PORK</h3> + +<p><b>74. COLD PORK WITH FRIED APPLES.</b>--A combination that most persons find +agreeable and that enables the housewife to use up left-over pork, is +cold pork and fried apples. To prepare this dish, remove the cores from +sour apples and cut the apples into 1/2-inch slices. Put these in a +frying pan containing hot bacon fat and fry until soft and well browned. +Slice cold pork thin and place in the center of a platter. Arrange the +apples around the pork in a border.</p> + +<p><b>75. SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE.</b>--If not enough pork remains to serve +alone, it can be combined with cabbage to make a most appetizing +scalloped dish. The accompanying recipe shows just how to prepare such +a dish.</p> + +<b>SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 c. small thin slices of pork</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. cooked chopped cabbage</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. thin white sauce</li> +<li>1/4 c. buttered crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Arrange the pork and cabbage in layers in a baking dish, having a layer +of cabbage on top. Pour the white sauce over all and sprinkle the crumbs +on top. Bake until the sauce boils and the crumbs are brown.</p> + +<p><b>76. MOCK CHICKEN SALAD.</b>--The similarity in appearance of pork to chicken +makes it possible to prepare a salad of cold pork that is a very good +substitute for chicken salad. A salad of this kind can be used as the +main dish in such a meal as luncheon or supper.</p> + +<b>MOCK CHICKEN SALAD</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) +<br> +4 Tb. vinegar<br> +2 c. diced pork<br> +1-1/2 c. diced celery<br> +Salad dressing<br> + +<p>Heat the vinegar and pour it over the diced pork. Set aside to chill. +When ready to serve, add the diced celery and mix well. Pour the salad +dressing over all and serve on crisp lettuce leaves.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SERVING_AND_CARVING_OF_MEAT"></a><h3>SERVING AND CARVING OF MEAT</h3> + +<p><b>77.</b> The manner of carving and serving meat in the home depends to some +extent on the kind of meat that is to be served. A way that is favored +by some is to carve the meat before it is placed on the table and then +serve it according to the style of service used. However, the preferable +way is to place the platter containing the meat on the table, together +with the plates, in front of the person who is to do the carving +and serving.</p> + +<p>The carver should use considerable care in cutting and serving the meat +so that the platter and the surrounding tablecloth will not become +unsightly. To make each portion as attractive as possible, it should be +cut off evenly and then placed on the plate with the best side up. +Furthermore, the carving should be done in an economical way in order +that whatever remains after the first serving may be served later in the +same meal, and what is not eaten at the first meal may be utilized to +advantage for another. To obtain the best results in carving, a good +carving knife should be secured and it should always be kept well +sharpened.</p> + +<p><b>78.</b> With the general directions clear in mind, the methods of carving +and serving particular kinds of meat may be taken up. Chops, of course, +require no carving. By means of a large fork, one should be placed on +each person's plate. Steaks and roasts, however, need proper cutting in +order that equally good pieces may be served to each person dining. To +carve a steak properly, cut it across from side to side so that each +piece will contain a portion of the tender part, as well as a share of +the tougher part. When cut, the pieces should be strips that are about +as wide as the steak is thick. It is often advisable to remove the bone +from some steaks before placing them on the table.</p> + +<p><b>79.</b> Roasts require somewhat more attention than steaks. Before they are +placed on the table, any cord used for tying should be cut and removed +and all skewers inserted to hold the meat in shape should be pulled out. +To carve a roast of any kind, run the fork into the meat deeply enough +to hold it firmly and then cut the meat into thin slices across the +grain. In the case of a roast leg that contains the bone, begin to carve +the meat from the large end, cutting each slice down to the bone and +then off so that the bone is left clean. Place round of beef and rolled +roasts on the platter so that the tissue side, and not the skin side, is +up, and then cut the slices off in a horizontal direction. To carve a +rib roast properly, cut it parallel with the ribs and separate the +pieces from the backbone.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SAUSAGES_AND_MEAT_PREPARATIONS"></a><h3>SAUSAGES AND MEAT PREPARATIONS</h3> + +<p><b>80.</b> In addition to the fresh, raw meats that the housewife can procure +for her family, there are on the market numerous varieties of raw, +smoked, cooked, and partly cooked meats, which are generally included +under the term SAUSAGES. These meats are usually highly seasoned, so +they keep better than do fresh meats. They should not be overlooked by +the housewife, for they help to simplify her labor and at the same time +serve to give variety to the family diet. Still, it should be remembered +that when meats are made ready for use before they are put on the +market, the cost of the labor involved in their manufacture is added to +the price charged for them. For this reason, the housewife must be +prepared to pay more for meats of this kind than she would pay if she +could prepare them at home. However, she need not be concerned regarding +their safety, for the government's inspection and regulations prevent +any adulteration of them.</p> + +<p><b>81.</b> Among the numerous varieties of these meats, many of them are +typical of certain localities, while others have a national or an +international reputation. They also vary in the kind of meat used to +make them. Some of them are made from beef, as <i>frankfurters</i> and +certain kinds of <i>bologna</i>, while others are made from pork and include +the smoked and unsmoked sausages, <i>Liverwurst</i> is made from the livers +of certain animals, and may be purchased loose or in skins.</p> + +<p>Some of these sausages are used so often in certain combinations of +foods that they are usually thought of in connection with the foods that +it is customary for them to accompany. Frankfurters and sauerkraut, pork +sausage and mashed potatoes, liverwurst and fried corn-meal mush are +well-known combinations of this kind.</p> + +<p><b>82.</b> Closely allied to these sausages, although not one of them, is a +meat preparation much used in some localities and known as <i>scrapple</i>, +or <i>ponhasse</i>. This is prepared by cooking the head of pork, removing +the meat from the bones, and chopping it very fine. The pieces of meat +are then returned to the broth in which the head was cooked and enough +corn meal to thicken the liquid is stirred in. After the whole has +boiled sufficiently, it is turned into molds and allowed to harden. When +it is cold and hard, it can be cut into slices, which are sautéd in +hot fat.</p> + +<p><b>83.</b> Besides scrapple, numerous other meat preparations, such as <i>meat +loaves</i> of various kinds and <i>pickled pig's feet</i>, can usually be +obtained in the market. While the thrifty housewife does not make a +habit of purchasing meats of this kind regularly, there are times when +they are a great convenience and also afford an opportunity to vary +the diet.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>PREPARATION OF FOODS BY DEEP-FAT FRYING</b> + +<a name="PRINCIPLES_OF_DEEP-FAT_FRYING"></a><h3>PRINCIPLES OF DEEP-FAT FRYING</h3> + +<p><b>84.</b> Up to this point, all frying of foods has been done by sautéing +them; that is, frying them quickly in a small amount of fat. The other +method of frying, which involves cooking food quickly in deep fat at a +temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit, is used so frequently in +the preparation of many excellent meat dishes, particularly in the use +of left-overs, that specific directions for it are here given, together +with several recipes that afford practice in its use. No difficulty will +be experienced in applying this method to these recipes or to other +recipes if the underlying principles of deep-fat frying are thoroughly +understood and the proper utensils for this work are secured.</p> + +<p><b>85.</b> In the first place, it should be remembered that if foods prepared +in this way are properly done, they are not so indigestible as they are +oftentimes supposed to be, but that incorrect preparation makes for +indigestibility in the finished product. For instance, allowing the food +to soak up quantities of fat during the frying is neither economical nor +conducive to a digestible dish. To avoid such a condition, it is +necessary that the mixture to be fried be made of the proper materials +and be prepared in the right way. One of the chief requirements is that +the surface of the mixture be properly coated with a protein material, +such as egg or egg and milk, before it is put into the fat or that the +mixture contain the correct proportion of egg so that its outside +surface will accomplish the same purpose. The reason for this +requirement is that the protein material is quickly coagulated by the +hot fat and thus prevents the entrance of fat into the inside material +of the fried food.</p> + +<p>Care must be taken also in the selection of the fat that is used for +deep-fat frying. This may be in the form of an oil or a solid fat and +may be either a vegetable or an animal fat. However, a vegetable fat is +usually preferred, as less smoke results from it and less flavor of the +fat remains in the food after it is cooked.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 24]</p> + +<p><b>86.</b> The utensils required for deep-fat frying are shown in Fig. 24. They +consist of a wire basket and a pan into which the basket will fit. As +will be observed, the pan in which the fat is put has an upright metal +piece on the side opposite the handle. Over this fits a piece of wire +with which the basket is equipped and which is attached to the side +opposite the handle of the basket. This arrangement makes it possible to +drain the fat from whatever food has been fried without having to hold +the basket over the pan.</p> +<br> + +<a name="APPLICATION_OF_DEEP-FAT_FRYING"></a><h3>APPLICATION OF DEEP-FAT FRYING</h3> + +<p><b>87.</b> With the principles of deep-fat frying well in mind, the actual work +of frying foods by this method may be taken up. Numerous foods and +preparations may be subjected to this form of cookery, but attention is +given at this time to only croquettes and timbale cases. <i>Croquettes</i> +are small balls or patties usually made of some finely minced food and +fried until brown. <i>Timbale cases</i> are shells in which various creamed +foods are served. As these two preparations are representative of the +various dishes that can be cooked by frying in deep fat, the directions +given for these, if carefully mastered, may be applied to many +other foods.</p> + +<p><b>88. FRYING OF CROQUETTES.</b>--After the mixture that is to be fried has +been prepared, and while the croquettes are being shaped, have the fat +heating in the deep pan, as in Fig. 24. Before the food is immersed, +test the temperature of the fat in the manner shown in Fig. 25, to make +sure that it is hot enough. To do this, put a 1/2-inch cube of bread in +the hot fat and keep it there for 40 seconds. If at the end of this time +it is a golden brown, it may be known that the fat is sufficiently hot +for any mixture. Be careful to regulate the heat so as to keep the fat +as near this temperature as possible, for it should be remembered that +each time a cold food is immersed in hot fat, the temperature is +lowered. Usually, a few minutes' frying is necessary to assure this +regulation of the temperature.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 25]</p> + +<p>As soon as the correct temperature is reached, put several of the +croquettes in the basket and set the basket in the pan of hot fat so +that the croquettes are entirely covered. Fry until a good brown color +is secured. Then lift the basket out of the fat and allow it to drain +until all the fat possible has dripped from it. Finally remove the +croquettes from the basket and place them on any kind of paper that will +absorb the excessive fat. Serve at once or keep hot until ready +to serve.</p> + +<p><b>89. VEAL CROQUETTES.</b>--Veal that remains from a roast after it has been +served once can be utilized in no better way than in the making of +croquettes; or, if desired, veal may be cooked especially for this +purpose. When such croquettes are served with a sauce of any desirable +kind, such as white sauce or tomato sauce, or with left-over gravy, no +more appetizing dish can be found.</p> + +<b>VEAL CROQUETTES</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 c. cold ground veal</li> +<li>1 c. thick white sauce</li> +<li>2 Tb. chopped onion</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>Fine crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the ground veal with the white sauce, add the onion and parsley, and +salt and pepper to taste. Shape into oblong croquettes. Roll first in +the beaten egg, which, if necessary, may be increased by the addition of +a little milk, and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden +brown. Serve with or without sauce.</p> + +<p><b>90. SWEETBREAD CROQUETTES.</b>--An extremely palatable dish can be made by +frying in deep fat sweetbreads cut any desirable shape and size. These +are usually served with a vegetable, and often a sauce of some kind is +served over both.</p> + +<p>To prepare the sweetbreads, parboil them according to the directions +given in Art. 17. Cut them into the kind of pieces desired, sprinkle the +pieces with salt and pepper, and dip them into beaten egg and then into +crumbs. Fry in deep fat and serve with a vegetable or a sauce or both.</p> + +<p><b>91. RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES.</b>--Sometimes not enough meat remains after a +meal to make a tasty dish by itself. In such a case, it should be +combined with some other food, especially a starchy one, so as to extend +its flavor and produce a dish that approaches nearer a balanced ration +than meat alone does. A small amount of any kind of meat combined with +rice and the mixture then formed into patties, or croquettes, provides +both an appetizing and a nutritious dish.</p> + +<b>RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. finely chopped left-over meat</li> +<li>1 c. cold steamed rice</li> +<li>1/2 c. thick white sauce</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped onion</li> +<li>1 tsp. celery salt</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>Fine crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the meat and rice, stir into them the white sauce, onion, and celery +salt, and salt and pepper to taste. Shape into croquettes, or patties; +roll first in the egg and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until +golden brown and serve with any desirable sauce.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 26]</p> + +<h3><a name="TIMBALE_CASES"></a>TIMBALE CASES</h3> + +<p><b>92. TIMBALE CASES.</b>--Such foods as creamed sweetbreads, creamed +sweetbreads and mushrooms, and other delicate foods that are served in +small quantities can be made very attractive by serving them in timbale +cases. These are made out of a batter by means of a timbale iron and +fried in deep fat until brown. In serving them, place them either on a +small plate or on the dinner plate with the rest of the dinner. To make +them especially attractive, dip the edge into egg white and then into +very finely chopped parsley. Fig. 26 shows creamed sweetbreads served in +a timbale case.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 27]</p> + +<p><b>93.</b> To prepare timbale cases, a <i>timbale iron</i>, such as is shown in Fig. +27, is required. Such an iron consists of a fluted piece of metal that +is either solid or hollow and that has attached to it a handle long +enough to keep the hand sufficiently far away from the hot fat.</p> + +<p>The batter required for timbale cases and the directions for combining +them are as follows:</p> + +<b>TIMBALE-CASE BATTER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Make Twenty</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1 tsp. sugar</li> +<li>3/4 c. flour</li> +</ul> + +<p>Beat the egg with a fork just enough to break it up thoroughly. Add the +milk, salt, and sugar. Stir in the flour with as little beating as +possible. After preparing this mixture, allow it to stand for 1/2 hour, +so that any air it contains in the form of bubbles may escape and thus +prevent the formation of holes and bubbles in the finished +timbale cases.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 28]</p> + +<p>When about to use the batter, pour it into a cup or some other small +utensil that is just large enough to admit the iron easily. The iron +must be nearly covered with batter, but a large amount of it will not be +needed if a small utensil is used. Place the iron in the hot fat, as +shown in Fig. 27, until it is hot, or for about 4 minutes. Then let it +drip and place it in the batter, as in Fig. 28, being careful not to +permit the batter to come quite to the top of the iron, and remove it at +once. Place it immediately into the hot fat, as in Fig. 29, allowing the +fat to come higher on the iron than the batter does. This precaution +will prevent the formation of a ridge of bubbles around the top of the +timbale case. Fry in the deep fat until the case is nicely browned, as +shown in Fig. 26. Remove the iron from the fat, and allow it to drip. +Then carefully remove the timbale case from the iron with a fork and +place it on paper that will absorb the fat.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 29]</p> + +<p>If your timbales are soft instead of crisp, you will know that the +mixture is too thick and should be diluted. Too hot or too cold an iron +will prevent the mixture from sticking to it.</p> +<br> + +<b>MEAT (PART 2)</b><br><br> + +<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br> + +<p>(1) (<i>a</i>) What is veal? (<i>b</i>) From animals of what age is the best veal +obtained?</p> + +<p>(2) Compare veal and beef as to characteristics.</p> + +<p>(3) What cuts of veal are most suitable for: (<i>a</i>) roasts? (<i>b</i>) cutlets? +(<i>c</i>) soup and stews? (<i>d</i>) chops?</p> + +<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) What organs of veal are used for foods? (<i>b</i>) What are +sweetbreads?</p> + +<p>(5) (<i>a</i>) Why is veal more indigestible than beef? (<i>b</i>) What important +point must be remembered concerning the cooking of veal?</p> + +<p>(6) (<i>a</i>) What substance in veal is utilized in the preparation of jellied +veal? (<i>b</i>) Explain how this dish is prepared.</p> + +<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) At what age is sheep sold as lamb? (<i>b</i>) How do lamb and mutton +differ as to food substances?</p> + +<p>(8) Compare the flesh of lamb and mutton as to appearance.</p> + +<p>(9) As they apply to lamb and mutton, explain the terms: (<i>a</i>) rack; (<i>b</i>) +saddle.</p> + +<p>(10) Explain why some cuts of lamb and mutton are tough and others +tender.</p> + +<p>(11) What is: (<i>a</i>) a crown roast of lamb? (<i>b</i>) a French chop?</p> + +<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) Describe pork of the best kind. (<i>b</i>) Why is the food value of +pork higher than that of other meats?</p> + +<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) Name the cuts of pork. (<i>b</i>) What is meant by leaf lard?</p> + +<p>(14) What important points must be taken into consideration in the +cooking of pork?</p> + +<p>(15) (<i>a</i>) Name some of the accompaniments that are usually served with +pork. (<i>b</i>) What is the purpose of these accompaniments?</p> + +<p>(16) (<i>a</i>) For what purpose is salt pork generally used? (<i>b</i>) What is +bacon? (<i>c</i>) To what uses is bacon put?</p> + +<p>(17) (<i>a</i>) Give the general directions for the carving and serving of +meat. (<i>b</i>) Explain how to carve and serve a steak.</p> + +<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) What is meant by deep-fat frying? (<i>b</i>) Why must a food that is +to be fried in deep fat contain or be coated with a protein material?</p> + +<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) What utensils are necessary for deep-fat frying? (<i>b</i>) Explain +the procedure in frying croquettes in deep fat.</p> + +<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) For what purpose are timbale cases used? (<i>b</i>) Explain how to +make a batter for timbale cases.</p> +<br> + +<b>ADDITIONAL WORK</b><br><br> + +<p>Select a cut of beef that you consider most desirable from an economical +standpoint. Buy a quantity that may be used to the greatest advantage +for your family. Prepare it in any way you desire.</p> + +<p>State the number of pounds purchased, the price of the meat, the number +of meals in which it was served, and the number of persons (tell how +many adults and how many children) served at each meal. Estimate the +cost of each portion by dividing the cost of the whole by the number of +persons served.</p> + +<p>Make up an original dish in which left-over meat is used and submit the +recipe to us.</p> +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<a name="POULTRY"></a><h2>POULTRY</h2> + +<a name="POULTRY_AS_A_FOOD"></a><h3>POULTRY AS A FOOD</h3> + +<p><b>1.</b> POULTRY is the term used to designate birds that have been +domesticated, or brought under the control of man, for two purposes, +namely, the eggs they produce and the flesh food they supply. All the +common species of domestic fowls--chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, +guinea fowls, and pigeons--are known as poultry. However, none of these +species is included under this term unless it is raised for at least one +of the two purposes mentioned. As the term is to be understood in this +Section, poultry includes all domestic fowls that are killed in order +that their flesh may be cooked and used as food for human beings. Of +course, many wild birds are killed for the flesh food they furnish, but +they are classed under the term <i>game</i>.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> Poultry is probably never a necessity in the ordinary dietary, and +when prices are high it is a decided luxury. Still it does aid +materially in relieving the monotony of the usual protein foods, and it +supplies that "something out of the ordinary" for special occasions. +Then, too, it is often valuable in the diet of an invalid or some person +with a poor appetite. Poultry is, of course, used more in some homes +than in others; yet there is scarcely a home in which it is not served +some time or another. A knowledge of this food and its preparation and +serving will therefore prove to be a valuable asset to any housewife.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> To arrive at a knowledge of the use of poultry as a food, the +housewife must necessarily become familiar with its selection and +purchase. Then she must give attention to both its preparation for +cooking and its actual cooking, and, finally, to its serving. In all +these matters she will do well to adhere to the practice of economy, +for, at best, poultry is usually an expensive food. Before entering into +these matters in detail, however, it will be well to look into them in a +general way.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> In the selection of poultry, the housewife should realize that +poultry breeders have so developed certain breeds, even of the same +species, that they are better for table use than others. The flesh of +any breed of poultry may be improved by feeding the birds good food and +giving them proper care; and it is by applying these principles that the +breeders are enabled to better the quality of this food. Other things +also influence the quality of poultry flesh as food, as, for example, +the way in which the poultry is prepared for market and the care it +receives in transportation and storage. Unless these are as they should +be, they have a detrimental effect on poultry, because such food is +decidedly perishable.</p> + +<p>It is possible to exercise economy in the purchase of poultry, but +before the housewife can do this she must be able to judge the age of +each kind she may desire. On the age depends to a great extent the +method of cookery to be followed in preparing the poultry for the table. +Likewise, she must know the marks of cold-storage poultry, as well as +those of poultry that is freshly killed; and she must be familiar with +the first marks of deterioration, or decay, that result from storing the +food too long or improperly.</p> + +<p>Economy may also be practiced in preparing poultry for cooking. To bring +this about, however, the housewife should realize that the best method +of preparing any kind of poultry for cooking is always the most +economical. It means, too, that she should understand thoroughly the +methods of drawing and cutting, so that she may either do this work +herself or direct it.</p> + +<p>The way in which poultry is cooked has a bearing on the cost of this +food, too. For example, a young, tender bird prepared by a wrong method +not only is a good dish spoiled, but is a waste of expensive material. +Likewise, an older bird, which has more flavor but tougher tissues, is +almost impossible as food if it is not properly prepared. Both kinds +make appetizing dishes and do not result in waste if correct methods of +cooking are followed in their preparation.</p> + +<p>Even the way in which poultry is served has a bearing on the cost of +this food. For this reason, it is necessary to know how to carve, as +well as how to utilize any of this food that may be left over, if the +housewife is to get the most out of her investment.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="SELECTION_OF_POULTRY"></a><h3>SELECTION OF POULTRY</h3> + +<b>GENERAL INFORMATION</b><br><br> + +<p><b>5.</b> The selection of any kind of poultry to be used as food is a matter +that should not be left to the butcher. Rather, it should be done by +some one who understands the purpose for which the poultry is to be +used, and, in the home, this is a duty that usually falls to the +housewife. There are a number of general facts about poultry, and a +knowledge of them will assist the housewife greatly in performing +her tasks.</p> + +<p><b>6. CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY.</b>--Poultry breeders and dealers divide the +domestic fowls into three classes. In the first class are included those +which have combs, such as chickens, turkeys, and guinea fowls. Quails +and pheasants belong to this class also, but they are very seldom +domesticated. The birds in this class are distinguished by two kinds of +tissue--light meat on the breast and dark meat on the other parts of the +body. In the second class are included those fowls which swim, such as +ducks and geese. These are characterized by web feet and long thick +bills, and their meat is more nearly the same color over the entire +body. The third class is comprised of birds that belong to the family of +doves. Pigeons, which are called <i>squabs</i> when used as food, are the +only domesticated birds of this class. They stand between the other two +classes with respect to their flesh, which has some difference in color +between the breast and other muscles, but not so much as chicken and +other fowls of the first class.</p> + +<p><b>7. INFLUENCE OF FEEDING AND CARE ON QUALITY.</b>--To some extent, the breed +affects the quality of poultry as food; still this is a far less +important matter than a number of things that the purchaser is better +able to judge. Among the factors that greatly influence the quality are +the feeding and care that the birds receive up to the time of slaughter. +These affect not only the flavor and the tenderness of the tissue, as +well as the quantity of tissue in proportion to bone, but also the +healthfulness of the birds themselves. To keep the birds in good health +and to build up sufficient flesh to make them plump, with as much meat +as possible on the bones and a fair amount of fat as well, the food they +get must be clean and of the right kind. Likewise, the housing +conditions must be such that the birds are kept dry and sufficiently +warm. The living space, also, must be adequate for the number that are +raised. Domestic fowls are not discriminating as to their food, and when +they are forced to live in dirt and filth they will eat more or less of +it and thus injure the quality of their flesh. Poultry that comes into +the market looking drawn and thin, with blue-looking flesh and no fat, +shows evidence of having had poor living conditions and inadequate +feeding. Such poultry will be found to have a less satisfactory flavor +than that which has received proper care.</p> + +<p><b>8. EFFECT OF SEX ON QUALITY.</b>--When birds of any kind are young, sex has +very little to do with the quality of the flesh. But as they grow older +the flesh of males develops a stronger flavor than that of females of +the same age and also becomes tougher. However, when birds, with the +exception of mature ones, are dressed, it would take an expert to +determine the sex. The mature male is less plump than the female, and it +is more likely to be scrawny. Likewise, its spurs are larger and its +bones are large in proportion to the amount of flesh on them.</p> + +<p>Very often the reproductive organs of young males are removed, and the +birds are then called <i>capons</i>. As the capon grows to maturity, it +develops more of the qualities of the hen. Its body becomes plump +instead of angular, the quality of its flesh is much better than that of +the cock, and the quantity of flesh in proportion to bone is much +greater. In fact, the weight of a capon's edible flesh is much greater +than that of either a hen or a cock. In the market, a dressed capon can +usually be told by the long tail and wing feathers that are left on, as +well as by a ring of feathers around the neck. Female birds that are +spayed are called <i>poulards</i>. Spaying, or removing the reproductive +organs, of female birds, however, makes so little improvement that it is +seldom done.</p> + +<p><b>9. PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR MARKET.</b>--The manner in which poultry is +prepared for market has a great bearing on its quality as food. In some +cases, the preparation falls to the producer, and often, when birds are +raised in quantities, they are sold alive and dressed by the butcher. +However, poultry that is to be shipped long distances and in large +quantities or stored for long periods of time is usually prepared at a +slaughtering place. This process of slaughtering and shipping requires +great care, for if attention is not given to details, the poultry will +be in a state of deterioration when it reaches the consumer and +therefore unfit for food.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid the deterioration of poultry that is slaughtered some +distance from the place of its consumption, each bird is well fed up to +within 24 hours before it is killed. Then it is starved so that its +alimentary tract will be as empty as possible at the time of killing. +Such birds are killed by cutting the large blood vessel running up to +the head. When properly done, this method of killing allows almost all +the blood to be drained from the body and the keeping qualities are much +improved. At practically the same time, the brain is pierced by the +knife thrust, and as soon as the bleeding commences the fowl becomes +paralyzed. As the tissues relax, the feathers may be pulled easily from +the skin without immersing the bird in hot water. This method of +plucking, known as <i>dry plucking</i>, is preferable when the skin must be +kept intact and the poultry kept for any length of time. The head and +feet are left on and the entrails are not removed. The poultry is then +chilled to the freezing point, but not below it, after which the birds +are packed ten in a box and shipped to the market in refrigerator cars +or placed in cold storage. Unless the poultry is to be cooked +immediately after slaughter, such measures are absolutely necessary, as +its flesh is perishable and will not remain in good condition for a long +period of time.</p> + +<p><b>10. COLD-STORAGE POULTRY.</b>--Poultry that has been properly raised, +killed, transported, and stored is very likely to come into the market +in such condition that it cannot be readily distinguished from freshly +killed birds. When exposed to warmer temperatures, however, storage +poultry spoils much more quickly than does fresh poultry. For this +reason, if there is any evidence that poultry has been in storage, it +should be cooked as soon as possible after purchase.</p> + +<p>There are really two kinds of cold-storage poultry: that which is kept +at a temperature just above freezing and delivered within a few weeks +after slaughtering, and that which is frozen and kept in storage a much +longer time. When properly cared for, either one is preferable to +freshly killed poultry that is of poor quality or has had a chance to +spoil. Poultry that has been frozen must be thawed carefully. It should +be first placed in a refrigerator and allowed to thaw to that +temperature before it is placed in a warmer one. It should never be +thawed by putting it into warm water. Thawing it in this way really +helps it to decompose.</p> + +<p>A sure indication of cold-storage poultry is the pinched look it +possesses, a condition brought about by packing the birds tightly +against one another. Storage poultry usually has the head and feet left +on and its entrails are not removed. Indeed, it has been determined by +experiment that poultry will keep better if these precautions are +observed. The removal of the entrails seems to affect the internal +cavity of the bird so that it does not keep well, and as a matter of +safety it should be cooked quickly after this has been done in the home.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SELECTION_OF_CHICKEN"></a><h3>SELECTION OF CHICKEN</h3> + +<p><b>11.</b> To be able to select chicken properly, the housewife must be +familiar with the terms that are applied to chickens to designate their +age or the cookery process for which they are most suitable. <i>Chicken</i> +is a general name for all varieties of this kind of poultry, but in its +specific use it means a common domestic fowl that is less than 1 year +old. <i>Fowl</i> is also a general term; but in its restricted use in cookery +it refers to the full-grown domestic hen or cock over 1 year of age, as +distinguished from the chicken or pullet. A <i>broiler</i> is chicken from 2 +to 4 months old which, because of its tenderness, is suitable for +broiling. A <i>frying chicken</i> is at least 6 months old, and a <i>roasting +chicken</i> is between 6 months and 1 year old. With these terms +understood, it can readily be seen that if fried chicken is desired a +2-year-old fowl would not be a wise purchase.</p> + +<p>The quality of the bird is the next consideration in the selection of +chicken. A number of things have a bearing on the quality. Among these, +as has already been pointed out, are the feeding and care that the bird +has received during its growth, the way in which it has been prepared +for market, and so on. All of these things may be determined by careful +observation before making a purchase. However, if the bird is drawn, and +especially if the head and feet are removed, there is less chance to +determine these things accurately.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 1]</p> + +<p><b>12. GENERAL MARKS OF GOOD QUALITY.</b>--A chicken older than a broiler that +has been plucked should not be scrawny nor drawn looking like that shown +in Fig. 1, nor should the flesh have a blue tinge that shows through the +skin. Rather, it should be plump and well rounded like the one shown in +Fig. 2. There should be a sufficient amount of fat to give a rich, +yellow color. It should be plucked clean, and the skin should be clear +and of an even color over the entire bird. Tender, easily broken skin +indicates a young bird; tougher skin indicates an older one. The skin +should be whole and unbroken; likewise, when pressed with the fingers, +it should be neither flabby nor stiff, but pliable.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 2]</p> + +<p><b>13.</b> The increase of age in a chicken is to some extent an advantage, +because with age there is an increase in flavor. Thus, a year-old +chicken will have more flavor than a broiler. However, after more than +a year, the flavor increases to such an extent that it becomes strong +and disagreeable. With the advance of age there is also a loss of +tenderness in the flesh, and this after 1-1/2 or 2 years becomes so +extreme as to render the bird almost unfit for use. As the age of a +chicken increases, the proportion of flesh to bone also increases up to +the complete maturity of the bird. Hence, one large bird is a more +economical purchase than two small ones that equal its weight, because +the proportion of bone to flesh is less in the large bird than in the +small ones.</p> + +<p><b>14. DETERMINING THE AGE OF CHICKEN.</b>--An excellent way in which to +determine the age of a chicken that has been dressed consists in feeling +of the breast bone at the point where it protrudes below the neck. In a +very young chicken, a broiler, for instance, the point of this bone will +feel like cartilage, which is firm, elastic tissue, and may be very +easily bent. If the bird is about a year old, the bone will be brittle, +and in a very old one it will be hard and will not bend.</p> + +<p><b>15.</b> If the head has been left on, the condition of the beak is a means +of determining age. In a young chicken, it will be smooth and unmarred; +in an old one, it will be rough and probably darker in color. If the +feet have been left on, they too will serve to indicate the age. The +feet of a young chicken are smooth and soft; whereas, those of an old +bird are rough, hard, and scaly. The claws of a young one are short and +sharp; but as the bird grows older they grow stronger and become blunt +and marred with use. The spur, which is a projection just above the foot +on the back of each leg, is small in the young chicken, and increases in +size as the age increases. However, the spurs are more pronounced in +males than in females.</p> + +<p><b>16.</b> Another way of telling the age of dressed chicken is to observe the +skin. After plucking, young birds usually have some pin feathers left in +the skin. <i>Pin feathers</i> are small unformed feathers that do not pull +out with the larger ones. Older birds are usually free from pin +feathers, but have occasional long hairs remaining in the skin after the +feathers have been plucked. These do not pull out readily and must be +singed off when the chicken is being prepared for cooking.</p> + +<p><b>17. DETERMINING THE FRESHNESS OF CHICKEN.</b>--There are a number of points +that indicate whether or not a chicken is fresh. In a freshly killed +chicken, the feet will be soft and pliable and moist to the touch; also, +the head will be unshrunken and the eyes full and bright. The flesh of +such a chicken will give a little when pressed, but no part of the flesh +should be softer than another. As actual decomposition sets in, the skin +begins to discolor. The first marks of discoloration occur underneath +the legs and wings, at the points where they are attached to the body. +Any dark or greenish color indicates decomposition, as does also any +slimy feeling of the skin. The odor given off by the chicken is also an +indication of freshness. Any offensive odor, of course, means that the +flesh has become unfit for food.</p> + +<p><b>18. LIVE CHICKENS.</b>--Occasionally chickens are brought to the market and +sold alive. This means, of course, that the birds are subjected to a +certain amount of fright and needless cruelty and that the work of +slaughtering falls to the purchaser. The cost, however, is decreased a +few cents on the pound. Such birds must be chosen first of all by weight +and then by the marks that indicate age, which have already been given.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SELECTION_OF_POULTRY_OTHER_THAN_CHICKEN"></a><h3>SELECTION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN</h3> + +<p><b>19.</b> The determination of quality, especially freshness, is much the same +for other kinds of poultry as it is for chicken. In fact, the same +points apply in most cases, but each kind seems to have a few +distinguishing features, which are here pointed out.</p> + +<p><b>20. SELECTION OF TURKEYS.</b>--Turkeys rank next to chickens in popularity +as food. They are native to America and are perhaps better known here +than in foreign countries. Turkey is a much more seasonal food than +chicken, it being best in the fall. Cold-storage turkey that has been +killed at that time, provided it is properly stored and cared for, is +better than fresh turkey marketed out of season.</p> + +<p><b>21.</b> The age of a turkey can be fairly accurately told by the appearance +of its feet. Very young turkeys have black feet, and as they mature the +feet gradually grow pink, so that at more than 1 year old the feet will +be found to be pink. However, as the bird grows still older, the color +again changes, and a 3-year-old turkey will have dull-gray or blackish +looking feet. The legs, too, serve to indicate the age of turkeys. Those +of a young turkey are smooth, but as the birds grow older they gradually +become rough and scaly. A young turkey will have spurs that are only +slightly developed, whereas an old turkey will have long, sharp ones.</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> Turkeys are seldom marketed when they are very young. But in spite +of the fact that this is occasionally done, the mature birds are more +generally marketed. Turkeys often reach a large size, weighing as much +as 20 to 25 pounds. A mature turkey has proportionately a larger amount +of flesh and a smaller amount of bone than chicken; hence, even at a +higher price per pound, turkey is fully as economical as chicken.</p> + +<p><b>23. SELECTION OF DUCKS.</b>--Ducks probably come next to turkeys in +popularity for table use. Young ducks are sold in the market during the +summer and are called <i>spring duck</i>. The mature ducks may be purchased +at any time during the year, but they are best in the winter months.</p> + +<p>The flexibility of the windpipe is an excellent test for the age of +ducks. In the young bird, the windpipe may be easily moved; whereas, in +the old one, it is stationary and quite hard. The meat of ducks is dark +over the entire bird, and the greatest amount is found on the breast. +Its flavor is quite typical, and differs very much from turkey and +chicken. However, there is a comparatively small amount of meat even on +a good-sized duck, and it does not carve to very good advantage; in +fact, more persons can be served from a chicken or a turkey of the same +weight. Young ducks are rather difficult to clean, as a layer of fine +down, which is not easily removed, covers the skin.</p> + +<p><b>24. SELECTION OF GEESE.</b>--Geese are much more commonly used for food in +foreign countries than in America. Their age may be told in the same way +as that of ducks, namely, by feeling of the windpipe. The flesh is dark +throughout and rather strongly flavored. The fat is used quite +extensively for cooking purposes, and even as a butter substitute in +some countries. Because of this fact, geese are generally fattened +before they are slaughtered, and often half the weight of the bird is +fat. The livers of fattened geese reach enormous proportions and are +considered a delicacy. They are used for <i>pâté de fois gras</i>. Usually, +this is put up in jars and brings a very high price.</p> + +<p><b>25. SELECTION OF PIGEONS.</b>--Pigeons are raised primarily for their use +as <i>squabs</i>. These are young birds about 4 weeks old, and their meat is +tender and agreeable to the taste. The meat of the mature pigeon becomes +quite tough and unpalatable. The breast is the only part of the bird +that has meat on it in any quantity, and this meat is slightly lighter +in color than that which comes from the remainder of the body. Midsummer +is the best season for squabs, but they can be purchased at other times +of the year. The cost of squabs is too high to allow them to be used +extensively as a food in the ordinary household.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE I</b><br> + +GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF POULTRY</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td align="center"><b>Market Name</b></td><td align="center"><b>Weight<br>Pounds</b></td><td align="center"><b>Age</b></td><td align="center"><b>Season</b></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Squab broiler</td><td align="center">3/4 to 1-1/4</td><td align="center">6 to 8 wk.</td><td align="center">April to July</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Broiler</td><td align="center">1-1/2 to 2</td><td align="center">2 to 4 mo.</td><td align="center">May to Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Frying chicken</td><td align="center">2-1/2 to 3</td><td align="center">6 mo.</td><td align="center">June to Oct.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roasting chicken</td><td align="center">3 to 6</td><td align="center">6 mo. to 1 yr.</td><td align="center">All Year</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Fowl</td><td align="center">4 to 5</td><td align="center">over 1 yr.</td><td align="center">All Year</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Capon</td><td align="center">6 to 10</td><td align="center">6 to 8 wk.</td><td align="center">May to Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Turkey broiler</td><td align="center">1-1/2 to 4</td><td align="center">2 to 4 mo.</td><td align="center">June to Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roasting turkey</td><td align="center">8 to 25</td><td align="center">6 mo. to 3 yr.</td><td align="center">Oct. to Jan.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Spring Duck</td><td align="center">1-1/2 to 2-1/2</td><td align="center">2 to 6 mo.</td><td align="center">May to Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roasting Duck</td><td align="center">4 to 8</td><td align="center">6 mo. to 1 yr.</td><td align="center">Best in winter</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Green goose</td><td align="center">1-1/2 to 2-1/2</td><td align="center">2 to 6 mo.</td><td align="center">May to Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roasting goose</td><td align="center">4 to 8</td><td align="center">6 mo. to 1 yr.</td><td align="center">Oct. to Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Squab</td><td align="center">1/2 to 3/4</td><td align="center">4 wk.</td><td align="center">June to Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Guinea hen broiler</td><td align="center">1 to 2</td><td align="center">2 to 4 mo.</td><td align="center">Aug. to Nov.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Guinea fowl</td><td align="center">3 to 5</td><td align="center">6 mo. to 1 yr.</td><td align="center">Oct. to Mar.</td></tr> +</table> + +<br><br> + +<p><b>26. SELECTION OF GUINEA FOWLS.</b>--Guinea fowls are coming into common use +as food. The young birds are preferable to the older ones. They are +ready for the market in early autumn, while the old birds may be +procured at any time. The breast meat of guinea fowls is almost as light +as that of chicken, but all the meat of this bird has a gamy taste, +which is absent in the chicken. If this particular flavor is much +desired, it may be developed to even a greater degree by allowing the +bird to hang after killing until the meat begins to "turn," that is, +become "high." Such meat, however, is not usually desirable in the +ordinary menu.</p> + +<p><b>27. SELECTION OF PHEASANT, PARTRIDGE, AND QUAIL.</b>--Pheasant, partridge, +and quail are usually considered game birds, but certain varieties are +being extensively domesticated and bred for market. Such birds are small +and are used more in the nature of a delicacy than as a common +article of food.</p> + +<p><b>28. TABLE OF POULTRY AND GAME.</b>--In Table I are given the market names of +the various kinds of poultry and game birds, as well as the +corresponding age, the weight, and the season of the year when they are +most desirable. This table will serve as a guide in selecting poultry +that is to be used as food.</p> +<br> + +<a name="COMPOSITION_OF_POULTRY"></a><h3>COMPOSITION OF POULTRY</h3> + +<p><b>29.</b> The composition of poultry is very similar to that of meats. In +fact, poultry is composed of protein, fat, water, mineral salts, and +extractives that do not differ materially from those found in meats. The +protein, which usually varies from 15 to 20 per cent., is a much more +constant factor than the fat, which varies from 8 to 40 per cent. This +variation, of course, makes the total food value high in some kinds of +poultry and low in others. For instance, in a young broiler that has not +been fattened, the food value is extremely low; whereas, in a mature +well-fattened bird, such as a goose, which increases very markedly in +fatty tissue after reaching maturity, it is extremely high. A factor +that detracts considerably from the edible portion of poultry is the +waste material, or refuse. This consists of the bones, cartilage, head, +feet, and entrails, or inedible internal organs. The greater the +proportion of such waste material, the more the total nutritive value of +the flesh is reduced. It is claimed that birds that have light-colored +flesh do not become so fat as those which have dark flesh. This, of +course, makes their nutritive value less, because the fat of poultry is +what serves to supply a large part of the nutrition. There is no +particular difference, as is commonly supposed, between the red and +white meat of poultry. The difference in color is due to a difference in +the blood supply, but this does not affect the composition to +any extent.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OF_POULTRY_FOR_COOKING"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR COOKING</h3> + +<b>PREPARATION OF CHICKEN</b><br><br> + +<p><b>30.</b> As has been implied, poultry must be properly prepared before it is +ready for cooking; likewise, the method of cookery determines how it +must be prepared. For example, if it is to be roasted, it must be drawn; +if it is to be stewed, it must be drawn and cut into suitable pieces; +and so on. The various steps that must be taken to make poultry suitable +for cooking are therefore considered here in detail.</p> + +<p><b>31. DRESSING A CHICKEN.</b>--Although, as has been shown, the housewife does +not have to dress the chicken that she is to cook--that is, kill and +pluck it--there may be times when she will be called on to perform this +task or at least direct it. A common way of killing chicken in the home +is simply to grasp it firmly by the legs, lay it on a block, and then +chop the head off with a sharp hatchet or a cleaver. If this plan is +followed, the beheaded chicken must be held firmly until the blood has +drained away and the reflex action that sets in has ceased. Otherwise, +there is danger of becoming splashed with blood.</p> + +<p><b>32.</b> After a chicken has been killed, the first step in its preparation, +no matter how it is to be cooked, consists in removing the feathers, or +<i>plucking</i> it, as this operation is called. Plucking can be done dry by +simply pulling out the feathers. However, a bird can be plucked more +readily if it is first immersed in water at the boiling point for a few +minutes. Such water has a tendency to loosen the feathers so that they +can be pulled from the skin easily. Unless the chicken is to be used at +once, though, dry plucking is preferable to the other method. Care +should be taken not to tear or mar the skin in plucking, and the +operation is best performed by pulling out the feathers a few at a time, +with a quick jerk. In a young chicken, small feathers, commonly called +pin feathers, are apt to remain in the skin after plucking. These may be +pulled out by pinching each with the point of a knife pressed against +the thumb and then giving a quick jerk.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 3]</p> + +<p><b>33.</b> Whether live poultry is dressed by a local butcher or in the home, +the length of time it should be kept after killing demands attention. +Such poultry should either be cooked before rigor mortis, or the +stiffening of the muscles, has had time to begin, or be allowed to +remain in a cool place long enough for this to pass off and the muscles +to become tender again. Naturally, if this softening, or ripening, +process, as it is sometimes called, goes on too long, decomposition will +set in, with the usual harmful effects if the meat is used as food.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 4]</p> + +<p><b>34. SINGEING A CHICKEN.</b>--On all chickens except very young ones, whether +they are home dressed or not, hairs will be found on the skin; and, as +has been mentioned, the older the bird the more hair will it have. The +next step in preparing a chicken for cooking, therefore, is to singe it, +or burn off these hairs. However, before singeing, provided the head has +not been removed, cut it off just where the neck begins, using a kitchen +cleaver or a butcher knife, as in Fig. 3. To singe a dressed chicken, +grasp it by the head or the neck and the feet and then revolve it over a +gas flame, as shown in Fig. 4, or a burning piece of paper for a few +seconds or just long enough to burn off the hairs without scorching the +skin. After singeing, wash the skin thoroughly with a cloth and warm +water, as shown in Fig. 5. Then it will be ready for drawing and +cutting up.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 5]</p> + +<p><b>35. DRAWING A CHICKEN.</b>--By drawing a chicken is meant the taking out of +the entrails and removing all parts that are not edible. Although this +work will be done by some butchers, the better plan is to do it at home, +for, as has been stated, chicken or any other poultry must be cooked +very soon after the entrails are removed. Chicken that is to be roasted +is always prepared in this way, as the cavity that remains may be filled +with stuffing. Drawing is also necessary when chicken is to be cooked in +any other way, as by stewing or frying, but in addition it must be cut +up. The procedure in drawing a chicken is simple, but some practice is +required before deftness will result.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 6]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 7]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 8]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 9]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 10]</p> + +<p><b>36.</b> In order to draw a chicken, carefully cut a lengthwise slit through +the skin on the neck, and slip the fingers down around the <i>crop</i>, which +is a small sack that holds the food eaten by the chicken. Then pull +the crop out, and with it the windpipe, as in Fig. 6, taking pains not +to tear the skin nor to break the crop.</p> + +<p>Next, remove the tendons, or thick white cords, from the legs, so as to +improve the meat. These may be easily removed, especially from a chicken +that is freshly killed; that is, one in which the flesh is still moist. +Simply cut through the skin, just above the foot, as in Fig. 7, being +careful not to cut the tendons that lie just beneath the skin; then slip +a skewer or some other small, dull implement, as a fork, under the +tendons, pull down toward the foot until they loosen at the second +joint, and pull them out. This operation is clearly shown in Fig. 8. +With the tendons removed, the feet may be cut off. To do this, cut +through the skin where the two bones join, as shown in Fig. 9. As the +joint separates, cut through the remaining tendons and skin on the back +of the legs.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 11]</p> + +<p><b>37.</b> Proceed, next, to cut a crosswise slit through the skin between the +legs at a point above the vent, as in Fig. 10, so that the entrails may +be removed. This slit should be just large enough to admit the hand and +no larger. Insert the fingers of one hand in this slit and gently move +them around the mass of the internal organs, keeping them close to the +framework of the bird. This will loosen the entrails at the points where +they are attached to the body. Then, inserting the hand, slip the +fingers around the mass at the top, near the neck, and with one pull +remove the entire internal contents, as Fig. 11 shows. The lungs, or +lights, as they are sometimes called, do not come out with this mass. +They will be found covered with a membrane and tightly fastened inside +the breast bone, and must be removed by pulling them out with the tips +of the fingers. After the entrails are removed, pour clean cold water +into the cavity, rinse it well several times, and pour the water out.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 12]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 13]</p> + +<p><b>38.</b> Among the contents drawn from the chicken will be found the heart, +the liver, and the gizzard. These are called the <i>giblets</i>. They are the +only edible internal organs, and must be separated from the rest. To do +this, squeeze the blood from the heart, and then cut the large vessels +off close to the top of it. Then cut the liver away. In handling this +part of the giblets extreme care must be taken, for tightly attached to +it, as Fig. 12 shows, is the <i>gall bladder</i>, which is a tiny sack filled +with green fluid, called bile. If this sack breaks, anything that its +contents touches will become very bitter and therefore unfit to eat. The +gall bag should be cut out of the liver above the place where it is +attached, so as to be certain that it does not break nor lose any of the +bile. Next, remove the gizzard, which consists of a fleshy part +surrounding a sack containing partly digested food eaten by the +chicken. First trim off any surplus fat, and carefully cut through the +fleshy part just to the surface of the inside sack. Then pull the +outside fleshy part away from the sack without breaking it, as in Fig. +13, an operation that can be done if the work is performed carefully. +After removing the giblets and preparing them as explained, wash them +well, so that they may be used with the rest of the chicken. As a final +step, cut out the <i>oil sack</i>, which lies just above the tail, proceeding +in the manner illustrated in Fig. 14.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 14]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 15]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 16]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 17]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 18]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 19]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 20]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 21]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 22]</p> + +<p><b>39. CUTTING UP A CHICKEN.</b>--When chicken that has been drawn is to be +fried, stewed, fricasseed, or cooked in some similar way, it must be cut +into suitable pieces. In order to do this properly, it is necessary to +learn to locate the joints and to be able to cut squarely between the +two bones where they are attached to each other. To sever the legs from +the body of the chicken, first cut through the skin underneath each leg +where it is attached to the body, as in Fig. 15, bend the leg back far +enough to break the joint, and then cut through it, severing the entire +leg in one piece. When the legs are cut off, cut each one apart at the +joint between the thigh and the lower part, as in Fig. 16, making two +pieces. To sever the wings from the body, cut through the skin where the +wing is attached, as in Fig. 17, and bend it back until the joint +breaks. Then cut it off where the ends of the bones are attached to the +joint. When both legs and both wings are removed, proceed to cut the +body apart. As shown in Fig. 18, place the chicken, neck down, on a +table, and cut down through the ribs parallel with the breast and the +back, until the knife strikes a hard bone that it cannot cut. Then +firmly grasp the breast with one hand and the back with the other and +break the joints that attach these parts by pulling the back and the +breast away from each other, as in Fig. 19. Cut through the joints, as +in Fig. 20, so that the back, ribs, and neck will be in one piece and +the breast in another. [Illustration: Fig. 23] If desired, the breast +may be divided into two pieces by cutting it in the manner shown in Fig. +21; also, as the back will break at the end of the ribs, it may be cut +into two pieces there. Finally, cut the neck from the top piece of the +back, as in Fig. 22.</p> + +<p>The pieces of chicken thus procured may be rinsed clean with cold +water, but they should never be allowed to stand in water, because this +will draw out some of the extractives, or flavoring material, soluble +albumin, and mineral salts.</p> + +<p><b>40. PREPARING CHICKEN FEET.</b>--Many persons consider that chicken feet are +not worth while for food. This, however, is a mistaken idea, for they +will add to the flavor of soup stock or they may be cooked with the +giblets to make stock for gravy. Chicken feet do not contain much meat, +but what little there is has an excellent flavor and should be removed +for use when creamed chicken or any dish made with left-over chicken is +to be cooked.</p> + +<p>To prepare chicken feet for use as food, scrub the feet well and pour +boiling water over them. After a minute or two, remove them from the +water and rub them with a clean cloth to peel off the scaly skin, as +shown in Fig. 23. Finally remove the nails by bending them back.</p> + +<p><b>41. UTILIZING THE WING TIPS.</b>--The last joint, or tip, of chicken wings +has no value as food, but, like the feet, it will help to add flavor to +any stock that is made. This small piece of wing may be removed and then +cooked with the feet and giblets.</p> +<br> + +<a name="PREPARATION_OF_POULTRY_OTHER_THAN_CHICKEN"></a><h3>PREPARATION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN</h3> + +<p><b>42. PREPARATION OF TURKEY.</b>--The preparation of a plucked turkey for +cooking is almost identically the same as that of a plucked chicken. +Begin the preparation by singeing it; that is, hold it over a flame and +turn it so that all the hairs on the skin will be burned off. Then look +the skin over carefully, remove any pin feathers that may not have been +removed in plucking, and wash it thoroughly. Next, cut off the head, +leaving as much of the neck as possible. Draw the tendons from the legs +as in preparing chicken; the ease with which this can be done will +depend greatly on the length of time the turkey has been killed. Then +cut off the legs at the first joint above the foot.</p> + +<p>Having prepared the external part of the turkey, proceed to draw it. +First, remove the crop by cutting a slit lengthwise in the neck over the +crop, catching it with the fingers, and pulling it out. Next, cut a slit +between the legs, below the breast bone, and draw out the internal +organs. Clean and retain the giblets. Remove the lungs, wash out the +cavity in the turkey, and cut off the oil bag on the back, just +above the tail.</p> + +<p>Turkey prepared in this way is ready to stuff and roast. It is never cut +into pieces in the ordinary household until it has been cooked and is +ready to serve. Directions for carving are therefore given later.</p> + +<p><b>43. PREPARATION OF DUCK AND GOOSE.</b>--The preparation of duck and goose +for cooking does not differ materially from that of turkey or chicken. +Like turkey, duck or goose is generally roasted and not cut up until it +is ready to serve. It will be well to note that young ducks are covered +with small feathers, or down, which is very difficult to remove. +However, the down may be removed by pulling it out with a small knife +pressed against the thumb. When the down is removed, proceed with the +preparation. Singe, wash, remove the head and feet, draw, wash the +inside of the bird, and remove the oil sack. Goose may be prepared for +cooking in the same way.</p> + +<p><b>44. PREPARATION OF SMALL BIRDS.</b>--Squabs, partridge, pheasant, and other +small birds are usually cooked by broiling. To prepare such a bird for +cooking, singe, remove any small feathers that may remain, wash, remove +the head and feet, and draw, following the directions given for drawing +chicken. When it is thus cleaned, lay the bird open. To do this, begin +at the neck and cut down the back along the spine. If desired, however, +the bird may be cut down the back before drawing and the entrails +removed through the cut down the back. Finally, wash the inside and wipe +it dry, when the bird will be ready for broiling.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="COOKING_OF_POULTRY"></a><h3>COOKING OF POULTRY</h3> + +<b>COOKERY METHODS</b><br><br> + +<p><b>45.</b> With poultry, as in the case of meats of any kind, it is the +composition that determines the method of cookery; and, as the structure +and composition of the tissue of poultry do not differ materially from +those of meats, the application of the various cooking methods is +practically the same. Young and tender birds that have comparatively +little flesh, such as young chickens, squabs, and guinea fowl, are +usually prepared by such rapid methods as frying and broiling. +Medium-sized poultry, including chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, +and geese, require more cooking, and this, of course, must be done at a +lower temperature; therefore, such poultry is generally roasted. Old +poultry, particularly old chicken, or fowl, which is apt to be tough, +requires still more cooking, and for this reason is stewed, braized, or +fricasseed. The recipes for the cooking of various kinds of poultry here +given will serve to make clear the cookery method to employ, as well as +how to carry it out to advantage.</p> +<br> + +<b>PREPARATION BY BROILING</b><br><br> + +<p><b>46.</b> The method of broiling in the case of poultry of all kinds does not +differ in any way from the same method applied to cuts of meat. Since +broiling is a rapid method of cookery and heat is applied at a high +temperature, it is necessary that the poultry chosen for broiling be +young and tender and have a comparatively small amount of meat on +the bones.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 24]</p> + +<p>Broiled poultry is not an economical dish, neither is it one in which +the greatest possible amount of flavor is obtained, since, as in the +case of the meat of animals used for food, the flavor develops with the +age of the birds. However, broiled poultry has value in the diet of +invalids and persons with poor appetite and digestion, for if it is +properly done it is appetizing and easily digested.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 25]</p> + +<p><b>47. BROILED POULTRY.</b>--Poultry that is to be broiled must first be +dressed, drawn, and cleaned. Then, as has been mentioned for the +preparation of small birds, lay the bird open by cutting down along the +spine, beginning at the neck, as shown in Fig. 24. This will permit the +bird to be spread apart, as in Fig. 25. When it is thus made ready, +washed, and wiped dry, heat the broiler and grease it. Then place the +bird on the broiler in the manner shown in Fig. 26 and expose it to +severe heat. Sear quickly on one side, and turn and sear on the other +side. Then reduce the heat to a lower temperature and broil more slowly, +turning often. To prevent burning, the parts that stand up close to the +flame may be covered with strips of bacon fastened on with skewers; +also, to get the best results, the side of the bird on which the flesh +is thick should be exposed to the heat for a greater length of time than +the other side. If there is any danger of the high places burning in the +broiler, the bird may be removed and the cooking continued in a hot +oven. Broiled poultry should be well done when served. This means, then, +particularly in the case of chickens, that the broiling process should +be carried on for about 20 minutes. When the bird is properly cooked, +remove it from the broiler, place it on a hot platter, dot it with +butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, garnish, and serve.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 26]</p> +<br> + +<b>PREPARATION BY FRYING</b><br><br> + +<p><b>48.</b> As has been mentioned, birds slightly older and larger than those +used for broiling should be fried, because frying is a slower method and +gives the flesh a more thorough cooking. However, most of the dishes +commonly known as fried poultry are not fried, but sautéd in shallow +fat. The same principles employed in sautéing any food are applied in +the cooking of poultry by this method; that is, the surface is seared as +quickly as possible and the cooking is finished at a lower temperature. +Often in this cooking process, the pieces to be sautéd are dipped into +batter or rolled in flour to assist in keeping the juices in the meat.</p> + +<p><b>49. FRIED CHICKEN.--To many persons, fried chicken</b>--or, rather, sautéd +chicken, as it should be called--is very appetizing. Chicken may be +fried whole, but usually it is cut up, and when this is done it serves +to better advantage. Likewise, the method of preparation is one that +adds flavor to young chicken, which would be somewhat flavorless if +prepared in almost any other way.</p> + +<p>Frying is not a difficult cookery process. To prepare chickens, which +should be young ones, for this method of preparation, draw, clean, and +cut them up in the manner previously explained. When they are ready, +wash the pieces and roll them in a pan of flour, covering the entire +surface of each piece. Then, in a frying pan, melt fat, which may be +chicken fat, bacon fat, part butter, lard, or any other frying fat that +will give an agreeable flavor. When the fat is thoroughly hot, place in +it the pieces of floured chicken and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. +As soon as the pieces have browned on one side, turn them over and brown +on the other side. Then reduce the heat, cover the frying pan with a +tight-fitting lid, and continue to fry more slowly. If, after 25 or 30 +minutes, the meat can be easily pierced with a fork, it is ready to +serve; if this cannot be done, add a small quantity of hot water, +replace the cover, and simmer until the meat can be pierced readily. To +serve fried chicken, place the pieces on a platter and garnish the dish +with parsley so as to add to its appearance.</p> + +<p><b>50. GRAVY FOR FRIED CHICKEN.</b>--If desired, brown gravy may be made and +served with fried chicken. After the chicken has been removed from the +frying pan, provided an excessive amount of fat remains, pour off some +of it. Sprinkle the fat that remains with dry flour, 1 tablespoonful to +each cupful of liquid that is to be used, which may be milk, cream, +water, or any mixture of the three. Stir the flour into the hot fat. +Heat the liquid and add this hot liquid to the fat and flour in the +frying pan. Stir rapidly so that no lumps will form, and, if necessary, +season with more salt and pepper to suit the taste.</p> + +<p>Gravy may also be made in this manner: Stir cold liquid slowly into the +flour in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful of flour to 1 cupful of +liquid, which may be milk, cream, water, or any mixture of the three. +Add the cold liquid and flour to the frying pan containing a small +amount of fat in which the chicken was fried. Stir rapidly until the +gravy has thickened and there are no lumps.</p> + +<p>Very often the giblets, that is, the liver, heart, and gizzard of +chicken, are used in making gravy. For example, the giblets may be +cooked in water until they are tender and then sautéd in butter to +serve, and when this is done the water in which they were cooked may be +used for making gravy. Again, if it is not desired to eat them in this +way, they may be chopped fine and added to gravy made from the fat that +remains from frying.</p> + +<p><b>51. MARYLAND FRIED CHICKEN.</b>--Maryland fried chicken is a popular dish +with many persons. As a rule, corn fritters are used as a garnish and +Served with the chicken, and strips of crisp bacon are placed over the +top of it. Often, too, potato croquettes are served on the same platter, +a combination that makes almost an entire meal.</p> + +<p>To prepare Maryland fried chicken, draw, clean, and cut up young +chickens. Then wash the pieces and dry them with a soft cloth. Sprinkle +the pieces with salt and pepper, and dip each into fine cracker crumbs +or corn meal, then into beaten egg, and again into the crumbs or the +corn meal. Next, melt in a frying pan chicken or bacon fat, part butter, +lard, or any other fat for frying. When it is hot, place the pieces of +chicken in it. Fry them until they are brown on one side; then turn and +brown them on the other side. Lower the temperature and continue to fry +slowly until the meat may be easily pierced with a fork. When the +chicken is done, pour 2 cupfuls of white sauce on a hot platter and +place the chicken in it. Then garnish and serve.</p> + +<p><b>52. FRIED CHICKEN WITH PAPRIKA SAUCE.</b>--Chickens that are a trifle older +than those used for plain fried chicken may be prepared to make what is +known as fried chicken with paprika sauce. If in preparing this dish the +chicken does not appear to be tender after frying, it may be made so by +simmering it in the sauce.</p> + +<p>To prepare this chicken dish, which is tempting to many, draw, clean, +and cut up a chicken as for frying. Then melt fat in a frying pan, place +the pieces in the hot fat, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and brown +on both sides quickly. When both sides are brown, continue to fry the +pieces until they are tender. Then sprinkle all with 2 level +tablespoonfuls of flour, add 2 cupfuls of milk or thin cream, and allow +this to thicken. Then sprinkle with paprika until the sauce is pink. Let +the chicken simmer slowly until the sauce penetrates the meat a little. +Serve on a platter with a garnish.</p> +<br> + +<b>PREPARATION BY ROASTING</b><br><br> + +<p><b>53.</b> Roasting is the cookery process that is commonly employed for +preparing chickens that are of good size, as well as turkeys, ducks, and +geese. It is also followed at times for cooking guinea fowl, partridges, +pheasants, and similar small birds. As a rule, birds prepared in this +way are filled with stuffing, which may be made in so many ways that +roasted stuffed poultry makes a delightful change in the regular +routine of meals.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 27]</p> + +<p><b>54. ROAST CHICKEN.</b>--Roasting is the best method to employ for the +preparation of old chicken unless, of course, it is extremely old and +tough. Then stewing is about the only method that is satisfactory. +Chicken for roasting should weigh no less than 3 pounds. Chicken +prepared according to the following directions makes a dish that is very +appetizing.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 28]</p> + +<p>To prepare chicken for roasting, clean and draw it in the manner +previously given. When it is made clean, rub salt and pepper on the +inside of the cavity, and stuff the cavity of the chicken, as shown in +Fig. 27, with any desirable stuffing. Directions for preparing stuffing +are given later. Also, fill with stuffing the space from which the crop +was removed, inserting it through the slit in the neck. Thread a large +darning needle with white cord and sew up the slit in the neck, as well +as the one between the legs, as in Fig. 28, so that the stuffing will +not fall out. Also, force the neck inside of the skin, and tie the skin +with a piece of string, as in Fig. 29. Then, as Fig. 29 also shows, +truss the chicken by forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing +joint, making a triangle; also, tie the ends of the legs together and +pull them down, tying them fast to the tail, as in Fig. 30. Trussing in +this manner will give the chicken a much better appearance for serving +than if it were not so fastened; but, of course, before it is placed on +the table, the strings must be cut and removed. After stuffing and +trussing, put the chicken on its back in a roasting pan, sprinkle it +with flour, and place it in a very hot oven. Sear the skin quickly. Then +reduce the temperature slightly and pour a cupful of water into the +roasting pan. Baste the chicken every 10 or 15 minutes with this water, +until it is well browned and the breast and legs may be easily pierced +with a fork. Remove to a platter and serve. If gravy is desired, it may +be made in the roasting pan in the same way as for fried chicken. The +giblets may be cut into pieces and added or they may be left out and +served after first cooking and then browning them.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 29]</p> + +<p><b>55. ROAST TURKEY.</b>--In America, roast turkey is usually considered as a +holiday dish, being served most frequently in the homes on Thanksgiving +day. However, at times when the price is moderate, it is not an +extravagance to serve roast turkey for other occasions. Roasting is +practically the only way in which turkey is prepared in the usual +household, and it is by far the best method of preparation. +Occasionally, however, a very tough turkey is steamed before roasting in +order to make it sufficiently tender.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 30]</p> + +<p>The preparation of roast turkey does not differ materially from the +method given for the preparation of roast chicken. After the turkey is +cleaned, drawn, and prepared according to the directions previously +given, rub the inside of the cavity with salt and pepper. Then stuff +with any desirable stuffing, filling the cavity and also the space under +the skin of the neck where the crop was removed. Then sew up the +opening, draw the skin over the neck and tie it, and truss the turkey by +forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing joint in a +triangular shape and tying both ends of the legs to the tail. When thus +made ready, place the turkey in the roasting pan so that the back rests +on the pan and the legs are on top. Then dredge with flour, sprinkle +with salt and pepper, and place in a hot oven. When its surface is well +browned, reduce the heat and baste every 15 minutes until the turkey is +cooked. This will usually require about 3 hours, depending, of course, +on the size of the bird. For basting, melt 4 tablespoonfuls of butter or +bacon fat in 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Pour this into the roasting +pan. Add water when this evaporates, and keep a sufficient amount for +basting. Turn the turkey several times during the roasting, so that the +sides and back, as well as the breast, will be browned. When the turkey +can be easily pierced with a fork, remove it from the roasting pan, cut +the strings and pull them out, place on a platter, garnish, and serve. +Gravy to be served with roast turkey may be made in the manner +mentioned for making gravy to be served with fried chicken.</p> + +<p><b>56. ROAST DUCK.</b>--While young duck is often broiled, the usual method of +preparing this kind of poultry is by roasting; in fact, roasting is an +excellent way in which to cook duck that is between the broiling age and +full maturity.</p> + +<p><b>57.</b> Duck is roasted in practically the same way as chicken or turkey. In +the case of a <i>young duck</i>, or <i>spring duck</i>, however, stuffing is not +used. After it is drawn and cleaned, truss it by folding back the wings +and tying the ends of the legs to the tail, so as to give it a good +appearance when served. Season with salt and pepper and dredge with +flour, and, over the breast, to prevent it from burning, place strips of +bacon or salt pork. When thus made ready, put the duck in a roasting +pan, pour in 1/2 cupful of water, and cook it in a hot oven until it is +very tender, basting it about every 15 minutes during the roasting. +About 15 minutes before the roasting is done, remove the strips of bacon +or pork, so as to permit the breast underneath them to brown. Serve on a +platter with a garnish. Make gravy if desired.</p> + +<p><b>58.</b> In the case of an <i>old duck</i>, proceed as for roasting chicken or +turkey; that is, draw, clean, stuff, and truss it. In addition, place +strips of bacon or salt pork over its breast. Place it in a roasting +pan, pour 1/2 cupful of water into the pan, and put it in a hot oven. +During the roasting baste the duck every 15 minutes; also, as in +roasting a young duck, remove the bacon or salt pork in plenty of time +to permit the part underneath to brown. When the surface is well browned +and the meat may be easily pierced with a fork, place the duck on a +platter, remove the strings used to sew it up, garnish, and serve. Make +gravy if desired.</p> + +<p><b>59. ROAST GOOSE.</b>--Specific directions for roasting goose are not given, +because the methods differ in no way from those already given for +roasting duck. Very young goose, or green goose, is usually roasted +without being stuffed, just as young duck. Older goose, however, is +stuffed, trussed, and roasted just as old duck. A very old goose may be +placed in a roasting pan and steamed until it is partly tender before +roasting. Apples in some form or other are commonly served with goose. +For example, rings of fried apple may be used as a garnish, or apple +sauce or stewed or baked apples may be served as an accompaniment. Make +gravy if desired.</p> + +<p><b>60. ROAST SMALL BIRDS.</b>--Such small birds as guinea fowl, partridge, +pheasant, quail, etc. may be roasted if desired, but on account of being +so small they are seldom filled with stuffing. To roast such poultry, +first clean, draw, and truss them. Then lard them with strips of bacon +or salt pork, and place in a roasting pan in a very hot oven. During the +roasting, turn them so as to brown all sides; also, baste every 15 +minutes during the roasting with the water that has been poured into the +roasting pan. Continue the roasting until the flesh is very soft and the +joints can be easily pulled apart. Serve with a garnish. Make gravy +if desired.</p><br> + +<h3><a name="STUFFING_FOR_ROAST_POULTRY"></a>STUFFING FOR ROAST POULTRY</h3> + +<p><b>61. STUFFING FOR ROAST POULTRY.</b>--As has been mentioned, stuffing, or +dressing, of some kind is generally used when poultry is roasted. +Therefore, so that the housewife may be prepared to vary the stuffing +she uses from time to time, recipes for several kinds are here given. +Very often, instead of using the giblets for gravy, they are cooked in +water and then chopped and added to the stuffing. Giblets are not +included in the recipes here given, but they may be added if desired. +The quantities stated in these recipes are usually sufficient for a bird +of average size; however, for a smaller or a larger bird the ingredients +may be decreased or increased accordingly.</p> + +<b>BREAD STUFFING</b> + +<ul> +<li>4 c. dry bread crumbs</li> +<li>1/2 c. butter</li> +<li>1 small onion</li> +<li>1 beaten egg</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1 tsp. celery salt, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. powdered sage (if desired)</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Pour a sufficient amount of hot water over the bread crumbs to moisten +them well. Melt the butter and allow it to brown slightly. Add the +onion, chopped fine, to the butter and pour this over the bread crumbs. +Add the beaten egg, salt, celery salt, and other seasonings, mix +thoroughly, and stuff into the bird.</p> + +<b>CRACKER STUFFING</b><br> +<br> +3 c. cracker crumbs<br> +1 small onion (if desired)<br> +1/3 c. butter<br> +1/2 tsp. salt<br> +1/4 tsp. powdered sage (if desired)<br> +1/4 tsp. pepper<br> + +<p>Moisten the cracker crumbs with hot milk or water until they are quite +soft. Brown the chopped onion with the butter and pour over the +crackers. Add the seasonings, mix thoroughly, and stuff into the bird.</p> + +<b>OYSTER STUFFING</b> + +<ul> +<li>3 c. dry bread crumbs</li> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 c. oysters</li> +<li>1 c. chopped celery</li> +</ul> + +<p>Moisten the bread crumbs with a sufficient amount of hot water to make +them quite soft. Brown the butter slightly and add it, with the +seasonings, to the bread. Mix with this the oysters and chopped celery. +Stuff into the bird.</p> + +<b>CHESTNUT STUFFING</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. blanched chestnuts</li> +<li>1 pt. bread crumbs</li> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +</ul> + +<p>Blanch the chestnuts in boiling water to remove the dark skin that +covers them. Cook them until they are quite soft, and then chop them or +mash them. Moisten the bread crumbs with hot water and add the +chestnuts. Brown the butter slightly and pour it over the mixture. Add +the seasonings and chopped parsley and stuff.</p> + +<b>GREEN-PEPPER STUFFING</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 qt. dried bread crumbs</li> +<li>1 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1/4 c. melted butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. bacon fat</li> +<li>1 small onion, chopped</li> +<li>1/4 c. finely chopped green pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Moisten the bread crumbs with the stewed tomatoes and add a sufficient +amount of hot water to make the crumbs quite soft. Melt the butter and +bacon fat, add the onion, green pepper, and the seasonings, and pour +over the crumbs. Mix thoroughly and stuff.</p> + +<b>RICE STUFFING</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 c. steamed rice</li> +<li>2 c. bread crumbs</li> +<li>1 c. stewed tomatoes</li> +<li>1/4 c. chopped pimiento</li> +<li>2 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 small onion, chopped</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>4 small strips bacon, diced and fried brown</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the steamed rice with the bread crumbs. Add the stewed tomatoes, +pimiento, chopped parsley, chopped onion, salt, pepper, melted butter, +bacon and bacon fat, and a sufficient amount of hot water to moisten the +whole well. Mix thoroughly and stuff.</p> + +<b>PEANUT STUFFING FOR ROAST DUCK</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. cracker crumbs</li> +<li>1 c. shelled peanuts, finely chopped</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Dash of Cayenne pepper</li> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>Hot milk</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the crumbs and the chopped peanuts. Add the salt, pepper, and +Cayenne pepper, and pour over them the melted butter and a sufficient +amount of hot milk to soften the whole. Stuff into the duck.</p> + +<b>LIVER STUFFING FOR ROAST DUCK</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 duck liver</li> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>1 small onion, chopped</li> +<li>2 c. dry bread crumbs</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +</ul> + +<p>Chop the liver and sauté in the butter to which has been added the +chopped onion. Pour over the bread crumbs. Then add the salt, pepper, +finely chopped parsley, and the beaten egg. Pour over all a sufficient +amount of water to moisten well. Stuff into the duck.</p> +<br> + +<a name="BONED_CHICKEN"></a><h3>BONED CHICKEN</h3> + +<p><b>62.</b> To offer variety in the serving of chicken, as well as to present an +easily carved bird, the process known as <i>boning</i> is often resorted to. +Boning, as will be readily understood, consists in removing the flesh +from the bones before the bird is cooked. Boned chicken may be prepared +by roasting or broiling. In either case, the cookery process is the same +as that already given for poultry that is not boned. If it is to be +roasted, the cavity that results from the removal of the bones and +internal organs should be filled with stuffing or forcemeat, so that the +bird will appear as if nothing had been removed. If it is to be broiled, +stuffing is not necessary. Cooked boned chicken may be served either hot +or cold. Of course, other kinds of poultry may be boned if desired, and +if the directions here given for boning chicken are thoroughly learned +no difficulty will be encountered in performing this operation on any +kind. Boning is not a wasteful process as might be supposed, because +after the flesh is removed from the bones, they may be used in the +making of soup.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 31]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 32]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 33]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 34]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 35]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 36]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 37]</p> + +<p><b>63.</b> Before proceeding to bone a chicken, singe it, pull out the pin +feathers, cut off the head, remove the tendons from the legs, and +take out the crop through the neck. The bird may be drawn or not before +boning it, but in any event care must be taken not to break any part of +the skin. With these matters attended to, wash the skin well and wipe it +carefully. First, cut off the legs at the first joint, and, with the +point of a sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 31, loosen the skin and muscles +just above the joint by cutting around the bone. Cut the neck off close +to the body, as in Fig. 32. Then, starting at the neck, cut the skin +clear down the back to the tail, as in Fig. 33. [Illustration: FIG. 38] +Begin on one side, and scrape the flesh, with the skin attached to it, +from the back bone, as in Fig. 34. When the shoulder blade is reached, +push the flesh from it with the fingers, as in Fig. 35, until the wing +joint is reached. Disjoint the wing where it is attached to the body, as +in Fig. 36, and loosen the skin from the wing bone down to the second +joint. Disjoint the bone here and remove it up to this place, as Fig. 37 +illustrates. The remaining bone is left in the tip of the wing to give +it shape. When the bone from one wing is removed, turn the chicken +around and remove the bone from the other wing. Next, start at the back, +separating the flesh from the ribs, as in Fig. 38, taking care not to +penetrate into the side cavity of the chicken, provided it has not +[Illustration: FIG. 39] been drawn. Push the flesh down to the thigh, as +in Fig. 39, disjoint the bone here, and remove it down to the second +joint, as in Fig. 40. Disjoint the bone at the other joint, and +remove the skin and meat from the bone by turning them inside out, as in +Fig. 41. If the bone has been properly loosened at the first joint of +the leg, there will be no trouble in slipping it out. When this is done, +turn the meat and skin back again, so that they will be right side out. +Then proceed in the same way with the other leg. Next, free the flesh +from the collar bone down to the breast bone on both sides, proceeding +as in Fig. 42. When the ridge of the breast bone is reached, care must +be taken not to break the skin that lies very close to the bone. The +fingers should be used to separate the flesh at this place. When the +sides and front have been thus taken care of, free the skin and the +flesh from the bones over the rump. After this is done, the skeleton and +internal organs of the undrawn bird may be removed, leaving the flesh +intact. The skeleton of a chicken will appear as in Fig. 43.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 40]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 41]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: Fig. 42]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 43]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 44]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 45]</p> + +<p>If the boned chicken is to be roasted, the entire chicken, including the +spaces from which the wing and leg bones were removed, may be filled +with highly seasoned stuffing. When this is done, shape the chicken as +much as possible to resemble its original shape and sew up the back. The +chicken will then be ready to roast. If the boned chicken is to be +broiled, shape it on the broiler as shown in Fig. 44 and broil. When +broiled, boned chicken should appear as in Fig. 45.</p> +<br> + +<b>PREPARATION BY STEWING AND OTHER COOKING METHODS</b><br><br> + +<p><b>64. CHICKEN STEW WITH DUMPLINGS OR NOODLES.</b>--Perhaps the most common way +of preparing chicken is to stew it. When chicken is so cooked, such an +addition as dumplings or noodles is generally made because of the +excellent food combination that results. For stewing, an old chicken +with a great deal of flavor should be used in preference to a young one, +which will have less flavor.</p> + +<p>In order to prepare chicken by stewing, clean, draw, and cut up the bird +according to directions previously given. Place the pieces in a large +kettle and cover them well with boiling water. Bring all quickly to the +boiling point and add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Then remove the scum, +lower the temperature, and continue to cook at the simmering point. Keep +the pieces well covered with water; also, keep the stew pot covered +during the cooking. When the chicken has become tender enough to permit +the pieces to be easily pierced with a fork, remove them to a deep +platter or a vegetable dish. Dumplings or noodles may be cooked in the +chicken broth, as the water in which the chicken was stewed is called, +or they may be boiled or steamed separately. If they are cooked +separately, thicken the broth with flour and serve it over the chicken +with the noodles or dumplings.</p> + +<p><b>65. FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN.</b>--For chicken that is tough, fricasseeing is an +excellent cooking method to employ. Indeed, since it is a long method of +cookery, a rather old, comparatively tough fowl lends itself best to +fricasseeing. Fricassee of chicken also is a dish that requires a great +deal of flavor to be drawn from the meat, and this, of course, cannot be +done if a young chicken is used.</p> + +<p>To prepare fricassee of chicken, clean and cut the bird into pieces +according to the directions previously given. Put these into a saucepan, +cover with boiling water, add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, bring to the +boiling point quickly, skim, and reduce the temperature so that the meat +will simmer slowly until it is tender. Next, remove the pieces of +chicken from the water in which they were cooked, roll them in flour, +and sauté them in butter or chicken fat until they are nicely browned. +If more than 2 or 2 1/2 cupfuls of broth remains, boil it until the +quantity is reduced to this amount. Then moisten 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls +of flour with a little cold water, add this to the stock, and cook until +it thickens. If desired, the broth may be reduced more and thin cream +may be added to make up the necessary quantity. Arrange the pieces of +chicken on a deep platter, pour the sauce over them, season with salt +and pepper if necessary, and serve. To enhance the appearance of this +dish, the platter may be garnished with small three-cornered pieces of +toast, tiny carrots, or carrots and green peas.</p> + +<p><b>66. CHICKEN PIE.</b>--A good change from the usual ways of serving chicken +may be brought about by means of chicken pie. Such a dish is simple to +prepare, and for it may be used young or old chicken.</p> + +<p>To prepare chicken pie, dress, clean, and cut up a chicken in the usual +manner. Put it into a saucepan, add a small onion and a sprig of +parsley, cover with boiling water, and cook slowly until the meat is +tender. When the meat is cooked, add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and 1/4 +teaspoonful of pepper, and when it is perfectly tender remove it from +the stock. Thicken the stock with 1 tablespoonful of flour to each +cupful of liquid. Next, arrange the chicken in a baking dish. It may be +left on the bones or cut into large pieces and the bones removed. To it +add small carrots and onions that have been previously cooked until +tender and pour the thickened stock over all. Cover this with +baking-powder biscuit dough made according to the directions given in +<i>Hot Breads</i> and rolled 1/4 inch thick. Make some holes through the +dough with the point of a sharp knife to let the steam escape, and bake +in a moderate oven until the dough is well risen and a brown crust is +formed. Then remove from the oven and serve.</p> + +<p><b>67. CHICKEN CURRY.</b>--Chicken combined with rice is usually an agreeable +food combination, but when flavored with curry powder, as in the recipe +here given, it is a highly flavored dish that appeals to the taste of +many persons.</p> + +<b>CHICKEN CURRY</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 3 lb. chicken</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 onions</li> +<li>1 Tb. curry powder</li> +<li>2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>2 c. steamed rice</li> +</ul> + +<p>Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken as for stewing. Put the butter in a +hot frying pan, add the onions, sliced thin, then the pieces of chicken, +and cook for 10 minutes. Parboil the liver, gizzard, and heart, cut them +into pieces and add them to the chicken in the frying pan. Sprinkle the +curry powder and the salt over the whole. Add boiling water or the stock +in which the giblets were cooked, and simmer until the chicken is +tender. Remove the meat from the frying pan and place it on a deep +platter. Surround it with a border of steamed rice. Thicken the stock in +the frying pan slightly with flour and pour the gravy over the chicken. +Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>68. CHICKEN EN CASSEROLE.</b>--Food prepared in casseroles always seems to +meet with the approval of even the most discriminating persons; and +chicken prepared in this way with vegetables is no exception to the +rule. For such a dish should be selected a chicken of medium size that +is neither very old nor very young. Any flavor that the bird contains is +retained, so a strong flavor is not desirable.</p> + +<p>In preparing chicken en casserole, first clean, dress, and cut it up in +the manner directed for stewed chicken. Place the pieces in a casserole +dish, together with 1 cupful of small carrots or larger carrots cut into +strips. Fry a finely chopped onion with several strips of bacon, and +cut these more finely while frying until the whole is well browned. Then +add them to the meat in the casserole dish. Also, add 1 cupful of potato +balls or 1 cupful of diced potatoes. Season well with salt and pepper, +add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, and over the whole pour sufficient hot +water to cover. Cover the casserole dish, place it in a moderate oven, +and cook slowly until the chicken is tender. Serve from the dish.</p> + +<p><b>69. JELLIED CHICKEN.</b>--The housewife who desires to serve an unusual +chicken dish will find that there is much in favor of jellied chicken. +Aside from its food value, jellied chicken has merit in that it appeals +to the eye, especially if the mold used in its preparation has a +pleasing shape.</p> + +<b>JELLIED CHICKEN</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 3 or 4 lb. chicken</li> +<li>2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Several slices of onion</li> +<li>1 hard-cooked egg</li> +<li>1 pimiento</li> +<li>Several sprigs of parsley</li> +</ul> + +<p>Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken. Put it into a saucepan and cover +with boiling water. Season with the salt and add the slices of onion. +Cook slowly until the meat will fall from the bones. Remove the chicken +from the saucepan, take the meat from the bones, and chop it into small +pieces. Reduce the stock to about 1 1/2 cupfuls, strain it, and skim off +the fat. With this done, place slices of the hard-cooked egg in the +bottom of a wet mold. Chop the pimiento and sprigs of parsley and mix +them with the chopped meat. Put the mixture on top of the sliced egg, +and pour the stock over the whole. Keep in a cool place until it is set. +If the stock is not reduced and more jelly is desired, unflavored +gelatine may be dissolved and added to coagulate the liquid. To serve +jellied chicken, remove from the mold, turn upside down, so that the +eggs are on top and act as a garnish, and then cut in thin slices.</p> + +<p><b>70. CHICKEN BECHAMEL.</b>--Still another chicken dish that may be used to +break the monotony of meals is chicken bechamel, the word bechamel being +the name of a sauce invented by Béchamel, who was steward to Louis XIV, +a king of France.</p> + +<b>CHICKEN BECHAMEL</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 good-sized chicken</li> +<li>2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 c. small mushrooms</li> +<li>1/4 c. chopped pimiento</li> +<li>3 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 c. thin cream</li> +</ul> + +<p>Clean, dress, and cut up the chicken. Place the pieces into a saucepan, +and cover with boiling water. Add the salt and the pepper, and allow to +come to the boiling point. Remove the scum and simmer the chicken slowly +until it is tender. Remove the chicken from the liquid, take the meat +from the bones, and cut it into small pieces. Add to these the mushrooms +and chopped pimiento. Reduce the stock to 1 cupful and thicken it with +the flour added to the thin cream. Cook until the sauce is thickened. +Then add to it the chopped chicken with the other ingredients. Heat all +thoroughly and serve on toast points or in timbale cases, the making of +which is explained in <i>Meat</i>, Part 2.</p> + +<p><b>71. COOKING OF GIBLETS.--As has been pointed out, the giblets</b>--that is, +the liver, heart, and gizzard of all kinds of fowl--are used in gravy +making and as an ingredient for stuffing. When poultry is stewed, as in +making stewed chicken, it is not uncommon to cook the giblets with the +pieces of chicken. The gizzard and heart especially require long, slow +cooking to make them tender enough to be eaten. Therefore, when poultry +is broiled, fried, or roasted, some other cookery method must be +resorted to, as these processes are too rigid for the preparation of +giblets. In such cases, the best plan is to cook them in water until +they are tender and then sauté them in butter. When cooked in this way, +they may be served with the poultry, for to many persons they are very +palatable.</p> +<br> + +<a name="DISHES_FROM_LEFT-OVER_POULTRY"></a><h3>DISHES FROM LEFT-OVER POULTRY</h3> + +<p><b>72.</b> Left-over poultry of any kind is too valuable to be wasted, but even +if this were not so there are so many practical ways in which such +left-overs may be used to advantage that it would be the height of +extravagance not to utilize them. The bones that remain from roast fowl +after carving are especially good for soup making, as they will yield +quite a quantity of flavor when they are thoroughly cooked. If +sufficient meat remains on the carcass to permit of slicing, such meat +may be served cold. However, if merely small pieces are left or if fried +or broiled poultry remains, it will be advisable to make some other use +of these left-overs. It is often possible for the ingenious housewife to +add other foods to them so as to increase the quantity and thus make +them serve more. For example, a small quantity of pork or veal may be +satisfactorily used with chicken, as may also pieces of hard-cooked +eggs, celery, mushrooms, etc. In fact, salads may be made by combining +such ingredients and salad dressings. To show the use of left-overs +still further, there are here given a number of recipes that may well +be used.</p> + +<p><b>73. Chicken Salad.</b>--A common way in which to utilize left-over chicken +is in chicken salad. Such salad may be served to advantage for luncheons +and other light meals.</p> + +<b>CHICKEN SALAD</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 c. cold diced chicken</li> +<li>1 c. chopped celery</li> +<li>1 small onion, chopped</li> +<li>Salad dressing</li> +<li>2 hard-cooked eggs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the meat with the chopped celery and onion. Marinate with +well-seasoned vinegar or a little lemon juice. French dressing may be +used for this if oil is desired. Just before serving pour off any excess +liquid. Add any desired salad dressing. Heap the salad on lettuce leaves +and garnish with slices of the hard-cooked eggs.</p> + +<p><b>74. Chicken á la King.</b>--Chicken à la king is not necessarily a left-over +dish, for it may be made from either left-over chicken or, if desired, +chicken cooked especially for it. It makes an excellent dish to prepare +in a chafing dish, but it may be conveniently prepared in a saucepan on +the fire and served in any desirable way.</p> + +<b>CHICKEN À LA KING</b> + +<ul> +<li>3 Tb. fat (butter or bacon fat or part of each)</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>3/4 c. chicken stock</li> +<li>1 c. milk or thin cream</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/2 c. mushrooms</li> +<li>1/4 c. canned pimiento</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. cold chicken</li> +<li>2 eggs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, and stir until well mixed. +Heat the stock and the milk or cream, pour this into the mixture, stir +rapidly, and bring to boiling point. Add the salt and the mushrooms, +pimientoes, and cold chicken cut into pieces 1/2 to 1 inch long, allow +the mixture to come to the boiling point again, and add the slightly +beaten eggs. Remove from the fire at once to prevent the egg from +curdling. Serve over pieces of fresh toast and sprinkle with paprika.</p> + +<p><b>75. Chicken Croquettes.</b>--Left-over chicken may be used to advantage for +croquettes made according to the following recipe. When the ingredients +listed are combined with chicken, an especially agreeable food will be +the result. If there is not sufficient cold chicken to meet the +requirements, a small quantity of cold veal or pork may be chopped with +the chicken.</p> + +<b>CHICKEN CROQUETTES</b> + +<ul> +<li>3 Tb. fat</li> +<li>1/4 c. flour</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li> +<li>1 c. chicken stock or cream</li> +<li>2 c. cold chicken, chopped</li> +<li>1/4. mushrooms, chopped</li> +<li>1 tsp. parsley, chopped</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>Fine bread crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, and stir until well blended. +Add the salt, pepper, and paprika. Heat the stock or cream and add to +the mixture in the saucepan. Stir constantly until the sauce is +completely thickened. Then add the chopped chicken, mushrooms, and +parsley. When cold, shape into oblong croquettes, roll in the egg, +slightly beaten, and then in fine crumbs. Fry in deep fat until brown. +Serve with a garnish or some vegetable, such as peas, diced carrots, or +small pieces of cauliflower, as well as with left-over chicken gravy or +well-seasoned white sauce.</p> + +<p><b>76. TURKEY HASH.</b>--Possibly the simplest way in which to utilize +left-over turkey meat is to make it up into hash. Such a dish may be +used for almost any meal, and when made according to the recipe here +given it will suit the taste of nearly every person.</p> + +<b>TURKEY HASH</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1/2 c. coarse rye-bread crumbs</li> +<li>1 small onion, sliced</li> +<li>2 c. finely chopped cold turkey</li> +<li>1/2 c. finely chopped raw potato</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 pt. milk</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan. When brown, add to it the rye-bread +crumbs and mix well. Then add the sliced onion, chopped turkey, potato, +salt, and pepper. Cook for a short time on top of the stove, stirring +frequently to prevent burning. Pour the milk over the whole, and place +the pan in the oven or on the back of the stove. Cook slowly until the +milk is reduced and the hash is sufficiently dry to serve. Serve on +buttered toast.</p> + +<p><b>77. CHICKEN WITH RICE.</b>--Left-over chicken may be readily combined with +rice to make a nutritious dish. To prepare chicken with rice, add to +left-over gravy any left-over cold chicken cut into small pieces. If +there is not enough gravy to cover the meat, add sufficient white sauce; +if no gravy remains, use white sauce entirely. Heat the chicken in the +gravy or the sauce to the boiling point. Then heap a mound of fresh +steamed or boiled rice in the center of a deep platter or a vegetable +dish and pour the chicken and sauce over it. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>78. Baked Poultry With Rice.</b>--A casserole or a baking dish serves as a +good utensil in which to prepare a left-over dish of any kind of +poultry, because it permits vegetables to be added and cooked +thoroughly. Baked poultry with rice is a dish that may be prepared in +such a utensil.</p> + +<p>Line a casserole or a baking dish with a thick layer of fresh steamed or +boiled rice. Fill the center with chopped cold poultry, which may be +chicken, turkey, duck, or goose. Add peas, chopped carrots, potato, and +a few slices of onion in any desirable proportion. Over this pour +sufficient left-over gravy or white sauce to cover well. First, steam +thoroughly; then uncover the utensil and bake slowly until the +vegetables are cooked and the entire mixture is well heated. Serve from +the casserole or baking dish.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SERVING_AND_CARVING_POULTRY"></a><h3>SERVING AND CARVING POULTRY</h3> + +<p><b>79.</b> Poultry of any kind should always be served on a platter or in a +dish that has been heated in the oven or by running hot water over it. +After placing the cooked bird on the platter or the dish from which it +is to be served, it should be taken to the dining room and placed before +the person who is to serve. If it is roasted, it will require carving. +If not, the pieces may be served as they are desired by the individuals +at the table. Poultry having both dark and white meat is usually served +according to the taste of each individual at the table. If no preference +is stated, however, a small portion of each kind of meat is +generally served.</p> + +<p><b>80.</b> The carving of broiled or roast chicken, turkey, duck, or goose may +be done in the kitchen, but having the whole bird brought to the table +and carved there adds considerably to a meal. Carving is usually done by +the head of the family, but in a family in which there are boys each one +should be taught to carve properly, so that he may do the carving in the +absence of another person.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 46]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 47]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 48]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 49]</p> + +<p>For carving, the bird should be placed on the platter so that it rests +on its back; also, a well-sharpened carving knife and a fork should be +placed at the right of the platter and the person who is to serve. To +carve a bird, begin as shown in Fig. 46; that is, thrust the fork firmly +into the side or breast of the fowl and cut through the skin where the +leg joins the body, breaking the thigh joint. Cut through this joint, +severing the second joint and leg in one piece. Then, if desired, cut +the leg apart at the second joint. As the portions are thus cut, they +may be placed on a separate platter that is brought to the table heated. +Next, in the same manner, cut off the other leg and separate it at the +second joint. With the legs cut off, remove each wing at the joint where +it is attached to the body, proceeding as shown in Fig. 47. Then slice +the meat from the breast by cutting down from the ridge of the breast +bone toward the wing, as in Fig. 48. After this meat has been sliced +off, there still remains some meat around the thigh and on the back. +This should be sliced off or removed with the point of the knife, as in +Fig. 49, so that the entire skeleton will be clean, as in Fig. 50. If +the entire bird is not to be served, as much as is necessary may be cut +and the remainder left on the bones. With each serving of meat a +spoonful of dressing should be taken from the inside of the bird, +provided it is stuffed, and, together with some gravy, served on +the plate.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 50]</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="GAME"></a><h3>GAME</h3> + +<b>GENERAL DESCRIPTION</b><br><br> + +<p><b>81.</b> GAME, which includes the meat of deer, bear, rabbit, squirrel, wild +duck, wild goose, partridge, pheasant, and some less common animals, +such as possum, is not a particularly common food. However, it is +sufficiently common to warrant a few directions concerning its use. Game +can be purchased or caught only during certain seasons, designated by +the laws of various states. Such laws are quite stringent and have been +made for the protection of each particular species.</p> + +<p><b>82.</b> The meat of wild animals and birds is usually strong in flavor. Just +why this is so, however, is not definitely known. Undoubtedly some of +the strong flavor is due to the particular food on which the animal or +the bird feeds, and much of this flavor is due to extractives contained +in the flesh.</p> + +<p>When game birds and animals have considerable fat surrounding the +tissues, the greater part of it is often rejected because of its +extremely high flavor. By proper cooking, however, much of this flavor, +if it happens to be a disagreeable one, can be driven off.</p> + +<p>The general composition of the flesh of various kinds of game does not +differ greatly from that of similar domestic animals or birds. For +instance, the flesh of bear is similar in its composition to that of fat +beef, as bear is one of the wild animals that is very fat. Venison, or +the meat obtained from deer, contains much less fat, and its composition +resembles closely that of very lean beef. Rabbits and most of the wild +birds are quite lean; in fact, they are so lean that it is necessary in +the preparation of them to supply sufficient fat to make them more +appetizing.</p> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_GAME"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR GAME</h3> + +<p><b>83.</b> Only a few recipes for the preparation of game are here given, +because, in the case of wild birds, the cookery methods do not differ +materially from those given for poultry, and, in the case of such +animals as bears, the directions for preparing steaks and other cuts are +identical with the cooking of similar cuts of beef. Rabbit and squirrel +are perhaps the most common game used as food in the home; therefore, +directions for cleaning and cooking them receive the most consideration.</p> + +<p><b>84. PREPARING A RABBIT FOR COOKING.</b>--In order to prepare a rabbit for +cooking, it must first be skinned and drawn, after which it may be cut +up or left whole, depending on the cookery method that is to +be followed.</p> + +<p>To skin a rabbit, first chop off the feet at the first joint; then +remove the head at the first joint below the skull and slit the skin of +the stomach from a point between the forelegs to the hind legs. With +this done, remove the entrails carefully, proceeding in much the same +manner as in removing the entrails of a chicken. Then slit the skin from +the opening in the stomach around the back to the opposite side. Catch +hold on the back and pull the skin first from the hind legs and then +from the forelegs. If the rabbit is to be stewed, wash it thoroughly and +separate it into pieces at the joints. If it is to be roasted or +braized, it may be left whole. A rabbit that is left whole presents a +better appearance when it is trussed. To truss a rabbit, force the hind +legs toward the head and fasten them in place by passing a skewer +through the leg on one side, through the body, and into the leg on the +other side. Then skewer the front legs back under the body in the same +way. In such a case, the head may be left on or removed, as desired.</p> + +<p><b>85. ROAST RABBIT.</b>--Roasting is the cookery process often used to prepare +rabbit. To cook it in this way, first skin and clean the animal and +stuff it. Any of the stuffings previously given may be used for this +purpose. Then skewer the legs in position, place strips of bacon across +the back, put in a roasting pan, and dredge with salt and pepper. Also, +add 1/2 cupful of hot water to which has been added a little butter or +bacon fat. Roast in a quick oven, and baste every 15 minutes during the +roasting. A few minutes before the rabbit is tender enough to be pierced +with a fork, remove the strips of bacon so that the flesh underneath may +brown. Then remove from the pan and serve.</p> + +<p><b>86. SAUTÉD RABBIT.</b>--If it is desired to prepare a rabbit by sautéing, +skin and clean it, cut it into pieces, and dry all the pieces with a +soft cloth. Then melt bacon fat in a frying pan, and when it is hot +place the pieces of rabbit in it and allow them to brown. Add several +sprigs of parsley and two small onions, sliced, season with salt and +pepper, add a slice or two of bacon, and pour water over the whole until +it is nearly covered. Place a cover on the frying pan and simmer slowly. +Add water when it is necessary. When the meat is tender, remove it from +the frying pan. Then thicken the fluid that remains with a small amount +of flour so as to make a gravy. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>87. RABBIT PIE.</b>--Rabbit made into pie is also a desirable way in which +to serve rabbit. To prepare such a dish, skin and clean one or more +rabbits and cut them up into as small pieces as possible, removing the +largest bones. Put these pieces into a baking dish, and over them place +bacon cut into small strips. Sprinkle all with chopped parsley, salt, +and pepper, and add a few slices of onion, as well as some strips of +carrot and potato, if desired. Pour a sufficient amount of boiling water +over the whole and allow to simmer slowly until the meat is partly +cooked. Then place in the oven and cook until the meat is tender. Next, +dredge the contents of the baking dish with flour and cover with a +1/4-inch layer of baking-powder biscuit dough. Make several slits +through the dough to allow the steam to escape. Bake until the dough +becomes a well-browned crust. Serve hot in the baking dish.</p> + +<p><b>88. BROILED SQUIRREL.</b>--For cooking, squirrel is cleaned in practically +the same way as rabbit. Squirrel may be made ready to eat by stewing, +but as it is so small a creature, broiling is the usual method of +preparation. To broil a squirrel, first remove the skin and clean it. +Then break the bones along the spine, so that the squirrel can be spread +out flat. When thus made ready, place it on a well-greased hot broiler +and sear it quickly on one side; then turn it and sear the other side. +Next, sprinkle it with salt and pepper, place strips of bacon across the +back, and allow it to broil slowly until it is well browned. Squirrel +may be served in the same way as rabbit.</p> + +<p><b>89. CUTS OF VENISON.</b>--The meat obtained from deer, called venison, as +has been mentioned, may be cut up to form cuts similar to those obtained +from beef, such as steaks and roasts. Although such meat is a rarity, it +will be well to be familiar with a few of the methods of cooking it. +These, however, do not differ materially from the methods of cooking +other meats.</p> + +<p><b>90. BROILED VENISON.</b>--To prepare venison for broiling, cut a steak from +1 to 1-1/2 inches thick. Place this on a well-greased broiler and broil +until well done. Serve on a hot platter. Garnish the broiled venison +with parsley and pour over it sauce made as follows:</p> + +<b>SAUCE FOR BROILED VENISON</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. ground cinnamon</li> +<li>4 Tb. currant jelly</li> +<li>2 tsp. lemon juice</li> +<li>1/4 c. port wine</li> +<li>6 finely chopped Maraschino cherries</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, ground cinnamon, +currant jelly, lemon juice, and the port wine, which should be heated +with 1 cupful of water. Cook until the flour has thickened, remove from +the fire, and add the cherries.</p> + +<p><b>91. ROAST FILLET OF VENISON.</b>--If a fillet of venison is to be roasted, +proceed by larding it with strips of salt pork. Then place it in a pan +with one small onion, sliced, a bay leaf, and a small quantity of +parsley, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and 1/4 teaspoonful of pepper. Dilute 1/4 +cupful of vinegar with 3/4 cupful of water and add a teaspoonful of +Worcestershire sauce. Pour this over the fillet and place it in a hot +oven. Cook until the liquid has evaporated sufficiently to allow the +venison to brown. Turn, so as to brown on both sides, and when quite +tender and well browned, serve on a hot platter.</p> + +<p><b>92. ROAST LEG OF VENISON.</b>--If a leg of venison is to be roasted, first +remove the skin, wipe the meat with a damp cloth, and cover it with a +paste made of flour and water. Then put it into a roasting pan and roast +in a very hot oven. Baste with hot water every 15 minutes for about 1 +1/2 hours. At the end of this time, remove the paste, spread the surface +with butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and continue to roast for 1 +to 1 1/4 hours longer. Baste every 15 minutes, basting during the last +hour with hot water in which has been melted a small quantity of butter. +Then remove the venison from the pan and serve it on a hot platter with +any desired sauce.</p> +<br> + +<b>POULTRY AND GAME</b><br><br> + +<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br> + +<p>(1) Of what value is poultry in the diet?</p> + +<p>(2) What effect do the feeding and care of poultry have upon it as food?</p> + +<p>(3) Mention briefly the proper preparation of poultry killed for market.</p> + +<p>(4) (<i>a</i>) What are the most important things to consider when poultry is +to be selected? (<i>b</i>) Give the points that indicate good quality +of poultry.</p> + +<p>(5) How would you determine the age of a chicken?</p> + +<p>(6) How would you determine the freshness of a chicken?</p> + +<p>(7) (<i>a</i>) What are the marks of cold-storage poultry? (<i>b</i>) Should +cold-storage poultry be drawn or undrawn? Tell why.</p> + +<p>(8) How should frozen poultry be thawed?</p> + +<p>(9) Tell briefly how turkey should be selected.</p> + +<p>(10) At what age and season is turkey best?</p> + +<p>(11) Discuss the selection of: (<i>a</i>) ducks; (<i>b</i>) geese.</p> + +<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) How does the composition of poultry compare with that of +meat? (<i>b</i>) What kind of chicken has a high food value?</p> + +<p>(13) (<i>a</i>) How should a chicken be dressed? (<i>b</i>) What care should be +given to the skin in plucking?</p> + +<p>(14) Give briefly the steps in drawing a chicken.</p> + +<p>(15) Give briefly the steps in cutting up a chicken.</p> + +<p>(16) How is poultry prepared for: (<i>a</i>) roasting? (<i>b</i>) frying? (<i>c</i>) +broiling? (<i>d</i>) stewing?</p> + +<p>(17) (<i>a</i>) Describe trussing, (<i>b</i>) Why is trussing done?</p> + +<p>(18) Give briefly the steps in boning a chicken.</p> + +<p>(19) Tell briefly how to serve and carve a roasted bird.</p> + +<p>(20) Discuss game in a general way.</p> +<br> + +<b>ADDITIONAL WORK</b><br><br> + +<p>Select a fowl by applying the tests given for selection in the lesson. +Prepare it by what seems to you to be the most economical method. Tell +how many persons are served and the use made of the left-overs. Compute +the cost per serving by dividing the cost of the fowl by the number of +servings it made.</p> + +<p>At another time, select a chicken for frying by applying the tests given +in the lesson. Compute the cost per serving by dividing the cost of the +chicken by the number of servings it made.</p> + +<p>Compare the cost per serving of the fried chicken with that of the fowl, +to find which is the more economical. In each case, collect the bones +after the chicken is eaten and weigh them to determine which has the +greater proportion of bone to meat, the fowl or the frying chicken. +Whether you have raised the poultry yourself or have purchased it in the +market, use the market price in computing your costs. Weigh the birds +carefully before drawing them.</p> + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<a name="FISH_AND_SHELL_FISH"></a><h2>FISH AND SHELL FISH</h2> + +<b>FISH</b> + +<a name="FISH_IN_THE_DIET"></a><h3>FISH IN THE DIET</h3> + +<p><b>1.</b> FISH provides another class of high-protein or tissue-building food. +As this term is generally understood, it includes both vertebrate +fish--that is, fish having a backbone, such as salmon, cod, shad, +etc.--and many other water animals, such as lobsters, crabs, shrimp, +oysters, and clams. A distinction, however, is generally made between +these two groups, those having bones being regarded properly as <i>fish</i> +and those partly or entirely encased in shells, as <i>shell fish</i>. It is +according to this distinction that this class of foods is considered in +this Section. Because all the varieties of both fish and shell fish are +in many respects similar, the term <i>sea food</i> is often applied to them, +but, as a rule, this term is restricted to designate salt-water products +as distinguished from fresh-water fish.</p> + +<p><b>2.</b> Fish can usually be purchased at a lower price than meat, and for +this reason possesses an economic advantage over it. Besides the price, +the substitution of fish for meat makes for economy in a number of ways +to which consideration is not usually given. These will become clearly +evident when it is remembered that nearly all land animals that furnish +meat live on many agricultural products that might be used for human +food. Then, too, other foods fed to animals, although not actually human +foods, require in their raising the use of soil that might otherwise be +utilized for the raising of food for human beings. This is not true in +the case of fish. They consume the vegetation that grows in lakes, +streams, and the ocean, as well as various kinds of insects, small fish, +etc., which cannot be used as human food and which do not require the +use of the soil. In addition, much of the food that animals, which are +warm-blooded, take into their bodies is required to maintain a constant +temperature above that of their surroundings, so that not all of what +they eat is used in building up the tissues of their bodies. With fish, +however, it is different. As they are cold-blooded and actually receive +heat from their surroundings, they do not require food for bodily +warmth. Practically all that they take into the body is built up into a +supply of flesh that may be used as food for human beings.</p> + +<p><b>3.</b> With fish, as with other foods, some varieties are sought more than +others, the popularity of certain kinds depending on the individual +taste or the preference of the people in a particular locality. Such +popularity, however, is often a disadvantage to the purchaser, because a +large demand for certain varieties has a tendency to cause a rise in +price. The increased price does not indicate that the fish is of more +value to the consumer than some other fish that may be cheaper because +it is less popular, although quite as valuable from a food standpoint. +The preference for particular kinds of fish and the persistent disregard +of others that are edible is for the most part due to prejudice. In +certain localities, one kind of fish may be extremely popular while in +others the same fish may not be used for food at all. Such prejudice +should be overcome, for, as a matter of fact, practically every fish +taken from pure water is fit to eat, in the sense that it furnishes food +and is not injurious to health.</p> + +<p>In addition, any edible fish should be eaten in the locality where it is +caught. The transportation of this food is a rather difficult matter, +and, besides, it adds to the cost. It is therefore an excellent plan to +make use of the kind of fish that is most plentiful, as such practice +will insure both better quality and a lower market price.</p> + +<p><b>4.</b> As is well known, fish is an extremely perishable food. Therefore, +when it is caught in quantities too great to be used at one time, it is +preserved in various ways. The preservation methods that have proved to +be the most satisfactory are canning, salting and drying, smoking, and +preserving in various kinds of brine and pickle. As such methods are +usually carried out in the locality where the fish is caught, many +varieties of fish can be conveniently stored for long periods of time +and so distributed as to meet the requirements of the consumer. This +plan enables persons far removed from the Source of supply to procure +fish frequently.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<a name="COMPOSITION_AND_FOOD_VALUE_OF_FISH"></a><h3>COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FISH</h3> + +<b>COMPOSITION OF FISH</b><br><br> + +<p><b>5. COMPARISON OF FISH WITH MEAT.</b>--In general, the composition of fish is +similar to that of meat, for both of them are high-protein foods. +However, some varieties of fish contain large quantities of fat and +others contain very little of this substance, so the food value of the +different kinds varies greatly. As in the case of meat, fish is lacking +in carbohydrate. Because of the close similarity between these two +foods, fish is a very desirable substitute for meat. In fact, fish is in +some respects a better food than meat, but it cannot be used so +continuously as meat without becoming monotonous; that is to say, a +person will grow tired of fish much more quickly than of most meats. The +similarity between the composition of fish and that of meat has much to +do with regulating the price of these protein foods, which, as has +already been learned, are the highest priced foods on the market.</p> + +<p><b>6. PROTEIN IN FISH.</b>--In fish, as well as in shell fish, a very large +proportion of the food substances present is protein. This proportion +varies with the quantity of water, bone, and refuse that the particular +food contains, and with the physical structure of the food. In fresh +fish, the percentage of this material varies from 6 to 17 per cent. The +structure of fish is very similar to that of meat, as the flesh is +composed of tiny hollow fibers containing extractives, in which are +dissolved mineral salts and various other materials. The quantity of +extractives found in these foods, however, is less than that found in +meat. Fish extracts of any kind, such as clam juice, oyster juice, etc., +are similar in their composition to any of the extractives of meat, +differing only in the kind and proportions. In addition to the muscle +fibers of fish, which are, of course, composed of protein, fish contains +a small quantity of albumin, just as meat does. It is the protein +material in fish, as well as in shell fish, that is responsible for its +very rapid decomposition.</p> + +<p>The application of heat has the same effect on the protein of fish as it +has on that of meat, fowl, and other animal tissues. Consequently, the +same principles of cookery apply to both the retention and the +extraction of flavor.</p> + +<p><b>7. FAT IN FISH.</b>--The percentage of fat in fish varies from less than 1 +per cent. in some cases to a trifle more than 14 per cent. in others, +but this high percentage is rare, as the average fish probably does not +exceed from 3 to 6 or 7 per cent. of fat. This variation affects the +total food value proportionately. The varieties of fish that contain the +most fat deteriorate most rapidly and withstand transportation the least +well, so that when these are secured in large quantities they are +usually canned or preserved in some manner. Fish containing a large +amount of fat, such as salmon, turbot, eel, herring, halibut, mackerel, +mullet, butterfish, and lake trout, have a more moist quality than those +which are without fat, such as cod. Therefore, as it is difficult to +cook fish that is lacking in fat and keep it from becoming dry, a fat +fish makes a more palatable food than a lean fish. The fat of fish is +very strongly flavored; consequently, any that cooks out of fish in its +preparation is not suitable for use in the cooking of other foods.</p> + +<p><b>8. CARBOHYDRATE IN FISH.</b>--Like meat, fish does not contain carbohydrate +in any appreciable quantity. In fact, the small amount that is found in +the tissue, and that compares to the glycogen found in animal tissues, +is not present in sufficient quantities to merit consideration.</p> + +<p><b>9. MINERAL MATTER IN FISH.</b>--In fish, mineral matter is quite as +prevalent as in meat. Through a notion that fish contains large +proportions of phosphorus, and because this mineral is also present in +the brain, the idea that fish is a brain food has become widespread. It +has been determined, however, that this belief has no foundation.</p> +<br> + +<b>FOOD VALUE OF FISH</b><br><br> + +<p><b>10. FACTORS DETERMINING FOOD VALUE.</b>--The total food value of fish, as +has been shown, is high or low, varying with the food substances it +contains. Therefore, since, weight for weight, the food value of fat is +much higher than that of protein, it follows that the fish containing +the most fat has the highest food value. Fat and protein, as is well +known, do not serve the same function in the body, but each has its +purpose and is valuable and necessary in the diet. Some varieties of +fish contain fat that is strong in flavor, and from these the fat should +be removed before cooking, especially if the flavor is disagreeable. +This procedure of course reduces the total food value of the fish, but +it should be done if it increases the palatability.</p> + +<p><b>11. RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH AND MEAT.</b>--When fish and meat are +compared, it will be observed that some kinds of fish have a higher food +value than meat, particularly if the fish contains much fat and the meat +is lean. When the average of each of these foods is compared, however, +meat will be found to have a higher food value than fish. To show how +fish compares with meat and fowl, the composition and food value of +several varieties of each food are given in Table I, which is taken from +a United States government bulletin.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE I</b><br> + +COMPARISON OF COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FISH AND MEAT</center> +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="center">Edible Portion</td> +<td colspan=2 align="center">Composition</td> +<td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="center">Total<br>Food<br>Value<br>per Pound<br>Calories</td> +<td rowspan=2 valign="middle" align="center">Food Value<br>per Pound<br>Due to<br>Protein<br>Calories</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Protein<br>Per Cent.</td><td align="center">Fat<br>Per Cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan=5 align="center"><i>Fish:</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Bass, black</td><td align="center">20.6</td><td align="center">1.7</td><td align="center">443</td><td align="center">373</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Bluefish</td><td align="center">19.4</td><td align="center">1.2</td><td align="center">401</td><td align="center">352</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Carp</td><td align="center">17.4</td><td align="center">2.6</td><td align="center">421</td><td align="center">315</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Catfish</td><td align="center">14.4</td><td align="center">20.6</td><td align="center">1,102</td><td align="center">262</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Halibut steak</td><td align="center">18.6</td><td align="center">5.2</td><td align="center">550</td><td align="center">337</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Lake trout</td><td align="center">17.8</td><td align="center">1.0</td><td align="center">363</td><td align="center">323</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Red snapper</td><td align="center">19.2</td><td align="center">1.0</td><td align="center">389</td><td align="center">348</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Salmon (canned)</td><td align="center">21.8</td><td align="center">12.1</td><td align="center">888</td><td align="center">396</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Whitefish</td><td align="center">22.9</td><td align="center">6.5</td><td align="center">680</td><td align="center">415</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan=5 align="center"><i>Meat:</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Beef, round,<br>medium fat</td><td align="center">20.3</td><td align="center">13.6</td><td align="center">895</td><td align="center">368</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Chicken, broilers</td><td align="center">21.5</td><td align="center">2.5</td><td align="center">492</td><td align="center">390</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Fowl</td><td align="center">19.3</td><td align="center">16.3</td><td align="center">1,016</td><td align="center">350</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Lamb, leg</td><td align="center">19.2</td><td align="center">16.5</td><td align="center">870</td><td align="center">348</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Pork chops</td><td align="center">16.6</td><td align="center">30.1</td><td align="center">1,455</td><td align="center">301</td></tr> +</table><br><br> + + +<p><b>12.</b> A study of this table will show that on the whole the percentage of +protein in the various kinds of fish is as much as that in meat, while +in a few instances, it is greater. This proves that so far as the +quantity of protein is concerned, these two foods are equally valuable +in their tissue-forming and tissue-building qualities. It will be seen +also that the percentage of fat in fish varies greatly, some varieties +containing more than meat, but most of them containing less. +Furthermore, the total food value per pound, in calories, is for the +most part greater in meat than in fish, whereas the food value per pound +due to protein is equivalent in most cases, but higher in some of the +fish than in the meat.</p> + +<p><b>13.</b> It must also be remembered that the drying or preserving of fish +does not in any way decrease its food value. In fact, pound for pound, +dried fish, both smoked and salt, contains more nutritive value than +fresh fish, because the water, which decreases the food value of fresh +fish, is driven off in drying. However, when prepared for eating, dried +fish in all probability has more food value than fresh fish, because +water or moisture of some sort must be supplied in its preparation.</p> + +<p><b>14.</b> The method of preparing dried or preserved fish, as well as fresh +fish, has much to do with the food value obtained from it. Just as +nutritive value is lost in the cooking of meat by certain methods, so it +may be lost in the preparation of fish if the proper methods are not +applied. To obtain as much food value from fish as possible, the various +points that are involved in its cookery must be thoroughly understood. +Certain facts concerning the buying of fish must also be kept in mind. +For instance, in canned fish, almost all the bones, skin, and other +inedible parts, except the tails, heads, and fins of very small fish, +have been removed before packing, indicating that practically all the +material purchased is edible. In the case of fresh fish, a large +percentage of what is bought must be wasted in preparation and in +eating, the percentage of waste varying from 5 to 45 per cent.</p> + +<p><b>15. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH.</b>--The food value of any food is an important +item when its usefulness as a food is taken into account, but of equal +importance is the manner in which the body uses the food; that is, +whether it digests the food with ease or with difficulty. Therefore, +when the value of fish as a food is to be determined, its digestibility +must receive definite consideration. As has already been explained, much +depends on the cooking of the food in question. On the whole, fish is +found to be more easily digested than meat, with the exception perhaps +of a few kinds or certain cuts. That physicians recognize this +characteristic is evidenced by the fact that fish is often used in the +feeding of invalids or sick people when meat is not permitted.</p> + +<p><b>16.</b> The ease with which fish is digested is influenced largely by the +quantity of fat it contains, for this fat, acting in identically the +same way as the fat of meat, has the effect of slowing the digestion +that is carried on in the stomach. It follows, then, that with possibly +one or two exceptions the kinds of fish most easily digested are those +which are lean.</p> + +<p><b>17.</b> In addition to the correct cooking of fish and the presence of fat, +a factor that largely influences the digestibility of this food is the +length of the fibers of the flesh. It will be remembered that the parts +of an animal having long fibers are tougher and less easily digested +than those having short fibers. This applies with equal force in the +case of fish. Its truth is evident when it is known that cod, a lean +fish, is digested with greater difficulty than some of the fat fish +because of the length and toughness of its fibers. This, however, is +comparative, and it must not be thought that fish on the whole is +digested with difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>18.</b> Another factor that influences the digestibility of fish is the +salting of it. Whether fish is salted dry or in brine, the salt hardens +the fibers and tissues. While the salt acts as a preservative in causing +this hardening, it, at the same time, makes the fish preserved in this +manner a little more difficult to digest. This slight difference need +scarcely be considered so far as the normal adult is concerned, but in +case of children or persons whose digestion is not entirely normal its +effect is likely to be felt.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE II</b><br> + +NAMES, SEASONS, AND USES OF FRESH FISH</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td align="center"><b>NAME OF FISH</b></td><td align="center"><b>SEASON</b></td><td align="center"><b>METHOD OF COOKERY</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bass, black</td><td align="center">All the</td><td align="center">Fried, baked</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bass, sea</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bass, striped</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bass, lake</td><td align="center">June 1 to January 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bluefish</td><td align="center">May 1 to November 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Butterfish</td><td align="center">October 1 to May 1</td><td align="center">Fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Carp</td><td align="center">July 1 to November 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Catfish</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Codfish</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Boiled, fried, sautéd, baked, broiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Eels</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Fried, boiled, baked</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Flounder</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Sautéd, fried, baked</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Haddock</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Steamed, boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Halibut</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Boiled, fried, creamed</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Herring</td><td align="center">October 1 to May 1</td><td align="center">Sautéd, fried, broiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Kingfish</td><td align="center">May 1 to November 1</td><td align="center">Boiled, steamed, baked</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mackerel</td><td align="center">April 1 to October 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Perch, fresh water</td><td align="center">September 1 to June 1</td><td align="center">Fried, broiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Pike, or pickerel, fresh water</td><td align="center">June 1 to January 1</td><td align="center">Fried, broiled, baked</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Porgies, salt water</td><td align="center">June 15 to October 15</td><td align="center">Fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Red snapper</td><td align="center">October 1 to April 1</td><td align="center">Boiled, steamed</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Salmon, Kennebec</td><td align="center">June 1 to October 1</td><td align="center">Broiled, baked, boiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Salmon, Oregon</td><td align="center">October 1 to June 1</td><td align="center">Broiled, baked, boiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Shad</td><td align="center">January 1 to June 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Shad roe</td><td align="center">January 1 to June 1</td><td align="center">Broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sheepshead</td><td align="center">June 1 to September 15</td><td align="center">Boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Smelts</td><td align="center">August 15 to April 15</td><td align="center">Fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sole, English</td><td align="center">November 1 to May 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sunfish</td><td align="center">May 1 to December 1</td><td align="center">Fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Trout, fresh water</td><td align="center">April 1 to September 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried, boiled, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Weakfish, or sea trout</td><td align="center">May 15 to October 15</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Whitebait</td><td align="center">May 1 to April 1</td><td align="center">Fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Whitefish, fresh water</td><td align="center">November 1 to March 1</td><td align="center">Baked, fried, sautéd, broiled</td></tr> +</table> +<br><br> + + +<a name="PURCHASE_AND_CARE_OF_FISH"></a><h3>PURCHASE AND CARE OF FISH</h3> + +<p><b>19. PURCHASE OF FISH.</b>--The housewife has much to do with the market +price of fish and the varieties that are offered for sale, for these are +governed by the demand created by her. The fisherman's catch depends on +weather conditions, the season, and other uncertain factors. If the +kinds of fish he secures are not what the housewife demands, they either +will not be sent to market or will go begging on the market for want of +purchasers. Such a state of affairs should not exist, and it would not +if every housewife were to buy the kind of fish that is plentiful in her +home market. So that she may become familiar with the varieties that the +market affords, she should carefully study Tables II and III, which give +the names, seasons, and uses of both fresh fish and salt and smoked +fish. With the information given in these tables well in mind, she will +be able not only to select the kind she wants, but to cooperate better +with dealers.</p> +<br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE III</b><br><br> + +NAMES, SEASONS, AND USES OF SALT AND SMOKED FISH</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="center"><b>NAME OF FISH</b></td><td align="center"><b>SEASON</b></td><td align="center"><b>METHOD OF COOKERY</b></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><i>SALT FISH</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Anchovies</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Served as a relish, stuffed<br>with various highly seasoned mixtures,<br>used as flavor for sauce</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Codfish, dried</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Creamed, balls</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Herring, pickled</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mackerel</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Broiled, fried, sautéd</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Salmon, salt</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Fried, broiled, boiled</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan=3 align="center"><i>SMOKED FISH</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Haddock, or finnan haddie</td><td align="center">October 15 to April 1</td><td align="center">Broiled, baked, creamed</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Halibut</td><td align="center">October 1 to April 1</td><td align="center">Baked, broiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Herring</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Served as a relish without cooking</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mackerel</td><td align="center">October 1 to November 1</td><td align="center">Baked, boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Smoked salmon</td><td align="center">All the year</td><td align="center">Baked, boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Shad</td><td align="center">October 1 to May 1</td><td align="center">Baked, boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sturgeon</td><td align="center">October 1 to May 1</td><td align="center">Baked, boiled, fried</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Whitefish</td><td align="center">October 1 to May 1</td><td align="center">Baked, boiled, fried</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 1]</p> + +<p><b>20.</b> Another point to be considered in the purchase of fish is the size. +Some fish, such as halibut and salmon, are so large that they must +usually be cut into slices or steaks to permit the housewife to purchase +the quantity she requires for immediate use. Other fish are of such size +that one is sufficient for a meal, and others are so small that several +must be purchased to meet the requirements. An idea or the difference in +the size of fish can be gained from Figs. 1 and 2. The larger fish in +Fig. 1 is a medium-sized whitefish and the smaller one is a smelt. Fish +about the size of smelts lend themselves readily to frying and sautéing, +whereas the larger kinds, like whitefish, may be prepared to better +advantage by baking either with or without suitable stuffing. The larger +fish in Fig. 2 is a carp and the smaller one is a pike. Much use is made +of pike, but carp has been more shunned than sought after. However, when +carp is properly cooked, it is a very palatable food, and, besides, it +possesses high food value.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 3]</p> + +<p><b>21.</b> In the purchase of fish, the housewife, provided she is not obliged +to have fish for a particular day, will do well also to get away from +the one-day-a-week purchasing of fish; that is, if she is not obliged to +serve fish on Friday, she should endeavor to serve it on some other day. +Even twice a week is not too often. If such a plan were followed out, +fishermen would be able to market their catch when it is procured and +the waste of fish or the necessity for keeping it until a particular day +would be overcome.</p> + +<p><b>22.</b> Another way in which the housewife can help herself in the selection +of fish is to become familiar with all the varieties of edible fish +caught in or near her community. When she has done this, it will be a +splendid plan for her to give those with which she is unfamiliar a +trial. She will be surprised at the many excellent varieties that are +obtained in her locality and consequently come to her fresher than fish +that has to be shipped long distances.</p> + +<p><b>23. FRESHNESS OF FISH.</b>--In the purchase of fish, the housewife should +not permit herself to be influenced by any prejudice she may have as to +the name or the appearance of the fish. However, too much attention +cannot be paid to its freshness.</p> + +<p>Several tests can be applied to fish to determine whether or not it is +fresh; therefore, when a housewife is in doubt, she should make an +effort to apply them. Fish should not give off any offensive odor. The +eyes should be bright and clear, not dull nor sunken. The gills should +have a bright-red color, and there should be no blubber showing. The +flesh should be so firm that no dent will be made when it is touched +with the finger. Fish may also be tested for freshness by placing it in +a pan of water; if it sinks, it may be known to be fresh, but if it +floats it is not fit for use.</p> + +<p><b>24. CARE OF FISH IN THE HOME.</b>--If fish is purchased in good condition, +and every effort should be made to see that it is, the responsibility of +its care in the home until it is presented to the family as a cooked +dish rests on the housewife. If, upon reaching the housewife, it has not +been cleaned, it should be cleaned at once. In case it has been cleaned +either by the fish dealer or the housewife and cannot be cooked at once, +it should be looked over carefully, immediately washed in cold water, +salted slightly inside and out, placed in a covered enamel or porcelain +dish, and then put where it will keep as cold as possible. If a +refrigerator is used, the fish should be put in the compartment from +which odors cannot be carried to foods in the other compartments. In +cold weather, an excellent plan is to put the fish out of doors instead +of in the refrigerator, for there it will remain sufficiently cold +without the use of ice. However, the best and safest way is to cook the +fish at once, so that storing it for any length of time after its +delivery will not be necessary.</p> + +<p>Salt and smoked fish do not, of course, require the same care as fresh +fish. However, as many of these varieties are strong in flavor, it is +well to weaken their flavor before cooking them by soaking them or, if +possible, by parboiling them.</p> +<br> + +<b>PREPARATION OF FISH FOR COOKING</b> + +<h3><a name="CLEANING_FISH"></a>CLEANING FISH</h3> + +<p><b>25. CLEANING FISH.</b>--Fish is usually prepared for cooking at the market +where it is purchased, but frequently a fish comes into the home just as +it has been caught. In order to prepare such a fish properly for +cooking, the housewife must understand how to clean it. The various +steps in cleaning fish are illustrated in Figs. 3 to 6. The first step +consists in removing the scales. To do this, place the fish on its side, +as shown in Fig. 3, grasp it firmly by the tail, and [Illustration: FIG. +3] then with the cutting edge of a knife, preferably a dull one, scrape +off the scales by quick motions of the knife toward the head of the +fish. When one side has been scraped clean, or <i>scaled</i>, as this +operation is called, turn the fish over and scale the other side.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 4]</p> + +<p>With the fish scaled, proceed to remove the entrails. As shown in Fig. +4, cut a slit in the belly from the head end to the vent, using a sharp +knife. Run the opening up well toward the head, as Fig. 5 shows, and +then through the opening formed draw out the entrails with the fingers.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 5]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 6]</p> + +<p>If the head is to be removed, it should be cut off at this time. When a +fish is to be baked or prepared in some other way in which the head may +be retained, it is allowed to remain on, but it is kept more for an +ornament than for any other reason. To remove the head, slip a sharp +knife under the gills as far as possible, as Fig. 6 shows, and then cut +it off in such a way as not to remove with it any of the body of +the fish.</p> + +<p>Whether the head is removed or not, make sure that the cavity formed by +taking out the entrails is perfectly clean. Then wash the fish with cold +water and, if desired, cut off the fins and tail, although this is not +usually done. The fish, which is now properly prepared, may be cooked at +once or placed in the refrigerator until time for cooking.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 7]</p><br> + +<h3><a name="BONING_FISH"></a>BONING FISH</h3> + +<p><b>26. BONING FISH.</b>--In the preparation of some kinds of fish, it is often +desired to bone the fish; that is, to remove the backbone and the ribs. +Figs. 7 to 10 show the various steps in the process of boning. After the +fish has been thoroughly cleaned, insert a sharp-pointed knife in the +back where it is cut from the head, as shown in Fig. 7, and loosen the +backbone at this place. Then, as in Fig. 8, slip the knife along the +ribs away from the backbone on both sides. After getting the bone well +loosened at the end, cut it from the flesh all the way down to the tail, +as shown in Fig. 9. When thus separated from the flesh, the backbone and +the ribs, which comprise practically all the bones in a fish, may be +lifted out intact, as is shown in Fig. 10.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 8]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 9]</p><br> + +<h3><a name="SKINNING_FISH"></a>SKINNING FISH</h3> + +<p><b>27. SKINNING FISH.</b>--Some kinds of fish, especially those having no +scales, such as flounder, catfish, and eels, are made more palatable by +being skinned. To skin a fish, cut a narrow strip of the skin along the +spine from the head to the tail, as shown in Fig. 11. At this opening, +loosen the skin on one side where it is fastened to the bony part of the +fish and then, as in Fig. 12, draw it off around toward the belly, +working carefully so as not to tear the flesh. Sometimes it is a good +plan to use a knife for this purpose, working the skin loose from the +flesh with the knife and at the same time pulling the skin with the +other hand. After removing the skin from one side, turn the fish and take off the skin from the other side in the same +way. Care should be taken to clean the fish properly before attempting +to skin it. If the fish is frozen, it should first be thawed in +cold water.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 10]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 11]</p><br> + +<h3><a name="FILLETING_FISH"></a>FILLETING FISH</h3> + +<p><b>28. FILLETING FISH.</b>--As many recipes require fish to be cut into +<i>fillets</i>, that is, thick, flat slices from which the bone is removed, +it is well for the housewife to understand just how to accomplish this +part of the preparation. Figs. 13 to 15 show the filleting of a +flounder. While this process varies somewhat in the different varieties of fish, the usual steps are the ones here +outlined. After thoroughly cleaning the flounder and removing the skin, +lay the fish out flat and cut the flesh down through the center from the +head end to the tail, as shown in Fig. 13. Then, with a knife, work each +half of the flesh loose from the bones, as in Fig. 14. With these two +pieces removed, turn the fish over, cut the flesh down through the +center, and separate it from the bones in the same manner as before. If +a meat board is on hand, it is a good plan to +place the fish on such a board before removing the flesh. At the end of +the filleting process, the flounder should appear as shown in Fig. 15, +the long, narrow strips on the right being the flesh and that remaining +on the board being the bones intact. The strips thus produced may be cut +into pieces of any preferred size.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 12]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 13]</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>RECIPES FOR FISH AND FISH ACCOMPANIMENTS</b> + +<a name="METHODS_OF_COOKING_FISH"></a><h3>METHODS OF COOKING FISH</h3> + +<p><b>29.</b> As Tables II and III show, practically all methods of cookery are +applicable in the cooking of fish. For instance, fish may be boiled, +steamed, baked, fried, broiled, sautéd, and, in addition, used for +various kinds of bisques, chowders, and numerous other made dishes. The +effect of these different methods is exactly the same on fish as on +meat, since the two foods are the same in general construction. The +cookery method to select depends largely on the size, kind, quality, and +flavor of the fish. Just as an old chicken with well-developed muscles +is not suitable for broiling, so a very large fish should not be broiled +unless it can be cut into slices, steaks, or thin pieces. +Cook cutting fish with knife. Such a fish is +usually either stuffed and baked or baked without stuffing, but when it +is cut into slices, the slices may be sautéd, fried, broiled, +or steamed.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 14]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 15 Fish on cutting board]</p> + +<p>Some varieties of fish are more or less tasteless. These should be +prepared by a cookery method that will improve their flavor, or if the +cooking fails to add flavor, a highly seasoned or highly flavored sauce +should be served with them. The acid of vinegar or lemon seems to assist +in bringing out the flavor of fish, so when a sauce is not used, a slice +of lemon is often served with the fish.</p> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_FISH_SAUCES_AND_STUFFINGS"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR FISH SAUCES AND STUFFINGS</h3> + +<p><b>30.</b> As many of the recipes for fish call for sauce and stuffing, recipes +for these accompaniments are taken up before the methods of cooking fish +are considered. This plan will make it possible for the beginner to +become thoroughly familiar with these accompaniments and thus be better +prepared to carry out the recipes for cooking fish.</p> + +<p><b>31. SAUCES FOR FISH.</b>--Sauces are generally served with fish to improve +their flavor and increase their nutritive value. Some kinds of fish, +such as salmon, shad, butterfish, Spanish mackerel, etc., contain more +than 6 per cent. of fat, but as many of the fish that are used for food +contain less than this, they are somewhat dry and are improved +considerably by the addition of a well-seasoned and highly flavored +sauce. Then, too, some fish contain very few extractives, which, when +present, as has been learned, are the source of flavor in food. As some +of the methods of cooking, boiling in particular, dissolve the few +extractives that fish contain and cause the loss of much of the +nutritive material, it becomes almost necessary to serve a sauce with +fish so prepared, if a tasty dish is to be the result.</p> + +<p><b>32.</b> The sauces that may be used with fish are numerous, and the one to +select depends somewhat on the cookery method employed and the +preference of those to whom the fish is served. Among the recipes that +follow will be found sauces suitable for any method that may be used in +the preparation of fish. A little experience with them will enable the +housewife to determine the ones that are most satisfactory as to both +flavor and nutritive value for the different varieties of fish she uses +and the methods of cookery she employs.</p> + +<b>LEMON CREAM SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 c. thin cream</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>Juice of 1 lemon or 1 Tb. vinegar</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the flour, and continue stirring +until the two are well mixed. Add to this the thin cream and stir until +the mixture is thick and boils. Season with salt, pepper, and the juice +of the lemon or the vinegar.</p> + +<b>SPANISH SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 slice of onion</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +<li>1/4 c. tomato purée</li> +<li>1/4 c. chopped pimiento</li> +</ul> + +<p>Brown the butter with the onion, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and +stir until well blended. Add the milk and allow the mixture to cook +until it thickens. To this add the tomato and pimiento. Heat thoroughly +and serve.</p> + +<b>NUT SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 Tb. peanut butter</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 c. meat stock</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter and add the flour and peanut butter. When they are well +mixed, allow them to brown slightly. Add the salt and pepper to this +mixture and pour into it the meat stock. Bring to the boiling point +and serve.</p> + +<b>HORSERADISH SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>1/2 c. cream</li> +<li>1/4 c. boiled salad dressing</li> +<li>2 Tb. grated horseradish</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. paprika</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. mustard</li> +</ul> + +<p>Whip the cream until stiff; then add the salad dressing, horseradish, +salt, paprika, and mustard. When well blended, the sauce is ready +to serve.</p> + +<b>EGG SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>3/4 c. milk</li> +<li>/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. vinegar</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li></ul> + + +<p>Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir until well blended. Add the +milk, salt, and pepper, and cook until the mixture thickens. To this add +the vinegar, the egg chopped fine, and the chopped parsley. Heat +thoroughly and serve.</p> + +<b>TOMATO SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 c. tomato purée</li> +<li>1 small onion, sliced</li> +<li>1 bay leaf</li> +<li>6 cloves</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Strain stewed tomato to make the purée. Put this over the fire in a +saucepan with the sliced onion, the bay leaf, and the cloves. Cook +slowly for about 10 minutes. Strain to remove the onion, bay leaf, and +cloves. Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and into this +pour the hot tomato. Cook until it thickens and serve.</p> + +<b>MUSHROOM SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 slice of carrot</li> +<li>1 slice of onion</li> +<li>Sprig of parsley</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 c. meat stock</li> +<li>1/2 c. mushrooms</li> +<li>2 tsp. lemon juice</li> +</ul> + +<p>Put the butter in a frying pan with the carrot, onion, parsley, salt, +and pepper, and cook together until brown. Remove the onion, carrot, and +parsley. Stir in the flour, brown it slightly, and then add the meat +stock. Cook together until thickened. Just before removing from the +fire, add the mushrooms, chopped into fine pieces, and the lemon juice. +Allow it to heat thoroughly and then serve.</p> + +<b>DRAWN-BUTTER SAUCE</b> + +<ul> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. hot water</li> +<li>2 hard-cooked eggs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter, and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Pour into this the +hot water, and cook until the mixture thickens. Slice the eggs into +1/4-inch slices and add these to the sauce just before removing from +the stove.</p> + +<p><b>33. STUFFING FOR FISH.</b>--As has been mentioned, fish that is to be baked +is often stuffed before it is put into the oven. The stuffing not only +helps to preserve the shape of the fish, but also provides a means of +extending the flavor of the fish to a starchy food, for bread or cracker +crumbs are used in the preparation of most stuffings. Three recipes for +fish stuffing are here given, the first being made of bread crumbs and +having hot water for the liquid, the second of cracker crumbs and having +milk for the liquid, and the third of bread crumbs and having stewed +tomato for the liquid.</p> + +<b>FISH STUFFING No. 1</b> + +<ul> +<li>1/4 c. butter</li> +<li>1/2 c. hot water</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 tsp. onion juice</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>2 c. fine bread crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in the hot water, add the salt, pepper, onion juice, and +parsley, and pour over the crumbs. Mix thoroughly and use to stuff +the fish.</p> + +<b>FISH STUFFING No. 2</b> + +<ul> +<li>1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>2 c. cracker crumbs</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1/4 c. melted butter</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +</ul> + +<p>Warm the milk and add it to the crumbs, together with the salt, pepper, +melted butter, and parsley. To this mixture, add the beaten egg. When +well mixed, use as stuffing for fish.</p> + +<b>FISH STUFFING No. 3</b> + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 Tb. finely chopped onion</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped sour pickles</li> +<li>1/2 c. stewed tomato</li> +<li>2 c. stale bread crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter and add the onion, parsley, salt, pepper, pickles, and +tomato. Pour this mixture over the crumbs, mix all thoroughly, and use +to stuff the fish. If the dressing seems to require more liquid than the +stewed tomato, add a little water.</p> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_FRESH_FISH"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR FRESH FISH</h3> + +<p><b>34. BOILED FISH.</b>--Boiling extracts flavor and, to some extent, nutriment +from the food to which this cookery method is applied. Therefore, unless +the fish to be cooked is one that has a very strong flavor and that will +be improved by the loss of flavor, it should not be boiled. Much care +should be exercised in boiling fish, because the meat is usually so +tender that it is likely to boil to pieces or to fall apart.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 16]</p> + +<p><b>35.</b> A utensil in which fish can be boiled or steamed very satisfactorily +is shown in Fig. 16. This <i>fish boiler</i>, as it is called, is a long, +narrow, deep pan with a cover and a rack on which the fish is placed. +Attached to each end of the rack is an upright strip, or handle, that +permits the rack containing the fish to be lifted out of the pan and the +fish thus removed without breaking. To assist further in holding the +fish together while it is cooking, a piece of gauze or cheesecloth may +be wrapped around the fish before it is put into the pan.</p> + +<p><b>36.</b> When a fish is to be boiled, clean it and, if desired, remove the +head. Pour sufficient boiling water to cover the fish well into the +vessel in which it is to be cooked, and add salt in the proportion of 1 +teaspoonful to each quart of water. Tie the fish in a strip of +cheesecloth or gauze if necessary, and lower it into the vessel of +slowly boiling water. Allow the fish to boil until it may be easily +pierced with a fork; then take it out of the water and remove the cloth, +provided one is used. Serve with a well-seasoned sauce, such as lemon +cream, horseradish, etc.</p> + +<p><b>37. BOILED COD.</b>--A fish that lends itself well to boiling is fresh cod. +In fact, codfish prepared according to this method and served with a +sauce makes a very appetizing dish.</p> + +<p>Scale, clean, and skin a fresh cod and wrap it in a single layer of +gauze or cheesecloth. Place it in a kettle or a pan of freshly boiling +water to which has been added 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of +water. Boil until the fish may be easily pierced with a fork, take from +the water, and remove the gauze or cheesecloth carefully so as to keep +the fish intact. Serve with sauce and slices of lemon.</p> + +<p><b>38. STEAMED FISH.</b>--The preparation of fish by steaming is practically +the same as that by boiling, and produces a dish similar to boiled fish. +The only difference is that steamed fish is suspended over the water and +is cooked by the steam that rises instead of being cooked directly in +the water. Because the fish is not surrounded by water, it does not lose +its nutriment and flavor so readily as does boiled fish.</p> + +<p>If fish is to be cooked by steaming, first clean it thoroughly. Wrap in +a strip of gauze or cheesecloth and place in a steamer. Steam until +tender, and then remove the cloth and place the fish on a platter. As +steaming does not add flavor, it is usually necessary to supply flavor +to fish cooked in this way by adding a sauce of some kind.</p> + +<p><b>39. BROILED FISH.</b>--The best way in which to cook small fish, thin strips +of fish, or even good-sized fish that are comparatively thin when they +are split open is to broil them. Since in this method of cooking the +flavor is entirely retained, it is especially desirable for any fish of +delicate flavor.</p> + +<p>To broil fish, sear them quickly over a very hot fire and then cook them +more slowly until they are done, turning frequently to prevent burning. +As most fish, and particularly the small ones used for broiling, contain +almost no fat, it is necessary to supply fat for successful broiling and +improvement of flavor. It is difficult to add fat to the fish while it +is broiling, so, as a rule, the fat is spread over the surface of the +fish after it has been removed from the broiler. The fat may consist of +broiled strips of bacon or salt pork, or it may be merely melted butter +or other fat.</p> + +<p><b>40. BROILED SCROD WITH POTATO BORDER.</b>--Young cod that is split down the +back and that has had the backbone removed with the exception of a small +portion near the tail is known as <i>scrod</i>. Such fish is nearly always +broiled, it may be served plain, but it is much more attractive when +potatoes are combined with it in the form of an artistic border.</p> + +<p>To prepare this dish, broil the scrod according to the directions given +in Art. 39. Then place it on a hot platter and spread butter over it. +Boil the desired number of potatoes until they are tender, and then +force them through a ricer or mash them until they are perfectly fine. +Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and add sufficient milk to make a +paste that is a trifle stiffer than for mashed potatoes. If desired, raw +eggs may also be beaten into the potatoes to serve as a part of the +moisture. Fill a pastry bag with the potatoes thus prepared and press +them through a rosette tube in any desired design on the platter around +the fish. Bake in a hot oven until the potatoes are thoroughly heated +and are browned slightly on the top.</p> + +<p><b>41. BROILED FRESH MACKEREL.</b>--Probably no fish lends itself better to +broiling than fresh mackerel, as the flesh of this fish is tender and +contains sufficient fat to have a good flavor. To improve the flavor, +however, strips of bacon are usually placed over the fish and allowed to +broil with it.</p> + +<p>Clean and skin a fresh mackerel. Place the fish thus prepared in a +broiler, and broil first on one side and then on the other. When seared +all over, place strips of bacon over the fish and continue to broil +until it is done. Remove from the broiler, season with salt and pepper, +and serve.</p> + +<p><b>42. BROILED SHAD ROE.</b>--The mass of eggs found in shad, as shown in Fig. +17, is known as the <i>roe</i> of shad. Roe may be purchased separately, when +it is found in the markets from January 1 to June 1, or it may be +procured from the fish itself. It makes a delicious dish when broiled, +especially when it is rolled in fat and bread crumbs.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 17]</p> + +<p>Wash the roe that is to be used and dry it carefully between towels. +Roll it in bacon fat or melted butter and then in fine crumbs. Place in +a broiler, broil until completely done on one side, turn and then broil +until entirely cooked on the other side. Remove from the broiler and +pour melted butter over each piece. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and +serve hot.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 18]</p> + +<p><b>43. BAKED FISH.</b>--Good-sized fish, that is, fish weighing 4 or 5 pounds, +are usually baked. When prepared by this method, fish are very +satisfactory if they are spread out on a pan, flesh side up, and baked +in a very hot oven with sufficient fat to flavor them well. A fish of +large size, however, is especially delicious if its cavity is filled +with a stuffing before it is baked.</p> + +<p>When a fish is to be stuffed, any desired stuffing is prepared and then +filled into the fish in the manner shown in Fig. 18. With the cavity +well filled, the edges of the fish are drawn together over the stuffing +and sewed with a coarse needle and thread, as Fig. 19 shows.</p> + +<p>Whether the fish is stuffed or not, the same principles apply in its +baking as apply in the roasting of meat; that is, the heat of a quick, +hot oven sears the flesh, keeps in the juices, and prevents the loss of +flavor, while that of a slow oven causes the loss of much of the flavor +and moisture and produces a less tender dish.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 19]</p> + +<p><b>44.</b> Often, in the baking of fish, it is necessary to add fat. This may +be done by putting fat of some kind into the pan with the fish, by +spreading strips of bacon over the fish, or by larding it. In the dry +varieties of fish, larding, which is illustrated in Fig. 20, proves very +satisfactory, for it supplies the substance in which the fish is most +lacking. As will be observed, larding is done by inserting strips of +bacon or salt pork that are about 3 inches long and 1/4 inch thick into +gashes cut into the sides of the fish.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 20]</p> + +<p><b>45. BAKED HADDOCK.</b>--As haddock is a good-sized fish, it is an especially +suitable one for baking. However, it is a dry fish, so fat should be +added to it to improve its flavor. Any of the methods suggested in Art. +44 may be used to supply the fat that this fish needs.</p> + +<p>When haddock is to be baked, select a 4 or 5-pound fish, clean it +thoroughly, boning it if desired, and sprinkle it inside and out with +salt. Fill the cavity with any desired stuffing and sew up. Place in a +dripping pan, and add some bacon fat or a piece of salt pork, or place +several slices of bacon around it. Bake in a hot oven for about 1 hour. +After it has been in the oven for about 15 minutes, baste with the fat +that will be found in the bottom of the pan and continue to baste every +10 minutes until the fish is done. Remove from the pan to a platter, +garnish with parsley and slices of broiled bacon, and serve with any +desired sauce.</p> + +<p><b>46. BAKED HALIBUT.</b>--Because of its size, halibut is cut into slices and +sold in the form of steaks. It is probably one of the most economical +varieties of fish to buy, for very little bone is contained in a slice +and the money that the housewife expends goes for almost solid meat. +Halibut slices are often sautéd, but they make a delicious dish when +baked with tomatoes and flavored with onion, lemon, and bay leaf, as +described in the accompanying recipe.</p> + +<b>BAKED HALIBUT</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 c. tomatoes</li> +<li>Few slices onion</li> +<li>1 bay leaf</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>2 thin slices bacon</li> +<li>1 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 lb. halibut steak</li> +</ul> + +<p>Heat the tomatoes, onion, and bay leaf in water. Add the salt and pepper +and cook for a few minutes. Cut the bacon into small squares, try it out +in a pan, and into this fat stir the flour. Pour this into the hot +mixture, remove the bay leaf, and cook until the mixture thickens. Put +the steaks into a baking dish, pour the sauce over them, and bake in a +slow oven for about 45 minutes. Remove with the sauce to a hot platter +and serve.</p> + +<p><b>47. BAKED FILLETS OF WHITEFISH.</b>--When whitefish of medium size can be +secured, it is very often stuffed and baked whole, but variety can be +had by cutting it into fillets before baking it. Besides producing a +delicious dish, this method of preparation eliminates carving at the +table, for the pieces can be cut the desired size for serving.</p> + +<p>Prepare fillets of whitefish according to the directions for filleting +fish in Art. 28. Sprinkle each one with salt and pepper, and dip it +first into beaten egg and then into bread crumbs. Brown some butter in a +pan, place the fish into it, and set the pan in a hot oven. Bake until +the fillets are a light brown, or about 30 minutes. Remove to a hot +dish, garnish with parsley and serve with any desired sauce.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 21]</p> + +<p><b>48. FILLET OF FLOUNDER.</b>--In appearance, flounder is not so attractive as +many other fish, but it is a source of excellent flesh and is therefore +much used. A very appetizing way in which to prepare flounder is to +fillet it and prepare it according to the accompanying recipe, when it +will appear as in Fig. 21.</p> + +<p>Secure a flounder and fillet it in the manner explained in Art. 28. Cut +each fillet into halves, making eight pieces from one flounder. Cut +small strips of salt pork or bacon, roll the pieces of flounder around +these, and fasten with a toothpick. Place in a baking dish with a small +quantity of water, and bake in a hot oven until a good brown. Serve hot.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 22]</p> + +<p><b>49. PLANKED FISH.</b>--Like planked steak, planked fish, which is +illustrated in Fig. 22, is a dish that appeals to the eye and pleases +the taste. The fish is baked on the plank and then surrounded with a +border of potatoes, the fish and potatoes making an excellent food.</p> + +<p>To prepare planked fish, thoroughly clean and bone a medium-size +whitefish, shad, haddock, or any desired fish. Grease a plank and place +the fish on it. Lay some strips of bacon across the top of the fish, +place in a hot oven, and bake for about 30 minutes or a little longer if +necessary. Boil potatoes and prepare them for piping by mashing them, +using 4 tablespoonfuls of milk, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and one egg +to each 2 cupfuls of potato. Then, with a rosette pastry tube, pipe a +border of potatoes around the edge of the plank, so that it will appear +as in Fig. 22. Likewise, pipe rosettes of potatoes on the strips of +bacon placed on top of the fish. Then replace the plank with the fish +and potatoes in the oven, and bake until the potatoes are brown. Garnish +with parsley and serve.</p> + +<p><b>50. FRIED FISH.</b>--Very small fish or slices of larger fish are often +fried in deep fat. When they are prepared in this way, they are first +dipped into beaten egg and then into crumbs or corn meal to form a +coating that will cling to their surface. Coated with such a material, +they are fried in deep fat until the surface is nicely browned. After +being removed from the fat, they should be drained well before serving.</p> + +<p><b>51. FRIED PERCH.</b>--When fried in deep fat, perch is found to be very +appetizing. To prepare it in this way, secure a perch and scale and +clean it. Cut it crosswise into 2-inch strips, roll each piece in flour, +and fry in deep fat until nicely browned. Serve hot with lemon or with a +sauce of some kind.</p> + +<p><b>52. FRIED EEL.</b>--If an appetizing way to cook eel is desired, it will be +found advisable to fry it in deep fat. When it is to be cooked in this +way, skin and clean the eel and cut it into thick slices. Pour some +vinegar over the slices, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and allow +them to stand for several hours. Remove the pieces from the vinegar, dip +each one into slightly beaten egg and then into flour, and fry in deep +fat until well browned. Serve plain or with a sauce.</p> + +<p><b>53. SAUTÉD FISH.</b>--Without doubt, the most popular way to prepare fish is +to sauté them. This method may be applied to practically the same kinds +of fish that are fried or broiled, and it is especially desirable for +the more tasteless varieties. It consists in browning the fish well in a +small quantity of fat, first on one side and then on the other. If fat +of good flavor is used, such as bacon or ham fat, the flavor of the +fish will be very much improved. Before sautéing, the fish or pieces of +fish are often dipped into slightly beaten egg and then rolled in flour, +very fine cracker crumbs, or corn meal, or the egg is omitted and they +are merely covered with the dry, starchy material. The effect of this +method of cooking is very similar to that of deep-fat frying, except +that the outside tissues are apt to become, very hard from the +application of the hot fat because of the coating that is generally +used. Since most fish breaks very easily, it is necessary that it be +handled carefully in this method in order that the pieces may be +kept whole.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 23]</p> + +<p><b>54. SAUTÉD SMELTS.</b>--To be most satisfactory, smelts are generally +sautéd, as shown in Fig. 23. Fish of this kind are prepared for cooking +by cutting off the heads and removing the entrails through the opening +thus made; or, if it is desired to leave the heads on, the entrails may +be removed through the gill or a small slit cut below the mouth. At any +rate, these fish are not cut open as are most other fish.</p> + +<p>With the fish thus prepared, roll them in fine cracker crumbs and sauté +them in melted butter until they are nicely browned. Serve with +slices of lemon.</p> + +<p><b>55. SAUTÉD HALIBUT STEAK.</b>--Slices of halibut, when firm in texture and +cut about 3/4 inch thick, lend themselves very well to sautéing. Secure +the required number of such slices and sprinkle each with salt and +pepper. Then spread melted butter over each steak, and roll it in fine +crumbs. Place fat in a frying pan, allow it to become hot, and sauté the +halibut in this until well browned.</p> + +<p><b>56. SAUTÉD PICKEREL.</b>--A variety of fresh-water fish that finds favor +with most persons is pickerel. When this fish is to be sautéd, scale +and clean it and cut it crosswise into 2-inch strips. Then roll each +piece in flour, sprinkle it with salt and pepper, and sauté the slices +in hot fat. When one side is sufficiently brown, turn and brown on the +other side.</p> + +<p><b>57. STEWED FISH.</b>--Like boiling, stewing extracts flavor and nutriment +from fish. The process differs, however, in that the fish is cooked +gently by simmering. This cookery method is employed for fish that is +inclined to be tough. Usually, vegetables, such as carrots and onions, +are cooked with the fish in order to impart flavor. To prevent the fish +from falling apart, it may be wrapped in cheesecloth or gauze.</p> + +<p><b>58. STEWED FRESH HERRING.</b>--When fresh herring can be obtained, it can be +made into a delicious dish by stewing it with onions, parsley, and +carrots. In this method of preparation, the herring should not be +permitted to stew rapidly; it will become more tender if it simmers +gently. As herring are rather small fish, weighing only about 1/2 pound, +it will usually be necessary to obtain more than one for a meal.</p> + +<p>Clean the required number of fresh herring, place them in a saucepan, +and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Brown some slices of onion in +butter, and add the same number of slices of carrots and a generous +quantity of parsley. Add enough boiling water to these vegetables to +cover them and the fish, and pour both over the fish. Place all on the +fire and simmer gently until the fish is tender. Remove the fish from +the water and serve. The vegetables are used merely to add flavor, and +they will have practically boiled away by the time the fish is cooked.</p> + +<p><b>59. STEWED EEL.</b>--Eel is delicious when stewed. When allowed to simmer +slowly with several slices of onion and a little parsley, it becomes +both tasty and tender.</p> + +<p>Skin and clean the eel that is to be stewed, remove all the fat, and cut +into pieces about 2 inches long. Season well with salt and pepper and +place in a saucepan with several slices of onion, 1 tablespoonful of +chopped parsley, and 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Add enough cold water +to cover well, and allow the eel to simmer gently until it is tender +enough to be pierced with a fork. Remove from the water and serve hot.</p> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_SALT_AND_SMOKED_FISH"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR SALT AND SMOKED FISH</h3> + +<p><b>60. PLACE OF SALT AND SMOKED FISH IN THE DIET.</b>--In regions where fresh +fish cannot be obtained or in seasons when they are scarce everywhere, +the housewife will do well to use salt and smoked fish. These varieties +of fish not only will give her a chance to vary the diet, but will +enable her to provide at a more economical price, food that, pound for +pound, contains more nutriment than the same fish when fresh. While some +of the varieties of smoked and salt fish may not be obtainable in all +communities, the housewife will do much toward bringing the supply to +her community by requesting them from the dealer. When a dealer knows +that there is a demand for certain kinds, he will make an effort to +secure the varieties wanted.</p> + +<p><b>61. FRESHENING SALT AND SMOKED FISH.</b>--The cooking of salt and smoked +fish is not a difficult matter, but it always involves the freshening of +the fish before any cooking method can be applied. This consists in +placing the fish in a large quantity of water and allowing it to stand +until enough of the salt has been extracted to suit the taste. Some +kinds of fish are so salty that they require considerable soaking, +whereas others require only a little freshening. However, it is usually +advisable to change the water several times. If it is desired to hasten +the extraction of the salt, the fish should be raised above the bottom +of the vessel by means of a wire rack or several clean sticks. In the +case of very thick fish, several gashes may be cut into the flesh to +permit the salt to pass out more readily.</p> + +<p><b>62. CREAMED CODFISH.</b>--Since codfish is a rather dry fish, containing +little fat, it is usually combined with some other food to make it more +appetizing. In the case of creamed codfish, the cream sauce supplies the +food substances in which the fish is lacking and at the same time +provides a very palatable dish. When codfish is prepared in this way, +boiled potatoes are usually served with it.</p> + +<p>To make creamed codfish, freshen the required amount of codfish by +pouring lukewarm water over it. Shred the fish by breaking it into small +pieces with the fingers. Pour off the water, add fresh warm water, and +allow the fish to stand until it is not too salty. When it is +sufficiently freshened, drain off all the water. Melt a little butter in +a frying pan, add the fish, and sauté until slightly browned. Make a +medium white sauce and pour it over the codfish. Serve hot with +boiled potatoes.</p> + +<p><b>63. CODFISH BALLS.</b>--Another excellent way in which to serve codfish is +to combine it with mashed potatoes, make these into balls, and fry them +in deep fat. These give variety to meals and also afford an opportunity +to serve a nutritious food.</p> + +<p>Freshen the codfish as explained in Art. 61, and then mince it very +fine. Add an equal amount of freshly cooked hot potato that has been put +through a potato ricer or mashed fine. Mix thoroughly and, if necessary, +season with salt and pepper. Shape into balls and fry in deep fat. Drain +well and serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>64. SAUTÉD SALT MACKEREL.</b>--When an extremely tasty dish that will afford +a change from the usual daily routine of meals is desired, sautéd salt +mackerel will be found very satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Freshen salt mackerel that is to be sautéd by putting it into a saucepan +and covering it with cold water. Place this over the fire, and allow the +water to heat to almost the boiling point. Pour off the water, and sauté +the fish in butter or other fat until nicely browned. If desired, pour a +small amount of thin cream over the mackerel just before removing it +from the pan, allow this to heat, and serve it as a sauce with +the mackerel.</p> + +<p><b>65. BAKED FINNAN HADDIE.</b>--When haddock is cured by smoking, it is known +as <i>finnan haddie</i>. As fish of this kind has considerable thick flesh, +it is very good for baking. Other methods of cookery may, of course, be +applied to it, but none is more satisfactory than baking.</p> + +<p>To bake a finnan haddie, wash it in warm water and put it to soak in +fresh warm water. After it has soaked for 1/2 hour, allow it to come +gradually to nearly the boiling point and then pour off the water. Place +the fish in a baking pan, add a piece of butter, sprinkle with pepper, +and pour a little water over it. Bake in a hot oven until it is nicely +browned. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>66. CREAMED FINNAN HADDIE.</b>--The flavor of finnan haddie is such that +this fish becomes very appetizing when prepared with a cream sauce. If, +after combining the sauce with the fish, the fish is baked in the oven, +an especially palatable dish is the result.</p> + +<p>To prepare creamed finnan haddie, freshen the fish and shred it into +small pieces. Then measure the fish, put it into a baking dish, and +pour an equal amount of white sauce over it. Sprinkle generously with +crumbs and bake in a hot oven until the crumbs are browned. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>67. BOILED SALMON.</b>--When smoked salmon can be secured, it makes a +splendid fish for boiling. If it is cooked until tender and then served +with a well-seasoned sauce, it will find favor with most persons.</p> + +<p>Freshen smoked salmon in warm water as much as seems necessary, +remembering that the cooking to which it will be subjected will remove a +large amount of the superfluous salt. Cover the salmon with hot water, +and simmer slowly until it becomes tender. Remove from the water, pour a +little melted butter over it, and serve with any desired sauce.</p> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_CANNED_FISH"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR CANNED FISH</h3> + +<p><b>68. CANNED FISH IN THE DIET.</b>--As a rule, canned fish is a comparatively +cheap food and there is no reason why the economical housewife should +not make frequent use of the various kinds. It should be bought, +however, from a reputable firm, in order that the greatest value may be +obtained for the money spent. In addition, it should be used as soon as +possible after the can has been opened; if all of it cannot be utilized +at one time, it should be placed in a covered receptacle--not a metal +one--and kept cold to prevent it from spoiling. Often canned fish can be +served without any further preparation than removing it from the can. +However, as some varieties, particularly salmon and tuna fish, are much +used in the preparation of both cold and cooked dishes, several recipes +are here given for these varieties.</p> + +<p><b>69. CREAMED TUNA FISH.</b>--Combining tuna fish with a cream sauce and +serving it over toast makes a dish that is both delicate and +palatable--one that will prove very satisfactory when something to take +the place of meat in a light meal is desired.</p> + +<b>CREAMED TUNA FISH</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>3 Tb. butter</li> +<li>3 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. paprika</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. hot milk</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. tuna fish</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the flour, salt, pepper, and +paprika. Stir well, pour in the milk, and when this has thickened add +the tuna fish. Allow this to heat thoroughly in the sauce. Just before +serving, add the slightly beaten egg and cook until this has thickened. +Pour over toast and serve.</p> + +<p><b>70. SALMON MOLD.</b>--A change from the usual way of serving salmon can be +had by making a salmon mold such as is illustrated in Fig. 24. Besides +being a delicious dish and providing variety in the diet, salmon mold is +very attractive.</p> + +<b>SALMON MOLD</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 c. salmon</li> +<li>2 Tb. vinegar</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 Tb. gelatine</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. boiling water</li> +</ul> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 24]</p> + +<p>Remove all skin and bones from the salmon when it is taken from the can, +and mince it thoroughly with a fork. Add the vinegar, salt, and pepper. +Prepare the gelatine by dissolving it in the boiling water. Add the +seasoned salmon to the prepared gelatine. With cold water, wet a +ring-shaped mold having an open space in the center. Pour the +salmon-and-gelatine mixture into this mold, and allow it to stand until +it solidifies. Arrange a bed of lettuce leaves on a chop plate, turn the +mold out on this, and fill the center with dressing. Serve at once. A +very desirable dressing for this purpose is made as follows:</p> + +<b>DRESSING FOR SALMON MOLD</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 c. cream</li> +<li>2 Tb. vinegar</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>2 Tb. sugar</li> +<li>1 c. finely chopped cucumber</li> +</ul> + +<p>Whip the cream until it is stiff, and add the vinegar, salt, and sugar. +Fold into this the finely chopped cucumber.</p> + +<p><b>71. SALMON PATTIES.</b>--Delicious patties can be made from salmon by +combining it with bread crumbs and using a thick white sauce to hold the +ingredients together. These may be either sautéd in shallow fat or fried +in deep fat.</p> + +<b>SALMON PATTIES</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Eight</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 c. finely minced salmon</li> +<li>1 c. fresh bread crumbs</li> +<li>1 c. thick white sauce</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>Dry bread crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>With the salmon, mix the fresh bread crumbs and the white sauce. Season +with salt and pepper. Shape into round patties, roll in the dry bread +crumbs, and fry in deep fat or sauté in shallow fat. Serve hot with or +without sauce.</p> + +<p><b>72. CREAMED SALMON WITH RICE.</b>--A creamed protein dish is always more +satisfactory if it is served on some other food, particularly one high +in carbohydrate. When this is done, a better balanced dish is the +result. Creamed salmon and rice make a very nutritious and appetizing +combination.</p> + +<b>CREAMED SALMON WITH RICE</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. salmon</li> +<li>1 c. medium white sauce</li> +<li>Steamed rice</li> +</ul> + +<p>Break the salmon into moderately small pieces and carefully fold these +into the hot white sauce. Serve this on a mound of hot steamed rice.</p> +<br> + +<a name="RECIPES_FOR_LEFT-OVER_FISH"></a><h3>RECIPES FOR LEFT-OVER FISH</h3> + +<p><b>73.</b> So as not to waste any food material, it is necessary that all +left-over fish be utilized in some way. This is not so simple a matter +as in the case of meat, because fish is one of the foods that are not +popular as a left-over dish. Still fish left-overs can be used if a +little thought is given to the matter. Of course, it is a wise plan to +prepare only the quantity of fish that can be consumed at the meal for +which it is cooked, but should any remain it should not be thrown away, +for some use can be made of it. A point to remember, however, is that +fish is not satisfactory in soup of any kind except a fish soup; +therefore, bits of left-over fish may be added to only such soups as +clam chowder or other fish chowder.</p> + +<p>Whether the fish has been boiled, steamed, baked, fried, sautéd, or +prepared in any other way, it may always be made into croquettes. When +used for this purpose, all the bones should be carefully removed. These +may be easily taken out after the fish has become cold. If the fish has +been stuffed and part of the stuffing remains, it may be broken into +pieces and used with the flesh of the fish. A recipe for croquettes in +which fish is combined with rice follows.</p> + +<p><b>74. FISH CROQUETTES.</b>--If any quantity of left-over fish is on hand, it +may be combined with rice to make very tasty croquettes.</p> + +<b>FISH CROQUETTES</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1-1/2 c. cold fish</li> +<li>1 c. cold steamed rice</li> +<li>1 c. thick white sauce</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>Crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mince the fish into small pieces, mix with the rice, and add the white +sauce. Season with salt and pepper and shape into croquettes. Dip into +slightly beaten egg, roll in crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Drain and +serve with any desired sauce.</p> + +<p><b>75. CREAMED FISH IN POTATO NEST.</b>--Fish may also be combined with mashed +potato to produce a most appetizing dish. Line a baking dish with hot +mashed potato, leaving a good-sized hollow in the center. Into this pour +creamed fish made by mixing equal proportions of left-over cold fish and +white sauce. Season well with salt and pepper, sprinkle with crumbs, and +dot the top with butter. Bake until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>SHELL FISH</b> + +<a name="NATURE,_VARIETIES,_AND_USE_OF_SHELL_FISH"></a><h3>NATURE, VARIETIES, AND USE OF SHELL FISH</h3> + +<p><b>76.</b> Besides the varieties of fish that have already been considered, the +general term fish also includes SHELL FISH. Fish of this kind are +different in structure from bony fish, for they are acquatic animals +that are entirely or partly encased in shells. They include <i>mollusks</i>, +or <i>bivalves</i>, such as oysters, clams, and scallops, and <i>crustaceans</i>, +such as lobsters, crabs, and shrimp.</p> + +<p><b>77.</b> The popularity of the edible varieties of mollusks and crustaceans +mentioned depends largely on whether they can be easily obtained and +whether they are pleasing to the local or individual taste. As they are +found in salt rivers, bays, and other shallow salt-water sources, their +greatest use is among people living near the seashore, but they are much +favored where they can be procured in edible condition. They are not so +cheap as many other fish foods; that is, a certain amount of money will +not purchase so great a quantity of shell fish, lobster for instance, as +some of the well-known varieties of fish proper, such as halibut or +whitefish. Lobsters and crabs are usually more expensive than oysters +and clams; consequently, they are used more often to provide a delicacy +or to supply something more or less uncommon for a special meal.</p> + +<p><b>78.</b> Several precautions should be observed in purchasing shell fish. For +instance, crabs and lobsters should be purchased alive. They are usually +shipped on ice so that they will remain in this condition for some time, +and they are displayed on ice in the markets for the same reason. Such +shell fish should be kept alive until they are plunged into boiling +water to cook. Oysters and clams bought in the shell must also be alive +when purchased. A tightly closed shell indicates that they are alive, +whereas a slightly open shell proves that they are dead. If these two +varieties are bought out of the shells, the fish themselves should not +be accompanied by a great quantity of liquid. Considerable liquid is an +indication that the oysters or clams have been adulterated by the +addition of water. Formerly it was the custom to keep oysters in fresh +water, as the water they absorb bloats or fattens them. This practice, +however, has fallen into disfavor.</p> + +<p><b>79.</b> Shell fish lend themselves admirably to a large variety of dishes, +including soups, entrees, salads, and substitutes for meat dishes. They +possess a great deal of distinctive flavor, their food value is +comparatively high, and, provided they are in good condition and are +properly prepared, they are healthful and easily digested. It can +therefore be seen that shell fish have much to recommend their use. +There is considerable danger, however, in using any varieties that are +not perfectly fresh or freshly cooked. In the case of mollusks, or +bivalves, much harm has resulted from the use of those which have been +grown or bred in unsanitary surroundings. Because of these facts, it is +of the utmost importance that great care be exercised in selecting and +preparing shell fish.</p> + +<p><b>80. COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL FISH.</b>--In composition, the +varieties of fish included under shell fish do not differ greatly from +fish proper. Most of them, however, contain more waste and less of the +food substances than fish, so that their food value is somewhat lower. +Table IV will serve to give a good idea of the composition and food +value of the several varieties of shell fish, and in studying it, a good +plan will be to compare it with Table I, which gives the food value of +fish. As will be observed, protein forms a very large proportion of the +food substance of shell fish. Also, they contain more carbohydrates than +fish, the amount ranging from .4 to 5.2 per cent., which is in the form +of sugar. Although this amount is too small to warrant much +consideration as a supply of carbohydrates, it is mentioned because it +is an interesting fact.</p><br><br> + +<center><b>TABLE IV</b><br> + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL FISH</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td align="left">Name of Fish</td><td align="center">Water</td><td align="center">Protein</td><td align="center">Fat</td><td align="center">Total<br>Carbohydrates</td><td align="center">Ash</td><td align="center">Food Value<br>Per Pound<br>Calories</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Clams, removed from shell</td><td align="right">80.8</td><td align="right">10.6</td><td align="right">1.1</td><td align="right">5.2</td><td align="right">2.3</td><td align="right">340</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Crabs, whole</td><td align="right">77.1</td><td align="right">16.6</td><td align="right">2.0</td><td align="right">1.2</td><td align="right">3.1</td><td align="right">415</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Lobsters, whole</td><td align="right">79.2</td><td align="right">16.4</td><td align="right">1.8</td><td align="right">.4</td><td align="right">2.2</td><td align="right">390</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Oysters, in shell</td><td align="right">86.9</td><td align="right">6.2</td><td align="right">1.2</td><td align="right">3.7</td><td align="right">2.0</td><td align="right">235</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Scallops</td><td align="right">80.3</td><td align="right">14.8</td><td align="right">.1</td><td align="right">3.4</td><td align="right">1.4</td><td align="right">345</td></tr> +</table> +<br><br> + + +<center><b>TABLE V</b><br> + +SEASONS FOR SHELL FISH</center> + +<table align="center" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td ><b>NAME OF FISH</b></td><td ><b>SEASON</b></td></tr> +<tr><td >Clams, hard shelled</td><td >All the year</td></tr> +<tr><td >Clams, soft shelled</td><td >May 1 to October 15</td></tr> +<tr><td >Crabs, hard shelled</td><td >All the year</td></tr> +<tr><td >Crabs, soft shelled</td><td >March 1 to October 15</td></tr> +<tr><td >Lobsters</td><td >All the year</td></tr> +<tr><td >Oysters</td><td >September 1 to May 1</td></tr> +<tr><td >Scallops</td><td >September 15 to April 1</td></tr> +<tr><td >Shrimp</td><td >March 15 to June 1, and<br>September 15 to October 15</td></tr></table> +<br> +<br> + +<p><b>81. SEASONS FOR SHELL FISH.</b>--With the exception of clams and lobster, +which can be obtained all the year around, shell fish have particular +seasons; that is, there is a certain time of the year when they are not +suitable for food. It is very important that every housewife know just +what these seasons are, so that she will not include the foods in the +diet of her family when they should not be used. Table V, which will +furnish her with the information she needs, should therefore be +carefully studied.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>OYSTERS, CLAMS, AND SCALLOPS</b> + +<a name="OYSTERS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>OYSTERS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 25]</p> + +<p><b>82.</b> OYSTERS, CLAMS, and SCALLOPS are salt-water fish that belong to the +family of mollusks, or soft-bodied animals. They are entirely encased in +hard shells, which, though of the same general shape, differ somewhat +from each other in appearance. Fig. 25 shows a group of oysters and +clams, the three on the left being oysters and the three on the right, +clams. Oysters are larger than clams and have a rough, uneven shell, +whereas clams have a smooth, roundish shell. The three varieties of +mollusks are closely related in their composition and in their use as +food, but as oysters are probably used more commonly than the others +they are considered first.</p> + +<p><b>83. COMPOSITION OF OYSTERS.</b>--Oysters occupy a prominent place among +animal foods, because they are comparatively high in protein. In +addition, they contain a substance that most flesh foods lack in any +quantity, namely, carbohydrate in the form of glycogen, and for this +reason are said to resemble milk closely in composition. A comparison +of the following figures will show how these foods resemble each other:</p> + + +<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5"> +<tr><td align="right"></td><td >WATER</td><td >PROTEIN</td><td >FAT</td><td >CARBOHYDRATE</td><td >MINERAL SALTS</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">Milk</td><td align="center">87.0</td><td align="center">3.3</td><td align="center">4.0</td><td align="center">5.0</td><td align="center">0.7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">Oysters</td><td align="center">86.9</td><td align="center">6.2</td><td align="center">1.2</td><td align="center">3.7</td><td align="center">2.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Oysters, as will be observed, contain only a small quantity of fat, and +for this reason their total food value is somewhat lower than that of +milk. A pint of milk has a value of 325 calories, while the same +quantity of oysters has an approximate value of only 250 calories. +Because of the difference in the cost of these two foods, oysters +costing several times as much as milk, the use of oysters is not so +cheap a way of supplying food material.</p> + +<p><b>84. DIGESTIBILITY OF OYSTERS.</b>--When merely the ability of the digestive +tract to handle oysters is taken into consideration, they are said to be +easily digested if they are served raw or are properly prepared. This is +due to the fact that when taken as a food they are disposed of in a +comparatively short time by the stomach. In addition, their absorption +from the alimentary tract is quite complete; that is, they contain +little or no waste material. But, just as cooking has much to do with +the digestibility of other protein foods, so it has with oysters. For +this reason, the housewife who wishes to feed her family this food in +its most digestible form must thoroughly understand all phases of +its cooking.</p> + +<p><b>85. HEALTHFULNESS OF OYSTERS.</b>--Much illness has been attributed to +oysters, and without doubt they have been the cause of some typhoid and +some ptomaine poisoning. A knowledge of the reason for these diseases +has done much to eliminate them. It is now definitely known that much of +the typhoid caused from eating oysters was due to the conditions under +which they were grown. In their growth, oysters fasten themselves to +stationary things, such as rocks or piles driven into the ground +underneath the water, and they obtain their food by simply opening the +shell and making use of minute particles of plant and animal life that +they are able to extract from the water. When the water was not clean or +when sewage was turned into it, typhoid germs were transmitted to +persons who took oysters as food. At present, there is scarcely any +danger from such causes, for more care is now given to the conditions +under which oysters grow. Ptomaine poisoning from oysters was caused by +eating them when they had been improperly cared for in storage or had +been taken from the shells after they were dead. Unless persons handling +oysters know how to take care of them, this danger is still likely +to exist.</p> + +<p><b>86. PURCHASING OYSTERS.</b>--To be able to purchase oysters intelligently, +the housewife should be familiar with the names of the various kinds. +These names are dependent on the locality from which the oysters come, +and include <i>Blue Points, Cape Cods, Cotuits, Lynn Havens</i>, and numerous +other varieties. It should be remembered that the varieties raised in +different localities are quite distinctive, differing to some extent in +both size and appearance. Unless the purchaser is familiar with the +different varieties, almost any of the small oysters are likely to be +sold to her for one of the small varieties and, likewise, any of the +large oysters for one of the large varieties. While this is of small +consequence, provided the quality is satisfactory and the price is +right, it is well for every housewife to familiarize herself with the +names of the various kinds, so that she may know just what variety she +is purchasing.</p> + +<p><b>87.</b> When oysters are bought in the shell, they should be alive, a fact +that can be determined by the tightly closed shell, as has already been +stated. If the shells are not closed or can be easily pried apart, it +may be known that the oysters are not good and that they should be +rejected. When it is possible to procure them, oysters that have been +removed from the shells immediately after being taken from the beds are +preferable to those which have not been removed from the shells before +shipping. When purchased out of the shells, oysters should be grayish in +color, should have no disagreeable odor, and should contain no excess +water or liquid. After being purchased, oysters should be kept on ice +unless they can be cooked at once.</p> + +<p>The season for oysters is from September to April, inclusive. While in +some localities they can be purchased at other times during the year, +they are not likely to be so good. In fact, it is not safe to use +oysters during the warm months.</p> + +<p><b>88. IMPORTANT POINTS IN COOKING OYSTERS.</b>--The protein of oysters, like +that found in other foods, is coagulated by heat. Long heat, provided it +is sufficiently intense, makes oysters tough, and in this condition they +are neither agreeable to eat nor readily digested. When they are to be +cooked at a high temperature, therefore, the cooking should be done +quickly. If they are to be cooked at a temperature below the boiling +point, they may be subjected to heat for a longer time without becoming +so tough as when a high temperature is used. Cooking quickly at a high +temperature, however, is preferable in most cases to long, slow cooking. +For example, in the preparation of oyster stew, long cooking produces no +better flavor than short cooking at a high temperature and renders +oysters far less digestible.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 26]</p> + +<p><b>89. OPENING OYSTERS.</b>--Unless oysters are bought already opened, it +becomes necessary to open them in the home before they can be served raw +or cooked. To open oysters is not difficult, and with a little +experience the work can be done with ease. It will be well to note that +the two shells of an oyster, which are called <i>valves</i>, are held +together by a single muscle, known as the <i>adductor muscle</i>, that lies +near the center, and that this muscle must be cut before the shell will +open readily. Before attempting to open oysters, however, they should be +scrubbed with clean water, so as to remove any +sand that may be on the shells. When the oysters are cleaned, proceed to +open them in the manner shown in Figs. 26 and 27. First, as in Fig. 26, +insert the point of a knife into the hinged, or pointed, end and push +the blade between the valves until they appear to separate, when it will +be known that the muscle has been cut. Then, as in Fig. 27, lay the +valves open and loosen the oyster from the shell by slipping the +knife under it.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 27]</p> + +<p>If the oysters that are being opened are to be cooked before serving, +simply drop them with their liquid into a suitable vessel and discard +the shells. Before using the oysters, remove them from the liquid, look +them over carefully to see that no small particles of shells cling to +them, and wash them in clean, cold water to remove any sand that may be +present. Also, strain the liquid through a cloth, so that it will be +free from sand when used in the preparation of the dish for which the +oysters are to be used or for the making of soup or broth.</p> + +<p>Oysters that are to be eaten raw are frequently served on the half +shell. Therefore, if they are to be used in this way, place each oyster, +as it is loosened in the process of opening, into the deeper shell, as +Fig. 27 shows, and discard the other one. Very often good-looking oyster +shells are saved in order that they may be used from time to time in +serving raw oysters that are bought already opened.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 27]</p> + +<p><b>90. RAW OYSTERS.</b>--When an appetizer is desired in a meal that is to +consist of several courses, raw oysters are often used for the first +course. Oysters that are to be eaten raw may be served in the shells or +removed from them. They are bland in flavor, however, and require some +sharp, highly seasoned sauce in order to give them sufficient snap. The +sauces commonly used for this purpose include cocktail sauce, chilli +sauce, catsup, horseradish, and tobasco sauce. Sometimes, though, lemon +juice or vinegar and pepper and salt are preferred to sauce. As a rule, +crisp crackers, small squares of toast, or wafers and butter accompany +raw oysters in any form, and sometimes celery and radishes are +served, too.</p> + +<p><b>91.</b> When a cocktail sauce is served with raw oysters, they are generally +referred to as OYSTER COCKTAILS. Two methods of serving these are in +practice. In one, as shown in Fig. 28, the cocktail sauce is put into a +small glass placed in the center of a soup plate filled with cracked +ice, and the oysters, usually six in half shells, are arranged around +the glass, on the ice. In the other, as shown in Fig. 29, the desired +number of oysters that have been removed from the shells are dropped +into a stemmed glass containing the cocktail sauce, and the glass is +placed in a bowl of cracked ice. An <i>oyster fork</i>, which is a small, +three-pronged fork, is always served with raw oysters, and usually a +piece of lemon is supplied in addition to the cocktail sauce.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 28]</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 29]</p> + +<p><b>92. OYSTER STEW.</b>--If an extremely nutritious way of preparing oysters is +desired, oyster stew should be selected. This is perhaps the simplest +way in which to cook oysters, and yet care must be exercised in making +this dish, for the oysters should not be cooked too long and the milk, +which must be brought to the boiling point, should not be allowed to +burn. Oyster stew makes an excellent dish for lunch. It should not be +served as the first course of a heavy meal because of the large amount +of nutriment it contains.</p> + +<b>OYSTER STEW</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 qt. oysters</li> +<li>1 qt. milk</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Pour 1 cupful of water over the oysters, look them over carefully, and +remove any pieces of shell that may cling to the oysters, making sure +that any particles of sand are washed off. Heat this liquid to the +boiling point and then strain it through a cloth. Put the milk on the +fire to heat, and when hot, add the butter, salt, and pepper, and +strained liquid. After the whole mixture has come to the boiling point, +pour in the oysters and cook until they look plump and the edges begin +to curl. Remove from the heat and serve with crisp crackers.</p> + +<p><b>93. CREAMED OYSTERS.</b>--Another nutritious way in which to prepare oysters +and at the same time produce a dish that is pleasing to most persons is +to cream them. After being creamed, oysters may be served over toast or +in timbale cases.</p> + +<b>CREAMED OYSTERS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>24 oysters</li> +<li>1-1/2 c. medium white sauce</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>6 slices toast or 6 timbale cases</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a frying pan, add the oysters, and heat them in the +butter until the edges begin to curl slightly. Pour the hot oysters into +the hot white sauce, season to taste with salt and pepper, and serve +over toast or in timbale cases.</p> + +<p><b>94. SCALLOPED OYSTERS.</b>--No food makes a more palatable scalloped dish +than oysters. Oysters so prepared are liked by nearly every one, and the +ingredients with which they are combined help to give such a dish +balance so far as the food substances are concerned. Care should be +taken, however, in the baking of scalloped oysters, for they are likely +to become tough if they are cooked too long.</p> + +<b>SCALLOPED OYSTERS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. bread crumbs</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 c. cracker crumbs</li> +<li>1 pt. oysters</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +</ul> + +<p>Butter the bread crumbs with the butter, and then mix them with the +cracker crumbs. Sprinkle the bottom of a greased baking dish with +one-fourth of the crumbs, and over this put a layer of oysters that have +been previously cleaned. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and add +one-fourth more of the crumbs. Add another layer of oysters, sprinkle +with salt and pepper, and place the remainder of the crumbs on top. +Strain the liquid from the oysters through a piece of cloth, mix this +with the milk, and pour over the dish thus prepared. Place in a hot +oven, and bake until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the top +is brown.</p> + +<p><b>95. FRIED OYSTERS.</b>--Of all the dishes prepared from oysters, fried +oysters undoubtedly find favor with the greatest number of persons. +However, unless care is taken in frying the oysters, they are likely to +be somewhat indigestible. Deep fat should be used for this purpose, and +it should be hot enough to brown a 1-inch cube of bread a golden brown +in 40 seconds.</p> + +<b>FRIED OYSTERS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>24 large oysters</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>1/4 c. milk</li> +<li>Fine cracker crumbs</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Thoroughly dry the oysters by laying them on one end of a soft cloth and +patting them with the other. Beat the egg and add the milk to it. Dip +the oysters into the cracker crumbs, then into the egg-and-milk mixture, +and again into the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until brown. Remove from the +fat, drain well, and place on oiled paper. Sprinkle with salt and pepper +and serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>96. OYSTER PIE.</b>--Baking oysters into a pie is another means of combining +a protein food with foods that are high in other food substances. As +oyster pie is somewhat hearty, it may be used as the main dish of a +heavy meal.</p> + +<b>OYSTER PIE</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. oysters</li> +<li>1 c. medium white sauce</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +<li>Baking-powder biscuit dough</li></ul> + + +<p>Cut each of the oysters into three or four pieces, and place them in a +greased baking dish. Pour over them the hot white sauce and the juice +from the oysters. Season with salt and pepper. Over the top, place a +layer of the biscuit dough rolled about 1/4 inch thick. Set in a hot +oven and bake until the crust is brown.</p> + +<p><b>97. PIGS IN BLANKETS.</b>--When something entirely different in the way of +oysters is desired, pigs in blankets should be tried. This is a very +good name for the dish given in the accompanying recipe, for the oysters +are rolled up in a strip of bacon, which serves as a blanket. They are +especially suitable for a light meal, such as luncheon or a dainty lunch +that is to be served to company.</p> + +<b>PIGS IN BLANKETS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>18 large oysters</li> +<li>18 thin strips of bacon</li> +</ul> + +<p>After the oysters have been cleaned, roll each one in a strip of bacon. +Fasten the bacon where the edges meet by running a toothpick through at +this point. Place in a broiler and broil on one side until brown; then +turn them and broil until the other side is brown. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>98. OYSTER FRITTERS.</b>--Variety may also be secured in the use of oysters +by making oyster fritters. When such fritters are nicely browned and +served with an appetizing sauce, an attractive as well as a tasty dish +is the result.</p> + +<b>OYSTER FRITTERS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 pt. oysters</li> +<li>1 egg muffin batter</li> +</ul> + +<p>Clean the oysters and cut each into four or five pieces. Make a one-egg +muffin batter and to it add the cut oysters. Drop the mixture by +spoonfuls into deep fat and fry until brown. Remove from the fat, drain, +and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Serve with a desired sauce.</p> +<br> + +<a name="CLAMS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>CLAMS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>99. NATURE AND DIGESTIBILITY OF CLAMS.</b>--Clams are bivalves similar to +oysters in both form and composition. Because of the similarity in +composition, they are utilized in much the same ways as oysters, being +used extensively for food in parts of the country where the supply is +large. There are numerous varieties of clams, and some of them differ +slightly from each other in appearance, color, and flavor. Preference +for the different varieties is largely a matter of individual taste.</p> + +<p>Clams may be purchased loose or in the shell and they may be served in +or out of the shell. However, when bought in the shell, they must be +purchased alive and must be subjected to the same tests as are oysters. +As in the case of oysters, they may be eaten raw or cooked. Their +preparation for cooking is similar to that of oysters. In the raw state, +they are easily digested, but upon the application of heat they become +tough, and the longer they are cooked, the tougher they become. It can +therefore be seen that the digestibility of clams is influenced very +much by cooking.</p> + +<p><b>100. OPENING CLAMS.</b>--If clams are to be opened in the home, the method +illustrated in Fig. 30 may be employed. First wash the clams to remove +the sand, and then place a clam on a hard surface so that the pointed +edge is up. Insert the thin edge of a knife into the very slight groove +between the shells, or valves, and with a heavy utensil of some kind +strike the top of the knife several times so as to separate the valves. +Then, as in opening oysters, spread the shells apart, as shown, and +loosen the clam from the shell it adheres to.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 30]</p> + +<p><b>101. RAW CLAMS.</b>--Like oysters, raw clams are generally served as a +cocktail, or an appetizer, at the beginning of a meal. If they are to be +served in the half shell, place them in a dish of cracked ice; if they +are to be served without the shells, place the required number in a +stemmed glass that is set in a dish of cracked ice. In either case, +lemon or a suitable sauce, or both, should be supplied.</p> + +<p><b>102. STEAMED CLAMS.</b>--Steaming is the method generally adopted when clams +in large numbers are cooked for a "clam bake," but there is no reason +why it cannot be used by the housewife when she wishes to cook only +enough for her family. When large quantities are to be steamed, use is +generally made of a steamer, but the housewife will find that she can +steam a few clams very satisfactorily in a saucepan or a similar vessel.</p> + +<p>To prepare steamed clams, scrub the shells of the clams until they are +perfectly clean. Place the desired number thus cleaned in a saucepan and +add enough water to cover the bottom of the pan about 1 inch. Allow this +to cook until the shells of the clams open. Remove the clams from the +pan and serve them in the shells. Provide each person with a small dish +of melted butter into which to dip the clams as they are removed from +the shells to be eaten. The liquid found in the clams may be poured from +the shell before the clams are served, and after being well seasoned may +be served as clam broth.</p> + +<p><b>103. BAKED CLAMS.</b>--Another very appetizing way in which to prepare clams +is to combine them with bread crumbs, season them well, and then bake +them until they are well browned. Select several good-sized clams for +each person to be served. Scrub the shells well and open them. Remove +the clams and chop them into small pieces. To each cupful of chopped +clams, add 2 cupfuls of buttered bread crumbs, 1 tablespoonful of +chopped parsley, 1 tablespoonful of chopped pimiento, and 1 +tablespoonful of onion juice. Season the mixture with salt and pepper +and fill the shells with it. Place these in a shallow pan and bake in a +very hot oven until the crumbs are well browned on top. Serve hot.</p> + +<p><b>104. FRIED CLAMS.</b>--As oysters make a very desirable dish when fried in +deep fat, so clams may be treated in this way, too. Remove the desired +number of clams from the shells, wash them thoroughly, and dry them on a +clean towel. Dip them into beaten egg, and finally into the crumbs. Fry +in deep fat until they are a golden brown. Serve with slices of lemon.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SCALLOPS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>SCALLOPS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>105. NATURE OF SCALLOPS.</b>--Scallops, which are another form of bivalves, +are less commonly used for food than oysters and clams. Scalloped dishes +get their name from the fact that scallop shells were originally used +for their preparation. Not all of the scallop is used for food; merely +the heavy muscle that holds the two shells together is edible. Scallops +are slightly higher in protein than oysters and clams and they also have +a higher food value than these two mollusks. The most common method of +preparation for scallops is to fry them, but they may also be baked in +the shells.</p> + +<p><b>106. FRIED SCALLOPS.</b>--If scallops are properly fried, they make an +appetizing dish. As they are a rather bland food, a sauce of some kind, +preferably a sour one, is generally served with them.</p> + +<p>Select the desired number of scallops and wash thoroughly. Dip first +into either fine bread crumbs or cracker crumbs, then into beaten egg, +and again into the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden brown, remove, +and drain. Serve with lemon or a sour sauce, such as horseradish or +tomato sauce.</p> + +<p><b>107. BAKED SCALLOPS.</b>--If a tasty as well as a slightly unusual dish is +desired to give variety to the diet, baked scallops will undoubtedly +find favor. As shown in the accompanying recipe, mushrooms are one of +the ingredients in baked scallops and these not only provide additional +material, but improve the flavor.</p> + +<p>To prepare baked scallops, clean the desired number, parboil for 15 +minutes, drain, and cut into small pieces. For each cupful of scallops, +melt 2 tablespoonfuls of butter in a frying pan, sauté in it 1 +tablespoonful of chopped onion, and add 1/2 cupful of chopped mushrooms. +When these have browned, add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour and 1 cupful of +milk. Cook until thick and then add the scallops. Fill the scallop +shells with the mixture, sprinkle with buttered bread crumbs, place in +the oven, and bake until the crumbs are brown.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;"> + +<b>LOBSTERS, CRABS, AND SHRIMP</b><br><br> + +<b>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS</b><br><br> + +<p><b>108.</b> The shell fish, LOBSTERS, CRABS, and SHRIMP, come under the head of +crustaceans; that is, animals consisting of jointed sections, each of +which is covered with a hard shell. Their flesh is similar in +composition to that of other fish, but it is tougher and harder to +digest. However, it is popular because of its unique and delicate +flavor. In fact, whenever these varieties of fish can be obtained along +the seacoast or within a reasonable distance from the place where they +are caught, they are considered a delicacy. If they can be shipped alive +to any point, they are perfectly safe to use, although quite high in +price because of their perishable nature.</p> + +<p><b>109.</b> Unless such shell fish can be procured alive in the markets, the +use of a good brand of any of them canned is recommended. In fact, +canned lobster, crab, and shrimp are very satisfactory and may be +substituted for any of the fresh cooked varieties in the recipes that +follow. It is true that some persons object to canned food because +ptomaine poisoning sometimes results, but it has been found that +ptomaine poisoning is more liable to result from eating these foods when +they are bought in the market in poor condition than when they are +secured in canned form. Care must be exercised, however, whenever use is +made of canned food of any kind. Upon opening a can of any of these +varieties of fish, the entire contents should be removed from the can at +once and used as soon as possible. It must be remembered that the +ptomaine poisoning that is sometimes caused by eating canned foods is +not due to the fact that the foods come in tin cans, but that they are +allowed to stand in the cans after they are opened. Upon their being +exposed to the air, putrefaction sets in and causes the harmful effect.</p> + +<p><b>110.</b> Lobsters, crabs, and shrimp are very similar in composition, shrimp +being slightly higher in protein and total food value than the others. +If they are not prepared in an indigestible way, they are comparatively +easy to digest. It has been proved a fallacy that lobster and ice cream +are a dangerous combination, for if both are in good condition they may +be combined with no ill effects to the normal individual.</p> +<br> + +<a name="LOBSTERS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>LOBSTERS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>111. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES.</b>--Of these three types of sea food, +lobsters are perhaps the most popular. They are found along the North +Atlantic and North Pacific seacoasts. Alive, they are mottled +bluish-green in color, but upon being cooked they change to bright red. +As soon as they are caught, many of them are packed in ice and shipped +alive to various points, while others are plunged immediately into +boiling water and sold cooked. A live lobster ready for cooking is shown +in Fig. 31. Lobsters vary greatly in size. Only those 9 inches or more +in length can be sold, the smaller ones being thrown back into the +water. When they are purchased either raw or cooked, they should be +heavy for their size; that is, they should be heavy because of their +plumpness and good condition.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 31]</p> + +<p><b>112. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION.</b>--To prepare a lobster, which should be +alive, grasp it firmly by the back, as shown in Fig. 32, plunge it +quickly, head first, into a kettle of rapidly boiling water, and then +submerge the rest of the body. Be sure to have a sufficient amount of +water to cover the lobster completely. Boil rapidly for 5 minutes; then +lower the flame or remove to a cooler part of the stove and cook slowly +for 1/2 hour. Remove from the water and allow to cool.</p> + +<p>After being prepared in this way, a lobster may be served cold or it may +be used in the preparation of various made dishes. If it is to be used +without further preparation, it is often served from the shell, which is +usually split open. Mayonnaise or some other sauce is generally served +with lobster. The flesh is removed from the shell with a small fork as +it is eaten.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 32]</p> + +<p><b>113. REMOVING LOBSTER FROM THE SHELL.</b>--The majority of the dishes made +from lobster require that the flesh be removed from the shell. To do +this, first pull off the two large claws and the four pairs of small +claws, as shown in Fig. 33, and break the tail</p> + +<p>[Illustration FIG. 33]</p> + +<p>from the body. Then with scissors, as in Fig. 34, cut a single slit the +entire length of the shell covering the under part of the tail and +remove the flesh inside the tail in a whole, large piece, as shown in +Fig. 35. The intestinal tract, which can be readily observed, will be +found embedded in this piece and running the entire length. Slash the +flesh and remove it. Next remove the flesh of the body from the shell, +retaining only that part which appears to be fibrous, like the flesh of +the tail. The stomach, which is called "the lady" because its inside +appearance closely resembles a lady sitting in a chair, should not be +removed from the shell. However, care should be taken to obtain all the +flesh surrounding the bones in the bony part of the lobster. The coral +substance, that is, the roe of the lobster, should also be removed, as +it can be used for a garnish.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 34]</p> + +<p>With the flesh removed from the shell, proceed to take out that +contained in the claws. Break open the large claws, using a nut cracker +or a small hammer for this purpose, and, as in Fig. 36, remove the flesh +that they contain. If the small claws are to be used for a garnish, as +is often done, remove the flesh without breaking them; otherwise break +them as in the case of the large ones.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 35]</p> + +<p><b>114. LOBSTER COCKTAIL.</b>--Practically all varieties of shell fish make +most satisfactory cocktails, and lobster is no exception. To make a +lobster cocktail, shred or cut into small pieces the flesh of a lobster +that has been prepared according to the directions just given. Chill the +shreds or pieces and then serve them in stemmed cocktail glasses with +any desirable cocktail sauce.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 36]</p> + +<p><b>115. SCALLOPED LOBSTER.</b>--Persons who care for the flavor of lobster will +find scalloped lobster a very attractive dish. When prepared in this +way, it is suitable either for luncheon or for dinner.</p> + +<b>SCALLOPED LOBSTER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. lobster meat</li> +<li>1 c. medium white sauce</li> +<li>2/3 c. buttered bread crumbs</li> +<li>1 hard-cooked egg</li> +<li>Salt</li> +<li>Pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the lobster with the medium white sauce. Butter a baking dish, place +half of the crumbs in the bottom, and pour over them the lobster and +white sauce. Slice the hard-cooked egg over the top of the lobster, +season the whole well with salt and pepper, and sprinkle the remainder +of the crumbs over the top. Place in a hot oven and bake until the +crumbs are brown. Garnish with sprays of parsley and serve at once.</p> + +<p><b>116. DEVILED LOBSTER.</b>--A dish that is delicious and at the same time +very attractive is deviled lobster. After removing the flesh from the +shell, the shell should be cleaned thoroughly, as it is to be used as a +receptacle in which to put the lobster mixture for baking. When removed +from the oven, this dish can be made more attractive by garnishing it +with the lobster claws and tail.</p> + +<b>DEVILED LOBSTER</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 Tb. chopped onion</li> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>2 Tb. flour</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Dash of Cayenne pepper</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. paprika</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 Tb. lemon juice</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped parsley</li> +<li>1 c. milk</li> +<li>2 c. lobster meat</li> +<li>1/4 c. buttered cracker crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Sauté the onion in the butter, and to this add the flour, salt, Cayenne +pepper, paprika, pepper, lemon juice, and parsley. Mix well and add the +milk. When the whole has cooked until it is thick, add the lobster. Pour +the mixture into the clean shell of the lobster, sprinkle with cracker +crumbs, and place in the oven long enough to brown the crumbs. Remove +from the oven, place on a serving dish, garnish with the claws and tail +of the lobster, if desired, and serve at once.</p> + +<p><b>117. LOBSTER À LA NEWBURG.</b>--When lobster à la Newburg is mentioned, one +naturally thinks of a chafing dish, for this is one of the dishes that +is very often made in a chafing dish and served at small social +gatherings. However, it can be made just as satisfactorily on the +kitchen stove and is a dish suitable for a home luncheon or +small dinner.</p> + +<b>LOBSTER À LA NEWBURG</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 Tb. flour</li> +<li>2 c. lobster</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Few grains of Cayenne pepper</li> +<li>1/2 c. milk</li> +<li>1/2 c. thin cream</li> +<li>1 tsp. vinegar</li> +<li>1 Tb. lemon juice</li> +<li>2 egg yolks</li> +</ul> + +<p>Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, and into this pour the +lobster meat cut into rather large pieces. Add the salt, pepper, milk, +and cream; cook together until thick, and then pour in the vinegar and +lemon juice. Beat the egg yolks and stir them into the cooked mixture, +using care to prevent them from curdling. When the mixture has +thickened, remove from the stove and serve over toast.</p> + +<p><b>118. LOBSTER CROQUETTES.</b>--Probably the most attractive dish that can be +made out of lobster is the one explained in the accompanying recipe. As +this is artistically garnished, and at the same time extremely +appetizing, it is suitable for a meal that is intended to be very nice, +such as a dainty luncheon. If the elaborate garnishing here suggested is +not desired, the croquettes may be served with merely a suitable sauce.</p> + +<b>LOBSTER CROQUETTES</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. thick white sauce</li> +<li>2 eggs</li> +<li>2 c. diced lobster meat</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>Fine bread crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Prepare the white sauce and allow it to cool. Add one beaten egg and the +lobster meat. Season with the salt and pepper. Shape into croquettes, +roll in beaten egg, then in crumbs, and fry in deep fat until an even +brown. Drain, stick a lobster claw into the end of each, and arrange on +a platter with the claws around the outside. Pour a medium white sauce +over the opposite ends and the centers of the croquettes and over this +sprinkle the lobster coral and hard-cooked egg yolks, which have been +forced through a sieve. In the center of the platter, arrange a small +mound of parsley and one of the large claws of the lobster.</p> +<br> + +<a name="CRABS_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>CRABS AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>119. NATURE OF CRABS.</b>--Numerous varieties of crabs are obtained along +the seashores of the United States, and most of them measure not more +than 5 or 6 inches across. Shell fish in this form are used for food +both before the shells have hardened, when they are known as +<i>soft-shelled crabs</i>, and after the shells have grown hard, when they +are called <i>hard-shelled crabs</i>. To be at their best, crabs should be as +heavy as lobsters in proportion to their size. Their flesh should be +firm and stiff and their eyes should be bright. The male crab has a +smaller body and longer claws than the female. In food value, crabs are +quite similar to lobsters.</p> + +<p>Tiny <i>oyster crabs</i> are found in the shells of crabs as well as in +oysters. These are considered a great delicacy and are used chiefly for +garnishing, because they are very small and, as a rule, are not found in +large numbers.</p> + +<p><b>120. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION.</b>--Before either soft-shelled or +hard-shelled crabs can be used as food, a certain amount of preparation +is necessary. In the case of hard-shelled crabs, plunge them alive into +hot water, allow them to come to the boiling point, and cook slowly for +1/2 hour. It is a good plan to add 1 tablespoonful of salt for each crab +that is being boiled. While the crabs are cooking, remove the scum that +rises to the top. When they are sufficiently cooked, open the shells and +take out the meat, being careful to remove all the meat from the claws.</p> + +<p>Soft-shelled crabs require a somewhat different kind of preparation. +With this variety, lift up the points on each side of the back shell and +remove the spongy substance that is found under them. In addition, take +off the apron, which is the small piece that occurs at the lower part of +the shell and that terminates in points. The crabs are then ready for +frying, which is the method of cooking that is usually applied to +this variety.</p> + +<p><b>121. CRAB-FLAKE COCKTAIL.</b>--Crab meat is used for cocktails in the same +way as oysters, clams, and lobster. In fact, no better appetizer to +serve at the beginning of a meal can be found. To make crab-flake +cocktail, remove the meat from the shells of cooked hard-shelled crabs +in the way just explained, and chill it. Then place it in stemmed +glasses and serve with cocktail sauce.</p> + +<p><b>122. DEVILED CRABS.</b>--Variety in the cooking of hard-shelled crabs can be +secured by deviling them according to the accompanying directions. As +will be observed, this is done in practically the same way that lobster +is deviled.</p> + +<b>DEVILED CRABS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>4 crabs</li> +<li>1 c. cream sauce</li> +<li>1 Tb. onion juice</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>Dash Cayenne pepper</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>Cracker crumbs</li> +</ul> + +<p>Put the butter in a frying pan, add the meat from the four crabs, and +pour into this the cream sauce. Season with the onion juice, salt, +Cayenne pepper, and pepper. Add the well-beaten egg and allow the +mixture to cook until the egg has thickened, being careful not to let it +curd. Fill the back shells of the crabs with this mixture, sprinkle with +cracker crumbs, place in a hot oven, and bake until brown. Serve hot +or cold.</p> + +<p><b>123. FRIED SOFT-SHELLED CRABS.</b>--After soft-shelled crabs are prepared in +the manner explained in Art. 120, they are usually fried in deep fat. +Egg and cracker dust or flour are used to make a coating for the crabs.</p> + +<b>FRIED SOFT-SHELLED CRABS</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Four</i>) + +<ul> +<li>4 soft-shelled crabs</li> +<li>1 egg</li> +<li>Cracker dust or flour</li> +<li>Salt and pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Prepare the crabs by removing the apron and the spongy substance under +the shell of each crab. Beat the egg slightly. Roll the crabs first in +the egg and then in the cracker dust or the flour. Fry in hot, deep fat +until a golden brown. Remove from the fat, drain, and sprinkle well with +salt and pepper to season. Serve hot or cold.</p> + +<p><b>124. CREAMED CRAB MEAT.</b>--When the meat of hard-shelled crabs is creamed, +it makes a very dainty dish, especially if it is served over toast or in +timbale cases. To give a touch of color and at the same time add a +little flavor, chopped pimiento is generally added.</p> + +<p>Boil the desired number of hard-shelled crabs and remove the meat from +the shells. For each cupful of crab meat, prepare 1 cupful of medium +white sauce. Add the crab meat, season well, and, if desired, add some +chopped pimiento. Serve hot over toast or in timbale cases.</p> +<br> + +<a name="SHRIMP_AND_THEIR_PREPARATION"></a><h3>SHRIMP AND THEIR PREPARATION</h3> + +<p><b>125. NATURE OF SHRIMP.</b>--Shrimp are similar to crabs and lobsters in +composition and in the methods of preparation. They differ considerably +in appearance, however, and are smaller in size. When alive, shrimp are +a mottled greenish color, but upon being dropped into boiling-hot water +they turn red. When they have cooked sufficiently, the meat, which is +very delicious, may be easily removed from the shells. After the meat of +shrimp is thus prepared, it may be used cold in a salad or a cocktail or +it may be utilized in a number of ways for hot dishes. Very often a +chafing dish is used in the preparation of such dishes, but this utensil +is not necessary, as they may be cooked in an ordinary utensil on a +stove of any kind.</p> + +<p>[Illustration: FIG. 37]</p> + +<p><b>126. CREAMED SHRIMP.</b>--The usual way of preparing shrimp is to cook it +with mushrooms and then serve it over toast, or, as shown in Fig. 37, in +timbale cases. Creamed shrimp is dainty in appearance, pleasing to the +taste, and highly nutritious.</p> + +<b>CREAMED SHRIMP</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>1 c. medium white sauce</li> +<li>1 c. diced shrimp</li> +<li>1 c. chopped mushrooms</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Heat the white sauce, and to it add the shrimp, mushrooms, salt, and +pepper. Beat a little butter into the mixture to improve the flavor, +heat, and serve in timbale cases, as shown, or over toast.</p> + +<p><b>127. SHRIMP À LA SALLE.</b>--Shrimp also makes an appetizing and attractive +dish when combined with tomato and green pepper. The accompanying recipe +gives directions for the preparation of such a dish, which is called +shrimp à La Salle.</p> + +<b>SHRIMP À LA SALLE</b><br> +(<i>Sufficient to Serve Six</i>) + +<ul> +<li>2 Tb. butter</li> +<li>1 c. shredded shrimp</li> +<li>1 c. stewed tomato</li> +<li>1 small green pepper, chopped</li> +<li>1 Tb. chopped onion</li> +<li>1 tsp. celery salt</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt</li> +<li>1/8 tsp. pepper</li> +</ul> + +<p>Brown the butter in a saucepan and add the shrimp, tomato, green pepper, +onion, celery salt, salt, and pepper. Heat all together thoroughly, and +serve over toast.</p> + +<b>COCKTAIL SAUCES</b><br><br> + +<p><b>128.</b> The various kinds of shell fish are served so frequently as +cocktails that cocktail sauces are much in demand. The foundation of +these sauces is always tomato catsup, but the ingredients used for +seasoning usually vary according to individual taste. The following +recipes make amounts sufficient for one serving:</p> + +<b>COCKTAIL SAUCE I</b> + +<ul> +<li>1/4 tsp. grated horseradish</li> +<li>Juice of 1/4 lemon</li> +<li>12 drops tobasco sauce</li> +<li>10 drops Worcestershire sauce</li> +<li>1 Tb. tomato catsup</li></ul> + +<br> +<b>COCKTAIL SAUCE II</b> + +<ul> +<li>1 Tb. tomato catsup</li> +<li>1 Tb. grapefruit juice</li> +<li>1 tsp. spiced vinegar</li> +<li>Dash of tobasco sauce</li> +<li>Sprinkling of salt</li> +<li>Dusting of chopped parsley</li> +</ul> + +<p>Mix the ingredients thoroughly and serve with oysters, clams, lobster, +shrimp, or crab meat thoroughly chilled.</p> +<br> + +<b>FISH AND SHELL FISH</b><br><br> + +<b>EXAMINATION QUESTIONS</b><br><br> + +<p>(1) (<i>a</i>) For what food may fish be substituted in the diet? (<i>b</i>) How does +fish compare with meat as to its usefulness as food?</p> + +<p>(2) (<i>a</i>) What food substances are present in fish? (<i>b</i>) How does the food +value of fish compare with that of meat?</p> + +<p>(3) (<i>a</i>) Discuss the digestibility of fish. (<i>b</i>) How does the salting of +fish for preservation affect its digestibility?</p> + +<p>(4) How does the housewife's purchase of fish affect the market price?</p> + +<p>(5) What methods of cookery should be used in preparing: (<i>a</i>) large fish? +(<i>b</i>) small fish?</p> + +<p>(6) Mention the tests for determining the freshness of fish.</p> + +<p>(7) Discuss the care of fish in the home.</p> + +<p>(8) Give the steps in the preparation of a fish for cooking.</p> + +<p>(9) Give the steps in the boning of a fish.</p> + +<p>(10) (<i>a</i>) What are fillets? (<i>b</i>) Tell briefly how fillets are obtained.</p> + +<p>(11) Why are sauces frequently served with fish?</p> + +<p>(12) (<i>a</i>) What is larding? (<i>b</i>) How may fish be larded? (<i>c</i>) For what +purpose is larding done?</p> + +<p>(13) How may salt fish be freshened?</p> + +<p>(14) (<i>a</i>) Mention the shell fish. (<i>b</i>) Discuss their usefulness in the +diet.</p> + +<p>(15) What precautions should be taken in the purchase of shell fish?</p> + +<p>(16) Discuss the composition and food value of shell fish.</p> + +<p>(17) Compare the composition of milk with that of oysters.</p> + +<p>(18) (<i>a</i>) What is the season for oysters? (<i>b</i>) How are oysters opened?</p> + +<p>(19) (<i>a</i>) How are clams opened? (<i>b</i>) What is the effect of long cooking on +clams?</p> + +<p>(20) (<i>a</i>) How are lobsters prepared? (<i>b</i>) Mention the two kinds of crabs. +(<i>c</i>) How do these differ?</p> +<br> + +<b>ADDITIONAL WORK</b><br><br> + +<p>Mention the varieties of fish most common in your local market.</p> + +<p>Compare the cost of a sufficient amount of fish to serve your family +with the cost of beef and either veal or lamb served to the same number +of persons at other times. Submit your results.</p><br> + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> +<a name="INDEX"></a><h2>INDEX</h2> + +<b>A</b><br> +<br> +Adductor muscle of an oyster,<br> +American forcemeat balls,<br> +Apples, Bacon with sliced,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cold pork with fried,<br></span> +Asparagus soup, Cream of,<br> +<br> +<b>B</b><br> +<br> +Bacon,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and eggs,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Calves' liver and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">combined with cereals,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">combined with other foods,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with sliced apples,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with tomatoes,<br></span> +Baked clams,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fillet of whitefish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">finnan haddie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">haddock,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">halibut,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ham,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">poultry with rice,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">scallops,<br></span> +Balls, American forcemeat,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Codfish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Egg,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Forcemeat,<br></span> +Bass, Food value and composition of black,<br> +Basting of meat,<br> +Batter, Timbale-case,<br> +Béchamel, Chicken,<br> +Beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiled corned,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Braized,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corned,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cuts of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fillet of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for stewing and coming, Cuts of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Frizzled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General characteristics of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">hash,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">loaf, Recipe for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">loin, Steaks obtained from,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mexican,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">organs and their preparation,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pot-roasted,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of stews and corned,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stew,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Tenderloin of,<br></span> +Beefsteak, Broiled,<br> +Beefsteaks and their preparation,<br> +Birds, Preparation of small,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast small,<br></span> +Biscuits, Creamed veal on,<br> +Bisques,<br> +Bivalves,<br> +Blue points,<br> +Bluefish, Composition and food value of,<br> +Bob veal,<br> +Boiled cod,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">corned beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">dinner,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ham,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salmon,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">tongue,<br></span> +Boiler, Fish,<br> +Boiling, Cooking meat by,<br> +Bologna,<br> +Bone stock,<br> +Boned chicken,<br> +Boning a chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">a fish,<br></span> +Borsch,<br> +Bouillon,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Tomato,<br></span> +Braized beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">beef, Recipe for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">tongue,<br></span> +Braizing,<br> +Bread sticks,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stuffing,<br></span> +Broiled beefsteak,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fillet,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fresh mackerel,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">ham,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pork, Sautéd or,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">poultry,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">scrod with potato border,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">shad roe,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">squirrel,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sweetbreads,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">venison,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">venison, Sauce for,<br></span> +Broiler,<br> +Broilers, Composition and food value of,<br> +Broiling, cooking meat by,<br> +Broth,<br> +Brown sauce, Veal cutlets in,<br> +Buying meats, Points to consider in,<br> +<br> +<b>C</b><br> +<br> +Cabbage, Scalloped pork and,<br> +Calves' liver and bacon,<br> +Canned fish in the diet,<br> +Cape Cods,<br> +Capons,<br> +Carbohydrate in fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in meat,<br></span> +Care, nature, and use of stock pot,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fish in the home,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of meat in the home,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of meat in the market,<br></span> +Carp, Composition and food value of,<br> +Carving meat, Serving and,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">poultry, Serving and,<br></span> +Casserole, Chicken en,<br> +Catfish, Composition and food value of,<br> +Caul,<br> +Celery and radishes,<br> +Cereals, Bacon combined with,<br> +Chestnut purée,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stuffing,<br></span> +Chicken à la king,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Béchamel,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boned,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">broilers, Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Crop of a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">croquettes,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">curry,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cutting up a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Determining the age of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Determining the freshness of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Drawing a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Dressing a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">en casserole,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">feet, Preparing,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fricassee of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Frying,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General marks of good quality in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">giblets,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Gravy for fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Jellied,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Maryland fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Plucking a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Poultry other than,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roasting,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salad,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salad, Mock,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Singeing a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stew with dumplings or noodles,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with paprika sauce, Fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with rice,<br></span> +Chickens, Live,<br> +Chops in tomato sauce, pork,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Lamb and mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Veal,<br></span> +Chowder, Clam,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Corn,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Potato,<br></span> +Chowders,<br> +Chuck roasts,<br> +Clam chowder,<br> +Clams, and scallops, Oysters,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nature and digestibility of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Opening of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Raw,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Steamed,<br></span> +Classes of soup, General,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of soups denoting consistency,<br></span> +Classification of poultry,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of soups,<br></span> +Cleaning fish,<br> +Clear soup or bouillon, Stock for,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soups,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soups and stocks,<br></span> +Clearing soup,<br> +Cocktail, Crab-flake,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Lobster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oyster,<br></span> +Cod, Boiled,<br> +Codfish balls,<br> +Creamed,<br> +Cold pork with fried apples,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-storage poultry,<br></span> +Comparison of fish and meat, Table showing the,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fish with meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb,<br></span> +Composition and food value of beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of black bass,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of bluefish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of canned salmon,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of carp,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of catfish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of chicken broilers,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of clams,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of crabs,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of fowl,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of halibut steak,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of lake trout,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of lamb,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of leg of lamb,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of lobsters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of pork chops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of red snapper,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of scallops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of shell fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of shell fish, Tables showing,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and food value of whitefish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and structure of meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry,<br></span> +Connective tissue,<br> +Consommé,<br> +Cooking meat for soup,<br> + meat, Methods of,<br> + meat, Purposes of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meat, Time required for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meats, Time table for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of giblets,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry,<br></span> +Cooking of veal,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oysters, Important points in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparing rabbit for,<br></span> +Corn chowder,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soup, Cream of,<br></span> +Corned beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">beef, Boiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">beef, Preparation of stews and,<br></span> +Cottage pie,<br> +Cotuits,<br> +Crab, Deviled,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flake cocktail,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">meat, Creamed,<br></span> +Crabs, and shrimp, General characteristics of lobsters,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried soft-shelled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hard-shelled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nature of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oyster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preliminary preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soft-shelled,<br></span> +Cracker stuffing,<br> +Crackers,<br> +Cream-of-asparagus soup,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of-corn soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of-onion soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of-pea soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of-potato soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of-spinach soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of-tomato soup,<br></span> +sauce, Lemon,<br> +soups,<br> +Creamed codfish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">crab meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">finnan haddie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish in potato nest,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salmon with rice,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">shrimp,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sweetbreads,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">tuna fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">veal on biscuits,<br></span> +Crop of a chicken,<br> +Croquettes,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Frying of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Lobster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sweetbread,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Veal,<br></span> +Croutons,<br> +Crown roast of lamb,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">roast of pork,<br></span> +Crustaceans,<br> +Cured pork, Preparation of,<br> +Curry, Chicken,<br> +Cutlets in brown sauce, Veal,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pan-broiled veal steak or,<br></span> +Cutlets, Veal steaks or,<br> +Cuts, Names and uses of beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Names of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">obtained from a side of beef and their uses, Table of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef for stewing and corning,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef, Method of obtaining,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef, Table of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef, Uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb, Distinguishing features of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb, Method of obtaining,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb, Names and uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb, Table of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork, Uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of veal and their uses,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table of veal,<br></span> +Cutting up a chicken,<br> +<br> +<b>D</b><br> +<br> +Daikan,<br> +Deep-fat frying, Principles of,<br> +Delmonico steak,<br> +Deviled crab,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">lobster,<br></span> +Diet, Canned fish in the,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fish in the,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meat in the,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Salt and smoked fish in the,<br></span> +Digestibility of clams, Nature and,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oysters,<br></span> +Drawing a chicken,<br> +Drawn-butter sauce,<br> +Dressing a chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for salmon mold,<br></span> +Dry plucking,<br> +Duck, Liver stuffing for,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Peanut stuffing for roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spring,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Young,<br></span> +Ducks, Selection of,<br> +Dumplings,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or noodles, Chicken stew with,<br></span> +<br> +<b>E</b><br> +<br> +Economic value of soup,<br> +Economy in the purchase of poultry,<br> +Eel, Fried,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stewed,<br></span> +Egg balls,<br> +Egg sauce,<br> +Eggs and bacon,<br> +Extractives,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in meat,<br></span> +Extracts, Meat,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Vegetable,<br></span> +<br> +<b>F</b><br> +<br> +Fat in fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Trying out suet and other,<br></span> +Feathers, Pin,<br> +Feeding and care on quality of poultry, Influence of,<br> +Fillet, Broiled,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mignon,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of flounder,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of venison, Roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of whitefish, Baked,<br></span> +Filleting fish,<br> +Finnan haddie, Baked,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">haddie, Creamed,<br></span> +First soup stock,<br> +Fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and meat, Relative nutritive value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and meat, Table showing the comparison of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">boiler,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boning a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carbohydrate in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chowder,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cleaning,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of shell,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed tuna,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">croquettes,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Digestibility of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fat in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Filleting,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Freshness of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in potato nest, Creamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet, Canned,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet, Salt and smoked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the home, Care of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mineral matter in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Planked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Protein in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purchase of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sauces for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scaling a,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Seasons for shell,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Shell,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Skinning,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Steamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stewed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stock,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stuffing for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table showing composition and food value of shell,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of fresh,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table showing names, seasons, and uses of salt and smoked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table showing seasons for shell,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with meat, Comparison of,<br></span> +Flat-bone steak,<br> +Flavoring stock,<br> +Flounder, Fillet of,<br> +Food, Poultry as a,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sea,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">suitable for the stock pot,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of black bass,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of bluefish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of canned salmon,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of carp,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of catfish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of chicken broilers,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of clams,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of crabs,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of fowl,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of halibut steak,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of lake trout,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of lamb,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of leg of lamb,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of lobsters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of pork chops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of red snapper,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of scallops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value and composition of whitefish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value of fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value of fish, Factors determining,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Value of meat as,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value of shell fish, Composition and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">value of shell fish, Tables showing composition and,<br></span> +Forcemeat balls,<br> +Fore quarter of veal,<br> +Fork, Oyster,<br> +Fowl, Composition and food value of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span> +Fowls, Selection of guinea,<br> +Frankfurters,<br> +Fresh fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">herring, Stewed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mackerel, Broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pork, Preparation of,<br></span> +Freshening salt and smoked fish,<br> +Freshness of fish,<br> +Fricassee of chicken,<br> +Fricasseeing applied to meat and fowl,<br> +Fried apples, Cold pork with,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken, Gravy for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken, Maryland,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken with paprika sauce,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">clams,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">eel,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">perch,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">scallops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soft-shelled crabs,<br></span> +Fritters, Oyster,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Soup,<br></span> +Frizzled beef,<br> +Frying and sautéing applied to meat,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of croquettes,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Principles of deep-fat,<br></span> +<br> +<b>G</b><br> +<br> +Gall bladder,<br> +Game, Definition of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General description of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stock,<br></span> +Garnishes, Soup accompaniments and,<br> +Geese, Selection of,<br> +Gelatine in meat,<br> +Giblets, Cooking of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of a chicken,<br></span> +Glycogen, or muscle sugar,<br> +Goose, Preparation of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +Gravy for fried chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Making,<br></span> +Green-pepper stuffing,<br> +Guinea fowls, Selection of,<br> +<b>H</b><br> +<br> +Haddock, Baked,<br> +Halibut, Baked,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak, Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak, Sautéd,<br></span> +Ham,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">baked in milk,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Boiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Broiled,<br></span> +Hamburger steak,<br> +Hard-shelled crabs,<br> +Hash, Beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Turkey,<br></span> +Headcheese,<br> +Healthfulness of oysters,<br> +Heart, Stuffed,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sweetbread,<br></span> +Heavy thick soups,<br> +Herring, Stewed fresh,<br> +Hind quarter of veal,<br> +Hip-bone steak,<br> +Home, Care of fish in the,<br> +Horseradish sauce,<br> +Household stock,<br> +<br> +<b>I</b><br> +<br> +Individual lamb pies,<br> +Influence of feeding and care on quality of poultry,<br> +Iron, Timbale,<br> +<br> +<b>J</b><br> +<br> +Jellied chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">veal, Left-over,<br></span> +Julienne soup,<br> +<br> +<b>K</b><br> +<br> +Keeping stock,<br> +Kidneys,<br> +Kouskous,<br> +Krishara,<br> +<br> +<b>L</b><br> +<br> +Lake trout, Composition and food value of,<br> +Lamb,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and mutton chops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and mutton cuts, Distinguishing features of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and mutton cuts, Names and uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and mutton, Left-over,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and mutton stews,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Comparison of mutton and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of mutton and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Crown roast of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts, Method of obtaining mutton and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts, Table of mutton and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Food value and composition of leg of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">on toast, Minced,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or mutton, Scalloped,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pies, Individual,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rack of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast leg of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Saddle of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spring,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Turkish,<br></span> +Lard, Leaf,<br> +Larding,<br> +Leaf lard,<br> +Lebaba,<br> +Left-over beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over Jellied veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over lamb and mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over Pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over Poultry,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-over veal,<br></span> +Leg of venison, Roast,<br> +Lemon cream sauce,<br> +Live chickens,<br> +Liver and bacon,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stuffing for roast duck,<br></span> +Liverwurst,<br> +Loaf, beef,<br> +Lobster à la Newburg,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cocktail,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">croquettes,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Deviled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">from the shell, Removing,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scalloped,<br></span> +Lobsters, Composition and food value of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">crabs and shrimp,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Distinguishing features of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +Loin, Steaks obtained from beef,<br> +Lynn Havens,<br> +<br> +<b>M</b><br> +<br> +Mackerel, Broiled fresh,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sautéd salt,<br></span> +Making gravy,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soup,<br></span> +Market, Preparation of poultry for,<br> +Maryland fried chicken,<br> +Meaning and use of soup stock,<br> +Meat as food, Value of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Basting of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Carbohydrate in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Care of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Comparison of fish with,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span> +Meat, Creamed crab,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts, Names and uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">extracts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Extractives in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fat in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Gelatine in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the diet,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the home, Care of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the market, Care of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Methods of cooking,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Minerals in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">preparations, Sausages and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Protein in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purchase of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purposes of cooking,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Relative nutritive value of fish and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving and carving of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Structure and composition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Time required for cooking,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">used for soup making,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Water in,<br></span> +<br> +Meats, Points to consider in buying,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Time table for cooking,<br></span> +<br> +Method of obtaining beef cuts,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of obtaining mutton and lamb cuts,<br></span> +Methods of cooking meat,<br> +Mexican beef,<br> +Mignon, Fillet,<br> +Milk, Ham baked in,<br> +Minced lamb on toast,<br> +Mineral matter in fish,<br> +Minerals in meat,<br> +Minestra,<br> +Mint sauce,<br> +Mock chicken salad,<br> +Mock duck, or rolled steak,<br> +Mold, Salmon,<br> +Mollusks,<br> +Mulligatawny soup,<br> +Muscle sugar, Glycogen or,<br> +Mushroom sauce,<br> +Mutton,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb chops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb, Comparison of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb, Cooking of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb cuts, Distinguishing features of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb cuts, Method of obtaining,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb cuts, Names and uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and lamb cuts, Table of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over lamb and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rack of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast leg of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast saddle of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Saddle of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scalloped lamb or,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stews, Lamb and,<br></span> +<br> +<b>N</b><br> +<br> +Noodle soup,<br> +Noodles, Chicken stew with dumplings or,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Vegetable soup with,<br></span> +Nut sauce,<br> +Nutritive value of fish, Relative,<br> +<br> +<b>O</b><br> +<br> +Onion soup, Cream of,<br> +Opening clams,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oysters,<br></span> +Organs, Veal,<br> +Ox-tail soup,<br> +Oyster, Adductor muscle of an,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cocktails,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">crabs,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fritters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stew,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stuffing,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Valves of an,<br></span> +Oysters, clams, and scallops,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Digestibility of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Healthfulness of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Important points in cooking,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Opening,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Purchasing,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Raw,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scalloped,<br></span> +<br> +<b>P</b><br> +<br> +Pan-broiled steak,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-broiled veal steaks or cutlets,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">broiling, Cooking meat by,<br></span> +Paprika sauce, Fried chicken with,<br> +Partridge, Selection of,<br> +Pastry strips,<br> +Pâté de fois gras,<br> +Patties, Rice and meat,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Salmon,<br></span> +Pea soup, Cream of,<br> +Peanut stuffing for roast duck,<br> +Perch, Fried,<br> +Pheasant, partridge, and quail,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span> +Pickerel, Sautéd,<br> +Pickled pig's feet,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">tongue,<br></span> +Pie, Beef,<br> +Pie, Chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cottage,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oyster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rabbit,<br></span> +Pies, Individual lamb,<br> +Pig, Roast,<br> +Pigeons, Selection of,<br> +Pig's feet, Pickled,<br> +Pigs in blankets,<br> +Pin feathers,<br> +Planked fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak,<br></span> +Plucking a chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Dry,<br></span> +Poisoning, Ptomaine,<br> +Ponhasse,<br> +Pork,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and cabbage, Scalloped,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chops and tomato sauce,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chops, Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Crown roast, of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cuts of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cuts, Table of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts, Uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General characteristics of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of cured,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of fresh,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Salt,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sausage,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sautéd or broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sautéd tenderloin of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Tenderloin of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with fried apples, Cold,<br></span> +Porterhouse roast,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak,<br></span> +Pot-au-feu,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-roasted beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stock,<br></span> +Potato border, Broiled scrod with,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chowder,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">nest, Creamed fish in,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soup, Cream-of-,<br></span> +Potpie, Veal,<br> +Potroka,<br> +Poulards,<br> +Poultry as a food,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Classification of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cold-storage,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Effect of sex on quality of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for cooking, Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for the market, Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Indication of cold-storage,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">other than chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Selection of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving and carving,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stuffing for roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Table for the selection of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with rice, Baked,<br></span> +Preparation of beef organs,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of beefsteak,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of clams,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of crabs,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cured pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of duck,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fresh pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of goose,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lobsters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry for cooking,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry for the market,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of roasts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of scallops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of shrimp,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of small birds,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of stews and corned beef,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of sweetbreads,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of turkey,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of veal cuts,<br></span> +Preparing chicken feet,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rabbit for cooking,<br></span> +Principles of deep-fat frying,<br> +Processes involved in making stock,<br> +Protein in fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in meat,<br></span> +Ptomaine poisoning,<br> +Purchase of fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry, Economy in the,<br></span> +Purchasing oysters,<br> +Purée, Chestnut,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Split-pea,<br></span> +Purées,<br> +Purpose of soup in the meal,<br> +Purposes of cooking meat,<br> +<br> +<b>Q</b><br> +<br> +Quail, Selection of,<br> +Quality in chicken, General marks of good,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry, Effect of sex on,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry, Influence of feeding and care on,<br></span> +<br> +<b>R</b><br> +<br> +Rabbit for cooking, Preparing,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sautéd,<br></span> +Rack of lamb,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton,<br></span> +Radishes and celery,<br> +Raw clams,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oysters,<br></span> +Red snapper, Food value and composition of,<br> +Relative nutritive value of fish,<br> +Removing grease from soup,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">lobster from the shell,<br></span> +Rib roast, Standing,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">roasts,<br></span> +Rice and meat patties,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Baked poultry with,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chicken with,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed salmon with,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Scalloped veal with,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stuffing,<br></span> +Rigor mortis,<br> +Roast beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">duck,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">duck, Liver stuffing for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">duck, Peanut stuffing for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fillet of venison,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">goose,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">leg of lamb,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">leg of mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">leg of venison,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lamb, Crown,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork, Crown,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pig,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Porterhouse,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">poultry, Stuffing for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rabbit,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">saddle of mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">small birds,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Standing rib,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">turkey,<br></span> +Roasting,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chicken,<br></span> +Roasts, Chuck,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rib,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rump,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Veal,<br></span> +Roe, Broiled shad,<br> +Rolled steak, or mock duck,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak, Stuffing for,<br></span> +Rolls, Veal,<br> +Rump roasts,<br> +<br> +<b>S</b><br> +<br> +Saddle of lamb,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton, Roast,<br></span> +Salad, Chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mock chicken,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Veal,<br></span> +Salmon, Boiled,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of canned,<br></span> +Salmon mold,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mold, Dressing for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">patties,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with rice, Creamed,<br></span> +Salt and smoked fish, Freshening,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and smoked fish in the diet,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and smoked fish, Table showing names, seasons, and uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">mackerel, Sautéd,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pork,<br></span> +Sauce, Drawn-butter,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Egg,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for broiled venison,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried chicken with paprika,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Horseradish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Lemon cream,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mint,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mushroom,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nut,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spanish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Thin white,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Tomato,<br></span> +Sauces for fish,<br> +Sausage, Pork,<br> +Sausages and meat preparations,<br> +Sautéd fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">halibut steak,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or broiled pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pickerel,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rabbit,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salt mackerel,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">smelts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">tenderloin of pork,<br></span> +Sautéing and frying,<br> +Scaling a fish,<br> +Scalloped lamb or mutton,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">lobster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">oysters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pork with cabbage,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">veal with rice,<br></span> +Scallops, Baked,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fried,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oysters, clams, and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +Scrapple,<br> +Scrod with potato border, Broiled,<br> +Sea food,<br> +Seasons, and uses of fresh fish, Table showing the names,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and uses of smoked fish, Table showing the names,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for shell fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for shell fish, Table showing,<br></span> +Second soup stock,<br> +Selection of chicken,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of ducks,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of poultry,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of turkeys,<br></span> +Serving and carving meat,<br> +Serving and carving poultry,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soup,<br></span> +Shad roe, Broiled,<br> +Shell fish,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish, Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish, Seasons for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish, Tables showing composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish, Table showing seasons for,<br></span> +Shrimp à La Salle,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General characteristics of lobsters, crabs, and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Lobsters, crabs, and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nature of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +Simmering, or stewing,<br> +Singeing a chicken,<br> +Sirloin steak,<br> +Skinning fish,<br> +Skirt steak,<br> +Small birds, Preparation of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">birds, Roast,<br></span> +Smelts, Sautéd,<br> +Smoked fish, Freshening salt and,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish in the diet, Salt and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and uses of,<br></span> +Soft-shelled crabs,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">-shelled crabs, Fried,<br></span> +Soljinka,<br> +Soup,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">accompaniments and garnishes,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">accompaniments, Recipes for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and its place in the meal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">and soup accompaniments,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Clearing of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking meat for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-asparagus,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-corn,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-onion,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-pea,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-potato,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-spinach,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream-of-tomato,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Definition of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Economic value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">extracts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fritters,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">General classes of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the meal, Purpose of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">in the meal, Value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Julienne,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Meat used for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Making of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">making, Vegetables used for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Mulligatawny,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Noodle,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Ox-tail,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Principal ingredients of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Recipes for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Removing grease from,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Serving,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stock, Meaning and use of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stock, Uses of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stock, Varieties of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Thickening,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Value of,<br></span> +Soups, Classification of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Clear,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cream,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">denoting consistency, Classes of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Heavy thick,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Thick,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">typical of particular countries,<br></span> +Spanish sauce,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stew,<br></span> +Spinach soup, Cream-of-,<br> +Split-pea purée,<br> +Spring duck,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">lamb,<br></span> +Squabs,<br> +Squirrel, Broiled,<br> +Standing rib roast,<br> +Steak, Club,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Delmonico,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Flat-bone,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hamburger,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hip-bone,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">or cutlets, Veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pan-broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Planked,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Porterhouse,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sautéd halibut,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sirloin,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Skirt,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stuffing for rolled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Swiss,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Vegetables served with,<br></span> +Steaks obtained from the beef loin,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">obtained from the round,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of beef,<br></span> +Steamed clams,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish,<br></span> +Stew, Beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oyster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Spanish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Veal,<br></span> +Stewed eel,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">fresh herring,<br></span> +Stewing and corning, Beef for,<br> + or simmering,<br> +Stews and corned beef, Preparation of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Lamb and mutton,<br></span> +Sticks, Bread,<br> +Stock, Bone,<br> +Stock,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">First,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">flavoring,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for clear soup or bouillon,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Game,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Household,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Keeping,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Meaning and use of soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pot,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pot, Food suitable for the,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">pot, Nature, use, and care of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Second,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Varieties of soup,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Vegetable,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">White,<br></span> +Stocks and clear soups,<br> +Stomach sweetbread,<br> +Strips, Pastry,<br> +Structure and composition of meat,<br> +Stuffed heart,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">veal breast,<br></span> +Stuffing, Bread,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Chestnut,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cracker,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for roast duck, Liver,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for roast poultry,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for rolled steak,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">for veal,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Green-pepper,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Oyster,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Rice,<br></span> +Suet, Trying out,<br> +Sweetbread croquettes,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Heart,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stomach,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Throat,<br></span> +Sweetbreads,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Creamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +Swiss steak,<br> +<br> +<b>T</b><br> +<br> +Table for the selection of poultry,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of cuts obtained from a side of beef and their uses,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of mutton and lamb cuts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork cuts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of veal cuts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing composition and food value of shell fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing seasons for shell fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing the comparison of fish and meat,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing the names, seasons, and uses of fresh fish,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">showing the names, seasons, and uses of smoked fish,<br></span> +Tarhonya,<br> +Tenderloin of beef,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of pork, Sautéd,<br></span> +Thick soups,<br> +Thickening soup,<br> +Thin white sauce,<br> +Throat sweetbread,<br> +Timbale-case batter,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cases,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">iron,<br></span> +Time required for cooking meat,<br> +Tissue, Connective,<br> +Toast, Minced lamb on,<br> +Tomato bouillon,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sauce,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sauce, Pork chops and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soup, Cream-of-,<br></span> +Tomatoes, Bacon with,<br> +Tongue, Boiled,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Braized,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Pickled,<br></span> +Trout, Food value of lake,<br> +Trying out suet,<br> +Tuna fish, Creamed,<br> +Turkey hash,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Preparation of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast,<br></span> +Turkeys, Selection of,<br> +Turkish lamb,<br> +<br> +<b>U</b><br> +<br> +Use of soup stock,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of stock pot,<br></span> +Uses of beef cuts,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fresh fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of lamb and mutton cuts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of smoked fish, Table showing the names, seasons, and,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of veal cuts,<br></span> +<br> +<b>V</b><br> +<br> +Value of fish, Food,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of fish, Relative nutritive,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of meat as food,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of shell fish, Tables showing composition and food,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of soup in the meal,<br></span> +Valves of an oyster,<br> +Varieties and uses of soup stock,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">of soup stock,<br></span> +Veal, Bob,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">breast, Stuffed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">chops,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cooking of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">croquettes,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts and their preparation,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts and their uses,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cuts, Table of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">cutlets in brown sauce,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Fore quarter of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Hind quarter of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Jellied,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">kidneys,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Left-over jellied,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Nature of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">on biscuits, Creamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">organs,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">potpie,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">roasts,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">rolls,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">salad,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">steak or cutlets, Pan-broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stew,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Stuffing for,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sweetbreads, Broiled,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">sweetbreads, Creamed,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">with rice, Scalloped,<br></span> +Vegetable extracts,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">soup with noodles,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">stock,<br></span> +Vegetables served with steak,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">used for soup making,<br></span> +Venison, Broiled,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Cuts of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast fillet of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Roast leg of,<br></span> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Sauce for,<br></span> +<br> +<b>W</b><br> +<br> +Water in meat,<br> +White stock,<br> +Whitefish, Baked fillet of,<br> +<span style="layout-flow: horizontal; margin-left: 2em">Composition and food value of,<br></span> +Wing tips of chicken,<br> +<br> +<b>Y</b><br> +<br> +Yearling, Meaning of,<br> +Young, or spring, duck,<br> + + +<br><br><hr style="width: 35%;"><br><br> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +Vol. 3, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL. 3 *** + +This file should be named 8loc310h.htm or 8loc310h.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8loc311h.htm +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8loc310ah.htm + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, +Steve Schulze and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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