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diff --git a/9936.txt b/9936.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5cb90d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/9936.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10621 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 2, by +Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 2 + Volume 2: Milk, Butter and Cheese; Eggs; Vegetables + +Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Posting Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #9936] +Release Date: February, 2006 +First Posted: November 1, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + + + + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY + +VOLUME TWO + + +MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE + +EGGS + +VEGETABLES + + + + +WOMENS INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc. + + + +PREFACE + +This volume, which is the second of the Woman's Institute Library of +Cookery, deals with such essentials of diet as the dairy products--milk, +butter, and cheese--the protein food, eggs, and the energy-producing +nutrients, vegetables. + +In _Milk, Butter, and Cheese_, Parts 1 and 2, are explained the place +that milk occupies in the diet, its composition, grades, and the dishes +for which it is used; the purchase, care, and use of butter and butter +substitutes; and the characteristics, care, and varieties of both +domestic and imported cheeses, as well as a number of excellent recipes +for cheese dishes. A luncheon menu, in which a cheese dish is +substituted for meat, is of interest in this connection, for it shows +the housewife, early in her studies, not only how to combine dishes to +produce a balanced meal, but also how to make up a menu in which meat is +not needed. + +In _Eggs_ are discussed the nutritive value of eggs, the ways in which +to select, preserve, cook, and serve them, and how to utilize left-over +eggs. So many uses have eggs in the diet and so nourishing is this food +that too much attention cannot be paid to its preparation. In this +lesson, also, is given a breakfast menu to afford practice in preparing +several simple dishes usually served in this meal. + +In _Vegetables_, Parts 1 and 2, every variety of vegetable is discussed +as to food value, preparation, place in the meal, and proper methods of +serving. With such a fund of knowledge, the housewife will be well +equipped to give pleasing variety to her meals. + +In addition to the instruction in these matters, there are a large +number of illustrations, which make clear the important details in every +process employed and in many recipes show certain steps as well as the +finished result. With such detailed information, it is our desire that +as many of the recipes as possible be tried, for it is only through +constant practice that the rules and principles of cookery will become +thoroughly instilled in the mind. Nothing is of more value to the +housewife than such a knowledge of food and its preparation, for, as +every one knows, proper diet is the chief requisite of good health. + +To be of the greatest assistance to the woman in the home is the purpose +of these volumes--to relieve her household tasks of much of their +drudgery and to help her come to a realization of the opportunity for +good that is hers. In no better way can she create happiness and +contentment in her home than by preparing appetizing, nutritious meals +and serving them in the most attractive manner. + + + +CONTENTS + +MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE + Milk in the Diet + Composition of Milk + Products Obtained from Milk + Characteristics of Wholesome Milk + Grades of Clean Milk + Preserved Milk + Milk in the Home + Recipes for Milk Dishes and Sauces + Economical Use of Butter + Flavor and Composition of Butter + Purchase and Care of Butter + Cooking With Butter + Serving Butter + Butter Substitutes + Characteristics and Care of Cheese + Imported Cheese + Domestic Cheese + Serving Cheese + Recipes for Cheese Dishes + Luncheon Menu + +EGGS + Description of Eggs and Place in the Diet + Nutritive Value of Eggs + Selection of Eggs + Preservation of Eggs + Cooking of Eggs + Serving of Eggs + Egg Recipes + Use of Left-Over Eggs + Breakfast Menu + +VEGETABLES + Variety in Vegetables + Structure, Composition, and Food Value + Purchase and Care of Vegetables + Classification of Vegetables + Methods of Preparing and Cooking Vegetables + Sauces for Vegetables + Asparagus and Its Preparation + Beans and Their Preparation + Beets and Their Preparation + Brussels Sprouts and Their Preparation + Cabbage and Its Preparation + Carrots and Their Preparation + Cauliflower and Its Preparation + Celery and Its Preparation + Corn and Its Preparation + Cucumbers and Their Preparation + Eggplant and Its Preparation + French Artichokes and Their Preparation + Greens and Their Preparation + Jerusalem Artichokes and Their Preparation + Kohlrabi and Its Preparation + Lentils and Their Preparation + Mushrooms and Their Preparation + Okra and Its Preparation + Onions and Their Preparation + Parsnips and Their Preparation + Peas and Their Preparation + Peppers and Their Preparation + White Potatoes and Their Preparation + Sweet Potatoes and Their Preparation + Radishes and Their Preparation + Salsify and Its Preparation + Squash and Its Preparation + Tomatoes and Their Preparation + Turnips and Their Preparation + Vegetable Combinations + Serving Vegetables + + * * * * * + + + +MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE (PART 1) + + * * * * * + +MILK + +MILK IN THE DIET + +1. As is well understood, milk is the liquid that is secreted by the +mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young. The +word milk as it is commonly used, however, refers to _cow's milk,_ +because such milk is employed to a greater extent as human food than the +milk from any other animal. Cow's milk in its perfectly fresh raw state +is a yellowish-white, opaque fluid, called _whole milk,_ and, as is well +known, possesses a distinctly sweet taste and characteristic odor. When +such milk is allowed to stand for some time without being disturbed, it +separates into two distinct layers, an upper and a lower one. The upper +layer, which is lighter than the lower one and occupies a smaller space, +consists largely of globules of fat and is called _cream;_ the lower +layer, which is white or bluish-white in color and is composed of water, +solids, and protein, is, when separated from the cream, called +_skim milk._ + +2. As an article of diet, milk is very important, because its sole +function in nature is to serve as food. It is required by the infant; it +is needed in the diet of all growing children; and it is desirable in +the preparation of dishes for both young and old. + +Milk is used to such a great extent because it fills many of the +requirements of an ideal food. It is generally liked, requires little or +no time for preparation, agrees with the majority of persons when used +properly, and contains substances that supply energy and build and +repair tissue. Still, it does not contain these substances in such +proportions as to make it an ideal or exclusive article of diet for +adults, and it must often be modified to suit the needs of infants, +because it is ideal for only the young of the species for which it is +intended. Therefore, while milk is often called a perfect food, in +reality it is perfect for only the calf. When it is desired for the +feeding of a very young child, it must be changed to meet the +requirements before it can be used with good results. + +3. So important is milk as an article of food that, outside of the +purely rural districts, producing the milk supply is a business of +considerable importance. This is due to the fact that the purity of milk +must be constantly safeguarded in order that clean, safe milk may be +provided for the countless numbers that depend on it. In fact, milk +undoubtedly bears a closer relation to public health than any other +food. To produce an adequate amount of clean, safe, pure milk is one of +the food problems of the city and country alike. In the city much of the +difficulty is overcome by the ordinances that provide standards of +composition and cleanliness, as well as inspection to insure them; but +such ordinances are rarely provided for in villages and country +districts. + +When there is no law to prevent it, unclean milk is sometimes used in +the manufacture of butter and cheese, but when this happens, great +injustice, if not positive harm, is done to the consumers of these +articles. Then, too, unless milk is carefully inspected, tubercular milk +is liable to be used in the making of butter, and such a condition will +cause the spreading of tuberculosis as readily as the use of the +contaminated milk itself. + +4. With its various products, milk helps to form a very large part of +the dietary in most homes, but while nothing can take the place of this +food and while it is high in food value, there seems to be a general +tendency to think of it as an addition to the bill of fare, rather than +as a possible substitute for more expensive food. For instance, milk is +very often served as a beverage in a meal in which the quantity of meat +or other protein foods is not reduced. From an economical standpoint, as +well as from the point of view of the needs of the body, this is really +extravagant, for milk is itself largely a protein food. The serving of a +glass of milk or of a dish that contains generous quantities of milk +offers the housewife an opportunity to cut down considerably the +allowance of meat and eggs. Because of this fact and because milk and +its products may be used to add nutritive value to a food, to give +variety, and to improve flavor, they deserve considerable study on the +part of the housewife. + +5. Since milk may be used in such a variety of ways, it may be easily +included in the dietary for the family. Being liquid in form, it may +always be served without any preparation as a beverage or with other +beverages, cereals, and fruits. It also has numerous other uses, being +employed in the making of sauces for vegetables and meats, in the place +of stock for soups, and as the liquid for bread, cakes, puddings, +custards, and many frozen desserts. Because of its extensive use, every +housewife not only should know how to buy milk and care for it, but +should be familiar with its composition, so that she may determine +whether or not it suits the needs of her family. In addition, she should +know the effect of heat on milk and the various methods of preparation +if she would be able to judge what food combinations can be used +with milk. + + +COMPOSITION OF MILK + +6. As milk is usually taken into the body in liquid form, the common +tendency is to regard it as a beverage, rather than as an important +source of nourishing food material. However, a knowledge of its +composition, as well as the fact that milk becomes a solid food in the +stomach and must then be dissolved in the process of digestion, will +serve to show that milk contains solids. That it possesses all the +elements required to sustain life and promote health is proved by the +fact that a child may live for months on milk alone and during this time +increase in weight. + +7. The solids contained in milk are proteins, fat, carbohydrate in the +form of sugar, and mineral salts, besides which, of course, water occurs +in large quantities. The sugar and fat of milk serve as fuel; the +mineral salts are chiefly valuable for the growth of bones and teeth and +for their effect on the liquids of the body; and the proteins, like the +fat and sugar, serve as fuel, but they also make and repair the muscular +tissues of the body. + +In considering the food substances of milk, it will be well to note also +that they vary according to the breed, feeding, and individual +characteristics of the cow. Jerseys and Guernseys give milk rich in fat +and total solids, and while Holstein cows give a greater quantity of +milk, such milk has a smaller proportion of fat and total solids. As a +rule, though, the composition of milk may be considered as approximately +3.3 per cent. protein, 4 per cent. fat, 5 per cent. carbohydrate, and +.7 per cent. mineral matter, making a total of 13 per cent. This +indicates the quantity of actual food material in milk, the remainder, +or 87 per cent., being water. + +8. PROTEIN IN MILK.--Because of the double usefulness of protein--to +serve as fuel and to make and repair muscular tissue--this element is +regarded as an important ingredient of milk. The protein in milk is +called _casein_. The opaque whiteness of milk is largely due to the +presence of this substance. As long as milk remains sweet, the lime +salts it contains hold this casein in solution; but when it sours, the +salts are made soluble and the casein thickens, or coagulates. In +addition to casein, milk contains a small amount of protein in the form +of _albumin_. This substance, upon being heated, coagulates and causes +the formation of the skin that is always found on the top of milk that +has been heated. The skin thus formed contains everything that is found +in milk, because, as it forms, casein is dried with it and sugar and +fat, too, are caught and held there. It is the protein of milk and its +characteristic coagulation that are made use of in the making of cheese. +In cooking, the protein of milk is probably more affected than any of +the other substances, but the degree to which the digestion of milk is +thus affected is not definitely known, this being a much +disputed question. + +9. FAT IN MILK.--The other substance in milk that serves as fuel, or to +produce energy, is fat. It occurs in the form of tiny particles, each +surrounded by a thin covering and suspended in the liquid. Such a +mixture, which is called an _emulsion_, is the most easily digested form +in which fat is found. The fat in milk varies more than the other food +substances, it being sometimes as low as 2 per cent, and again as high +as 6 per cent. However, the average of these two, or 4 per cent., is the +usual amount found in most milk. + +As has been mentioned, the fat globules of milk rise to the top because +fat is lighter than water, so that when milk has been undisturbed for +some time the top, which is known as _cream_, will be found to contain +most of the fat. Because of the fat it contains, the cream is yellower +in color than the milk underneath. If the cream is beaten, or churned, +these fat particles will adhere in a mass, advantage of this fact being +taken in the making of butter. + +10. CARBOHYDRATE IN MILK.--The carbohydrate contained in milk is in the +form of sugar called _lactose_. It is unlike other sugars in that it is +not very sweet and does not disagree with most persons nor upset their +digestion. For this reason, it is often given to children, invalids, and +persons who have digestive disturbances. However, it is like other +carbohydrates in that in solution it ferments. The result of the +fermentation in this case is the production of _lactic acid_, which +makes the milk sour. With the fat, lactose makes up the bulk of the +energy-producing material of milk, and while this is important it is +only secondary when compared to the tissue-building power of the protein +and minerals. Besides being an important part of milk itself, lactose is +a valuable by-product in the manufacture of cheese. After being taken +from _whey_, which is the clear, straw-colored liquid that remains when +the curd, or coagulated portion, is completely removed from the milk, +the lactose is refined and sold in the form of a powder that is used for +various kinds of infant and invalid feeding. + +11. MINERAL MATTER IN MILK.--Considerable quantities of mineral salts, +which are chiefly _lime_, _potash_, and _phosphates_, are found in milk. +As has already been pointed out, these are important in the building of +bone and hard tissue in the body, but in addition they help to keep the +fluids of the body in the right condition. Because of the work they do, +these mineral salts are necessary in the building of the bodies of +growing children, and are useful for repair and the regulation of the +body processes in adults. In cheese, butter, and cream, which are the +products of milk, less of the mineral salts are found in proportion to +the quantity than in whole milk, skim milk, and whey. + +12. WATER IN MILK.--The percentage of water in milk is much greater than +that of all the other food substances combined, there being more than +six times as much. While this quantity seems very large, it is an +advantage, for milk provides nourishment to persons when they can take +neither solid nor more condensed food. On the other hand, the water is a +disadvantage, for it is responsible for the rapid spoiling of milk. This +fact is clearly shown in the case of condensed milk, where the water is +partly or completely evaporated, for milk of this kind keeps much longer +without spoiling than either whole or skim milk. + + +PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM MILK + +13. Although milk is used extensively in its natural liquid form, +considerable use is also made of the numerous products of milk, chief +among which are cream, skim milk, buttermilk, sour milk, whey, butter, +and cheese. In fact, all of these occupy such an important place in the +dietary of the majority of homes that it is well for every housewife to +understand their value. Butter and cheese are discussed in detail later, +so that at this time no attention need be given to them. The other +products, however, are taken up now, with the intention of enabling the +housewife to familiarize herself with their production, nature, and use. + +14. CREAM.--As has been pointed out, the particles of fat that rise to +the top of milk when it is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time +form the product known as cream. Cream may be removed from the milk by +skimming it off, or it may be separated from the milk by means of +machinery especially designed for the purpose. The greater the +proportion of fat in milk, the thicker, or "heavier," will be the cream. + +Various grades of separated cream are placed on the market, the usual +ones being those which contain 8, 12, 16, 20, and 40 per cent, of fat. +Thin cream, which includes the grades that have only a small percentage +of fat, contains a larger quantity of milk than the others and is not so +desirable for many purposes. Still, it is used to some extent, because +it is cheaper and there are definite uses to which it can be put. +Medium-heavy cream is the kind to select when it is desired for +_whipping_. This is a process that consists in beating the cream rapidly +until a mass of tiny bubbles form and become stiff, very much as the +white of egg does. + +15. SKIM MILK.--After a part or all of the cream has been removed from +whole milk, that which remains is called skim milk. While practically +all of the fat is taken out when milk is skimmed, very little protein or +sugar is removed. Therefore, skim milk is still a valuable food, it +being used to a large extent for cheese making, for the manufacture of +certain commercial foods, and for the feeding of animals. The housewife +does not, as a rule, buy skim milk; indeed, in some localities the laws +prevent its sale because it is considered an adulterated food. However, +it is really a wholesome, valuable food that is cheaper than whole milk, +and its use in the home should therefore be encouraged from an +economical standpoint. Here it may be used in the preparation of many +dishes, such as sauces, cakes, biscuits, muffins, griddle cakes, bread, +etc., in which butter or other fats are used, and in custards, puddings, +ices, and numerous other desserts. + +16. BUTTERMILK.--The milk that remains in butter making after the butter +fat has been removed from cream by churning is known by the name +buttermilk. Such milk is similar to skim milk in composition, and unless +butter is made of sweet cream, buttermilk is sour. Buttermilk is used +considerably as a beverage, but besides this use there are numerous ways +in which it may be employed in the preparation of foods, as is pointed +out in various recipes. An advantage of buttermilk is that its cost is +less than that of whole milk, so that the housewife will do well to make +use of it in the preparation of those foods in which it produces +satisfactory results. + +17. ARTIFICIAL BUTTERMILK.--Several kinds of sour milk that are called +buttermilk are to be had, particularly at soda fountains and +restaurants. While they are similar to buttermilk they are not the same, +because they are produced artificially from whole or skimmed sweet milk. +The usual method employed in the making of these artificial buttermilks, +as they may well be called, consists in adding to sweet milk tablets +containing lactic acid or a certain culture of bacteria that induce +fermentation, very much as yeast does, and then keeping it at about body +temperature for a number of hours in order to allow the milk to thicken +and sour. Such milks exert a beneficial action in the digestive tract, +and their food value, provided they are made from whole milk, is just as +high as that of the original sweet milk. Artificial buttermilks +therefore prove a valuable source of food supply for persons who find +them palatable and who do not care for sweet milk. Their food value may +be increased by adding cream to them. + +18. SOUR MILK.--Ordinary milk contains large numbers of bacteria that +produce fermentation. When it is allowed to stand for some time, these +bacteria act upon the sugar, or lactose, contained in the milk and +change it into lactic acid. This acid gives to the milk a sour taste and +at the same time causes the casein of the milk to become a mass known as +_curd_, or _clabber_. This mass continues to grow sour and tough until +all the milk sugar is converted into lactic acid, so that the longer the +milk stands, the more acid it becomes. Sour milk, however, is useful +in the preparation of various dishes, such as hot breads and +griddle cakes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +19. WHEY.--When the curd is completely removed from milk, as in making +cheese, a clear, light, yellowish liquid known as whey remains. Whey is +composed of water, minerals, and milk sugar or lactic acid, and is the +least valuable part of the milk. The ingenious housewife will never be +at a loss to make use of this product, for, while its food value is +slight, the minerals it contains are important ones. Whey is sometimes +used to furnish the liquid for bread making and, in addition, it may be +used as a beverage for persons who cannot digest food as heavy as +milk itself. + +20. COMPARISON OF FOOD VALUES OF MILK PRODUCTS.--So that the housewife +may become familiar with the food values of milk products, there is here +given, in Fig. 1, a graphic table for the comparison of such products. +Each glass is represented as containing approximately 1 pint or 1 pound +of the milk product, and the figures underneath each indicate the number +of calories found in the quantity represented. The triangle at the side +of each indicates the proportion of ash, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and +water, the percentage composition being given at the side. Housewives as +a rule fully appreciate the food value that is to be found in whole milk +and cream, but such products as skim milk, buttermilk, and whey are +likely to be ignored. + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF WHOLESOME MILK + +21. So far as the housewife is concerned, the qualities that +characterize wholesome milk are without doubt of great interest. She may +know of what use milk is in the diet and the food substances of which it +is composed, but unless she understands just what constitutes milk of +good quality, as well as the nature of inferior milk, she cannot very +well provide her family with the kind it should have. Therefore, to +assist her in this matter, the characteristics of wholesome milk are +here discussed. Such milk, it will be well to note, must be of the right +composition, must not be adulterated, must be fresh--that is, not older +when delivered than is permitted by law--and must be as clean +as possible. + +22. STANDARD OF MILK COMPOSITION.--The housewife usually judges the +quality of milk by the amount of cream that rises to the top when milk +in a bottle is allowed to remain undisturbed for some time. This is +really an excellent test, because milk that contains only a small amount +of cream is of poorer quality than that which contains a larger amount; +in other words, the more cream milk contains, the higher will be its +food value and the greater its energy-producing ability. Then, too, milk +that is rich in cream usually contains proportionately large amounts of +protein and sugar. + +While the composition of milk has much to do with the quality of this +food, it varies, as should be noted, in different breeds and even in +individual cows, depending on both the food and the care given to them. +For this reason, milk that is mixed is preferable to the milk of a +single cow, as the mixing of the milk of a number of cows insures a +better average composition. + +23. ADULTERATION OF MILK.--The composition of milk, and hence its +quality, is seriously affected by its adulteration. By this is meant the +extraction of any of the food substances from whole milk; the addition +of anything that tends to weaken or lower its quality or strength; the +use of coloring matter to make it appear of greater value than it +actually is; or the use of preservatives to prevent it from souring as +soon as it ordinarily would. It is, of course, illegal to adulterate +milk, yet it is sometimes done. The most convenient and possibly the +most common materials used to adulterate milk are water and skim milk. +The addition of water to milk decreases the quantity of all its food +substances, but the addition of skim milk reduces the quantity of fat +only. The color of the milk is often affected by the use of these +adulterants, but when this happens, yellow coloring is usually added to +restore the original appearance. + +Sometimes the milk that a dairyman markets contains more fat than the +law requires; but even such milk cannot legally be skimmed nor diluted +with skim milk. The only thing that may be done to it is to mix it with +milk that is low in butter fat and thus obtain a milk that will average +the legal percentage. For instance, if milk from a dairy averages 5 per +cent, of butter fat, it may be diluted with milk that contains only 3 +per cent, of butter fat, because the result of such mixing, which will +be milk averaging 4 per cent, of this food substance, will be the +legal standard. + +24. To prevent milk from souring, dishonest milk dealers often put into +it such preservatives as soda, borax, and formaldehyde. There is no +definite way of telling whether or not one of these has been used, +except by a chemical analysis. However, if milk does not sour within a +reasonable time when no precautions have been taken to keep it sweet, it +should be looked on with suspicion, for it undoubtedly contains a +preservative. + +25. FRESHNESS OF MILK.--To be most satisfactory for all purposes, milk +should be absolutely fresh. However, it is almost impossible to obtain +milk in this condition, because it is generally sold at a distance from +the source of supply. Milk that is sold in small towns and cities is +usually 12 and often 18 to 21 hours old when it is delivered; whereas, +in large cities, where the demand is so great that milk must be shipped +from great distances, it is often 24 to 36 or even 48 hours old when it +reaches the consumer. In order that milk may remain sweet long enough to +permit it to be delivered at places so far removed from the source of +supply, it must be handled and cared for in the cleanest possible way by +the dealers. Likewise, if the housewife desires to get the best results +from it, she must follow the same plan, cooling it immediately on +delivery and keeping it cool until it is consumed. The freshness of milk +can be determined only by the length of time it will remain sweet when +proper care is given to it. + +26. CLEANLINESS OF MILK.--Milk may be of the right composition, free +from all adulteration, and as fresh as it is possible to obtain it, but +unless it is clean, it is an injurious food. Milk is rendered unclean or +impure by dirt. In reality, there are two kinds of dirt that may be +present in milk, and it is important to know just what these are and +what effect they have on milk. + +27. The less harmful of the two kinds of dirt is the visible dirt that +gets into the milk from the cow, the stable, the milker, the milking +utensils, and similar sources when these are not scrupulously clean. If +milk containing such dirt is allowed to stand long enough in pans or +bottles for the heavier particles to settle, it will be found as +sediment in the bottom of the receptacle. To say the least, the presence +of such dirt is always disagreeable and frequently produces +foreign flavors. + +Straining the milk through clean absorbent cotton will reveal the +presence of such dirt and another kind of dirt that does not show +through the opaque fluid. This second kind of dirt is generally found in +milk when the first kind is present in any quantity. It is more liable +to be harmful than the other, because it enters the milk from the water +used in cleaning the receptacles or from some contaminated source. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +28. Whenever dirt is present in milk, bacteria are sure to be there; and +the greater the quantity of dirt the greater will be the number of +bacteria. Should the housewife desire to compare the cleanliness of +several lots of milk, she may filter a like quantity from each lot, say +a quart or a pint, through small disks of absorbent cotton. If, after +the milk has passed through the cotton disk, very little dirt remains on +it, as in Fig. 2 (_a_), the milk may be considered as comparatively +clean; if the cotton disk appears as in (_b_), the milk may be said to +be only slightly dirty; if it appears as in (_c_), the milk is dirty; +and if it appears as in (_d_), the milk is very dirty. Milk that leaves +a stain like that in (_d_) contains more bacteria than milk that leaves +a stain like that in (_c_), and so on through all the lots of milk. +Filtering milk in this manner, however, does not indicate whether the +bacteria are disease producing. Such information can be secured only by +microscopic examination, and only then by persons who have a knowledge +of such matters. + +29. Since, as has been pointed out, bacteria cling to all dirt, the +dirt that milk contains is one of the causes of souring and putrefaction +of milk, and may be a cause of disease. Indeed, it is definitely known +that dirty milk sours much more quickly than does clean milk. Actual +tests in which clean milk was put in a cool place have proved that it +will keep for weeks, whereas dirty milk will sour in a day or two, +especially in warm weather. This information should point out clearly to +the housewife that it is not merely heat that changes milk or causes it +to sour. She should understand in addition, that bacteria grow and +multiply very rapidly when conditions for their growth are provided. +These conditions are moisture, warmth, and the right kind of food, and +as all of these are found in milk, this product is really ideal for +bacterial development. The only way in which to protect milk is to make +sure that no bacteria enter it, or, if they do, to make it impossible +for them to grow. This may be done by keeping the milk so cold that they +cannot thrive, or by destroying them in various ways, which are taken +up later. + +30. In former times, there was not much danger of wide-spread disease +from the milk supply, for it was cared for almost entirely by those who +kept a few cows and distributed milk to a small number of customers. In +fact, it has been only within the past 50 years that large quantities of +milk are handled by separate dairies and shipped great distances from +the source of supply and that the distribution of milk has become a +great industry. When so much milk is handled in one place, it is more or +less unsafe unless the dairy is kept extremely clean and is conducted in +the most sanitary manner. Experience has shown that too much attention +cannot be given to the care of milk, for the lives of great numbers of +children have been sacrificed through the carelessness of dairymen and +persons selling and distributing milk, as well as through the negligence +of those who handle the milk after it has entered the home. To overcome +much of this carelessness, both the Federal Government and the various +states of this country have set standards for safe milk production, and +in order to make their laws effective have established inspection +service. Independently of these state and national laws, many of the +cities, particularly the large ones, have made their own standards, +which, as a rule, are very rigid. One of the usual requirements is to +compel each person who wishes to sell milk in the city to buy a license, +so that the city authorities may keep in touch with those handling milk +and so that conditions may be investigated at any time. In view of the +care required of dealers in handling milk, the housewife owes it to +herself and the members of her family to keep the milk in the home in +the best possible manner. + + +GRADES OF CLEAN MILK + +31. Ever since milk has come to be a commercial product, authorities +have been devising ways in which it may be brought to the consumer in a +condition that will permit it to be used without causing ill results. +Their efforts have been rewarded to such an extent that nowadays +consumers have little to fear from the milk they purchase, provided they +get it from dealers who live up to the laws. Chief among the different +grades of clean milk is _certified milk,_ and next in order comes +_pasteurized milk,_ followed by _sterilized milk_. + +32. CERTIFIED MILK.--The grade of clean milk sold under the name of +certified milk is simply natural, raw milk that is produced and marketed +under conditions that permit it to be guaranteed as pure, wholesome, and +of definite composition. Such milk is necessarily higher in price than +milk that is less wholesome and sanitary, because of the extra cost to +the dairyman in meeting the requirements that make it possible for him +to produce clean milk under sanitary conditions. These requirements +pertain to the health and cleanliness of those who handle the milk, to +the health, housing condition, and care of the herd and the dairy cows, +and to the handling and care of milk in the dairy and during +transportation and delivery. They are usually established and enforced +by an inspection commission appointed by the city, county, or state in +which the milk is produced. + +33. If a little careful thought is given to the milk situation, it will +be admitted that such precautions are necessary if clean milk is to be +the result. Such milk cannot be produced if the surroundings are dirty, +because dust and flies, which are two sources of contamination, are +practically always present in such places. A stable with poor +ventilation, without screens to keep out flies, and with floors that +will not permit of cleaning, but cause filth and refuse to accumulate, +is sure to contaminate milk that is handled in it. In addition, cows +that are not well fed, comfortably housed, or carefully groomed cannot +be expected to give milk of as good quality as cows that are properly +cared for. Likewise, if the persons who do the milking are not clean, +the milk is subject to contamination from this source. + +34. All such unfavorable conditions can be remedied, and must be in the +production of certified milk; but the good accomplished in this +direction will be lost if the milk is carelessly handled after milking. +Therefore, in producing certified milk, only the cleanest water +available is allowed to be used in the dairy. Impure water is a common +source of the contamination of milk in such places. On some farms, the +water supply comes from a well that is too near the barn or that is too +shallow to avoid being made impure by the germs that filter into it from +the barnyard or a cesspool. If vessels in which milk is placed are +washed in such water, it is necessary to sterilize them by boiling or +steaming before milk is put into them, in order to kill the germs that +come from the water. If such a precaution as this is not observed, the +germs will multiply rapidly in the milk and, provided they are +disease-producing, will make the milk extremely dangerous. + +Besides observing the precautions mentioned, it is necessary that all +utensils used in a dairy, such as pails for milking, strainers, +containers, etc., be kept scrupulously clean. Likewise, they must be +sterilized by boiling each time they are used, for, while disease germs +may be absent, those which cause the milk to sour are always present and +must be destroyed. Finally, to prevent any germs that enter milk from +multiplying, even when it is properly cared for, the milk has to be +cooled to a temperature of 45 degrees Fahrenheit or lower immediately +after milking and then bottled in sterilized bottles, sealed, and packed +in ice, within 20 minutes after milking. + +35. It is by giving attention to all such matters that certified milk is +possible. Such milk, as will be understood from what has been said, is +neither a cooked milk nor a dirty milk that is processed, but a natural, +raw milk that is clean at all stages of its production and marketing. +Because of this fact, it is the best and cleanest milk to be had and may +be used without hesitation, not only by grown persons in good health, +but for infants and invalids. + +The sanitary condition of certified milk and the consequent length of +time it will remain sweet was demonstrated conclusively as far back as +1900 at the Paris Exposition. At this time, two model dairies in the +United States--one located at the University of Illinois and the other +at Briarcliff Manor, Westchester County, New York--delivered to their +booths at the Exposition milk that was bottled under the most sanitary +conditions at their dairies. During its transit across the ocean the +milk was kept at a temperature of 40 to 42 degrees Fahrenheit, and on +its arrival, 2 weeks after leaving the dairies, it was found to be in a +perfectly sweet condition. Similar experiments made at later dates, such +as shipping certified milk from the East to California, serve to bear +out the test made in 1900, and prove what can be done with milk so +produced as to be as free as possible from bacteria or the conditions +that permit their growth. + +36. PASTEURIZED MILK.--While certified milk is undoubtedly the safest +kind of milk to use and is constantly growing in favor, much of the milk +received in the home is pasteurized. By pasteurized milk is meant milk +that has been heated to a temperature of 140 to 155 degrees Fahrenheit, +kept at this temperature for 15 to 20 minutes, and then cooled rapidly. +The result of such a treatment is that any disease-producing germs that +are present in the milk, as well as those which are likely to cause +intestinal disturbances, are destroyed, and that the milk is rendered +safe as food for a time. Pasteurizing does not materially change the +taste of milk, nor does it seriously affect the digestive properties of +this food. It is true, of course, that pasteurized milk is not so good +as clean raw milk. Still it is better to use such milk than to run the +risk of using milk that might be contaminated with the germs of +tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or any other of +the numerous diseases that have been known to be carried to whole +families and communities through the milk supply. + +37. Although pasteurizing is done on a large scale in dairies, there is +no reason why the housewife cannot pasteurize the milk she buys, +provided it is raw milk and she feels that it is not safe to use. If +pasteurizing is to be done frequently and large quantities of milk are +to be treated, it would be advisable to purchase the convenient +apparatus that is to be had. However, if only a small quantity of milk +is to be pasteurized at a time, a simple improvised outfit will prove +satisfactory, because milk pasteurized in the home may be heated in the +bottles in which it is received. Such an outfit consists of a dairy +thermometer, a deep vessel, and a perforated pie tin or a wire rack of +suitable size. + +38. To pasteurize milk in the home, proceed in the manner illustrated +in Fig. 3. Place the rack or invert the perforated pie tin in the bottom +of the vessel, and on it place the bottles of milk from which the caps +have not been removed. Make a hole through the cap of one bottle, and +insert the thermometer into the milk through this hole. Then fill the +vessel with cold water to within an inch or so of the top of the +bottles, taking care not to put in so much water as to make the bottles +float. Place the vessel over the fire, heat it until the thermometer in +the bottle registers a few degrees over 150 degrees Fahrenheit, and keep +the milk at this temperature for 15 to 20 minutes. At the end of this +time, the milk will be sufficiently pasteurized and may be removed from +the fire. As soon as it is taken from the water, cool it as rapidly as +possible by running cold water into the vessel slowly or by placing the +bottles in several changes of water, taking care not to place the hot +bottles in very cold water at first, as this may cause them to crack. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +When the milk has been cooled by some rapid method, keep it cool until +it is used. This precaution is necessary because of the nature of +pasteurized milk. The temperature at which milk is pasteurized is +sufficient to kill all fully developed bacteria, but those which exist +in an undeveloped state, or in the form of spores, develop very rapidly +after pasteurization unless the milk is kept cold and clean. If these +bacteria were allowed to develop, the purpose of pasteurization would be +lost, and the milk would become as dangerous as it was originally. The +advantage of cooling milk rapidly will be fully appreciated upon +referring to Fig. 4, which illustrates the development of a single germ +in milk that is cooled rapidly and in milk that is cooled slowly. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +39. STERILIZED MILK.--By sterilized milk is meant milk in which all +germs are destroyed by sterilization. Such milk is not sold by dealers, +but the process of sterilization is resorted to in the home when +pasteurization is not sufficient to render milk safe. This process, +which is the only positive means of destroying all germs, consists in +bringing the milk to the boiling point, or 212 degrees Fahrenheit, +allowing it to boil for three quarters of an hour, and then cooling it +rapidly. One who undertakes to treat milk in this way should remember +that it is difficult to boil milk, because the solids in the milk adhere +to the bottom and sides of the vessel and soon burn. However, this +difficulty can be overcome by sterilizing the milk in the bottles in +which it is bought. + +40. To sterilize milk, place the sealed bottles on a wire rack or a +perforated pie tin in a deep vessel, as for the pasteurizing of milk, +and pour cold water into the vessel until it nearly covers the bottles. +Then raise the temperature of the water quickly to the boiling point, +and after it has begun to bubble, allow it to boil for three quarters of +an hour. At the end of this time, cool the milk rapidly and then keep it +cool until it is used. + +41. Although milk thus treated becomes safe, sterilization changes its +flavor and digestibility. If milk of this kind must be used, some raw +food should be given with it. A diet composed entirely of cooked food is +not so ideal as one in which some raw food is included, because raw +foods contain substances that are essential to health. The change that +takes place in the composition of milk that has been sterilized can be +easily observed. Such milk on becoming sour does not coagulate as does +pasteurized or raw milk, owing to the fact that the lime salts in the +milk are so changed by the high temperature as to prevent the thickening +process from taking place. Then, too, sterilized milk is not likely to +become sour even after considerable time. Still, such milk is not safe +to use except when it is fresh, for instead of fermenting in the usual +way it putrefies and is liable to cause such a dangerous sickness as +ptomaine poisoning. + +42. MODIFIED MILK.--For infants who cannot be fed their normal diet, +cow's milk must be used as a substitute, but in order to make it a more +nearly ideal food for them it must usually be modified, or changed, by +adding other materials. When it is so treated, it is known as modified +milk. The materials used to modify milk are sterile water, lime water, +barley water, cream, skim milk, milk sugar, or some other easily +digested carbohydrate, one of these or a combination of them always +being employed. The proportion of these ingredients to use varies with +the age of the child that is to be fed and must be constantly changed to +meet the child's requirements. In the production of modified milk, a +physician's prescription and directions should always be followed +closely. Only the best quality of milk should be used, and, in addition, +the greatest care should be taken to have all the bottles, utensils, and +materials used as clean and sterile as it is possible to make them. If +such conditions cannot be met, it is advisable to pasteurize the +modified-milk mixture after the materials have been put together. + + +PRESERVED MILK + +43. Besides milk that is commonly sold by dairymen and milk dealers, it +is possible to buy in the market many grades of so-called PRESERVED +MILK. Such milk is produced by driving off all or part of the water +contained in milk, and it is sold as _condensed, evaporated,_ and +_powdered milk_. Usually, it is put up in tin cans, and while it is not +used so extensively as regular milk, many firms are engaged in its +preparation. + +44. CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILK.--As has just been mentioned, +condensed and evaporated milk is produced by the complete or partial +evaporation of the water contained in milk. Such milk can be shipped +long distances or kept for long periods of time, because it does not +contain sufficient moisture to permit the growth of bacteria. In +evaporating milk to produce these preserved milks, each gallon is +diminished in quantity to about two and one quarter pints, the original +87 per cent. of water being reduced to about 25 per cent. Therefore, in +order to use such milk, sufficient water must be added to restore it to +its original composition. Sometimes comparatively large amounts of cane +sugar are added to such milks, which, besides sweetening them, assist in +their preservation. If cane sugar is not used, the milks are usually +made sterile in order to prevent them from spoiling. + +45. POWDERED MILK.--The form of preserved milk known as powdered milk +is the result of completely evaporating the water in milk. Such milk has +the appearance of a dry powdered substance. It does not spoil easily and +is so greatly reduced in quantity that it can be conveniently stored. +Because of these characteristics, this product, for which skim milk is +generally used, is extensively manufactured. It is used chiefly by +bakers and confectioners, and, as in the case of evaporated or condensed +milk, the water that has been evaporated in the powdering process must +be supplied when the milk is used. + + +STANDARD GRADING OF MILK AND CREAM + +46. In order that a definite idea may be formed of the sanitary and +bacteriological standards that are set by milk commissions, there are +here given, in Table I, the regulations governing the grades and +designation of milk and cream that may be sold in the city of New York. +As will be observed from a study of this table, only definite grades of +milk and cream can be sold in that city; likewise, it must conform to +certain standards of purity and the producer must handle it in such a +way that it may be delivered to the consumer in as clean and fresh a +condition as possible. + +Without doubt, a grading similar to this one will become general +throughout the United States eventually, for this is the only way by +which the housewife may know with certainty whether or not the milk she +purchases is of the right composition and is safe, fresh, and sanitary +in every respect. The different qualities of milk and cream as shown by +this grading are, of course, sold at different prices, those which +require the greatest care and expense in handling selling for the +highest price. + + +MILK IN THE HOME + +PURCHASE OF MILK + +47. After the housewife has become familiar with the points that she +should know concerning milk, she will be much better equipped to +purchase milk of the right kind for her home. However, there are still +some points for her to observe when she is purchasing milk if she would +supply her family with the best quality of this food. + +48. In the first place, she should buy milk from a reliable dealer who +will not object to questioning, and, if possible, she should make an +investigation of the dairy that supplies the milk that she uses. If she +cannot investigate the dairy personally, she should at least endeavor to +obtain information from those who are prepared to give it. If she learns +that the conditions in the dairy that is supplying her with milk are not +what they should be, she should try to obtain milk from some other +source. Of course, she should remember that milk of the best and +cleanest quality is the highest in price, because of the increased cost +of production; but it is usually advisable to pay the higher price, +especially if children are to be fed, because cheap milk is liable to be +unsafe, at least for any purpose that will require it to be served +without cooking. Should the income not allow the best quality of milk to +be used for all purposes, a cheaper grade can be used for cooking, but +it is always economical to purchase the best quality when this food is +to be used as a beverage. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +49. In the next place, the housewife should purchase milk from a dealer +who delivers cold milk, because, as has been mentioned, bacteria +multiply rapidly in warm milk. She should also try to obtain milk put up +in bottles, for such milk has advantages over milk dipped from a can in +that it does not have the same chance to become dirty and it affords a +greater opportunity to secure accurate measurement. The kind of caps +used on milk bottles should also be observed. Caps that have to be pried +out with a knife or a similar utensil are not nearly so satisfactory as +those shown in Fig. 5 (_a_), which have small tabs _a_ that permit the +cap to be lifted out. In addition to the caps, which serve to keep dirt +out of the milk and permit it to be delivered without being spilled, +some dealers use covers like that shown in (_b_). Such covers are held +in place by a wire and serve further to protect the milk from +contamination. + +If milk purchased in bottles is clean, there should be no sediment in +the bottom of the bottle after it has been allowed to stand for some +time. Also, if it is fresh, it will not sour quickly after it is +delivered, so that in case it is properly cared for and sours quickly, +it may be known to be stale milk. However, if it does not sour in the +normal length of time, it should be looked on with suspicion, for, as +has been pointed out, such milk may have added to it a preservative to +prevent souring. The housewife may expect milk that is delivered cold +and is guaranteed to be sanitary and fresh to remain sweet at least 24 +hours, provided, of course, it is placed in the refrigerator immediately +upon delivery and kept there until used. + + * * * * * + +REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE GRADES AND DESIGNATION OF MILK AND CREAM WHICH +MAY BE SOLD IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK + +The following classifications apply to milk and cream. The regulations +regarding bacterial content and time of delivery shall not apply to +sour cream. + +Grades of Milk or Cream Sold in the City of New York: + +GRADE A Milk or cream (Raw) + +Definition: Grade A milk or cream (raw) is milk or cream produced and +handled in accordance with the minimum requirements, rules and +regulations as herein set forth. + +Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: 1. Only such cows shall be +admitted to the herd as have not reacted to a diagnostic injection of +tuberculin and are in good physical condition. 2. All cows shall be +tested with tuberculin and all reacting animals shall be excluded +from the herd. + +Bacterial Contents: Grade A milk shall not contain more than 60,000 +bacteria per cubic centimeter, and cream more than 300,000 bacteria per +cubic centimeter when delivered to the consumer or at any time prior to +such delivery. + +Necessary Scores: Equip. 25, Meth. 50, Total 75 + +Time of Delivery: Shall be delivered within 36 hours after production. + +Bottling: Unless otherwise specified in the permit, this milk or cream +shall be delivered to consumers only in bottles. + +Labeling: Outer caps of bottles shall be white and shall contain the +words Grade A, Raw, in black letters in large type, and shall state the +name and address of the dealer. + +Pasteurization: None. + +Milk or cream (Pasteurized) + +Definition: Grade A milk or cream (pasteurized) is milk or cream handled +and sold by dealers holding permits therefor from the Board of Health, +and produced and handled in accordance with the requirements, rules, and +regulations as herein set forth. + +Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: No tuberculin test required, but +cows must be healthy as disclosed by physical examination made annually. + +Bacterial Contents: Grade A milk (pasteurized) shall not contain more +than 30,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and cream (pasteurized) more +then 150,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered to the +consumer or at any time after pasteurization and prior to such delivery. +No milk supply averaging more than 200,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter +shall be pasteurized for sale under this designation. + +Necessary Scores: Equip. 25, Meth. 43, Total 68. + +Time of Delivery: Shall be delivered within 36 hours after +pasteurization. + +Bottling: Unless otherwise specified in the permit, this milk or cream +shall be delivered to the consumer only in bottles. + +Labeling: Outer cap of bottles shall be white and contain the word Grade +A in black letters in large type, date and hours between which +pasteurization was completed; place where pasteurization was performed; +name of the person, firm, or corporation offering for sale, selling, or +delivering same. + +Pasteurization: Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized +as has been subjected to a temperature averaging 145 degrees Fahrenheit +for not less than 30 minutes. + +Grade B Milk or cream (Pasteurized) + +Definition: Grade B milk or cream (pasteurized) is milk or cream +produced and handled in accordance with the minimal requirements, rules, +and regulations herein set forth and which has been pasteurized in +accordance with the requirements and rules and regulations of the +Department of Health for pasteurization. + +Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: No tuberculin test required, but +cows must be healthy as disclosed by physical examination made annually. + +Bacterial Contents: No milk under this grade shall contain more than +100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and no claim shall contain more +than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered to the +consumer or at anytime after pasteurization and prior to such delivery. +No milk supply averaging more than 1,500,000 bacteria per cubic +centimeter shall be pasteurized in this city for sale under this +designation. No milk supply averaging more than 300,000 bacteria per +cubic centimeter shall be pasteurized outside of the city for sale under +this designation. + +Necessary Scores: Equip. 20, Meth. 35, Total 55 + +Time of Delivery: Milk shall be delivered within 36 hours and cream +within 48 hours after pasteurization. + +Bottling: May be delivered in cans or bottles. + +Labeling: Outer caps of bottles containing milk and tags affixed to cans +containing milk or cream shall be white and marked Grade B in bright +green letters in large type, date pasteurization was completed, place +where pasteurization was performed, name of the person, firm, or +corporation offering for sale, selling, or delivering same. Bottles +containing cream shall be labeled with caps marked Grade B in bright +green letters, in large type and shall give the place and date of +bottling and shall give the name of person, firm, or corporation +offering for sale, selling, or delivering same. + +Pasteurization: Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized +as has been subjected to a temperature averaging 145 degrees Fahrenheit +for not less than 30 minutes. + +Grade C Milk or cream (Pasteurized) (For cooking and manufacturing +purposes only.) + +Definition: Grade C milk or cream is milk or cream not conforming to the +requirements of any of the subdivisions of Grade A or Grade B and which +has been pasteurized according to the requirements and rules and +regulations of the Board of Health or boiled for at least two +(2) minutes. + +Tuberculin Test And Physical Condition: No tuberculin test required, but +cows must be healthy as disclosed by physical examination made annually. + +Bacterial Contents: No milk of this grade shall contain more than +300,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and no cream of this grade show +contain more than 1,500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter after +pasteurization. + +Necessary Scores: Score 40 + +Time of Delivery: Shall be delivered within 48 hours after +pasteurization. + +Bottling: May be delivered in the cans only. + +Labeling: Tags affixed to cans shall be white and shall be marked in red +with the words, Grade C in large type and "for cooking" in plainly +visible type, and cans and shall have properly sealed metal collars, +painted red on necks. + +Pasteurization: Only such milk or cream shall be regarded as pasteurized +as has been subjected to a temperature averaging 145 degrees Fahrenheit +for not less than 30 minutes. + +NOTE.--Sour milk, buttermilk, sour cream, kumyss, matzoon, zoolac, and +similar products shall not be made from any milk of a less grade than +that designated for Grade B and shall be pasteurized before being put +through the process of souring. Sour cream shall not contained a less +percentage of fats than that designated for cream. + +No other words than those designated herein shall appear on the label of +any container containing milk or cream or milk or cream products except +the word certified when authorized under the State law. + + * * * * * + + +CARE OF MILK + +50. NECESSITY FOR CARE IN THE HOME.--If milk of good quality is bought, +and, as has been suggested, this should be done whenever it is possible, +the next thing to do is to care for it in such a way that it may be fed +to the family in the same condition as it was when delivered. It is, of +course, of prime importance that the dairyman deliver clean fresh milk, +but this is not sufficient; the milk must remain in this condition until +it is used, and this can occur only when the housewife knows how to care +for it properly after it enters the home. It is possible to make safe +milk unsafe and unsafe milk positively dangerous unless the housewife +understands how to care for milk and puts into practice what she knows +concerning this matter. Indeed, some of the blame laid to the careless +handling of milk by dairymen really belongs to housewives, for very +often they do not take care of milk in the right way after delivery. As +too much attention cannot be given to this matter, explicit directions +are here outlined, with the idea of assisting the housewife in this +matter as much as possible. + +51. KEEPING MILK CLEAN IN THE HOME.--Immediately upon delivery, the +bottle containing the milk should be placed in the coolest place +available, never being allowed to stand on the porch in the sun or where +such animals as cats or dogs may come in contact with it. When the milk +is to be used, the paper cap should be carefully wiped before it is +removed from the bottle, so that any dirt that may be on top will not +fall into the milk. If not all the milk is used and the bottle must be +returned to the cool place where it is kept, it should be covered by +means of an inverted drinking glass or, as shown in Fig. 6, by a glass +or porcelain cover. Such covers, or _sanitary milk_ _caps_, as they are +called, are very convenient for this purpose and may be purchased at a +slight cost. + +52. Another precaution that should be taken is never to mix stale milk +with fresh milk, because the entire quantity will become sour in the +same length of time as the stale milk would. Also, milk that has been +poured into a pitcher or any other open vessel and allowed to stand +exposed to the air for some time should never be put back into the +bottle with the remaining milk. Such milk is sure to be contaminated +with the germs that are always present in the dust constantly +circulating in the air. It is sometimes necessary to keep milk in a +vessel other than the bottle in which it is delivered. In such an event, +the vessel that is used should be washed thoroughly, boiled in clean +water, and cooled before the milk is poured into it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +53. Particular care should be taken of the empty milk bottles. They +should never be used for anything except milk. Before they are returned +to the dairyman to be used again, they should first be rinsed with cold +water, then washed thoroughly with hot, soapy water, and finally rinsed +with hot water. If there is illness in the home, the washed bottles +should be put into a pan of cool water, allowed to come to a boil, and +permitted to boil for a few minutes. Such attention will free the +bottles from any contamination they might have received. The dairyman, +of course, gives the bottles further attention before he uses them +again, but the housewife should do her part by making sure that they are +thoroughly cleansed before they are collected by him. + +54. KEEPING MILK COOL IN THE HOME.--As has been pointed out, milk +should, upon being received, be kept in the coolest place available, +which, in the majority of homes at the present time, is the +refrigerator. In making use of the refrigerator for this purpose, the +housewife should put into practice what she learned in _Essentials of +Cookery_, Part 2, concerning the proper placing of food in the +refrigerator, remembering that milk should be placed where it will +remain the coolest and where it is least likely to absorb odors. She +should also bear in mind that the temperature inside of a refrigerator +varies with that of the surrounding air. It is because of this fact that +milk often sours when the temperature is high, as in summer, for +instance, even though it is kept in the refrigerator. + +55. In case a refrigerator is not available, it will be necessary to +resort to other means of keeping milk cool. A cool cellar or basement is +an excellent substitute, but if milk is kept in either of these places, +it must be tightly covered. Then, too, the spring house with its stream +of running water is fully as good as a refrigerator And is used +extensively in farming districts. But even though a housewife has none +of these at her disposal, she need not be deprived of fresh milk, for +there are still other ways of keeping milk cool and consequently fresh. +A very simple way in which to keep milk cool is to weight down the +bottles in a vessel that is deeper than they are and then pour cold +water into the vessel until it reaches the top of the bottles, replacing +the water occasionally as it becomes warm. A still better way, however, +so far as convenience and results are concerned, is that illustrated in +Fig. 7. As shown, wrap the bottle in a clean towel or piece of cotton +cloth so that one corner of it is left loose at the top. Then place this +end in a pan of cold water that stands higher than the bottle. Such an +arrangement will keep the cloth wet constantly and by the evaporation of +the water from it will cause the milk to remain cool. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + + +COOKING MILK + +56. POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN COOKING MILK.--Because of the nature of +milk and its constituents, the cooking of this liquid is a little more +difficult than would appear at first thought. In fact, heating milk to a +temperature greater than 155 degrees Fahrenheit causes several changes +to occur in it, one of which, the coagulation of the albumin, has +already been mentioned. As the albumin hardens into the layer that +forms on the top of boiled milk, a certain amount of fat, sugar, and +casein becomes entangled in it, and if the coagulated skin is rejected, +these food substances, in addition to the albumin, are lost. Another +change that results from boiling is in the fat globules that remain, for +these separate and exist no longer in the form of cream. + +57. When milk that is not perfectly fresh is cooked with other materials +or soups, sauces, and puddings it sometimes curdles. To prevent +curdling, the milk should be heated as rapidly as possible before it is +used with the other ingredients. While the separate heating of the milk +involves a little more work, time may be gained by heating the milk +while the remaining ingredients are being prepared. The curdling of +comparatively fresh milk is often caused by the addition of salt, +especially if the salt is added when the milk is hot. However, if a +pinch of bicarbonate of soda is added to the milk before it is heated, +it will not be likely to curdle even though it is not absolutely fresh. +When tomato is to be used in soup that contains milk or cream, curdling +can be prevented if the milk or the cream to be used is thickened with +flour or corn starch or a little soda is added to the tomato before the +two are mixed. The mixing is accomplished by pouring the _tomato into +the milk_ instead of the milk into the tomato. When acid fruit juices +are to be added to milk or cream and the mixture then frozen, curdling +can be prevented by thoroughly chilling the milk or cream in the freezer +can before combining it with the juices. + +58. As has already been learned, great care must be taken in the heating +of milk, because the solids that it contains adhere quickly to the +bottom of the pan and cause the milk to scorch. For this reason, milk +should never be heated directly over the flame unless the intention is +to boil it, and even if it must be boiled every precaution should be +taken to prevent it from burning. It should be remembered, too, that a +very small scorched area will be sufficient to make a quantity of milk +taste burned. The utensil in which milk can be heated in the most +satisfactory way is the double boiler, for the milk does not come in +direct contact with the heat in this utensil. If a double boiler is not +available, good results can be obtained by setting one pan into another +that contains water. + +59. Milk is often used in place of water for cooking cereals, beverages, +puddings, soups, etc. This is good practice and should be followed +whenever possible, for when milk is added it serves to increase the +nutritive value of the food. It should be observed, however, that more +time is required to cook grains or cereals in milk than to cook them in +water, because milk contains more solid matter than water and is not +absorbed so quickly. Another frequent use of milk is in breads and +biscuits, where, as is explained in _Bread_ and _Hot Breads_, it +produces a browner and more tender crust than water. + +60. VARIETY OF WAYS TO USE MILK IN COOKING.--Because of the numerous +purposes for which milk is required in the preparation of foods, the +smallest amount of it, whether sweet or sour, can be utilized in +cooking; therefore, no milk need ever be wasted. A few of the uses to +which this food is oftenest put are mentioned briefly in order that the +housewife may be familiar enough with them to call them to mind whenever +she desires to carry out a recipe that calls for milk or when she has +occasion to utilize milk that she has on hand. + +Milk thickened slightly with flour and flavored with such material as +corn, asparagus, celery, tomatoes, beans, peas, or fish makes a +delicious soup. In bisques, or thickened soups, and in chowders, the +liquid used need not be milk, but these are made very appetizing if milk +is used for part or all of the liquid. Then, too, sauces or gravies made +with milk, thickened with flour, and made rich with butter or other fat +lend themselves to a variety of uses. Dice of vegetables, meat, fish, or +game added to a sauce of this kind and served in pastry cases or over +toast provide dishes that are delightful additions to any meal. Milk is +also used as the basis for custards, blanc manges, ices, sherbets, ice +creams, and tapioca, rice, and bread puddings in which eggs, starchy +materials, and flavorings are added and the mixture then baked, steamed, +boiled, or frozen, as the desired result may require. As is well known, +milk is practically indispensable in the making of cakes, cookies, quick +breads, and in fact nearly all dough mixtures. Even if it has soured, it +can be used with soda to take the place of cream of tartar in mixtures +that are to be made light, the lactic acid in the sour milk acting with +the soda as leavening. Left-over milk in comparatively large quantities +may also be used in the home for the making of cheese, although this +product of milk is usually produced commercially. + + +RECIPES FOR MILK DISHES AND SAUCES + +FOODS CONTAINING MILK + +61. From the discussion given up to this point, it will be noted that +milk is used in a large variety of ways and in the making of numerous +dishes. However, most of the dishes in which this liquid occurs involve +other important materials, so that the recipes for them are usually +listed under some other ingredient or division of cookery. For instance, +milk is used in the making of ice cream, but as the ice creams are +included among cold desserts, recipes for them would naturally come in +the Section pertaining to this subject. Milk is also an important +ingredient in puddings, but the recipes for such dishes are given in the +Section in which puddings and their sauces are discussed. + +Because of this fact, there are only a few recipes that have milk as +their basis, and this accounts for the small number of recipes here +given. Chief among the recipes that involve principally milk are those +for junket and white sauce, and while the number of these is small and +the use of the dishes not so general as some kinds of food, just as much +attention should be given to them as if they occurred in greater numbers +and were used more commonly. Junket is very easily made and should +therefore cause the housewife no concern; likewise, little difficulty +will be experienced if the directions here given for white sauces are +followed explicitly. + + +RECIPES FOR JUNKET + +62. Plain Junket.--In the stomachs of all animals that use milk as food +is found a digestive ferment known as _rennin_. This is taken from the +stomachs of calves, made up commercially, and sold in the form of +tablets called _junket_. When these tablets are used properly with milk, +they coagulate the milk and make an excellent dessert that resembles +custard and that is very easy to digest. Because of its nature and +qualities, this kind of dessert is used largely for invalids and +children. The following recipe gives the proportion and directions for +making this dessert in its simplest form. + +PLAIN JUNKET +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 junket tablet +1 Tb. cold water +1 qt. milk +4 Tb. sugar +1/4 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. vanilla or other flavoring + +Dissolve the junket tablet in the cold water. Warm the milk very slowly +to 100 degrees Fahrenheit, testing the temperature to make sure that it +is right. If a thermometer is not on hand, this can be done by dropping +a drop on the back of the hand. When neither heat nor cold can be felt +from this drop of milk, it may be known to be very near the body +temperature, the temperature at which rennin is active. If temperature +is found to be too high, the milk must be cooled before the tablet is +added. When the desired temperature has been reached, add the sugar, the +alt, the junket dissolved in the water, and the flavoring. Then pour all +into individual molds and keep it where it will remain warm for about 10 +minutes, at the end of which it should be firm like a custard and may be +cooled. Keep the junket cool until it is to be served, when it may be +turned out of the mold or served in it. As junket will turn to whey if +it is broken with a spoon to any extent, serving it in the mold is the +better plan. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +63. Junket With. Fruit.--The addition of fruit to junket, as in the dish +illustrated in Fig. 8, makes an attractive dessert for both sick and +well people. If the fruit used is permissible in the diet of an invalid, +its combination with junket adds variety to the diet. In the making of +this dessert, all juice should be carefully drained from the fruit +before the junket is poured over it. Canned or fresh fruits may be used +with equally good results. + +JUNKET WITH FRUIT +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 junket tablet +1 Tb. cold water +1 qt. milk +1/4 c. sugar +1/4 tsp. salt +Flavoring +8 halves of canned peaches or +1 c. of berries or small fruit + +Make a junket as directed in the preceding recipe. Drain all juice from +the fruit and place a half peach or a spoonful of fruit in the bottom of +each of the eight molds and pour the junket over it to fill the mold. +Let it solidify and serve cold. + +64. CHOCOLATE JUNKET.--Chocolate added to plain junket not only varies +the junket dessert, but also adds food value, since chocolate contains a +large quantity of fat that is easily digested by most persons. Where the +flavor of chocolate is found agreeable, such junket may be served in +place of the plain junket. + +CHOCOLATE JUNKET +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. milk +2 sq. chocolate +6 Tb. sugar +3/4 c. water +1/4 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. vanilla +1 junket tablet + +Heat the milk to 100 degrees Fahrenheit, testing in the manner explained +in Art. 62. Melt the chocolate in a saucepan, add to it the sugar and 1 +cupful of water, and cook until smooth; then cool and add to the warm +milk, putting in the salt, vanilla, and junket tablet dissolved in +cupful of the water. Turn the junket into a dish or into molds and let +stand in a warm place until set; then chill and serve. In preparing this +recipe, it will be well to note that if sweet chocolate is used less +sugar than is specified may be employed. + +65. CARAMEL JUNKET.--In the making of caramel junket, browned, or +caramelized, sugar and water take the place of part of the milk, and +while a certain amount of the sugar is reduced in the browning, the +caramel is still very high in food value and adds nutritive material to +the dessert. There is nothing about caramel junket to prevent its being +given to any one able to take plain junket, and if it is made correctly +it has a very delightful flavor. + +CARAMEL JUNKET +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. milk +1/2 c. sugar +1/2 c. boiling water +1/4 tsp. salt +1 tsp. vanilla +1 junket tablet + Whipped cream +1/4 c. chopped nuts + +Heat the milk to 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Caramelize the sugar by melting +it in a saucepan directly over the flame until it is a light-brown +color; then stir in the boiling water and cook until the caramel and the +water become a sirup, after which cool and add to the milk Add the +salt, the vanilla, and the junket tablet dissolved in a tablespoonful of +cold water Pour the mixture into a dish, let it stand in a warm place +until it sets; then chill, cover with sweetened whipped cream, sprinkle +with chopped nuts, and serve. + + +RECIPES FOR WHITE SAUCE + +66. Three white sauces are commonly used for different purposes, and in +each one of them milk is the basis. These sauces differ from one another +in thickness, and include _thin white sauce_, which is used for cream +toast and soups; _medium white sauce_, which is used for dressing +vegetables and is flavored in various ways to accompany meats, patties, +or croquettes; and _thick white sauce_, which is used to mix with the +materials used for croquettes in order to hold them together. To insure +the best results, the proportion of flour and liquid should be learned +for each kind, and to avoid the formation of lumps the proper method of +mixing should be carefully followed out. A white sauce properly made is +perfectly smooth, and since only little care is needed to produce such a +result it is inexcusable to serve a lumpy sauce. Also, nothing is more +disagreeable than thick, pasty sauce, but this can be avoided by +employing the right proportion of flour and milk. The ingredients and +their proportions for the various kinds of white sauce are as follows: + +THIN WHITE SAUCE + +1 c. milk +1 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt + +MEDIUM WHITE SAUCE + +1 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt + +THICK WHITE SAUCE + +1 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1/4 c. (4 Tb.) flour +1/2 tsp. salt + +It will be easy to remember the proportions for these three sauces if it +is observed that each one doubles the previous one in the quantity of +flour used, the thin one having 1 tablespoonful to 1 cupful of milk, the +medium one 2 tablespoonfuls to 1 cupful of milk, and the thick one 4 +tablespoonfuls to 1 cupful of milk. To produce these sauces the +ingredients may be combined in three different ways, each of which has +its advantages. These methods, which are here given, should be carefully +observed, for they apply not only to the making of this particular +sauce, but to the combining of fat, starch, and liquid in any sauce. + +_Method 1_.--Heat the milk, being careful that it does not scorch. Brown +the butter slightly in a saucepan, add the flour and salt, and stir the +mixture until it is perfectly smooth and has a deep cream color. Then +add the hot milk gradually, stirring to prevent the formation of lumps. +Cook 5 minutes, stirring constantly to prevent the sauce from scorching. +Sauce made according to this method does not require long cooking +because the flour added to the hot fat cooks quickly. In fact, it is a +very desirable method, for the browned butter and the flour lend flavor +to the sauce. Many otherwise unattractive or rather tasteless foods can +be made much more appetizing by the addition of white sauce made in +this way. + +_Method 2_.--Put the milk on to heat. While this is heating, stir the +butter, flour, and salt together until they are soft and well mixed; +then add the hot milk to them slowly, stirring constantly. Place over +the heat and finish cooking, or cook in a double boiler. Sauce made by +this method requires longer cooking than the preceding one and it has +less flavor. + +_Method 3_.--Heat the milk, reserving a small portion. Stir the flour +smooth with the cold milk and add it to the hot milk, stirring rapidly. +Add the butter and the salt, and continue to stir if cooked over the +heat; if cooked in a double boiler, stir only until the mixture is +completely thickened and then continue to cook for 10 or 15 minutes. +When butter is added to the mixture in this way, it is likely to float +on top, especially if too much is used. A better sauce may be made +according to this method by using thin cream for the liquid and omitting +the butter. + + +MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE (PART 1) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) When milk is used in a meal, what kinds of food may be omitted? + +(2) Name the chief uses of milk in the dietary. + +(3) Why is it possible for a child to remain in normal condition if +given only milk for a long period of time? + +(4) Name the solids contained in milk and tell for what each one is +valuable. + +(5) What causes milk to sour? + +(6) What are the characteristics of wholesome milk? + +(7) What is meant by the adulteration of milk? + +(8) What quality of milk is of the most importance to the health of +those using milk? + +(9) (_a_) Why is dirty milk dangerous? (_b_) Pour a quart of the milk +you purchase regularly through a pad of cotton. Note the result and +report the condition of the milk by comparing the cotton with the disks +shown in Fig. 2. + +(10) Name some of the ways in which milk is likely to become +contaminated. + +(11) What is the safest kind of market milk to buy? + +(12) Describe the conditions under which milk of this kind is marketed. + +(13) (_a_) What is pasteurized milk? (_b_) What is the purpose of +pasteurization? + +(14) How may milk be pasteurized in the home? + +(15) (_a_) When should milk be sterilized? (_b_) What changes take place +in the sterilization of milk? + +(16) What points should be considered in the purchase of milk? + +(17) Why is it necessary to give milk considerable care in the home? + +(18) Mention the precautions that should be observed in caring for milk. + +(19) (_a_) How is milk affected by cooking? (_b_) Describe the best way +to heat milk. + +(20) Give the proportions of flour and liquid required in each of the +three varieties of white sauce. + + * * * * * + + + +BUTTER AND BUTTER SUBSTITUTES (PART 2) + + * * * * * + +BUTTER + +1. BUTTER is the fatty constituent of milk. It is obtained by skimming +or separating the cream from milk and churning it in order to make the +particles of fat adhere to one another. Butter is used largely in the +household as an article of food, for it is one of the most appetizing +and digestible forms of fat. + +To supply the demand for butter, it is produced domestically in the home +and on farms and commercially in dairies and large establishments. The +principle of all churns used for butter making is practically the same. +They simply agitate the cream so that the butter-fat globules in it are +brought together in masses of such size as to enable the butter maker to +separate them from the buttermilk. Butter is seasoned, or salted, to +give it a desirable flavor and to improve its keeping qualities; it is +washed, or worked, in order to distribute the salt evenly, to separate +from it as much of the curd and other non-fatty constituents of the +cream as can be conveniently removed, to bring it into a compact, waxy +mass, and to give it texture. The United States authorities have set a +standard for the composition of butter, which allows this product to +contain not more than 16 per cent. of water and requires it to have at +least 82.5 per cent. of butter fat. + +2. ECONOMICAL USE OF BUTTER.--In the home, butter is used on the table +and in the cooking of many foods. Hardly any article of food has such +general use as this one; in fact, a meal is usually considered to be +incomplete without it, both as an accompaniment to bread, rolls, +biscuits, or whatever variety of these is used, and as an ingredient in +the cooking of some foods that require fat. But butter is not cheap, so +that the wise and economical use of this food in the home is a point +that should not be overlooked by the housewife. This precaution is very +important, it having been determined that butter, as well as other fats, +is wasted to a great extent; and still it is true that no other material +can be so economically utilized. The very smallest amount of any kind of +fat should be carefully saved, for there are numerous uses to which it +can be put. Even though it is mixed with other food, it can always be +melted out, clarified--that is, freed from foreign substances--and then +used for some purpose in cooking. The chief way in which butter is +wasted is in the unnecessary and improper use of it, points that a +little careful thought will do much to remedy. + +3. FLAVOR AND COMPOSITION OF BUTTER.--That the housewife may have an +understanding of the food substances found in butter and also learn how +to determine the quantity of butter needed for her family, she should +become familiar with the composition of this food. The flavor of butter +depends to a great extent on the kind of cream from which it is made, +both sweet and sour cream being used for this purpose. Of these two +kinds, sour cream is the preferable one, because it gives to the butter +a desirable flavor. Still, the unsalted butter that is made from sweet +cream is apparently growing in favor, although it is usually more +expensive than salted butter. The difference in price is due to the fact +that unsalted butter spoils readily. + +4. So far as its food substances are concerned, butter is composed +largely of fat, but it also contains water, protein in the form of +casein, and mineral matter. The quantity of water contained in butter +determines to a large extent the weight of butter, since water is +heavier than fat; but as only 16 per cent, of water is allowed, butter +that contains more water than this is considered to be adulterated. As +very little milk is retained in butter, only a small percentage of +protein is found in this food. However, a considerable quantity of +mineral salts are present, and these make it more valuable than most of +the other fats. Because of the nature of its composition--a very high +percentage of fat and a low percentage of protein--butter is distinctly +a fuel food, that is, a heat-producing food. Of course, there are +cheaper fats, some of which are even better heat-producing foods than +butter, but as their flavor is not especially agreeable to some persons, +they are not used so extensively. + +In view of the nature of the composition of this food, an ounce of +butter a day is the average allowance for each person when the diet of a +family contains meat and such other fats as lard, olive oil, etc. At the +most, 1/2 pound of butter should be purchased each week for each member +of the family for table use, and fats cheaper than butter should be used +for cooking purposes. + +5. PURCHASING BUTTER.--As in the case of milk, in order that the +housewife may judge the quality of the butter she purchases, she will do +well to look into the cleanliness and sanitary condition of the dairy +that produces it. Too much attention cannot be given to this matter, for +if cream becomes contaminated from careless handling, the same +contamination is liable to occur in the butter made from it. Butter that +is produced in dairies that make large quantities of it usually has not +much opportunity to become contaminated before it reaches the consumer, +for it is generally pressed into 1-pound prints, and each one of these +is then wrapped and placed in a paper carton. On the other hand, the +farmer and the dairyman doing a small business do not find it profitable +to install the equipment required to put up butter in this way, so they +usually pack their butter into firkins or crocks or make it into rolls. +When such butter goes to market, it is generally placed in a +refrigerator with more butter of the same sort, some of which is good +and some bad. As butter absorbs any strong odor present in the +refrigerator and is perhaps cut and weighed in a most unsanitary manner, +the good becomes contaminated with the bad. While butter of this kind is +perhaps a few cents cheaper than that which is handled in a more +sanitary way, it is less desirable, and if possible should be avoided by +the housewife. In case butter is obtained from a certain farm, the +conditions on that farm should be looked into for the same reason that +the conditions in a dairy are investigated. + +6. To be able to select good butter, the housewife should also be +familiar with its characteristics. In color, butter to be good should be +an even yellow, neither too pale nor too bright, and should contain no +streaks. The light streaks that are sometimes found in butter indicate +insufficient working. As to odor, butter should be pleasing and +appetizing, any foreign or strong, disagreeable odor being extremely +objectionable. Stale butter or that which is improperly kept develops +an acid called _butyric acid_, which gives a disagreeable odor and +flavor to butter and often renders it unfit for use. + +7. CARE OF BUTTER.--The precautions that the farmer and dairyman are +called on to observe in the making and handling of butter should be +continued by the housewife after she purchases butter for home use. The +chief point for her to remember is that butter should be kept as cold as +possible, because a low temperature prevents it from spoiling, whereas a +high one causes it to become soft and less appetizing. The most +satisfactory place in which to keep butter is the refrigerator, where it +should be placed in the compartment located directly under the ice and +in which the milk is kept, for here it will not come in contact with +foods that might impart their flavors to it. Should no refrigerator be +available, some other means of keeping butter cold must be resorted to, +such as a cool cellar or basement or a window box. + +The way in which butter is bought determines to a certain extent the +method of caring for it. If it is bought in paper cartons, it should be +rewrapped and replaced in the carton each time some is cut off for use. +In case it is bought in bulk, it should never be allowed to remain in +the wooden dish in which it is often sold; rather, it should be put into +a crock or a jar that can be tightly covered. + +8. Attention should also be given to butter that is cut from the supply +for the table or for cooking purposes and that is not entirely used. +Such butter should never be returned to the original supply, but should +be kept in a separate receptacle and used for cooking. If it contains +foreign material, it can be clarified by allowing it to stand after it +has melted until this has settled and then dipping or pouring the clear +fat from the top. Butter that has become rancid or has developed a bad +flavor need not be wasted either, for it can be made ready for use in +cooking simply by pouring boiling water over it, allowing it to cool, +and then removing the layer of fat that comes to the top. Such butter, +of course, cannot be used for serving on the table. Still, consideration +on the part of the housewife to just such matters as these will prevent +much of the waste that prevails in the household in the use of +this food. + +9. COOKING WITH BUTTER.--While some housewives make it a practice to use +butter in cooking of all kinds, there are uses in which other fats are +preferable; or, in case butter is desired, there are certain points to +be observed in its use. For instance, butter is rendered less digestible +by cooking it at a high temperature, as in frying or sauteing; also, it +cannot be used to any extent for the frying of foods, as it burns very +readily. If it is used for sauteing, the dish is made much more +expensive than is necessary, so that in most cases a cheaper fat should +be employed for this purpose. In addition, a point to remember is that +this fat should not be used to grease the pans in which cakes and hot +breads are baked unless it is first melted, because the milk contained +in the butter burns easily; after it is melted, only the top fat should +be used. When butter is desired for very rich cakes and for pastry, it +is usually washed in cold water to remove the milk. To neutralize the +sour milk contained in butter that is used for baking purposes, a little +soda is sometimes employed. + +Further economy can be exercised in the use of butter if a little +thought is given to the matter. For instance, when butter is melted and +poured over meat or fish that has been broiled or over vegetables that +have been cooked in a plain way, much of it usually remains in the dish +and is wasted. Such butter can be utilized again. Since butter undergoes +a change when it is cooked, it should be mixed with cooked foods to +flavor them, rather than be subjected to the temperature necessary +for cooking. + +When butter is used for spreading sandwiches, it usually will be found +advisable to soften the butter by creaming it with a spoon, but it +should never be melted for this purpose. + +10. SERVING BUTTER.--When butter is used for the table, some +consideration must be given to the serving of it. Probably the most +usual way of serving butter is to place a slice of it on a plate and +then pass the plate with a knife to each person at the table. The +advantage of this method is that each person can take the amount desired +and thus prevent waste. However, a still more desirable way of serving +butter that is to be passed is to cut it into small cubes or squares or +to shape it into small balls and then serve it with a fork or a butter +knife. To prevent the pieces or balls of butter from melting in warm +weather, cracked ice may be placed on the butter dish with them. Butter +cut into cubes or squares may also be served on an individual butter +dish or an individual bread-and-butter plate placed at each person's +place before the meal is served. Whichever plan is adopted, any +fragments of butter that remain on the plates after a meal should be +gathered up and used for cooking purposes. + +[Illustration: FIG 1] + +11. Butter that comes in pound prints lends itself readily to the +cutting of small cubes or squares for serving. Such butter may be cut by +drawing a string through the print or by using a knife whose cutting +edge is covered with paper, a small piece of the oiled paper such as +that in which the butter is wrapped answering very well for +this purpose. + +If butter balls are desired for serving, they may be rolled with butter +paddles in the manner shown in Fig. 1. To make butter balls, put wads of +the butter to be used into ice water so as to make them hard. Then place +each wad between the paddles, as shown, and give the paddles a circular +motion. After a little practice, it will be a simple matter to make +butter balls that will add to the attractiveness of any meal. Paddles +made especially for this purpose can be purchased in all stores that +sell kitchen utensils. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +12. Sometimes, for practical purposes, it is desired to know the +quantity of butter that is served to each person. In the case of print +butter, this is a simple matter to determine. As shown in Fig. 2, first +mark the pound print in the center in order to divide it in half; after +cutting it into two pieces, cut each half into two, and finally each +fourth into two. With the pound print cut into eight pieces, divide and +cut each eighth into four pieces. As there will be thirty-two small +pieces, each one will represent one thirty-second of a pound, or +1/2 ounce. + + +BUTTER SUBSTITUTES + +13. In about the year 1870, through a desire to procure a cheaper +article than butter for the poorer classes of France, came the +manufacture of the first substitute for butter. Since that time the use +of butter substitutes has gradually increased, until at the present time +millions of pounds are consumed every year. A certain amount of +prejudice against their use exists, but much of this is unnecessary for +they are less likely to be contaminated with harmful bacteria than the +poorer qualities of butter. Then, too, they do not spoil so readily, and +for this reason they can be handled with greater convenience +than butter. + +14. OLEOMARGARINE.--The best substitute for butter and the one most +largely used is called oleomargarine, which in the United States alone +constitutes about two and 1/2 per cent. of all the fat used as butter. +This fat is called by various other names, such as _margarine,_ and +_butterine_, but oleomargarine is the name by which the United States +authorities recognize the product. It is made by churning fats other +than butter fat with milk or cream until a butterlike consistency is +obtained. Originally, pure beef fat was employed for this purpose, and +while beef fat is used to a great extent at present, lard, cottonseed +oil, coconut oil, and peanut oil are also used. Whatever fats are +selected are churned with milk, cream, and, for the finest grades, a +considerable percentage of the very best pure butter. After they are +churned, the oleomargarine is worked, salted, and packed in the same +manner as butter. + +15. The manufacture and sale of butter substitutes are controlled by +laws that, while they do not specify the kind of fat to be used, state +that all mixtures of butter with other fats must be sold as +oleomargarine. They also require that a tax of 10 cents a pound be paid +on all artificially colored oleomargarine; therefore, while coloring +matter is used in some cases, this product is usually sold without +coloring. In such an event, coloring matter is given with each pound of +oleomargarine that is sold. Before using the oleomargarine, this +coloring matter is simply worked into the fat until it is +evenly colored. + +16. RENOVATED BUTTER.--Another substitute that is sometimes used to take +the place of the best grades of butter is renovated, or process, +butter. This is obtained by purifying butter that is dirty and rancid +and that contains all sorts of foreign material and then rechurning it +with fresh cream or milk. The purifying process consists in melting the +butter, removing the scum from the top, as well as the buttermilk, +brine, and foreign materials that settle, and then blowing air through +the fat to remove any odors that it might contain. Butter that is thus +purified is replaced on the market, but in some states the authorities +have seen fit to restrict its sale. While such restrictions are without +doubt justifiable, it is possible to buy butter that is more +objectionable than renovated, or process, butter, but that has no +restriction on it. + +17. METHOD OF TESTING BUTTER SUBSTITUTES.--Very often oleomargarine and +process butter bear such a close resemblance to genuine butter that it +is almost impossible to detect the difference. However, there is a +simple test by which these substitutes can always be distinguished from +butter, and this should be applied whenever there is any doubt about the +matter. To make this test, place the fat in a tablespoon or a small dish +and heat it directly over the flame until it boils, stirring it +occasionally to assist in the melting. If it is oleomargarine or process +butter, it will sputter noisily and take on a curdled appearance; +whereas, if it is butter, it will melt and even boil without sputtering +although it foams to a certain extent. + + * * * * * + +CHEESE + +CHARACTERISTICS AND CARE OF CHEESE + +18. ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is a product that is +manufactured from the solids of milk, and it provides a valuable food. +The making of cheese was known in ancient times, it having probably +originated through a desire to utilize an oversupply of milk. When +cheese was first made, the fact that bacteria were present was not +known, nor were the reasons for the spoiling of milk understood; but it +was learned that milk can be kept if most of its water is removed. This +discovery was very important, for it led to various methods of making +cheese and proved that cheese making was a satisfactory and convenient +means of storing nourishment in a form that was not bulky and that would +keep for long periods of time. From a very small beginning, the +different methods of making cheese became popular, until at the present +time more than three hundred varieties are made and their manufacture +forms one of the large industries of the world. + +In the United States, nearly all the cheese used up to about 50 years +ago was made on farms, and to a great extent by housewives, but about +that time a factory for the making of this product was started in the +state of New York, and it proved a profitable enterprise. From this +beginning, the business of making cheese commercially in this country +has grown until now cheese is almost entirely a factory-made product, in +the manufacture of which the states of New York and Wisconsin lead. + +19. In either the commercial or the home production of cheese, skim milk +with all or part of the cream removed is used for some varieties, while +whole milk is used for others, the composition depending largely on the +kind of milk that is employed. Rennet is added to the milk to coagulate +it, and then the curd, from which nearly all the water is removed, is +allowed to ripen. To produce characteristic odors, flavors, and +consistency, various coloring and flavoring materials, as well as +bacteria, are added to the curd. The action of these bacteria is really +the chief factor in the making of cheese and they are therefore not only +desirable but necessary. Non-desirable bacteria, however, result in the +formation of bad odors, flavors, and gases in the finished product and +these must be carefully guarded against by cheese makers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +20. Cheese offers a valuable source of nutriment for the body, because +its food value ranks high. As is shown in Fig. 3, the food value in 1 +pound of cheese is equivalent to that in 2 pounds of beef, that in 24 +eggs, or that in 4 pounds of fish. The use of cheese, however, is not +nearly so great as its food value warrants, the amount used in the +United States per capita being only about 3-1/2 pounds annually. This is +a condition that should be overcome, for there is a large variety of +ways in which cheese can be used to advantage in the diet. When eaten +raw, it is very appetizing, and when used with soups, sauces, and foods +that have a bland taste, it lends additional flavor and makes an +especially attractive dish. In addition, the fact that it is an +economical food and can be conveniently kept and stored should recommend +its frequent use. + +21. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE.--Since cheese is a product of milk, it is +somewhat similar to milk in composition, but the change that occurs in +the formation of cheese causes some differences. Nearly all the water +present in milk is removed during the manufacture of cheese, so that +this product becomes a concentrated food made up of all the nourishment +that milk contains except small amounts of albumin, milk sugar, and +mineral matter. These, because they are in solution in the water, are +lost when the whey is separated from the curd. The food substances that +occur in the largest amounts are fat and protein in the form of casein, +which is the tissue-building material of milk. Cheese made from milk +that contains some cream has in it a greater amount of fat than that +made from completely skimmed milk. Besides these two chief food +substances, cheese contains a small amount of milk sugar, mineral +matter, and water. + +22. On account of the large quantity of protein found in cheese, this +food can readily take the place of meat in the diet; in fact, it has +some decided advantages over meat. As has been pointed out, cheese +yields more than twice as much food value as an equal weight of beef. +Then, too, the buying and care of cheese are much simpler matters than +the buying and care of meat. As it does not require the low temperature +that meat requires and does not spoil so readily, it can be bought in +considerable quantity and used as desired without danger of spoiling and +loss. In addition, the use of cheese as food does not require so much +skill in preparation as meat does, nor is there loss of flavor and +nutriment in its preparation, as is often the case with meat. + +23. QUALITY OF CHEESE.--Every variety of cheese has its own standard and +quality, some being hard and dry, others moist, and still others very +soft. The difference in quality is due to the way in which the curd is +coagulated, the amount of pressure that is put on it, and the ripening +of the cheese. The holes that often occur in cheese and give it a porous +appearance are formed by gas, which is the product of the growth of +bacteria. A large number of very small holes in cheese indicate that +the milk used to make it was not clean and contained many kinds of +bacteria. This condition could be overcome by the use of absolutely +clean milk; indeed, milk of this kind is as necessary for the production +of good cheese as it is for the making of good butter. Certain cheeses, +such as Limburger and Roquefort, have a typical odor and flavor, the +odor being due to bacteria and the flavor to mold. These are carefully +grown and introduced into the cheese during its manufacture. + +24. CARE OF CHEESE.--The very strong odor and flavor that characterize +cheese make it necessary that care be given to cheese in the home in +order to prevent it from coming in contact with other foods and +transmitting its odor and flavor to them. The best place to keep cheese, +particularly the soft varieties, is in the refrigerator, where it should +be placed in a closed receptacle and kept as far as possible from foods +that are easily tainted. It is well to avoid a damp place for the +keeping of cheese, as mold frequently develops on the outside when too +much moisture is present; but in case mold does appear it can be removed +by cutting a thin slice from the side on which it has grown. On the +other hand, cheese that is kept in a dry place becomes hard and dry +unless it is wrapped in oiled paper or a damp cloth. However, such +cheese need not be thrown away, for there are numerous uses, +particularly in cooking, to which it can be put. + + * * * * * + +KINDS OF CHEESE + +CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES + +25. The cheese used in the United States may be included under two +leading classes, namely, _foreign cheese_ and _domestic cheese_. Since +the foreign cheeses are imported, they are more expensive than the +cheeses made here, and should not be bought if cheese is to be used as +an economical article of food. They are valuable chiefly for their +flavor and are generally bought for this reason. The domestic cheeses +can be used in larger quantities, for, besides being less expensive, +they are usually of a milder type and are more easily digested. To +enable the housewife to become familiar with the principal varieties of +each of these classes, a discussion of them, including their names, +characteristics, and, in some cases, their use and the method of +making, is here given. In addition, there are shown in colors, in Fig. +4, a large number of cheeses, together with a print of butter _o_, which +serves to illustrate the irregular surface that is exposed when good +butter is broken apart. + + +IMPORTED CHEESE + +26. Each of the European countries has originated its own peculiar kind +of cheese, which remains representative of a certain people or locality. +The majority of these cheeses have met with so much favor in the United +States that large quantities of them are continually imported. A few of +them have been copied here with success, but others have not been +successfully made. While these are not in such common use as the +domestic cheeses, it is well for every one to know their names and the +characteristics by which they can be identified. + +27. ENGLISH CHEESE.--Chief among the kinds of cheeses made in England is +CHEDDAR CHEESE, which is illustrated at _a_, Fig. 4. It is rich, +double-thick cream cheese, ranging from a pale to a dark yellow, +although when uncolored it may be white. Such cheese, when fresh, has a +milk flavor, but when it is well ripened it has a characteristic sharp +taste. New Cheddar cheese is soft, but not waxy, in texture and may +readily be shaved or broken into small pieces; when it is well ripened, +it may be grated. English Cheddar cheese is not unlike AMERICAN CHEDDAR +CHEESE, or, as it is commonly called, _American cream cheese_, which is +shown by _b_. In fact the American variety is made according to the +method used for the English. Owing to its characteristics, flavor, and +abundance, Cheddar cheese, both English and American, is the kind that +is used most extensively in the United States. + +ENGLISH DAIRY CHEESE, shown at _d_, is similar to Cheddar cheese, +although it has a reddish color and, on account of the method of +manufacture, it is harder. This kind of cheese lends itself well to +cooking, as it may be easily grated. + +CHESHIRE CHEESE, a well-known English variety, is a dry cream cheese +made from whole cow's milk. It is deep yellow or red in color, similar +in flavor to Cheddar cheese, and is used in much the same manner. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +STILTON CHEESE, shown at _m_, is a hard cheese made from cow's milk to +which cream has been added and which is coagulated with rennet. Mold +is introduced into this cheese, so that it resembles Roquefort cheese, +which is shown at _j_. + +28. HOLLAND CHEESE.--The variety of cheese shown at _e_, Fig. 4, is +known as EDAM CHEESE. It is a hard rennet cheese of a red color and is +mild in flavor. This kind of cheese is molded into the shape of a ball, +the outside of which is usually dyed red, and will keep for a long +period of time. Edam cheese is one of the important products of the +Netherlands, and while it is seldom used in cookery in the homes of this +country, it is served at the table. Usually a section of the top is cut +off to serve as a lid while the inside is scooped out as needed. +Sometimes, after most of the cheese has been removed, the hollow shell +is stuffed with macaroni or rice that has been cooked and seasoned and +the food then baked in the shell. + +29. FRENCH CHEESES.--Among the French cheeses, the variety called +GRUYERE CHEESE, which is shown at _f_, Fig. 4, is well liked. It is +usually made of skim milk, has a yellow color and a mild, sweetish +flavor, and contains large holes like those found in Swiss and Emmenthal +cheeses, varieties that are very similar to it. Like these cheeses, +Gruyere cheese may be used in cooking or served without cooking, being +used considerably in the making of sandwiches. + +BRIE CHEESE is a French variety of very soft cheese, with a strong +flavor and odor. It is made from whole or partly skimmed cow's milk +coagulated by means of rennet. This kind of cheese is used mostly as an +accompaniment to other foods. + +CAMEMBERT CHEESE, which is shown at _h_, is also a soft cheese. It is +made by practically the same process as Brie cheese and is used in the +same way. This cheese has a typical odor. Its rind is thick and dry, but +its center is very soft, being sometimes almost liquid. + +NEUFCHATEL CHEESE, which is shown at _i_, is a soft rennet cheese made +from cow's milk. It is made at Neufchatel-en-Bray, France, and not at +Neufchatel, Switzerland. This variety of cheese is wrapped in tin-foil +and sold in small packages. It is used chiefly for salads, sandwiches, +etc. As it does not keep well after the package is opened, the entire +contents should be used at one time. + +ROQUEFORT CHEESE, which is shown at _j_, is a hard, highly flavored +cheese made from sheep's milk coagulated with rennet. It has a marbled +appearance, which is due to a greenish mold that is introduced. +Roquefort cheese is frequently served with crackers at the end of a +meal, and is well liked by many persons. + +30. ITALIAN CHEESES.--From Italy is imported a cheese, called PARMESAN +CHEESE, that is used extensively for flavoring soups and macaroni +dishes. This cheese, which is shown at _g_, Fig. 4, is very hard and +granular and, provided it is well made, it will keep for years. Owing to +its characteristics, it may be easily grated. It can be bought by the +pound and grated as it is needed, or it can be secured already grated +in bottles. + +GORGONZOLA, another Italian cheese, is shown at _k_. It is not unlike +Roquefort in appearance and in use, but it is made from whole cow's milk +coagulated with rennet. Into this cheese is also introduced a mold that +gives its center a streaked or mottled appearance. + +31. SWISS CHEESES.--Possibly the best known cheese imported from +Switzerland is the variety known as SWISS, or SWITZER, CHEESE. This kind +of cheese has different names, depending on the district of Switzerland +in which it is made. Nevertheless all of them are similar and have a +mild, sweet flavor. Swiss cheese may be readily recognized by its pale +yellow color and the presence of large holes, although it resembles +Gruyere cheese very closely. + +EMMENTHAL CHEESE is a variety of fairly hard cheese that originated in +Switzerland, but is now made in many other countries. It is similar to +Swiss cheese, being made from whole cow's milk and characterized by +large holes about 3 inches apart. + +SAPSAGO CHEESE, shown at _n_, Fig. 4, is a skim-milk cheese made in +Switzerland. It is a very hard cheese, and therefore suitable for +grating. In the process of making this cheese, melilot, a clover-like +herb, is added, and this gives the cheese a green color and a +peculiar flavor. + +32. BELGIAN CHEESE.--A cheese that originated in Belgium, but is now +manufactured in other countries, is the variety known as LIMBURG, or +LIMBURGER, CHEESE, cheese, which is shown at _l_, Fig. 4. It is a soft +rennet cheese made from whole cow's milk. It is very strong in taste and +smell, due to putrefactive germs that are added to the milk in its +manufacture. + + +DOMESTIC CHEESE + +33. In the United States, efforts that have been exerted to make cheeses +similar to some of those produced in Europe have to a certain extent +been successful. American cheese makers have succeeded in making +several soft cream cheeses that resemble Neufchatel, some of which are +spiced or flavored with pimiento, olives, etc. In addition, Limburg and +Swiss cheeses have been successfully manufactured in Wisconsin, and +Brie, Neufchatel, and Camembert have been copied and are produced in New +York. Pineapple cheese, while of American origin, is really very much +like English Cheddar cheese, except that it is harder. But while these +fancy cheeses are desired by some persons and have a moderately large +sale, the cheese for which there is the most demand in America is the +so-called American Cheddar cheese, which, as has been stated, is made +according to the method used for English Cheddar cheese. + +34. AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE.--Since American Cheddar cheese is the kind +that is commonly used in this country, the way in which it is made will +be well to know. The milk used for this kind of cheese is first +inspected as to cleanliness and the extent of fermentation it has +undergone, and when these points are ascertained, it is _ripened_; that +is, allowed to sour to a certain degree of acidity. At this stage, +coloring matter is added, after which the milk is prepared for setting +by bringing it to a certain temperature. With the temperature at the +right point, rennet is added to coagulate the milk, or form the curd. +The milk is then allowed to remain undisturbed until the action of the +rennet is at a certain point, when the curd is cut into little +cube-shaped pieces by drawing two sets of knives through it and thus is +separated from the whey. As soon as the curd is cut, the temperature of +the mass is raised to help make the curd firm and to cause the little +cubes to retain their firmness, and during the entire heating process +the whole mass is stirred constantly to assist in the separation from +the whey. When the curd is sufficiently firm, the whey is removed and +the particles of curd are allowed to adhere and form into a solid mass. +If necessary, the curd is cut again into small pieces to get rid of the +excess whey; but if the curd is too dry, the pieces must be piled up +until they are four or five deep. During this process, which is known as +the _cheddaring_ of the cheese, the curd is treated until it is of the +proper texture to be _milled_, that is, put into a mill and ground into +small pieces. The object of milling the curd is to cut it into pieces +small enough to permit of uniform salting and the further escape of +whey. When the curd has been brought to this point, it is salted and +then pressed into molds. Finally, it is wrapped and cured, or ripened. + +35. BRICK CHEESE.--Another American cheese that seems to meet with a +popular demand is brick cheese. This kind of cheese, which is +illustrated at _c_, Fig. 4, gets its name from the fact that it is +pressed into "bricks" under the weight of one or two bricks. It is made +from sweet milk, coagulated with rennet, cut with curd knives, and +heated in the whey to firm it. Brick cheese is mild in flavor and of a +moderately close texture. It is used chiefly as an accompaniment to +other foods. + +36. AMERICAN HOME-MADE CHEESE.--The making of Cheddar cheese and brick +cheese is, of course, done commercially, but there is a kind of cheese +that can be made very conveniently in the home. This home-made cheese, +which is generally known as COTTAGE CHEESE, affords an excellent way in +which to utilize left-over sour milk, particularly if a quart or more +can be obtained at one time; smaller quantities can generally be used +for baking purposes. + +If properly made, such cheese is very digestible. As it can be seasoned +and served in a variety of ways, it makes a delightful addition to +lunches or other light meals in which a protein dish, such as meat, is +undesirable. Skim milk does very well for this kind of cheese, so that +if the sour milk that is to be used has cream on it, the cream should be +removed before the cheese is made; otherwise, it will remain in the whey +and be lost. In case cream is desired to improve the texture and flavor +of the cheese, it should be added after the cheese is made. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +37. To make cottage cheese, allow a quantity of sour milk to clabber, +that is, become curdled, and then place it on the back of the stove in a +thick vessel, such as a crock, until the whey begins to appear on the +top, turning it occasionally so that it will heat very slowly and +evenly. Do not allow the temperature to rise above 90 degrees +Fahrenheit, or the curd will become tough and dry. Remember that the two +things on which the success of this product depends are the flavor of +the milk used and the proper heating of it. No difficulty will be +encountered in the heating of the milk if a coal or a wood stove is +used, but in case a gas stove must be used, the vessel containing the +milk should be placed in a larger one containing warm water and the milk +should be heated in this manner until the curd and the whey begin to +separate. At this point, pour off all the whey possible, and turn the +curd into a cloth bag or a colander lined with cloth, as shown in Fig. +5, and allow any remaining whey to drip out. If, after the whey is +removed, the curd tastes sour, wash it with warm water and allow it to +drip again. Then season it with salt to suit the taste and, provided +cream is desired, add it at this time, using sweet or sour cream. To +work in the cream, press it into the curd with a spoon until the cheese +is quite smooth. + +Cheese made in this way may be flavored with anything desirable. For +instance, chopped pimiento, parsley, olives, or nuts improve the flavor +of the cheese very much and make a very appetizing combination. The dry +curd mixed with any of these makes a delightful salad when it is pressed +into balls, garnished with lettuce, and served with salad dressing. + +38. JUNKET COTTAGE CHEESE.--Another variety of cottage cheese can be +prepared by using sweet milk and forming the curd with a junket tablet, +one tablet being required for each quart of milk. To make cheese of this +kind, heat the milk until it is lukewarm, or not over 98 degrees +Fahrenheit, and then add the junket tablet dissolved in cold milk or +water. Keep the milk warm until the curd forms, and then break up the +curd with a spoon and pour the whole mass into a bag or a colander lined +with cloth. When all the whey is drained out, the curd, which will be +sweet, can be seasoned in any desired way or mixed with cream and +served. If more flavor is preferred, the curd may be allowed to sour or +may be mixed with sour cream. + +39. BUTTERMILK CREAM CHEESE.--A slight variation from the cottage +cheeses just described is buttermilk cream cheese. This cheese is formed +from the curd of buttermilk, which is finer in texture and not so likely +to become tough as that formed from ordinary sour milk. To prepare +buttermilk cream cheese, warm the buttermilk slowly, being careful not +to allow the temperature to rise beyond 100 degrees Fahrenheit. As the +milk is heated, the curd will form and will gradually sink to the bottom +of the vessel. After this occurs, remove the whey and mix the curd with +a little thick cream. The result will be a mixture having a delightfully +creamy consistency. + + +SERVING CHEESE + +40. Cheese does not lend itself readily to many ways of serving, still +it frequently adds zest to many foods. When grated, it may be passed +with tomato or vegetable soup and sprinkled in to impart an unusual +flavor. In this form it may also be served with macaroni and other +Italian pastes, provided cheese has not been included in the preparation +of such foods. When sliced, little slices may be served nicely with any +kind of pie or pastry and with some puddings, such as steamed fruit +puddings. Thin slices or squares of cheese and crackers served with +coffee after the dessert add a finishing touch to many meals. It will be +well to note that crackers to be served with cheese should always be +crisp. Unless they have just been taken from a fresh package, crackers +can be improved by placing them in a moderate oven for a few minutes +before serving. Also, firm crackers that do not crumble easily are best +to serve with cheese, water crackers being especially desirable. + + * * * * * + +RECIPES FOR CHEESE DISHES + +EFFECT OF COOKING ON CHEESE + +41. Because cheese is a highly concentrated food, it is generally +considered to be indigestible; but this matter can be remedied by mixing +the cheese with other foods and thus separating it into small particles +that are more readily digested. The way in which this may be done +depends on the nature of the cheese. Any of the dry cheeses or any of +the moist cheeses that have become dry may be grated or broken into +bits, but as it is difficult to treat the moist ones in this way, they +must be brought to a liquid state by means of heat before they can be +added to other foods. The cooking of cheese, however, has an effect on +this food that should be thoroughly understood. + +It will be well to note, therefore, that the application of heat to the +form of protein found in cheese causes this food substance to coagulate +and harden, as in the case of the albumen of eggs. In the process of +coagulation, the first effect is the melting of the cheese, and when it +has been brought to this semiliquid state it can be easily combined with +other foods, such as milk, eggs, soups, and sauces. In forming such +combinations, the addition of a small amount of bicarbonate of soda +helps to blend the foods. Another characteristic of cheese that +influences the cooking of it is that the fat it contains melts only at a +low temperature, so that, on the whole, the methods of preparation that +require a low temperature are the best for cooking these foods. However, +a precaution that should be taken whenever cheese is heated is not to +cook it too long, for long cooking makes it hard and leathery in +consistency, and cheese in this state is difficult to digest. + + +VARIETY OF CHEESE DISHES + +42. As has already been learned, cheese lends itself very readily to a +large variety of cooked dishes. For instance, it may be grated and +sprinkled on the top of mashed or creamed potatoes and then browned by +placing the dish in the oven. When it is grated or sliced, it may be +arranged between the layers of macaroni or other food used to make a +scalloped dish. Soups and sauces flavored with cheese are especially +appetizing, a cream sauce of this kind served over toast or rice making +an excellent luncheon dish. Toast or crackers spread with cheese and +placed in the oven just long enough for the cheese to melt are delicious +to serve with a salad course or with tea. To assist in the preparation +of such combinations, as well as other cheese dishes, a number of +recipes are here given. In making up these recipes, it will be well to +note that unless the variety of cheese is stated explicitly, use should +be made of American Cheddar cheese, or, as it is often called, _American +cream cheese_, or _store cheese_. Of course, some similar hard cheese +could be used if desired, but the kind mentioned is recommended for the +sake of economy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +43. CHEESE BONBONS.--A combination of cheese and nuts in the form of +cheese bonbons, besides being very tasty, is highly nutritious, since +both the cheese and the nuts used in making them are high in food +value. Such bonbons, which are illustrated in Fig. 6, may be served with +a light salad, such as a vegetable or a fruit salad, to add food value +to the dish, or they may be served with wafers to take the place of a +salad, when a small amount of some kind of tart jelly goes nicely with +them. If the dessert for the dinner has been a very light one, these +bonbons may be served with coffee and wafers after the dessert. They may +be made as follows: + +CHEESE BONBONS +(Sufficient for Twelve Bonbons) + +1 pkg. Neufchatel or cream cheese +2 Tb. finely chopped pimiento +1/2 tsp. salt +Few grains of paprika +1/3 c. half English-walnut meats + +Work the cheese smooth with the pimiento and other seasoning, and if the +mixture is too dry add a little cream. Shape this into small balls, +press each ball flat, and then place a half nut on top of each. If the +pimiento is not desired, it may be omitted. + +44. CHEESE SOUFFLE.--As a dish that will take the place of meat in a +light meal is often desired, cheese souffle, which is comparatively high +in food value, finds much favor. This dish contains milk, eggs, and +cheese, as is shown in the accompanying recipe, and so may actually be +considered as a protein dish and used accordingly. Souffle is served in +the dish in which it is baked, but if it is quite firm and is to be +eaten at once, it may be removed from the ramekin to a plate. + +CHEESE SOUFFLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 Tb. butter +4 Tb. flour +1-1/4 c. milk +3/4 c. grated cheese +Dash of paprika +1/2 tsp. salt +3 eggs + +Melt the butter, add the flour, mix well, and then gradually add the +milk, which should be scalded. To this sauce add the cheese, paprika, +and salt. When thoroughly mixed, remove from the fire and add the beaten +yolks of eggs, beating rapidly. Cool and fold in the stiffly beaten +whites of the eggs. Pour into a buttered baking dish or in ramekins and +bake 20 minutes in a slow oven. Serve at once. + +45. CHEESE OMELET.--Grated cheese added to an omelet gives it a +delightful flavor. Since such an omelet is a high-protein dish, it +should never be served in the same meal in which meat, fish, or other +protein foods are served, but should be used as the main dish of a +luncheon or a light supper. + +CHEESE OMELET +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +4 eggs +4 Tb. hot water +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. bread crumbs +1 c. grated cheese +1 Tb. butter + +Beat the egg yolks thoroughly and add to them the hot water, salt, +crumbs, and cheese. Beat the egg whites until stiff, but not dry, and +fold them carefully into the yolk mixture. Heat the butter in an omelet +pan. Pour in the mixture, brown very slowly over the heat, and then +place in the oven to cook the top. Serve at once. + +46. CHEESE SAUCE.--To give a distinctive flavor to white sauce, cheese +is often added to it. A sauce flavored in this way lends itself nicely +to the garnishing of croquettes or souffles, and it will be found quite +tasty if it is served over some vegetables, such as steamed cauliflower, +mashed potatoes, or rice served as a vegetable. Such sauce may also be +served over toast to make an attractive luncheon dish. + +CHEESE SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. milk +4 Tb. flour +4 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. paprika +1/2 c. grated cheese + +Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, salt, and paprika, and to +it add the grated cheese. If desired, a dash of catsup or chili sauce +may be added for flavoring. + +47. CHEESE TOAST.--When toast has added to it eggs, milk, and cheese, as +in the recipe here given, it is sufficiently high in protein to serve as +a meat substitute and is a particularly good dish for a light meal. It +combines well with a vegetable salad for luncheon and is an excellent +dish to serve for Sunday night supper, when very little else need be +served with it. + +CHEESE TOAST +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. milk +4 Tb. flour +4 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +3/4 c. grated cheese +2 hard-cooked eggs +6 squares of toast + +Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, and salt, and to it add +1/2 cupful of the grated cheese and the egg whites chopped fine. Arrange +the toast on a platter, pour the sauce over it, sprinkle the top with +the egg yolks that have been run through a ricer or a sieve, and +sprinkle the remaining 1/4 cupful of cheese over all. Place in hot oven +or under a broiler until the cheese melts a little. Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +48. WELSH RAREBIT.--Whenever a dish that can be made in a chafing dish +is desired, Welsh rarebit is immediately thought of. This is possibly +due to the fact that this tasty cheese dish is very often served at +evening parties, when a crowd may gather around a table and enjoy the +preparation of this food in the chafing dish. This kind of cooking +utensil, together with its outfit, which consists of a long-handled +spoon and fork, is shown in Fig. 7. As will be observed, a chafing dish +consists of a frame to which is attached a lamp that provides the heat, +a pan in which water is placed, another pan with a handle in which the +food is cooked, and a cover. The heat for cooking is furnished by +alcohol, although it is possible to get chafing dishes that are heated +by electricity. Chafing dishes are used by many housewives, for in +addition to the use mentioned, they serve very well for the making of +practically any kind of creamed dish, including those in which sea foods +and vegetables are used, as well as for the sauteing of foods. It should +not be understood, however, that Welsh rarebit must be made in a chafing +dish, for this food can be prepared as well in a heavy frying pan or a +double boiler; nor should it be taken for granted that it is served only +at parties, for it may be served as the main dish for luncheon or +supper. Rarebit is often flavored with ale or beer, but this is not +required to make an appetizing dish, as the following recipe shows. + +WELSH RAREBIT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +1 c. milk +1/4 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. paprika +1/2 lb. cheese cut into small pieces +6 slices of toast or 6 wafers + +Melt the butter, add to it the flour, and stir until smooth. Gradually +add the milk, and cook for a few minutes; then add the salt, paprika, +and cheese, stirring until the cheese is melted. The finished rarebit +should not be stringy. Pour over the toast or wafers and serve. + +49. ENGLISH MONKEY.--Another cheese dish that is frequently made in a +chafing dish and served from it is English monkey, but this may likewise +be made with ordinary kitchen utensils and served directly on plates +from the kitchen or from a bowl on the table. A dish of this kind is +most satisfactory if it is served as soon as the sauce is poured over +toast or wafers and before they have had time to become soaked. English +monkey may be made according to the following recipe and served for the +same purposes as Welsh rarebit. + +ENGLISH MONKEY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. bread crumbs +1 c. milk +1 Tb. butter +1/2 c. soft cheese cut into small pieces +1 egg +1/2 tsp. salt +6 buttered wafers + +Soak the bread crumbs in the milk. Melt the butter and add to it the +cheese, stirring until the cheese is melted. Then add the soaked crumbs, +the slightly beaten egg, and the salt. Cook for a few minutes and pour +over wafers and serve. If desired, toast may be used in place of +the wafers. + +50. CHEESE-AND-MACARONI LOAF.--Macaroni combined with cheese makes a +high-protein dish that very readily takes the place of meat and that may +be served as the main dish in a dinner. If this combination is made into +a loaf and baked well in an oblong bread pan, it may be turned out on a +platter and cut into slices. In case a loaf is not desired, it may be +baked in a baking dish and served directly from that. In either form, +it is made more appetizing by the addition of a tomato sauce. + +CHEESE-AND-MACARONI LOAF +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1/2 c. macaroni (inch lengths) +1 c. milk +1 c. bread crumbs +2 Tb. chopped green peppers +1 Tb. chopped onion +1 Tb. chopped parsley +2 eggs +2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. grated cheese +1 Tb. butter + +Cook the macaroni according to the directions given in _Cereals_. When +it is thoroughly soft, drain off the water and mix the macaroni with the +milk, bread crumbs, green pepper, onion, parsley, well-beaten egg, salt, +pepper, and grated cheese. Place in a baking dish, dot the top with +butter, and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is set. Serve with +or without sauce, as desired. + +51. CHEESE FONDUE.--A dish that is very similar to cheese souffle and +that must be served as soon as it comes from the oven in order to avoid +shrinking is cheese fondue. It satisfactorily takes the place of meat in +a light meal, and may be served from a large dish or from individual +baking dishes with or without sauce, as desired. + +CHEESE FONDUE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 1/2 c. soft bread crumbs +1 1/2 c. grated cheese +1 c. hot milk +4 eggs +1/2 tsp. salt + +Mix the bread crumbs and cheese, and add them to the hot milk, beaten +egg yolks, and salt. Fold in the stiffly beaten egg whites. Bake in a +buttered baking dish for about 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve +at once. + +52. CHEESE DREAMS.--If something delicious to serve with fruit or salad +is desired for luncheon or Sunday night supper, the accompanying recipe +for cheese dreams should be tried. They should be served at once on +being taken from the stove, because as soon as they cool the cheese +hardens and they are not appetizing. Cheese dreams may be sauted or +prepared in a broiler or an oven, but if they are sauted, they may be +made in a chafing dish. + +CHEESE DREAMS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +12 thinly cut slices of bread +Butter +Cheese sliced 1/8 in. thick + +Spread the bread thinly with butter and make sandwiches by placing a +slice of cheese between two slices of bread. Place these sandwiches +under a broiler or in a very hot oven and toast them on both sides, or +omit the butter from the center, place the sandwiches in a slightly +oiled frying pan, and brown them on both sides. In heating the +sandwiches, the cheese melts. Serve hot. + +53. CHEESE WAFERS.--If made daintily, cheese wafers may be served with +salad or with tea for afternoon tea. The wafers selected for this +purpose should be small and the layer of cheese not very thick. If a +very thin broth is served at the beginning of a meal, cheese wafers may +accompany it, but they should never be served with a heavy soup. + +CHEESE WAFERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 doz. wafers +Butter +3/4 grated cheese +Paprika + +Spread the wafers thinly with butter and sprinkle each with 1 +tablespoonful of grated cheese and a pinch of paprika. Bake in a hot +oven until the cheese is melted. Cool and serve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +54. CHEESE STRAWS.--Nothing can be more delightful to serve with a +vegetable salad than cheese straws, which are illustrated in Fig. 8. An +attractive way to serve them is to slip them through small rings made +out of strips of the dough mixture and baked at the same time the straws +are baked and then place them at the side of the salad plate. They may +accompany a fruit salad, as well as a vegetable salad, but they are not +appropriate for serving with a meat or a fish salad. + +CHEESE STRAWS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 Tb. butter +2/3 c. flour +1 c. bread crumbs +1 c. grated or cut cheese +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +Pinch of Cayenne pepper +1/2 c. milk + +Cream the butter and to it add the flour, bread crumbs, cheese, and +seasonings. Mix thoroughly and add the milk. Roll 1/4 inch thick and +then cut 1/4 inch wide and 6 inches long. Bake until brown in a +moderately hot oven. + +55. TOMATOES WITH CHEESE STUFFING.--The addition of cheese to the +stuffing used in stuffed tomatoes means added flavor, as well as +nutritive value in the form of protein, the food substance in which the +tomatoes themselves are lacking. The bread crumbs used for the stuffing +supply a large amount of carbohydrate, so that the completed dish, +besides being a very attractive one, contains all the food principles in +fairly large quantities. Stuffed tomatoes may be served as the main dish +in a light meal or as a vegetable dish in a heavy meal. + +TOMATOES WITH CHEESE STUFFING +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 tomatoes +1 c. bread crumbs +1 c. grated cheese +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter +1/4 c. hot water + +Select medium-sized tomatoes and hollow out the centers. Mix the crumbs, +cheese, salt, pepper, butter, and hot water with the pulp from the +centers of the tomatoes. Fill the tomatoes with this stuffing, place in +a pan, and bake in a moderate oven until the tomato can be pierced +easily with a fork. Serve hot. + +56. FIGS STUFFED WITH CHEESE.--As cheese is a very concentrated food, it +is often combined with another food to offset this effect. An excellent +combination is formed by stuffing figs with cheese. Figs prepared in +this way will be found to be very attractive and tasty and may be served +in the place of a dessert or a salad, depending on the kind and size of +the meal with which they are used. + +FIGS STUFFED WITH CHEESE +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 pkg. Neufchatel or cream cheese +2 Tb. cream +8 small pulled figs + +Work the cheese and cream until soft. Steam the figs for 10 or 15 +minutes or until they are soft; then cool them, cut out their stems, +fill their centers with the soft cheese, and serve. + +57. CHEESE SANDWICHES.--Very appetizing sandwiches that may be used to +take the place of meat sandwiches or a protein dish at any time are made +with a cheese filling. If these are made very small and dainty, they may +be served with salad in a light meal. The addition of pickles, olives, +and pimiento, which are included in the accompanying recipe, makes the +filling more attractive than the usual plain cheese by producing in it a +variety of tastes. They also add bulk, which is lacking in both the +white bread and the cheese. If desired, graham or whole-wheat bread may +be used in place of white bread. + +CHEESE SANDWICHES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/4 lb. cheese +2 medium-sized pickles +1/2 pimiento +Meat from 1/2 doz. olives +1/4 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. paprika +Bread + +Put the cheese, pickles, pimiento, and olives through a food chopper, +and when chopped add the salt and the paprika. If the mixture is not +moist enough to spread, add salad dressing or vinegar until it is of the +right consistency. Mix well and spread on thinly cut, buttered slices +of bread. + + +LUNCHEON MENU + +58. Many of the dishes for which recipes are given in this Section, +particularly those including cheese as one of the ingredients, do very +well for the main dish in a light meal, such as luncheon. In order that +practice may be had in preparing a well-balanced luncheon that includes +a dish of this kind, a luncheon menu is here presented. The cheese +souffle, which has been selected as the main dish in this menu, should +be made according to the directions already given. Little difficulty +will be experienced in making the other dishes, as recipes for them are +given immediately after the menu. All the recipes are intended for six +persons, so that if more or fewer are to be served, the recipes should +be changed accordingly. This menu is presented with the intention that +it be tried by each student and a report of it then prepared according +to the plan outlined and sent with the work of the Examination +Questions. + +MENU + +Cream-of-Corn Soup +Cheese Souffle +Stewed Tomatoes +Sauted Potatoes +Brown Bread and Butter +Baked Apples +Black Tea + + +RECIPES + +CREAM-OF-CORN SOUP + +1 Tb. flour +1 Tb. butter +1 pt. milk +1 c. canned corn +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Make a white sauce of the flour, butter, and milk. Force the corn +through a colander or sieve and add the puree to the white sauce. Season +with the salt and pepper and serve. + +SAUTED POTATOES + +6 medium-sized cooked potatoes +2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 tsp. +salt 1/4 tsp. +pepper + +Slice the boiled potatoes thin and put the slices in a frying pan in +which the butter has been melted. Add the salt and pepper. Allow the +potatoes to cook until well browned, turning frequently during the +cooking. Serve hot. + +STEWED TOMATOES + +1 Tb. butter +1 small onion +6 medium-sized ripe tomatoes or 1 can of tomatoes +1 tsp. salt +2 Tb. sugar +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 Tb. flour + +Brown the butter in a saucepan, slice the onion into it, and cook for a +few minutes. Add the tomatoes. If fresh tomatoes are to be used, remove +the skins, cut into pieces, put into the saucepan with a few +tablespoonfuls of water, and cook until the tomatoes are thoroughly +softened. If canned tomatoes are to be used, merely allow them to come +to the boiling point. Add the salt, sugar, and pepper, and, a few +minutes before removing from the fire, moisten the flour with a +tablespoonful of cold water and stir into the tomato. Cook for a few +minutes and serve. + +BAKED APPLES + +6 medium-sized apples +1 lemon +3/4 c. sugar +1/2 c. water + +Wipe and core the apples. Put them into a baking dish and place a slice +of lemon on the top of each. Make a sirup of the sugar and the water, +pour this around the apples, and bake slowly until they can be pierced +easily with a fork. Serve hot or cold, with a teaspoonful of jelly on +the top of each apple. + +BLACK TEA + +6 tsp. black tea +6 c. boiling water + +Scald out the pot with freshly boiling water, pour in the tea, add the 6 +cupfuls of freshly boiling water, and allow it to stand on the leaves +until the tea is strong enough to serve. Then either pour the tea off +the leaves and keep it hot or serve at once. + + +MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE (PART 2) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) From what part of milk is butter made? + +(2) What food substances does butter contain? + +(3) Tell how to select good butter. + +(4) After butter is purchased, what care should be given to it? + +(5) (_a_) How does cooking affect butter? (_b_) How can economy be +exercised in the use of butter in cooking? + +(6) How may rancid butter be made fit for use in cooking? + +(7) Explain the advantages of butter substitutes. + +(8) Give the test for distinguishing oleomargarine and renovated butter +from butter. + +(9) Explain briefly the way in which cheese is produced. + +(10) What food substances are found in cheese? + +(11) Why can cheese be used to take the place of meat? + +(12) Tell the advantages that cheese has over meat. + +(13) Explain how to make cottage cheese from sour milk. + +(14) Why should cheese be mixed with other foods instead of being served +alone? + +(15) Explain the effect of cooking on cheese. + + +REPORT ON MENU + +After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your +answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making +out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its +condition by means of the terms specified in the following list: + +Cream-of-Corn Soup: too thick? too thin? lumpy? well seasoned? milk +curdled? + +Cheese Souffle: light? heavy? baked sufficiently? shrunken? underdone? + +Hash-Browned Potatoes: too brown? not brown enough? well seasoned? too +much fat? too little fat? + +Stewed Tomatoes: sufficiently cooked? well seasoned? too sour? + +Baked Apples: well done? not well done? too brown? too dry? too moist? +sufficient sugar? + +Black Tea: too weak? too strong? hot? taste of tannin? + + * * * * * + + + +EGGS + + * * * * * + +VALUE OF EGGS AS FOOD + +DESCRIPTION OF EGGS AND PLACE IN THE DIET + +1. Eggs are of great importance in the diet, and to appreciate this fact +fully the true nature of this food must be understood. For domestic use, +the eggs of guinea hens, turkeys, ducks, and geese occasionally find +favor, but as eggs laid by hens are the kind that is commonly used, it +is to such eggs that this Section is devoted. A hen's egg may really be +considered as an undeveloped chicken, because it contains all the +elements required to build the body of the chick and provide it with the +energy it needs to pick its way into the world. When it emerges from the +shell, it is fully developed, and in a short time it begins an +independent existence, seeking and finding its own food. The fact that +eggs store so much nutritive material explains to some extent why they +are a valuable source of food for man and why they are used so +extensively. However, as in the case of milk, the elements that eggs +contain are not in just the right proportion for the sole nourishment of +a human being, so they must generally be used in combination with +other foods. + +2. Most persons are familiar with the appearance of eggs, but in order +that satisfactory results may be obtained in their selection, care, and +cooking, it will be necessary to look into the details of their +composition. As is well known, an egg consists of a porous shell lined +with a fine, but tough, membrane that encloses the white and the yolk +and serves to protect them. The yolk is divided from the white by a +delicate membrane, which permits it to be separated from the white when +an egg is carefully broken. This membrane extends to each end of the +shell in the form of a small cord, and it is so fastened to the shell as +to hold the yolk evenly suspended. The porous nature of an egg shell is +required to give air to the developing chick, but it is this +characteristic that permits eggs to spoil as they grow old and are +exposed to air, for through these minute pores, or openings, the water +in the egg evaporates and air and bacteria enter. Of course, as the +water evaporates and is replaced by air, the egg becomes lighter. +Because of this fact, the freshness of eggs can be determined by placing +them in water. When they are fresh, they will sink in cold water, but as +they decompose they become lighter and will float. + +Since it is known that the spoiling of eggs is due to the entrance of +air through the porous shell, it may be inferred that their decay may be +prevented either by protecting the shell so that air cannot enter or by +keeping the eggs at so low a temperature that bacteria cannot grow. +Although stored eggs always deteriorate more or less, both of these +methods of preservation have proved very satisfactory, the former being +used largely in the home and the latter finding its solution in cold +storage. A knowledge of how eggs can be preserved, however, is of great +value, for if there were no means of preservation and eventual +marketing, the price of eggs would at times rise to actual +prohibitive limits. + +3. That eggs as an article of food are growing in importance is +indicated by the fact that their production has come to be a large and +widely distributed industry. Owing to the private consumption and sale +of eggs, an accurate statement of the number of eggs produced is +difficult to give. Still, in a report, the United States Bureau of +Agriculture estimated the value of the yearly egg production at +something more than three million dollars, with an allowance of about +210 eggs, or 17-1/2 dozen, per capita each year, or 4 eggs a week for +each person. These figures, however, are only suggestive of the +production, use, and value of eggs, for as the population increases so +does the use of eggs. In fact, they are proving to be almost +indispensable to the cook, the baker, the manufacturers of certain +foods, and many others. + +4. With the increase in the demand for eggs has come a corresponding +steady advance in the money value of this product and, consequently, an +increase in its price. The housewife who would practice economy in +cookery can readily see, therefore, that with reference to the number of +eggs required and the ways in which they are used, she must choose +carefully the recipes and methods she employs. If the eggs are always +considered a part of a meal, their use is seldom an extravagance, even +at such high prices as they sometimes attain. On the other hand, if a +dessert that requires the use of many eggs is added to a meal that is +itself sufficient in food value, it is not unreasonable to regard such +use of eggs as an extravagance. A point that should be taken into +consideration in the use of eggs in the diet, especially when their +price seems very high, is that there is no waste matter in them, unless +the shell is regarded as waste. Therefore, they are often more +economical than other foods that can be bought for less money. + +It must not be understood, however, that eggs are used only as an +article of diet. They are also a very important food ingredient, being +employed in the preparation of many kinds of dishes. For instance, they +are often used to thicken custards, sauces, etc.; to clarify soups and +jellies; to lighten cakes, puddings, hot breads, and other baked +mixtures; to form the basis for salad dressings; and to combine or hold +together many varieties of food. + + +NUTRITIVE VALUE OF EGGS + +5. Like milk, eggs are often spoken of as a perfect food. Still, as has +been pointed out, they are not a perfect food for man, but they are of +especial nutritive value and should be used freely in the diet just as +long as their cost neither limits nor prohibits their use. An idea of +how they compare with other nutritious foods can be obtained from Fig. +1, which shows that eight eggs are equal in food value to 1 quart of +milk or 1 pound and 5 ounces of beefsteak. A better understanding of +their food value, however, can be gained from a study of their +composition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +6. Since an egg is an undeveloped chick that requires only the addition +of warmth to develop it into a living, moving creature made of muscles, +bones, and blood, it is evident that this food contains considerable +tissue-building and energy-producing material. The exact proportion of +this material, as well as the other substances found in eggs, is given +in the food chart shown in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1. The chart +relating to the composition of eggs points out that the edible portion +of the whole egg consists of 73.7 per cent. of water, 14.8 per cent. of +protein, 10.5 per cent. of fat, and about 1 per cent. of ash, or mineral +matter. The protein, which is chiefly in the form of albumen, and the +fat are the most digestible of these elements, while the mineral +constituents are as valuable for the growing child as for the chick. +When the total weight of an egg is taken into consideration, the shell +constitutes about 11 per cent., the yolk 32 per cent., and the white 57 +per cent. The composition of the yolk and the white differs somewhat, +the yolk having the greater food value, a fact that is also clearly +indicated in the chart. The white contains a larger proportion of water +than the yolk, but the yolk contains the most of the fat and more +protein and mineral matter, or ash, than the white. In addition, the +chart shows that the number of calories to the pound of whole egg is +700, of egg yolk is 1,608, and of egg white is 265. + +7. PROTEIN IN EGGS.--The nature of the food substances in eggs is of +nearly as great importance as their amount, for they not only determine +the value of this food in the body, but influence its cooking. That +protein is present in both the yolk and the white is apparent from the +fact that they coagulate when heat is applied. Because eggs are high in +protein, containing 14.8 per cent. of this substance, they may be +regarded as equivalent to a meat dish, and it is only when they are +extremely high in price that they cannot be frequently substituted for +meat to advantage. They are often used to take the place of milk, too, +for eggs and milk are more alike in nutritive value than any other two +protein foods; but, of the two, milk yields the cheaper form of protein. +Like meat and milk, eggs are rich in all those food materials which +enter into the construction of bone, muscle, and blood. + +8. FAT IN EGGS.--A study of the food chart previously mentioned will +show that eggs contain proportionately almost as much fat as protein and +that nearly all this fat is found in the yolk. Since fat produces more +heat or energy, weight for weight, than any other food substance, and +since eggs contain neither starch nor sugar, it is evident that the fat +of this food is the main source of the energy-producing material. Fat in +eggs occurs in the form of an emulsion, or tiny particles, and, like the +fat of milk, is very readily digested. It is for this reason that both +of these foods are particularly well adapted to the diet of both +children and adults. The presence of quantities of protein and fat and +the absence of carbohydrate in eggs indicate that the proper thing to +combine with this food, in order to have a well-balanced meal when eggs +are eaten, is carbohydrate in some form. + +9. MINERALS IN EGGS.--Eggs are especially valuable for the mineral salts +they contain, chief among which are lime, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, +potassium, and sodium. For this reason, the addition of eggs to any kind +of diet supplies a large amount of the minerals that are needed for +bone, blood, and tissue building. A favorable point concerning the +minerals found in eggs is that they are not affected to any extent by +cooking. Therefore, in the preparation of any dish, if eggs are added to +other foods, that dish will contain an additional amount of mineral +salts, plus the nutritive value of the eggs. + +10. DIGESTIBILITY OF EGGS.--In connection with the discussion of the +food substances of which eggs are composed, it will be well to note how +these affect the digestibility of this food. But just what is meant by +this characteristic with reference to eggs must first be understood. In +some foods, digestibility may mean the length of time required for them +to digest; in others, the completeness of the digestion; and in still +others, the ease and comfort with which the process of digestion +proceeds. In the case of eggs, digestibility refers to the quantity of +this food that is absorbed, that is, actually dissolved and permitted to +enter the blood stream. The nutritive value of eggs is not so high as +would naturally be supposed, for, although the protein, fat, and mineral +salts of an egg make up about one-fourth of its contents, one egg equals +in nutritive value only 1/2 cupful of milk, a small potato, or a +medium-sized apple. However, when the proportion of the nutritive +material that the body retains from this food, or its digestibility, is +considered, eggs rank extremely high, it having been determined by +experiments that 97 per cent. of the protein and 95 per cent. of the fat +are assimilated. A point worthy of note in this connection, though, is +that eggs contain no cellulose, such as that found in grains, +vegetables, and fruits. Therefore, in order to add the much-needed bulk +to the diet, foods that do contain cellulose should be served with eggs. + +11. Whether or not the cooking of eggs has any effect on their +digestibility is a matter that has also been investigated. The results +of the experiments made indicate that cooking makes some difference with +the rate of digestion, but very little with its thoroughness. So far as +the rapidity of digestion is concerned, there is very little difference +between raw eggs and slightly cooked eggs; but hard-cooked eggs, +although they may be digested as completely as soft-cooked ones, require +longer time for the accomplishment of the process. This is due to the +fact that the whites of hard-cooked eggs are so firm in texture that, +unless they are finely chopped or thoroughly masticated, the digestive +juices are not able to act on them quickly. As a result, portions of +them may escape digestion or remain in the digestive tract for some time +and decompose. For this reason, hard-cooked eggs are usually excluded +from the diet of children and invalids, and even healthy adults should +be careful to masticate them thoroughly. + + +SELECTION OF EGGS + +12. On first thought it would seem as if there is very little to guide +the housewife in the selection of eggs, it being extremely difficult to +tell from their external appearance whether or not they are fresh or +stale. As a rule, she must trust largely to the honesty of the person +from whom she buys eggs. Still she need not depend entirely on the +dealer's word, for, at least to a certain extent, there are ways in +which she may judge the quality of eggs. Because of the great value of +eggs as a food and for cooking purposes, it is important that the +housewife make use of all available information on this matter and, in +addition, become familiar with the trade practices in the egg industry. + +13. MARKETING OF EGGS.--As is generally known, hens lay a large number +of eggs in the spring of the year, but they do not lay readily in the +cold winter months; and not alone are the greatest quantities of eggs +produced in April and May, but those laid at this time are of the best +quality. Because of this condition and in order that the demand during +the time of scarcity may be supplied, it is necessary that a +considerable number of eggs be preserved when they are comparatively +cheap and abundant. Also, in the preserving of eggs for future use, it +is of the greatest importance that they be kept in the best possible +condition and manner, so that when they are used, months after they are +laid, they may be as good as it is possible to have them. + +The advance made in storage and transportation methods in recent years +has done much toward making the egg supply uniform all the year around. +Not long ago, because of inadequate means of storage and shipping, eggs +were sold only a short distance from the place where they were produced. +However, with the coming of cold storage and improved methods of +shipping, eggs have been changed from a perishable and more or less +seasonable food to a staple one. Now it is possible to collect them in +large quantities, to keep them for a considerable time before selling +them, and to ship them long distances. To safeguard the public, though, +authorities have set a time limit for the storage of eggs, the legal +time they may be kept being 8 months. By this is meant that eggs placed +in the warehouse in May must be released or sold in December; whereas, +those stored in June must be released no later than January. + +14. Eggs that have been kept too long in storage are characterized by a +musty odor and flavor, the breaking of the yolk and its mixing with the +white, and a watery condition of the white. Such eggs, of course, cannot +be sold legally. Those which may be placed on the market are graded +according to their freshness, cleanliness, size, cracks, and color. With +the exception of their freshness, these points can be readily told from +the appearance of the eggs; but, in order to determine whether an egg is +fresh or not, it is generally put through a process known as _candling_, +by which the interior condition of the egg can be ascertained. + +In the grading of eggs, all those of the best size, color, and condition +are sold under a particular trade name and bring a high or a low price, +according to the grading. Others that are not so perfect are put in +another grade and sell for prices that vary according to the demand. +Eggs, of course, differ in appearance and in many cases they are sorted +in order to satisfy the demand. For instance, in some localities, eggs +having a brown shell sell for the highest price, while in other places, +eggs having a white shell are in the greatest demand and bring the +highest price. Unsorted eggs are not held in much favor and do not +bring so good a price as those which are all one color. Many persons +have an idea that the color of the shell of an egg bears some relation +to its nutritive value and flavor. However, authorities on foods agree +that, other things being alike, the edible portion of white-shelled eggs +has essentially the same composition and nutritive value as that of +dark-shelled eggs. + +15. QUALITY OF EGGS.--The natural quality of eggs depends largely on the +food of the hens and their conditions of living. Because of this fact, +the selection, breeding, and care of fowls have developed into a +science, particularly since the production of eggs has grown into an +industry. When the quality itself is to be determined, all the +characteristics of eggs must be taken into consideration; still there is +one particular point on which the quality of eggs depends, and that is +their freshness. Various agencies, however, are constantly at work to +render this quality inferior. Chief among these are the molds and +bacteria that pass through the porous shells of eggs that have been +improperly cared for or have become contaminated by being allowed to +remain in unclean surroundings. Such bacteria are responsible for the +unpleasant flavors that are found in bad eggs. Because of their harmful +effect, every effort should be made to prevent the entrance of the germs +that cause decay, and, as has been stated, the best way in which to +accomplish this is to protect the shell. If it is found that bacteria +have entered, the eggs will become unfit for use quickly unless their +growth is prevented. This may be done by storing the eggs at a +temperature that will keep the bacteria dormant, or inert. + +16. If the eggs are kept under the proper conditions, they will not +actually spoil for a long time; but it is seldom that they are not more +or less affected by storage of any kind that covers a period of several +months. One change that can always be looked for in such eggs is in the +air space at the broad end. When an egg is first laid, this air space is +small, but since the water contained in the egg slowly evaporates +through the porous shell it increases in size as the egg grows staler. +For this reason, the freshness of an egg can often be determined by the +size of this air space. + +In addition, the purposes for which eggs are used are somewhat affected +by their storage. A stale egg, although it may not be actually spoiled +to the extent that it cannot be used as food, will not produce such good +results in a cooking process as a fresh egg, especially if it is used +for leavening. In fact, it is impossible to produce the desired results +with eggs that have undergone a certain amount of change, even though +their odor and their flavor do not indicate that they are spoiled. + +17. JUDGING THE QUALITY OF EGGS IN THE MARKET.--While, as has been +mentioned, the housewife must depend considerably on the dealer's word +as to the freshness of the eggs she purchases, it will be well for her +to be familiar with the trade names of eggs and their meaning. The names +used differ, of course, in various localities, but all large +distributors grade and name eggs in much the same way. In deciding on +the grade to which eggs belong, a certain number of points are given for +color, size, freshness, and appearance, and the sum total of these +points determines the grade, a special name being given for each grade. +For instance, eggs that can be graded 90 are called _extra fancy_; those +which receive a grade of 80, _fancy_; those which are graded 70, +_strictly fresh_; and those which can be graded only 60, _cooking eggs_. +When eggs are put on the market under such names, it can be expected +that the quality will correspond to the grade and the price will vary +with the grade. Therefore, the trade name and the price are two of the +principal ways in which the quality of eggs in the market may be judged. + +18. Another way of judging the quality of eggs consists in observing the +condition of the surface of the shell. When eggs are freshly laid, the +shell is covered with a substance, called _bloom_, that gives it a +feeling much like that of a thin lime coating deposited in a pan after +water boils. This coating disappears gradually as the egg is exposed to +the air, but as long as it remains, the egg may be considered as fresh +and germ-proof. While this way of determining freshness is probably the +quickest, it is possible that the quality of some eggs from which the +bloom has recently disappeared has not been injured. + +19. When eggs are selected in the market, certain points in their +appearance should also be noted. If eggs of the best quality are +desired, medium-sized ones that are uniform in size and color should be +selected. With regard to shape, they should have a comparatively long +oval shell, one end of which is blunt and the other, a sharp curve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2: Internal structure of egg.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3: FRESH, 3 WEEKS, 3 MONTHS, OLDER.] + +20. JUDGING THE QUALITY OF EGGS IN THE HOME.--After eggs have been +received in the home, several simple tests for determining their +freshness can be applied in addition to the ones already mentioned. A +rather indefinite test, but one that is sometimes applied to determine +the freshness of an egg, is to shake it. However, to be able to carry +out this test successfully, it is well to understand the interior +structure of an egg. Fig. 2 illustrates this clearly. At _a_ is shown +the air space previously mentioned; at _b_, the spiral cords that run +from the yolk to each end of the egg and hold the yolk in place; at _c_, +the yolk; and at _d_, the white. When the water inside the shell +evaporates, the yolk and white shrink so much that they can be felt +moving from side to side when the egg is shaken. The staler the egg, the +more pronounced does the movement become. This method should be applied +only immediately before the egg is to be used, as the thin membrane +between the yolk and the white and the spiral cords that hold up the +yolk are liable to be disturbed by the shaking. If they are broken, the +yolk will settle and finally adhere to the shell in case the egg is +stored for any length of time after that. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4: Testing the egg.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5: four eggs.] + +21. If nothing has been done to preserve eggs, the simple test for +freshness illustrated in Fig. 3, which consists in placing the eggs in a +glass containing water, will be found effective. A perfectly fresh egg +will sink when it is put into the water, but if the egg is 3 weeks old +the broad end will rise slightly from the bottom of the glass. An egg +that is 3 months old will sink into water until only a slight portion of +the shell remains exposed; whereas, if the egg is older or stale, it +will rise in the water until nearly half of it is exposed. 22. The +test known as candling, which is usually applied to eggs before they are +put on the market, can also be practiced by the housewife in the home. +This method of determining the freshness of eggs consists in placing a +piece of cardboard containing a hole a little smaller than an egg +between the eye and a light, which may be from a lamp, a gas jet, or an +electric light, and holding the egg in front of the light in the manner +shown in Fig. 4. The rays of light passing through the egg show the +condition of the egg, the size of its air space, and the growth of mold +or the spoiling of the egg by any ordinary means. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6 (_a_) (_b_)] + +In Fig. 5 is shown how an egg at various stages of freshness appears +when candled. When an egg is fresh, it will appear as in (_a_); that is, +the yolk will be barely distinguishable from the white except as a +slightly darker area in the center of the egg, and the entire egg will +appear clear and bright and free from spots. In an egg that is a little +older, candling will reveal a slightly darker yolk, a cloudy white, and +a larger air space, as in (_b_). In a watery egg, or one that is +beginning to spoil, various dark spots and blotches usually develop, as +view (_c_) indicates. When an egg is rotten, the contents of the shell +will look dark in candling and the yolk will appear to be mixed with the +white, as in (_d_). 23. If the housewife does not wish to resort to +candling, she may determine the condition of an egg by breaking it into +a saucer and examining it carefully. If the egg is newly laid, no odor +will be detected and the white will be clear, elastic, and rather thick; +also, where it joins the yolk it will be almost solid. The yolk of such +an egg will have an even yellow color, without lighter or darker spots +and, as shown in Fig. 6 (_a_), will stand up well from the surface of +the white. Sometimes a small spot of blood may be detected on the yolk +of a perfectly fresh egg, but, while this is not pleasant to look at, it +does not affect the quality of the egg. When an egg that is not real +fresh is broken into a saucer, the yolk will lie flat, as in (_b_). In +an egg that is quite stale, the membrane surrounding the yolk is easily +destroyed, so that even when such an egg is broken carefully the yolk +and the white are likely to run together. + + * * * * * + +PRESERVATION OF EGGS + +CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DETERIORATION + +24. As has been implied in the discussion given thus far, eggs will +deteriorate or spoil in a comparatively short time unless something is +done to preserve them. In view of the eggs she keeps on hand at home, as +well as those she buys, the causes of spoiling and the ways in which to +prevent spoiling are matters with which the housewife should be +familiar, particularly if she would secure for her family eggs of the +best quality at prices that are not beyond her means. The spoiling of +eggs is due to decomposition, which is caused by molds or bacteria that +result from accidental causes, and, in fertile eggs, to the germination +and development of the chick, which is a natural process. The loss of +quality resulting from molds and bacteria in the egg is brought about by +their growth and by the formation of chemical compounds, which give +spoiled eggs their peculiar appearance, taste, and odor. Some of these +molds are not injurious to health, while others may give rise to more or +less serious illness. + +25. Various methods have been devised whereby their rapid deterioration +may be prevented, and a knowledge of these is important to those who +have occasion to purchase eggs or to keep them over from the season of +plenty to the season of scarcity. The method followed to prevent losses +due to the development of the embryo consists in the production of +infertile eggs--that is, eggs that are non-productive. This is a point +that is as well worth remembering in the home production of eggs as it +is in professional poultry raising. The method employed to prevent the +infection of eggs by molds and bacteria is to keep them clean and dry +from the time they are laid until they are finally used. + +26. While the preservation of eggs is carried on to a greater extent at +present than formerly, the idea is neither new nor original; indeed, it +has been practiced for many years by the people of some foreign +countries. For instance, in some sections of China, duck eggs are +preserved by covering them with a layer of mud, and such eggs are often +kept for a year or more before they are eaten. However, eggs stored in +this way decompose and their odor and flavor disappear before they are +used, so that they must usually be hard boiled before they can be eaten. +Egg preservation such as is practiced in the United States is the +opposite of this and attempts to prevent not only ripening processes and +putrefactive changes but any bacterial or other changes that lessen the +original quality. It will be well to note, however, that eggs preserved +for any length of time deteriorate to some extent and cannot be expected +to be equally as good as fresh eggs. + + +COMMERCIAL PRESERVATION OF EGGS + +27. The usual market method of preserving eggs is by cold storage, an +industry that has developed to vast proportions in recent years. The +success of this method depends on the fact that germs causing +decomposition will not live in a low temperature. While the plan of +storing eggs is responsible for their high price at certain times, it is +also a means of supplying eggs to many persons who would otherwise not +be able to obtain them. The greatest point in favor of this plan, +however, is that it makes possible the marketing of quantities of eggs +during the winter season of scarcity at a price that, although somewhat +high at times, is much more moderate than it would be if it were not +possible to store eggs in large quantities. + +28. In order that advantage may be taken of favorable climatic +conditions, eggs are commonly purchased for storage as early in the year +as they are abundant. They are selected with great care, only those +which are clean, sound, and fresh being used. These eggs are packed in +clean cases, and then placed in warehouses where they are kept at a +temperature just above freezing, or one that ranges from 32 to 40 +degrees Fahrenheit. In such storage, precaution is usually taken to +prevent the eggs from freezing, for while freezing does not necessarily +injure them for immediate use it breaks the shell because of the +contraction that occurs. While the eggs are in storage, they are also +protected as far as possible from air circulation, as this increases +evaporation and causes the contents of eggs to shrink. To prevent the +yolks from settling to one side, and finally adhering to the shell, the +eggs are turned frequently. The usual limits of storage are from 6 to 9 +months, but eggs are not generally allowed to remain in storage more +than 8 months. When taken out at the end of that time, it will be found +that they have deteriorated very little, and while they cannot compete +with the better grades of fresh eggs, they are as desirable as most of +the eggs that can be purchased in the early fall when eggs are not +plentiful. + +29. Sometimes eggs are removed from the shells, stored for commercial +use in containers of about 50 pounds each, and kept at the freezing +point until they are to be used. Eggs in this form, which may be bought +with the yolks and whites either mixed or separate, find a ready market +in bakeries and restaurants, where large quantities of eggs are +continually used. Such eggs remain good for any length of time while +they are kept frozen, but they must be used immediately after they are +removed from storage. + +30. It is not always necessary to keep eggs at a cold temperature in +order to preserve them, for a method that has proved very satisfactory +is to reduce them to the form of powder by drying them. In this form, +the bulk is greatly reduced, 1 pound of the dry material representing 30 +to 40 eggs, and in order to prepare them for use in cooking they must be +mixed with water. POWDERED EGGS, or _desiccated eggs_, as they are +usually called, can be kept for an indefinite length of time without +special care in storage, when they are wholesome and carefully handled. +Tests that have been made show that eggs of this kind give fairly good +results when used in cookery, but they are used principally by bakers, +for they can be obtained more cheaply than fresh eggs, especially when +it is difficult to secure eggs in other forms. + + HOME PRESERVATION OF EGGS + +31. The housewife who desires to run her household on an economical +basis will not depend entirely on eggs that are commercially stored, but +will take advantage of one of the many methods by which eggs may be +successfully kept in the home. By being prudent in this matter, she will +be prepared to supply her family with this commodity at times when the +market price is high. + +As many as twenty household methods have been tried out for the +preserving of eggs, but each one is based on the theory that decay is +hindered when the shell is covered with some substance that renders it +air-tight and prevents evaporation or the entrance of bacteria and mold. +Among the methods that have met with the most success are burying eggs +in oats, bran, or salt; rubbing them with fat; dipping them in melted +paraffin; covering them with varnish or shellac; and putting them down +in lime water or in a solution of water glass. + +No matter which of these methods is adopted, however, it will be well to +note that only eggs laid in April, May, or June should be used for +storage purposes, as these are the best ones laid during the year; also, +that the eggs should always be packed with the small end down, because +the yolk will not settle toward the small end so readily as toward the +large end or the side. + +32. Of these various ways of preserving eggs in the home, probably the +oldest method is that of packing the eggs in oats, bran, or salt. This +method is fairly effective, but the eggs preserved by it do not keep so +long as eggs preserved by other methods, nor is their quality so good. +Preserving eggs by completely covering the shells with fat, vaseline, +paraffin, varnish, or other substance that will exclude the air but not +impart flavor to the eggs, proves a more satisfactory method so far as +the eggs are concerned, but it requires more time and handling. To +assist in their preservation, eggs are sometimes immersed in boiling +water for 12 to 15 seconds. This process, which causes the white to +harden slightly just inside of the shell, keeps the eggs fairly well, +but it is rather difficult to accomplish, as the least overcooking +renders the egg unfit for use as a raw egg. + +As a result of many trials, it has been found that putting eggs down in +the various solutions that are used for this purpose is the most +effective way of preserving them under home conditions, provided, of +course, the solutions in which the eggs are immersed do not flavor the +eggs. Therefore, to assist the housewife, detailed directions for using +lime water and water glass for this purpose are here given. + +33. PRESERVATION WITH LIMEWATER.--To prepare limewater for the +preservation of eggs, dissolve 1 pound or 1 pint of salt and 1 quart of +finely slaked lime in 3 gallons of water, stir the solution at frequent +intervals for a day or two, and then allow the liquid to settle. Place +the eggs in tall stone crocks or kegs with their pointed ends turned +down, filling the receptacles to within a few inches of the top. Pour +the clear limewater over the eggs so arranged, allowing it to rise an +inch or two above the top layer. Then stand the vessel in a cool place +where the temperature will not exceed 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs so +treated will keep for at least 6 or 8 months. The only objection to this +plan is that the eggs preserved by it sometimes acquire a slight +lime taste. + +34. PRESERVATION WITH WATER GLASS.--Putting eggs down in a solution of +water glass is without doubt the most satisfactory method of storing +them in the home. So effective does this method prove that the housewife +who has a convenient and proper storage room should not fail to take +advantage of this way of laying up a supply of eggs. + +The commercial form of water glass is usually a mixture of potassium and +sodium silicate, which, besides being cheaper than that which is +chemically pure, is the kind that is preferred for the purpose of +preserving eggs. A good quality of it either in a sirup-like solution or +in the form of a powder retails in drug or grocery stores for about 10 +cents a pound. To make a solution of the desired strength to preserve +eggs satisfactorily, dissolve 1 part of water glass in 7 parts of warm +water that has first been boiled to drive off bacteria, mold, spores, +etc. One quart of water glass will make sufficient solution to cover +about 12 dozen eggs. With the solution thoroughly mixed, it is ready to +pour over the eggs. + +In selecting eggs for the purpose of storing, be careful to choose only +those which are clean, fresh, and perfectly sound, and, if possible, +infertile. It is advisable not to wash them before they are put into the +preservative, for they will keep better if their bloom is not removed. +Place the eggs in receptacles in the manner explained for preserving +eggs in limewater, and over them pour the water-glass solution until +they are all covered. If the eggs so prepared are stored in a cool +place, they will keep as long as those preserved in limewater; besides, +there will be no danger of their acquiring any foreign flavor. + + * * * * * + +COOKING OF EGGS + +PRELIMINARY PREPARATION + +35. The successful preparation of eggs for their use as a food demands +that certain points must be observed by the housewife. For instance, she +must see that the eggs she uses are in the right condition; that the +shells are properly broken for the most convenient removal of the egg; +that the parts of the egg are separated in the right way in case the +whites and the yolks are to be used separately; and that the eggs +receive the right treatment for the purpose for which they are to be +used. Attention to all these points not only will insure the most +satisfactory results, but will enable the housewife to supply her family +with food that is extremely wholesome and nutritious. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +36. Exterior Condition of Eggs.--As has been explained, clean eggs are +the most desirable, but it is not advisable to wash eggs that are to be +kept for even a short time, as washing them removes the natural coating +that helps to prevent the entrance of bacteria. However, as it is +necessary that the shells be perfectly clean before they are broken or +before the eggs are cooked, the eggs may be washed or wiped with a damp +cloth immediately before such processes. + +37. BREAKING OF EGGS.--In cookery, it is usually desirable to break an +egg shell so that the yolk will not run into the white; that is, so +that these can be kept separate. While there are several methods of +doing this, the housewife should adopt the one that is most convenient +for her. A quick method that is often employed consists in striking the +shell on the edge of the pan or the bowl into which the contents are to +be put. A preferable method, however, is illustrated in Fig. 7. It +consists in striking one side of the shell, midway between the ends, a +sharp blow with the edge of a knife. The advantage of this method will +be evident after a trial or two, for it will be found that the depth of +the cut made by the knife can be so gauged that there will be little +danger of breaking the yolk. Besides, fragments of the shell are not +likely to fall into the bowl or the pan with the contents of the egg. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +38. SEPARATING OF EGGS.--Frequently recipes require that the yolks and +whites of eggs be beaten separately before being added to the other +ingredients. When this is the case, care must be exercised in taking the +egg from the shell. The method by which this is most easily accomplished +is illustrated in Fig. 8. As will be observed, the shell is first broken +as nearly as possible into halves and then, while the egg is poured from +1/2 of the shell into the other, the white is dropped into a dish and +the yolk is retained in the shell. During this process, the yolk should +remain intact in its delicate membrane, for if it becomes mixed with the +white the lightness of the white will be injured. To separate the yolk +from the white is not difficult when eggs are fresh, but as they become +stale the membrane surrounding the yolk grows weak and breaks easily. If +the yolk breaks and any of it falls into the white, it must be +completely removed before the white is beaten. + +39. BEATING OF EGGS.--Sometimes eggs are cooked in the shell and other +times they are used alone just as they are removed from the shell, as in +the frying and poaching processes; however, when they are to be +combined with other ingredients, they are usually beaten. Eggs are +beaten for the purpose of mixing the yolk and the white or of +incorporating air to act as a leavening agent when the eggs are heated +in the cooking process. Various utensils, such as a fork, an egg whip, +or an egg beater, may be employed for beating eggs, the one to select +depending on the use to which the eggs are to be put. The rotary, or +Dover, egg beater, previously described as a labor-saving device and +illustrated in Fig. 9 (_a_), should be used to beat either whole eggs or +the yolks of eggs when they are to be used in custards, mayonnaise, +cakes, puddings, etc., as it will beat them sufficiently light for such +purposes. However, for the beating of egg whites, use should be made of +a fork or of an egg whip similar to that shown in (_b_), because the +whites must be lifted instead of stirred for the incorporation of air, +and it is only with a utensil of this kind that this can be +accomplished. Then, too, more air can be incorporated into the whites +and the volume of the egg thereby increased by means of a fork or an egg +whip than by an egg beater. An important point to remember in this +connection is that eggs can be beaten more successfully when they are +cold and have had a pinch of salt added to them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +40. In the beating of eggs, it should be remembered that for some +purposes, as in making some kinds of sponge cake, they are beaten until +nearly frothy, as shown in Fig. 10, when they do not stand up nor cling +to the whip; whereas, for other purposes, as in making meringue, they +are beaten until they are stiff enough to stand up well and to adhere to +the whip, as Fig. 11 shows. When egg whites are to be beaten stiff, care +should be taken not to continue the beating too long. If this is done, +they will become dry and will break up into small pieces, a condition +that will mean a loss of some of the air that has been incorporated. It +is well also to observe that egg whites should always be beaten in the +same direction and that the same motion should be continued throughout +the beating, for a change of direction or motion always causes a loss of +air. A final precaution to take is never to allow egg whites to stand +after they are beaten. If this is done, the leavening power of the eggs +is reduced, because the air soon escapes from beaten eggs and leaves +underneath them a clear liquid that can never be beaten up. For +instance, eggs that are to be used for boiled icing should not be beaten +until the sirup has finished boiling. However, eggs that have been +separated but not beaten may stand for a couple of hours, provided they +are covered and kept in a cool place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + + +POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING EGGS + +41. As has been previously stated, the substance in eggs that requires +special care in the cooking process is the protein, which occurs in this +food in the form of albumen. Because of this, certain points concerning +the treatment that the albumen requires should be kept in mind. In a raw +egg, the albumen occurs in a semiliquid form, but it coagulates at a +lower temperature than does the yolk, which contains a high percentage +of fat. After coagulation, the consistency of the two parts is very +different. The white is elastic and more or less tough, while the yolk, +upon being thoroughly cooked, becomes powdery, or mealy, and breaks up +into minute particles. The egg white begins to coagulate at 134 degrees +Fahrenheit, and it becomes white and jellylike at 160 degrees. Bringing +an egg to such a temperature produces a more desirable result than +cooking it at a high temperature--boiling point, for instance--because +the albumen, instead of becoming tough, as it does at a high +temperature, acquires a soft, tender consistency that exists throughout +the entire egg. An egg cooked in this way is more digestible and +appetizing than one that is boiled until it becomes hard and tough. + +42. The low temperature at which eggs will cook in the shell applies +also to eggs when they are combined with other foods. Sometimes, +however, a mixture in which eggs are one of the ingredients must be +cooked at a high temperature because the materials mixed with them +require it. This difficulty can be overcome when eggs are combined with +starchy foods, such as corn starch, rice, and tapioca, that require long +cooking. In such a case, all the ingredients except the eggs may be +cooked the length of time they require, after which the eggs may be +added so that they will cook just long enough to become coagulated. +Longer cooking is liable to spoil the texture. Often the starchy mixture +retains sufficient heat to set the eggs without further cooking after +they are added. + +43. A very nutritious way in which to prepare eggs when they are to be +used for a dessert is to combine them with milk to form a custard, +which, after being sweetened and flavored, is baked. The proportion that +has been accepted as ideal to produce a dessert of the right thickness +is one egg to each cupful of milk; however, an entire egg is not always +required, as one yolk is often sufficient to thicken 1 cupful of milk. +Care should be taken in the cooking of such custards, for if they are +cooked too long or at too high a temperature they will curdle and whey; +whereas, a properly cooked custard--that is, one cooked slowly at a low +temperature and for the required length of time--will have a smooth, +jellylike consistency. A slight variation in a dish of this kind is +secured by reducing the number of eggs and thickening it with corn +starch or some other starchy material. While such a mixture is not a +true custard, it makes an excellent dessert. + +44. In the cooking of mixtures containing eggs, no utensil proves quite +so satisfactory as the double boiler, which has already been explained +and illustrated. In fact, it is almost impossible to cook an egg mixture +directly over the flame on account of the difficulty encountered in +preventing the eggs from curdling. The low temperature at which cooking +is possible in the double boiler makes it a comparatively simple matter +to bring a mixture to the proper consistency without the formation of +curds. Still, a certain amount of precaution must be taken even with a +double boiler. If the degree of heat that is reached in this utensil is +applied too long, the result will be no more satisfactory than when +mixtures are exposed directly to the heat and cooked at a high +temperature. While every effort should be made to cook mixtures +containing eggs, such as custards or mayonnaise, so as to prevent curds +from forming, occasionally they will form in spite of all that can be +done. However, it is sometimes possible to remedy the matter by placing +the vessel at once in cold water and beating the mixture rapidly with a +Dover egg beater until the curds disappear. The cold water cools the +mixture and prevents the formation of more curds, and the beating breaks +up those which have already formed, provided they are not too hard. + +45. In addition to the uses already mentioned, eggs have numerous other +uses in cooking with which the housewife should be familiar. For +instance, slightly beaten egg is used to a great extent to make crumbs +or meal adhere to the surface of croquettes, meat, oysters, etc. that +are to be sauted or fried in deep fat, a coating of this kind preventing +the food from becoming soaked with grease. In addition, egg is used to +stick flour together for certain kinds of dough, such as noodles. Then, +again, it is much used to puff up mixtures and produce a hollow space in +them, as in popovers and cream puffs. While such mixtures do not require +beating, spongy mixtures, such as omelets and sponge cakes, do. In +these, eggs are an important factor, and they must be thoroughly beaten +in order to incorporate the air in small bubbles and thus produce the +desired texture. + + +SERVING OF EGGS + +46. The manner of serving eggs depends, of course, on the way in which +they are cooked. One point, however, that should never be overlooked, so +far as eggs that are to be served hot is concerned, is that they should +be served immediately upon being prepared, so that they will not have +an opportunity to become cool before being eaten. This applies +particularly to any spongy mixture, such as puff omelet and souffle, as +these dishes shrink upon standing and become less appetizing in both +appearance and texture. + +Several ways of serving soft-cooked eggs are in practice, but probably +the most satisfactory way is to serve them in egg cups. In case cups are +used, they should be heated before being placed on the table, as the +heat that they retain helps to keep the eggs warm. The eggs may be +removed from the shell into the cup and eaten from the cup, or the +unbroken egg may be placed point downwards in the small end of the cup, +a small piece broken from the broad end of the shell, and the egg then +eaten from the shell through the opening made in it. If egg cups are not +available, the eggs may be removed from the shell and served in small +dessert dishes, which also should be heated. + +Many egg dishes are made more attractive and appetizing by means of a +garnish of some kind. Small strips or triangular pieces of toast, sprays +of parsley, celery leaves, lettuce, and strips of pimiento are very +satisfactory for this purpose. If no other garnish is desired, just a +sprinkling of paprika adds a touch of color. + +47. In connection with the serving of eggs it will be well to note that +they have a tendency to adhere to china and to discolor silver. +Therefore, in the washing of china and the cleaning of silver that have +been used in the serving of raw or slightly cooked eggs, much care +should be exercised. Dishes in which eggs of this kind have been served +should first be washed in cool water in order to remove all the egg, and +then they should be thoroughly washed in hot water. If the hot water is +applied first, the heat will cause the egg to coagulate and cling to the +dishes. Silver that comes in contact with eggs tarnishes or becomes +discolored through the action of the sulphur that is found in them, just +as it does when it is exposed to the air. Dark spots that appear on +silver from this source may be removed by means of a good +silver cleaner. + + EGG RECIPES + +48. To enable the housewife to prepare many of the dishes already +mentioned, as well as many other egg dishes, a number of recipes are +here given. These recipes pertain to the cooking of eggs alone in +various ways or to dishes in which eggs are the leading ingredient. +There are, of course, numerous other dishes in which eggs are required, +such as custards, cakes, mayonnaise, etc., but these are omitted here, +as recipes for them are included in the lessons that pertain directly to +them. In the first few recipes, the ingredients are omitted and merely +directions given, for the eggs themselves are practically the only thing +required, especially so far as the cooking is concerned. However, in the +majority of cases, the ingredients are listed in the usual manner and +explicit directions then given for carrying out the recipe. + +49. SOFT-COOKED, OR JELLIED, EGGS.--Eggs that are cooked soft, or +jellied, may be used for any meal in which plain eggs can be served. +When properly prepared, they are both digestible and attractive, and any +person who is able to eat eggs at all can eat them in this form. + +To prepare soft-cooked, or jellied, eggs, first bring to the boiling +point sufficient water to cover well the desired number of eggs, which +is usually 1 pint of water to each egg. Then drop the eggs into the +water carefully, remove the pan from the fire, place a cover on it, and +set it on the back of the stove, where the water will not heat further +nor cool too rapidly. Allow the eggs to remain in the water for +5 minutes. + +When eggs cooked in this manner are served, they will be found to be the +consistency of jelly all the way through. This method of cooking is +preferable to boiling them for 3, 4, or 5 minutes, because boiling cooks +the white just inside the shell very hard, while the yolk of the egg +remains liquid. + +50. POACHED EGGS.--Eggs properly poached make a very attractive +breakfast dish, but the poaching should be well done in order to have +the dish attractive and digestible. The food value of a plain poached +egg is, of course, identically the same as that of a soft-cooked, a +hard-cooked, or a raw egg. Eggs are usually poached in a shallow pan, +although egg poachers are to be had. + +To poach eggs in a shallow pan, pour into the pan sufficient water to +cover the eggs that are to be cooked, add a teaspoonful of salt or of +vinegar for each pint of water, and bring it to the boiling point. +Remove the pan from the flame or reduce the heat so that the water will +cease to boil. Break the eggs, one at a time, into a saucer and then +slide them carefully into the water. Do not allow the water to boil +after the eggs have been added, as boiling toughens the egg white and in +addition causes considerable loss by tearing it into shreds. When the +eggs are set, remove them carefully from the water and season them with +salt and pepper. A convenient way to remove the eggs is to use a large +spoon that has holes in the bowl for draining off the water. The salt or +vinegar is added to the water before cooking in order to solidify the +albumen and keep it in a mass. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +An egg poacher contains a perforated section of metal just large enough +to hold an egg. In poaching eggs with such a utensil, the perforated +part is placed over a pan of boiling water; then the egg is carefully +slid into it, and allowed to poach. Eggs prepared in this way are really +cooked by steam and are found to be very satisfactory. + +51. POACHED EGGS ON TOAST.--Eggs poached according to the directions +just given can be made both appetizing and attractive by serving them on +toast, as shown in Fig. 12; indeed, the addition of toast to a poached +egg adds a quantity of carbohydrate, a food principle in which the egg +is lacking. If the toast is buttered, fat is added, and such a dish, +together with fruit, makes a very excellent breakfast. A slice of toast +of medium size with the usual amount of butter and egg will have a food +value of about 225 calories. In preparing poached eggs on toast, the +usual custom is to butter slices of freshly made toast, moisten them +with hot milk or cream, and place on them freshly poached eggs. The eggs +are then seasoned with salt and pepper, and, if desired, a little piece +of butter may be dropped on each one. To add to the attractiveness of +such a dish, the toast may be cut round with a cookie cutter or a square +piece may be cut diagonally to make two triangular pieces. + +52. HARD-COOKED EGGS.--Eggs that are cooked hard may be served hot or +cold, or they may be used in numerous ways, as, for example, to garnish +a dish to which the addition of protein is desirable or to supply a +high-protein dish for some light meal. + +To prepare hard-cooked eggs, bring to the boiling point sufficient water +to cover well the desired number of eggs, about 1 pint of water for each +egg to be cooked usually being sufficient. Carefully drop the eggs into +the water and place the pan on the back of the stove where the water +will not boil, but will stay hot. Allow the eggs to remain in the hot +water for 45 minutes; then remove them, and if they are desired hot, +serve them at once. If they are not to be served hot, pour cold water +over them and allow them to cool before removing the shells in order to +prevent the yolks from discoloring. + +When prepared in this way, eggs will be found to be tender and at the +same time well cooked; whereas, if they are cooked at the boiling point, +they are certain to be tough and leathery and consequently less +digestible. + +53. FRIED EGGS.--Fried eggs are likely to be more or less indigestible, +because the hot fat coagulates the protein and makes it very hard. The +addition of fat, however, increases the food value of the eggs to a +certain extent. To fry eggs, melt enough butter or other fat in a frying +pan to cover its surface well. Break the eggs one at a time into a +saucer and slip them into the hot fat. Season with salt and pepper. Fry +until the white has become well solidified on the bottom, and then +either turn them over or put a few drops of water in the pan and cover +it tight with a cover, so that the steam will cook the top of the egg. +Fry until the desired degree of hardness has been obtained, and +then serve. + +54. SCRAMBLED EGGS.--A pleasing variety from the usual methods of +preparation is offered by means of scrambled eggs, which are not +difficult to make. Too long cooking, however, should be guarded against, +for it will cause the protein in the eggs to become too hard and to +separate from the liquid and will produce watery scrambled eggs. To be +most satisfactory, they should be taken from the pan just before they +have finished cooking, for the heat that they hold will complete it. +Eggs prepared in this way, according to the accompanying recipe, may be +served on toast or with ham and bacon. If they are served with meat, a +smaller portion of meat should be given to a person than is +ordinarily served. + +SCRAMBLED EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 eggs +3/4 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. butter + +Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk and seasonings. Melt +the butter in a frying pan and, when the butter is hot, pour the egg +mixture into it. As the eggs begin to thicken, stir them up from the +bottom of the pan and continue to stir them until the entire mass has +thickened slightly. Before the eggs are entirely cooked, remove them +from the pan. Bacon and ham fat may be used instead of butter, and they +are strongly recommended if they can be secured, for they lend an +excellent flavor to scrambled eggs. + +55. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOMATO.--The addition of tomato to scrambled +eggs lends an unusual flavor as well as a little variety to the dish. +The same conditions apply to the cooking of scrambled eggs with tomato +as apply to plain scrambled eggs; namely, that too long cooking ruins +them. The onion included in the recipe here given may be omitted from +the dish if it is not desirable. The fat to be used may be in the form +of butter, although bacon or ham fat may be substituted to give an +agreeable flavor. + +SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOMATO +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 Tb. fat +1 slice onion +1 c. stewed tomatoes +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +6 eggs + +Put the fat into a frying pan, and when this grease is hot add the slice +of onion and fry it until it is brown. Remove the onion from the fat, +and add the stewed tomatoes, salt, and pepper. Then beat the eggs +slightly and add them to the hot tomato. Stir the mixture slowly from +the bottom of the pan until it is slightly thickened. Remove from the +pan and serve hot. + +56. SCRAMBLED EGGS ON TOAST.--The addition of cheese to eggs, as in the +accompanying recipe, makes a dish that is very high in protein and +usually pleasing in flavor. So as not to overcook the eggs in this dish, +they should be cooked only slightly in the pan, because they receive +additional cooking when the dish is placed in the oven to melt the +cheese. Browning the cheese slightly on top makes a very attractive +dish, especially when garnished with parsley. + +SCRAMBLED EGGS ON TOAST +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 eggs +3/4 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. fat +1/2 c. grated cheese +6 slices of toast + +Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk, salt, and pepper. Melt +the fat in a frying pan, and when it is hot add the egg mixture. Stir +the mixture as it cooks until it has thickened slightly; then pour it +over the slices of toast placed in a shallow pan. Sprinkle the grated +cheese over the top, and place under a lighted broiler or in a very hot +oven until the cheese melts. Remove to a platter garnish with parsley, +and serve. + +57. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH HAM.--The accompanying recipe affords an +excellent way in which to use up the little scraps of ham that may be +cut from the bone when it is impossible to cut enough nice looking +pieces to serve as a cold dish. Eggs prepared in this way will be found +very tasty and will take the place of a meat dish for luncheon +or supper. + +SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH HAM +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 eggs +1 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. chopped cooked ham +2 Tb. fat + +Beat the eggs slightly, and to them add the milk, salt, pepper, and ham. +Melt the fat in a frying pan and scramble the mixture as directed in +Art. 54 until it is slightly thickened. Remove from the stove and serve +at once. If desired, this dish may be served on toast. Other left-over +meat, such as roast beef or pork, may be used in place of ham, but such +meats do not make so tasty a dish, the flavor of ham in such a +combination being more desirable. 58. PLAIN OMELET.--The simplest type +of omelet, which is known as plain omelet, does not differ materially +from scrambled eggs, except that the whole is collected in a mass in an +omelet shape. No difficulty will be experienced in making such an omelet +if the directions in the recipe here given are followed explicitly. To +make this dish more attractive, some food of a contrasting color, such +as jelly or tomatoes, may be used for garnishing. + +PLAIN OMELET +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 eggs +6 Tb. water +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +3 Tb. fat + +Beat the eggs, and to them add the water, salt, and pepper. Heat the fat +in an omelet pan or a small frying pan, and when it is hot add the egg +mixture. When the egg on the bottom of the pan has thickened, tip the +pan and draw the thickened portion toward the handle with the end of a +knife, allowing the uncooked egg to run over the pan, and when that has +thickened on the bottom, draw it up as before. Repeat until all of the +egg has been cooked and an oblong-shaped omelet is formed. Place on a +hot platter or plate, garnish with parsley or jelly, and serve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +59. PUFF OMELET.--Many housewives consider it to be a very difficult +thing to make a puff omelet successfully; but such need not be the case +if fresh eggs are used and the usual amount of care is taken in its +preparation. The whites of the eggs must not be over-beaten, as too much +beating will cause the loss of air and will not permit the omelet to +become sufficiently light. Another precaution is that the mixture should +not be overcooked, for the application of heat after it has been +sufficiently cooked will cause it to shrink. How a puff omelet made +according to the recipe here given should look, is shown in Fig. 13. +This is a very pleasing dish and never fails to appeal to those persons +who are fond of eggs. + +PUFF OMELET +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. bread crumbs +4 Tb. milk +4 eggs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +3 Tb. fat + +Soak the bread crumbs in the milk. Separate the yolks and whites of the +eggs. Beat the egg yolks and add them to the crumbs and milk. Add the +salt and pepper. Beat the egg whites until stiff and fold them carefully +into the yolk mixture. Heat the fat in an omelet pan or a frying pan, +and when it is hot pour the mixture into it. Cook over a very slow fire, +being careful not to burn the mixture, until a knife can be slipped +under and the whole mixture raised. By this time the top should be quite +puffed up. Place the pan in a hot oven, where the omelet should puff +still more, and cook until it is no longer raw. With a knife, score +across through the center on a straight line with the handle. Then +carefully fold the omelet double, roll it out on a hot platter or plate, +as shown in Fig. 14, garnish with parsley, and serve at once. If an +omelet of this kind stands for any length of time after it is served, it +will shrink and be much less appetizing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +60. CHEESE OMELET.--If an additional amount of protein in the form of +casein is desired in an omelet, the accompanying recipe for cheese +omelet should be tried. The addition of cheese makes this dish even a +better meat substitute than either the plain or the puff omelet. +Likewise, the cheese adds flavor, which may be increased if desired by +the addition of more cheese than the recipe calls for. Although this +recipe mentions butter, fat other than butter may be used. + +CHEESE OMELET +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 c. grated cheese +2 Tb. bread crumbs +4 Tb. milk +4 eggs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +3 Tb. butter + +Mix the grated cheese with the bread crumbs, milk, egg yolks, salt, and +pepper. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff and fold them into the +other ingredients. To cook the omelet, proceed according to the +directions given for making puff omelet in Art. 59. + +61. TOMATO OMELET.--The addition of tomatoes to an omelet makes an +attractive dish as far as color is concerned, and, at the same time, it +gives variety by improving the flavor. Such an omelet is also less +concentrated than a plain omelet, for the tomatoes provide bulk and +additional water is added. While in a way these lower the food value of +the dish, the loss is more than made up by the qualities that are added. + +TOMATO OMELET +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 eggs +1/2 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +3 Tb. fat +2 medium-sized ripe tomatoes + +Beat the eggs, and to them add the milk, salt, and pepper. Heat the fat +in a pan large enough to make the egg mixture 1/2 inch deep when poured +into it. Cook slowly until it is well done. Peel and cut the tomatoes +into slices 1/3 inch thick. Place the sliced tomatoes on 1/2 of the +omelet, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, score the omelet through the +center, and fold the other half over the tomatoes. Then slide the omelet +on a hot platter, garnish with lettuce or parsley, and serve at once. + +62. VARIETY IN OMELETS.--From the recipes given for omelets, it will be +noted that this dish may be made plain or may be varied by adding +ingredients that provide flavoring or increase the nutritive value. In +addition to the suggestions that have been made in these recipes, there +is an almost endless number of ways in which omelets may be varied. For +instance, left-over bits of any kind of meat, such as a roast, a steak, +or chops, from the day before or bits of bacon fried for a previous meal +may be chopped fine and utilized for this purpose. Cheese cut fine or +grated and mixed with the eggs helps to make a delicious omelet. Bread +crumbs, cracker crumbs, rice, riced potatoes, or left-over cereal may +be used, as well as mushrooms, chopped or whole, and oysters raw or +previously scalloped or fried and then chopped. Bits of fish, such as +left-over crab or lobster, will do nicely for increasing variety. Often +jelly, jam, and fruit or vegetables are folded inside after the omelet +is cooked. + +63. STUFFED EGGS.--A highly seasoned cold dish that is delicious for +picnics or cold lunches can be made by removing the yolks from +hard-cooked eggs, seasoning them, and then stuffing them into the +whites, as is explained in the recipe here given. Eggs so prepared also +make a desirable high-protein dish for summer weather when meat dishes +fail to appeal to the appetite. Wafers or tiny bread-and-butter +sandwiches served with stuffed eggs make them more attractive. + +STUFFED EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 hard-cooked eggs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/8 tsp. paprika +1/2 tsp. mustard +2 Tb. vinegar + +Cut the eggs in half, either lengthwise or crosswise. Remove the yolks, +mash them, add to them the salt, pepper, paprika, mustard, and vinegar, +and mix thoroughly. Fill the egg whites with the yolk mixture. The eggs +will be much more appetizing in appearance if the yolk is not packed +smoothly back into the white but allowed to stand up roughly. The plate +on which the eggs are served should be nicely garnished with lettuce, +parsley, or celery leaves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +64. CREAMED EGGS.--If a dish that will serve well for luncheon or a +light supper is desired, creamed eggs, as illustrated in Fig. 15, will +be found very satisfactory, for the cream sauce that is served on them +and the toast on which the eggs are placed add carbohydrate to an +otherwise high-protein dish. The eggs used in this dish must be +hard-cooked in water, so as not to be indigestible. Paprika sprinkled +over the top and parsley used as a garnish add colors that make the dish +very attractive. + +CREAMED EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. fat +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. paprika +6 hard-cooked eggs +6 slices of toast + +Heat the milk. Put the fat in a saucepan and heat it until it is light +brown; then add the flour, salt, and paprika to the melted fat and mix +all thoroughly. Pour in the hot milk and stir the mixture constantly +until the sauce has become smooth and thick. Cut the hard-cooked eggs +into halves while they are hot, and place two halves with the cut sides +down on each piece of toast. Pour the white sauce over all, sprinkle +with paprika, and serve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +65. Eggs a la Goldenrod.--Closely resembling creamed eggs in composition +and food value, but differing from them somewhat in appearance, are eggs +a la goldenrod, which are illustrated in Fig. 16. This is, perhaps, even +a more attractive dish if it is nicely made than creamed eggs, and many +persons who do not like hard-cooked eggs find this dish agreeable and +are able to digest it. + +EGGS A LA GOLDENROD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. milk +2 Tb. fat +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +4 hard-cooked eggs +6 slices of toast + +Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and +pepper, and mix well. Then add the hot milk and stir until the sauce +thickens. Chop the whites of the hard-cooked eggs into small pieces, and +mix them with the white sauce. Arrange the toast on a platter and pour +the sauce over it. Put the hard-cooked egg yolks through a sieve or a +ricer and sprinkle them on top of the white sauce. Serve hot. + +66. SCALLOPED EGGS.--A quantity of carbohydrate is added to eggs when +they are scalloped, for the white sauce and the cracker crumbs that are +used in this dish supply this food substance. The cold meat that this +dish requires and that should be well chopped into small pieces may be +left-over from roasted, stewed, or even broiled meat. As this provides +an additional amount of protein, the dish on the whole serves as an +excellent substitute for meat with carbohydrate added. + +SCALLOPED EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. milk +2 Tb. fat +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. flour +1 c. cracker crumbs +4 hard-cooked eggs +1 c. chopped cold meat + +Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add the salt, pepper, and +flour, and mix well. To this add the hot milk. Cook until the sauce +thickens, stirring constantly. Grease a baking dish and place in it 1/3 +cupful of the cracker crumbs. Over the crumbs arrange two of the eggs +sliced thinly, and on the top of the eggs put half of the meat. Repeat +by adding a layer of 1/3 cupful of the crumbs, the remaining eggs +sliced, and the remainder of the meat. Pour the white sauce over all and +arrange the remaining 1/3 cupful of crumbs on top. Bake in a moderate +oven for 1/2 hour. Serve hot from the baking dish. + +67. INDIVIDUAL BAKING DISHES FOR EGG RECIPES.--Although the directions +given in the preceding recipe for scalloped eggs state that this recipe +is baked in a baking dish, it is not necessary that one large dish of +this kind be used, for, if desired, individual baking dishes may be +substituted. In fact, any recipe for which a large baking dish would +ordinarily be used may be baked in the small dishes used for a single +serving, and eggs prepared in this way are especially attractive. Such +dishes are also used for the baking of custards or the molding of jelly +and blanc mange. Since they prove very useful and find so much favor, +it is advisable for every housewife to add a few of them to her supply +of utensils and to become familiar with the varieties that can be +secured and the proper way to use them. + +Dishes of this kind may be purchased in both cheap and expensive +varieties and in plain or fancy styles, being made of white porcelain, +of glass, or of the brown ware so much used for large baking dishes and +casseroles and having a white glazing on the inside. + +68. When such dishes are used as a means of adding variety to the +cooking and serving of eggs, they should be placed in the oven in a +shallow pan containing enough hot water to come nearly to the top of +them. The object of this plan is to keep the temperature uniform. As +long as the dishes are surrounded by water, the food to be cooked will +not attain a greater heat than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, because the +surrounding water cannot reach a higher temperature. Food cooked in this +way will be found to be baked much more evenly and to be of a better +consistency than food that is subjected to the high temperature of the +oven. Most of the recipes that follow, while they can be baked in large +baking dishes if desired and then served from the dish, are designed +particularly to be used in individual baking dishes. + +69. BAKED EGGS IN CREAM.--A dish that is particularly desirable for +breakfast, but that may be served for luncheon, is made by baking eggs +in cream according to the accompanying recipe. Besides being very +appetizing, this dish is high in food value because of the addition of +the cream and fat. Crisp toast served with eggs prepared in this way is +very delightful. + +BAKED EGGS IN CREAM +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 eggs +1 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +3/4 c. cream + +Grease six individual baking dishes and break an egg into each. Put a +small piece of butter on top of each egg and season with salt and +pepper. Pour over each egg two tablespoonfuls of cream. Place the baking +dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and bake until the eggs are as hard +as desired. Serve hot. + +70. SHIRRED EGGS WITH HAM.--An excellent way in which to utilize scraps +of ham is to combine them with eggs to make a dish that may be served +in place of meat. This dish, besides being high in food value, is very +tasty because of the flavor of the ham and the fact that it is quite +highly seasoned. + +SHIRRED EGGS WITH HAM +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 tsp. prepared mustard +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 c. chopped ham +6 eggs +1/4 tsp. salt +1 Tb. butter + +Grease six individual baking dishes. Mix the mustard and pepper with the +ham, and then divide this mixture as evenly as possible into the baking +dishes. Break an egg on top of the ham in each dish, season with salt, +and put a small piece of butter on each. Place the dishes in a shallow +pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are well set +or hardened. Remove from the oven and serve at once. + +71. EGG SOUFFLE.--If a delicate dish for children or invalids is +desired, egg souffle will answer the purpose very well. This dish is +light in character, but it is high in protein and to most persons is +very delightful. It is more attractive if baked in individual baking +dishes, but it may be baked in a large baking dish and served directly +from the dish. To improve the flavor of egg souffle and make it a more +appetizing dish, tomato sauce is often served with it. + +EGG SOUFFLE +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. milk +2 Tb. fat +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1 Tb. chopped parsley +4 eggs + +Heat the milk. Brown the fat in a saucepan, add to it the flour, salt, +and parsley, and mix well. Pour in the hot milk, stir constantly until +the sauce thickens, and then remove from the fire. Separate the eggs and +add the well-beaten yolks to the sauce, stirring rapidly so that the egg +will not curd. Beat the whites stiff and fold them carefully into the +sauce. Turn into well-greased individual baking dishes until they are +about two-thirds full, place in a shallow pan of hot water, and bake +until firm when touched with the finger. Serve at once in the dishes in +which they are baked, because they shrink when they are allowed to cool. + +72. The tomato sauce that is often served with egg souffle is made as +follows: + +TOMATO SAUCE + +1 1/2 c. strained stewed tomatoes +2 Tb. fat +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. flour + +Force enough stewed tomatoes through a sieve to make 1 1/2 cupfuls of +strained tomato. Heat the strained tomato and to it add the fat, salt, +and pepper. Moisten the flour with a little cold water and add it to the +hot tomato. Cook for 5 minutes. Serve over the souffle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +73. Alpine Eggs.--It is rather unusual to combine cream or cottage +cheese with eggs, so that when this is done, as in the accompanying +recipe, a dish that is out of the ordinary is the result. If not a +sufficient amount of cottage cheese is in supply to serve for a meal, it +may very well be used for this dish. Otherwise, cream cheese +serves nicely. + +ALPINE EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 10-cent pkgs. cream cheese or +1 c. cottage cheese +2 Tb. finely chopped parsley +1/8 tsp. paprika +6 eggs +1 Tb. butter +1 1/2 tsp. salt + +Grease six individual baking dishes. Break up the cheese with a fork and +sprinkle a layer on the bottom of each dish. Break an egg in each dish +over the cheese. Season with salt. Sprinkle a layer of cheese on top of +the egg, and over that put chopped parsley, paprika, and a small piece +of butter. Place the baking dishes in a shallow pan of hot water and +bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are set. Remove from the oven and +serve at once. + +74. Clipped Eggs.--The chief value of clipped eggs is their appearance, +which, as will be observed in Fig. 17, is very attractive. This dish +adds much to the breakfast tray of an invalid or will tempt the +appetite of a child who does not feel like eating. But in addition to +being attractive, this dish is high in food value, for in this respect +it is exactly equivalent to a poached egg on toast or a plain egg served +with a piece of toast to which is added a small amount of butter. + +CLIPPED EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 pieces toast +3 Tb. butter +6 eggs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Butter the toast with some of the butter. Separate the whites and yolks +of the eggs without breaking the yolks. Beat the whites stiff, and put a +mound of the beaten white on top of each piece of buttered toast. Make a +hole in the center of the mound of egg white and drop the unbroken yolk +into it. Season each with salt and pepper and bits of the remaining +butter. Place in a hot oven and bake until the yolk is set and the white +slightly browned. Serve hot. + +75. LEFT-OVER EGGS.--It is not a difficult matter to utilize eggs in any +form in which they may be left over, for they combine readily with many +other foods. For instance, left-over hard-cooked eggs may be sliced or +chopped and used to garnish dishes of vegetables, meat, fish, or salads. +Eggs cooked in this way may also be stuffed according to the recipe +given in Art. 63, or they may be crushed and mixed with seasoning for +sandwiches. If any soft-cooked eggs remain after a meal, they should be +hard-cooked in order to be used to the best advantage. Left-over omelet +or scrambled, poached, or fried eggs may be chopped and added to soups, +sauces, or gravies, or combined with small pieces of meat or fish and +used with crumbs and white sauce to make a scalloped dish. + +Even uncooked eggs that are taken from the shells, but that cannot be +used at once, need not be wasted if proper care is given to them to +prevent the formation of a hard crust over their surface. Such eggs +should be put into a dish that will allow as little of the surface as +possible to be exposed and should be covered with cold water and kept in +a cool place. When they are desired for use, the water should be poured +off carefully so as to prevent the loss of any of the egg. + + BREAKFAST MENU + +76. So that a definite idea may be formed of the student's progress in +cookery, there is here presented a breakfast menu that is to be prepared +and reported on at the same time that the answers to the Examination +Questions are sent. This menu is practical and it may be easily +prepared, as all the dishes it contains have already been considered. + +MENU + +Sliced Bananas +Cream of Wheat +Graham Muffins +Butter +Puff Omelet +Coffee + +In most homes, breakfast is a meal that is gathered together with as +little thought and preparation as possible. The reason for this is that +the housewife feels that she does not wish to rise early enough in the +morning to prepare an elaborate menu. Breakfast, however, should be the +most attractive meal in the day, because it is one that gives to each +member of the family the right start for the day and sustains him until +luncheon time. In most cases, a cup of coffee and a slice or two of +toast do not start one with a cheerful attitude, nor do they contain +sufficient food value to nourish the individual properly. With a little +forethought and planning, certain foods may be partly prepared for +breakfast the day before. If this is done, the time required for the +actual preparation of the breakfast need not be greatly increased. For +example, in the accompanying menu, the cream of wheat may be cooked the +evening before, the materials for the graham muffins measured, and even +the pan in which they are to be baked greased, and the materials for the +omelet collected and measured. If all this is done, the preparation +necessary in the morning will consist merely of slicing the bananas, +reheating the cream of wheat, preparing the coffee, baking the muffins, +and making the omelet. While the coffee and cream of wheat are heating +or cooking, the oven will be heating, so that when the muffins are mixed +it will be ready to bake them; and while these are baking the omelet may +be prepared. When this is done, all will be ready to serve. + + EGGS + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) Give a brief description of the physical structure of an egg. + +(2) (_a_) Why are eggs an important article of diet? (_b_) For what +foods may they be substituted? + +(3) (_a_) Mention the food substances that are found in an egg, and give +the percentage of each one. (_b_) What food substance is lacking in +eggs, and how may it be supplied? + +(4) What is the chief food substance in: (_a_) an egg white? (_b_) an +egg yolk? + +(5) Discuss briefly the digestibility of eggs. + +(6) (_a_) Of what value is the grading of eggs? (_b_) What points are +considered when eggs are graded? + +(7) (_a_) What conditions affect the quality of eggs? (6) Mention the +agencies that render the quality of eggs inferior and explain how +they work. + +(8) How can the quality of eggs be determined: (_a_) in the market? +(_b_) in the home? + +(9) (_a_) What is the common commercial means of preserving eggs? (_b_) +How is it beneficial to the housewife? + +(10) (_a_) Mention the various ways by which eggs may be preserved in +the home. (_b_) Explain the preservation of eggs with water glass. + +(11) When may the shells of eggs be washed? + +(12) (_a_) What is the preferable method of breaking an egg? (_b_) +Explain how the yolk and the white of an egg may be separated. + +(13) (_a_) For what purposes are eggs beaten? (_b_) With what kind of +egg beater should egg yolks or whole eggs be beaten? + +(14) (_a_) With what kind of utensil should egg whites be beaten? (_b_) +Why should egg whites not be allowed to stand after beating? + +(15) (_a_) What is the effect of heat upon an egg? (_b_) Why are eggs +cooked in the shell better if they are cooked at a temperature lower +than boiling point? (_c_) Cook an egg by boiling it rapidly for 20 +minutes. Cook another egg according to the directions given in Art. 52. +Remove the shells while the eggs are warm, compare the texture, and +report the differences. + +(16) (_a_) When eggs are used in a mixture that is to be cooked for a +long time, when should they be added? (_b_) What can be substituted for +some of the eggs in a mixture that requires eggs for thickening? + +(17) (_a_) What point should never be overlooked in the serving of eggs +that are intended to be served hot? (_b_) Why should spongy egg dishes +be served immediately after cooking? + +(18) (_a_) How should dishes that have contained eggs be washed? (_b_) +Why is such care necessary? + +(19) (_a_) What precautions should be taken in the making of a puff +omelet? (_b_) Mention some of the things that may be used to give +variety to omelets. + +(20) (_a_) What are the advantages of individual baking dishes? (_b_) +State how these should be put in the oven and explain the object of +this plan. + + +REPORT ON MENU + +After trying out the menu given in the text, send with your answers to +the Examination Questions a written report of your success in making it. +On your report simply write the name of the food and describe its +condition by means of the terms specified in the following list: + +Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? properly seasoned? smooth? lumpy? + +Graham Muffins: light? heavy? texture coarse? texture fine? even brown +color on crust? well flavored? + +Puff Omelet: light? heavy? underdone? overdone? even brown on bottom? +tough? tender? properly seasoned? + + * * * * * + + + VEGETABLES (PART 1) + + * * * * * + +IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES AS FOOD + +VARIETY IN VEGETABLES + +1. As understood in cookery, VEGETABLES refer to plants or parts of +plants that are used as food. Vegetables may consist of the entire +plant, as, for example, the beet; the stem, as asparagus and celery; the +root, as carrot and turnip; the underground stem, or tuber, as the white +potato and onion; the foliage, as cabbage and spinach; the flower of the +plant, as cauliflower; the pods, which hold the seeds of the plant or +the seeds themselves, as peas and beans; or that which in reality is +fruit, although for table use always considered a vegetable, as the +tomato and eggplant. + +2. Because of this large assortment, vegetables afford the greatest +possible variety in flavor, appearance, texture, quality, and food +value. They therefore assume a place of very great importance in the +diet of individuals and in the plans of the housewife who has all the +meals to prepare for her family. In fact, there is scarcely a meal, +except breakfast, at which vegetables are not served. For dinner, they +form a part or all of each course in the meal, except, perhaps, the +dessert, and occasionally they may be used for this. + +Although two or more vegetables are nearly always served in even a +simple meal, the use of vegetables in most households is limited to +those few varieties which are especially preferred by the family. As a +rule, there are a number of other vegetables that would be very +acceptable if prepared in certain appetizing ways. An effort should +therefore be made to include all such vegetables in the dietary, for +they may be used to decided advantage and at the same time they afford +variety in the meals. The constant demand for variety in this food makes +acceptable new recipes for the preparation of the vegetables already +known and information for the use of the unfamiliar kinds. + +3. Great variety also exists in the flavor of vegetables, which they +derive from their volatile oils; that is, the oils that evaporate +rapidly on exposure to the air. In some cases, the flavor is +disagreeably strong and must be dissipated, or driven away, in order to +make the vegetables agreeable to the taste and to prevent them from +disagreeing with those who eat them. In others, the flavor is very mild, +so that unless the vegetables are properly prepared the flavor may be +almost lost. When the principles relating to the cooking of vegetables +are thoroughly understood, little difficulty will be experienced in +preparing them so that the flavor is dissipated or retained as the case +may require. + +4. The food value of vegetables varies as much as do their form and +flavor, some of them having almost no food value, others having a great +deal, and the remainder varying between these two extremes. The +housewife who wishes to provide economically for her family and at the +same time give them food that is best suited to their needs, should +learn as much of the composition and food value of the various kinds of +vegetables as possible. If, besides acquiring this knowledge, she learns +a variety of ways in which to prepare each kind, she will find that it +is possible to substitute vegetable dishes for the more expensive foods. +For instance, it is often possible to substitute a vegetable dish for a +meat dish several times a week, but the composition of the vegetable +dish must be such that it will really take the place of the meat dish. + +5. That it is possible for adults to live on vegetables alone has been +proved by vegetarians; that is, persons who exclude meat from the diet. +They have shown that all the elements necessary to build and maintain +the human body are contained in vegetables, fruits, and cereals, and +also that these elements are in such quantity that it is not necessary +to supply them in any other way. Even if it is not desired to use such +foods exclusively, as much use should be made of them as possible, for +they average a lower cost than the high-protein foods, such as eggs, +meat, and milk. The use of vegetables, however, need not be restricted +to adults, for when properly prepared they may be included to advantage +in the diet of very young children. In fact, children should be trained +to eat vegetables of all kinds, for such training not only will enable +each one to grow up with a correct appreciation for all edible things, +but will make the preparation of meals easier for the housewife. + +6. Vegetables should receive great care in their preparation, whether +the method involved is simple or complicated. Any of the methods of +cookery that call for the application of heat may be applied to them, +and in many cases they are served without cooking, merely dressing or +seasoning being added. Good vegetables may be ruined by improper +preparation, while those which are in excellent condition may be +improved by the application of the correct methods in their preparation. +Vegetables that are inexpensive but highly nutritious should be used +when it is necessary to practice economy, because, when they are +properly prepared, they form a valuable addition to a meal. + +7. All varieties of vegetables are grown almost universally. This fact, +together with the facts that they mature at different times during the +season, according to the climate in which they are grown, and that most +varieties can be conveniently shipped, makes the season in which certain +fresh vegetables can be obtained much longer than it formerly was. For +instance, very early in the season, long before it is possible to have +beans, peas, and other vegetables in the North, they are shipped from +the extreme South, and as the season advances, they mature farther and +farther north. Therefore, they may be constantly supplied to the +northern markets until the time when they mature in that locality. + +8. In order not to waste vegetables and to have them in the best +possible condition when they are desired for preparation, every +housewife should realize that the selection and care of vegetables are +also important matters to consider. The selection must be learned by +familiarity with them, as well as practice in buying, and the housewife +must be guided by the suitability of the vegetables and the money she +has to spend for them. The care that must be given to them is determined +by the kinds that are purchased, some requiring one kind of care in +storage and others entirely different attention. + + STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION, AND FOOD VALUE + +9. STRUCTURE OF VEGETABLES.--Although vegetables vary greatly in +composition and consequently in food value, they are similar so far as +physical structure is concerned. In general, they consist of a skeleton +framework that is made up of cellulose. Their digestible part is +composed of tiny cells having thin walls that confine the actual food +material in the form of a liquid or semiliquid. As the vegetables grow +old, the cellulose material and the cell walls gradually toughen, with +the result that old vegetables are less easily made tender than young +ones and are not so agreeable to the taste as those which have not grown +hard. The total food value of vegetables, as well as of cereals, meats, +and, in fact, all foods, varies with the quantity of water and cellulose +they contain. Therefore, the vegetables that contain the least coarse +material are the ones that have the highest food value. + +10. The green color that characterizes many vegetables is due to a +substance called _chlorophyl_. This substance is essential to the normal +growth of plants and is present in the correct amount in only those +which are properly exposed to the sunlight. Sufficient proof of this is +seen in the case of vegetables that form heads, as, for instance, +cabbage and head lettuce. As is well known, the outside leaves are +green, while the inside ones are practically white. Since it is exposure +to the light that produces the green color, a vegetable or plant of any +kind can be bleached by merely covering it in order to keep out the +sunlight. This procedure also enables the plants to remain more tender +than those which have been allowed to grow in the normal way and become +green. For instance, the inside leaves of a head of lettuce are always +very much more tender than the green outside leaves. In fact, the center +of any kind of plant, that is, the leaves and the stem that appear last, +are more tender, possess a lighter color, and have a more delicate +flavor than the older ones. + +11. PROTEIN IN VEGETABLES.--Taken as a whole, vegetables are not high in +protein. Some of them contain practically none of this food substance +and others contain a comparatively large amount, but the average is +rather low. Vegetables that are high in water, such as lettuce, celery, +tomatoes, and cucumbers, contain so little protein that the quantity is +not appreciable. Such vegetables as potatoes, beets, carrots, etc. +contain slightly larger quantities. Dried vegetables, such as beans, +peas, and lentils, contain comparatively large amounts of this +substance, and for this reason may be substituted for such high-protein +foods as meat and fish. + +12. The composition of vegetable protein is only slightly different from +that of animal protein. In fact, the experiments of scientists show that +animal protein may be readily replaced by vegetable protein. One of +these proteins is sometimes called _vegetable albumin_, but the chief +protein of vegetables containing the largest amount of this substance, +namely, beans, peas, and lentils, is called _legumin_, from the term +_legumes_, the name of this class of vegetables. It is generally agreed +that vegetable protein is not so digestible as animal protein, but this +disadvantage is offset by the fact that it does not bring about so much +intestinal trouble as does the protein of animal foods and is less +likely to cause disturbances that are usually attributed to foods high +in this substance. Vegetable protein is affected by heat in much the +same way as other protein. + +When any of the dry vegetables high in protein are served at a meal, +meat should be eliminated, or the result will be an oversupply of +protein. As this condition is not only harmful but wasteful, it is one +that should receive proper consideration from the housewife. + +13. FAT IN VEGETABLES.--As vegetables as a class are low in protein, so +are they low in fat. In the case of some vegetables, the quantity of fat +they contain is so small that it is never considered in discussing the +food value of these vegetables, while in others slightly larger +quantities are to be found. However, on the whole, vegetables are so +nearly lacking in this food substance that it is necessary to supply fat +in their preparation and in the serving of meals in which they are +included. This is done in a variety of ways, depending on the nature of +the vegetable. For instance, in order that baked beans may take the +place of meat entirely, fat in the form of salt pork is usually added +when they are prepared. The pork, of course, also supplies a very small +amount of protein, but it is not used with the beans for this purpose. +Practically all cooked vegetables are served with butter or with a sauce +that contains fat. Green vegetables that require no cooking but are +served as a salad, are supplied with fat by the salad dressing that is +used with them. The fat varies greatly, depending on the kind of +dressing used. 14. CARBOHYDRATES IN VEGETABLES.--When the composition +of vegetables is considered chemically, the most striking thing about +them is the carbohydrates they contain. It is this that distinguishes +this class of foods from animal foods. The carbohydrate of vegetables is +found in both its forms, starch and sugar. It is in the form of sugar in +many of the vegetables when they are young or immature, but it turns +into starch as they mature. This change can be easily observed in the +case of peas. As is well known, young green peas are rather sweet +because of the sugar they contain, while mature or dried peas have lost +their sweetness and are starchy. The sugar that is found in large +quantities in such vegetables as peas, carrots, turnips, etc. is largely +cane sugar. The starch that vegetables contain occurs in tiny granules, +just as it is found in cereals, and is affected by cooking in the same +way. The mature vegetables in which the starch has developed, although +less tender and less sweet than young ones, have a higher food value. In +fact, the carbohydrate that vegetables contain constitutes a large +proportion of their food value. + +One of the chief sources of starch among vegetables is the potato, in +which the starch grains are large and, if properly cooked, easily +digested. Irish, or white, potatoes contain very little carbohydrate in +the form of sugar, but in the sweet potato much of the carbohydrate is +sugar. In either of these two forms--starch and sugar--vegetable +carbohydrate is easily digested. + +15. MINERAL MATTER, OR ASH, IN VEGETABLES.--The mineral matter in +vegetables is found in comparatively large quantities, the average +amount being slightly over 1 per cent. The presence of this substance is +of great value, because the mineral salts of both fruits and vegetables +are essential in the diet of adults in order to keep their health in a +normal condition. The mineral salts of vegetables render the blood more +alkaline instead of more acid, as do those contained in cereals and +meat. A large number of vegetables, particularly those low in food +value, such as greens, celery, etc., are very valuable for their mineral +salts. In reality, this substance and the cellulose they contain are the +things that recommend the use of these vegetables in the diet. Minerals +of all kinds are found in solution in the water contained in vegetables, +but chief among them are calcium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, and sulphur. +Greens and salad vegetables are particularly high in iron, the element +that assists in keeping the blood in good condition. These minerals are +easily lost if the method of cookery is not planned to retain them. + +16. CELLULOSE IN VEGETABLES.--The special use of cellulose, as has +already been learned, is to serve as bulk in the food containing it. In +vegetables, the cellulose varies greatly as to quantity, as well as to +texture and the amount that can be digested. In young vegetables, it is +very soft and perhaps digestible to a certain extent, but as they grow +older it hardens and they become tough. This fact is clearly +demonstrated in the case of beets. Those which are pulled from the +garden in the summer and cooked are tender and soft, but those which are +allowed to mature in the ground and are then put away for winter are, +when cooked in the late winter or early spring, so hard and tough that +it is almost impossible to make them soft. The quantity of cellulose +that vegetables contain therefore depends largely on their age and +condition. Those low in total food value contain, as a rule, larger +quantities of it than those high in food value. This is due to the fact +that both water and cellulose, which are usually found together in large +quantities, help to detract from the fuel, or food, value of foods. + +Very young persons or those who are ill sometimes find it impossible to +take in its original form a vegetable that contains a large amount of +bulk, or cellulose. In such a case, the vegetable may be put through a +colander or a sieve in order to break up the cellulose and make it +easier to digest. Under ordinary conditions, cellulose should not be +avoided, but should be included in large quantities in the diet through +the vegetables that are consumed daily. + +17. WATER IN VEGETABLES.--The majority of vegetables contain a large +quantity of water. Such vegetables as lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, +etc., which are low in total food value, contain the most water, the +average percentage being about 95. The dry vegetables, which are high in +food value, average only about 10 per cent. of water. The water that is +found in vegetables, whether it is much or little, is contained in +cell-like structures surrounded by cellulose, and it holds in solution +the mineral salts and much of the nutriment of the vegetables. In +addition, the water holds in solution to a certain extent the material +that gives vegetables their distinctive flavor. When any of this water +is lost in the preparation of vegetables, the substances that it +contains are also lost. It is therefore essential that correct methods +of preparation be chosen for the cooking of this food, so as to prevent +the waste of valuable food materials. + +18. DIGESTIBILITY OF VEGETABLES.--The digestibility of vegetables is +largely an individual matter; that is, a vegetable that agrees with one +person may not agree with another. The fact that there appears to be no +apparent reason for such a condition would lead to the conclusion that +it is due to the peculiarities of the person. Because of this, it is not +fair to make the general statement that a particular vegetable is easy +to digest and another one is hard to digest. + +The chief cause for difficulty in the digestion of vegetables lies in +their volatile oils, which give them their flavor, but which are +irritating to many persons. Vegetables having a strong flavor, such as +radishes, onions, cucumbers, cabbage, and cauliflower, are the ones that +disagree most frequently with persons who eat them; but sometimes the +way in which some of them are cooked has more to do with this than the +vegetables themselves. + +Vegetables containing considerable cellulose and water do not of +themselves give trouble in digestion, because they contain practically +nothing to digest; but they are sometimes responsible for interfering +with the digestion of other foods. Vegetables that are extremely high in +starch, such as potatoes, are easily digested by most persons, provided +they are properly cooked. For instance, a plain baked potato is easily +digested, but the same potato sauted in fat is more difficult of +digestion. + +19. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES.--As +vegetables vary considerably in the amount of the food substances they +contain, so do they differ greatly in their food value. This is clearly +shown in Table I, which gives the percentage of the food substances of +vegetables, as well as the food value per pound, in calories, that these +vegetables contain. The figures in this table are taken from Atwater's +Table of American Food Materials, and refer to the edible portion of the +material. In the case of several vegetables, no figures are given by +this authority, but in the table here presented the percentages and the +calories for the vegetables most similar are used. For example, the +figures for lettuce are used for endive, as the composition and food +value of this vegetable are not included and it resembles lettuce very +closely. Constant reference should be made to Table I as progress is +make with the study of vegetables and their preparation. Noting the +difference in the composition of the different vegetables, as well as +the variation in their food value, will be not only interesting but +instructive. For instance, when the housewife realizes that lettuce and +celery furnish only 85 to 90 calories to the pound, while dried beans +and peas average more than 1,700 calories to the pound, she will +understand better the place that these foods occupy in the dietary. + +TABLE I + +COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF VEGETABLES + + Food Value +Vegetable Water Protein Fat Carbo- Ash per Pound + hydrate Calories +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Asparagus .......... 94.0 1.8 .2 3.3 .7 105 +Beans + Dried ............ 12.6 22.5 1.8 59.6 3.5 1,750 + Lima ............. 68.5 7.1 .7 22.0 1.7 570 + Shelled .......... 58.9 9.4 .6 29.1 2.0 740 + String ........... 89.2 2.3 .3 7.4 .8 195 +Beets .............. 87.5 1.6 .1 9.7 1.1 215 +Brussels sprouts ... 88.2 4.7 1.1 4.3 1.7 215 +Cabbage ............ 91.5 1.6 .3 5.6 1.0 145 +Carrots ............ 88.2 1.1 .4 9.3 1.0 210 +Cauliflower ........ 92.3 1.8 .5 4.7 .7 140 +Celery ............. 94.5 1.1 .1 3.3 1.0 85 +Corn ............... 75.4 3.1 1.1 19.7 .7 470 +Cucumbers .......... 95.4 .8 .2 3.1 .5 80 +Eggplant ........... 92.9 1.2 .3 5.1 .5 130 +French artichokes .. 92.5 .8 .2 5.0 1.5 110 +Greens + Dandelion ........ 81.4 2.4 1.0 10.6 4.6 285 + Endive ........... 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .9 90 + Spinach .......... 92.3 2.1 .3 3.2 2.1 110 + Swiss chard ...... 92.3 2.1 .3 3.2 2.1 110 + Lettuce .......... 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .9 90 + Watercress ....... 94.7 1.2 .3 2.9 .9 90 +Jerusalem artichokes 79.5 2.6 2.0 16.7 1.0 365 +Kohlrabi ........... 91.1 2.0 .1 5.5 1.3 145 +Lentils, dried ..... 8.4 25.7 1.0 59.2 5.7 1,620 +Mushrooms .......... 88.1 3.5 .4 6.8 1.2 210 +Okra ............... 90.2 1.6 .2 7.4 .6 175 +Onions ............. 87.6 1.6 .3 9.9 .6 225 +Parsnips ........... 83.0 1.6 .5 13.5 1.4 300 +Peas + Dried ............ 9.5 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 1,655 + Green ............ 74.6 7.0 .5 16.9 1.0 465 +Peppers ............ 92.9 1.2 .3 5.1 .5 130 +Potatoes + Irish ............ 78.3 2.2 .1 18.4 1.0 385 + Sweet ............ 69.0 1.8 .7 27.4 1.1 570 +Radishes ........... 91.8 1.3 .1 5.8 1.0 135 +Salsify ............ 88.2 1.1 .4 9.3 1.0 210 +Squash + Summer ........... 95.4 .8 .2 3.1 .5 80 + Winter ........... 88.3 1.4 .5 9.0 .8 215 +Tomatoes ........... 94.3 .9 .4 3.9 .5 105 +Turnips ............ 89.6 1.3 .2 8.1 .8 185 +---------------------------------------------------------------- + + + + * * * * * + +PURCHASE AND CARE OF VEGETABLES + +PURCHASE OF VEGETABLES + +20. As in the case of other foods, the purchase of vegetables in the +market requires special knowledge and attention in order that the best +value may be obtained for the money expended. The housewife who has a +limited amount of money to spend for food does not buy wisely when she +purchases vegetables out of season or those which must be shipped long +distances. On the other hand, it will be found that vegetables bought in +season as well as those which are plentiful in the particular locality +in which they are sold, especially if they are perishable vegetables, +are lowest in price and are in the best condition for food. Therefore, +whether the income is limited or not, it is wisdom on the part of the +housewife to buy vegetables that grow in the neighboring region and to +purchase them when they are in season. + +21. A very important point for the housewife to keep in mind regarding +the purchase of vegetables is that their price is determined not by +their value as food, but by their scarcity and the demand for them. +Take, for example, the case of mushrooms. As shown in Table I, this +vegetable is low in food value, containing only 210 calories to the +pound, but, if purchased, they are always an expensive food. The high +price asked for mushrooms is entirely dependent on their scarcity. If +there is much demand in a certain community for a food that is not +plentiful in the market, the price of that food always goes up. As in +the case of mushrooms, many expensive foods add practically nothing in +the way of nourishment, their only value being in the variety of flavor +they supply. + +22. Furthermore, in order to provide wisely, the person who purchases +vegetables for the family should be able to judge whether she is getting +full value in food for the money she invests. She cannot always do this +with each particular vegetable purchased, but she can buy in such a way +that what she purchases will average correctly in this respect. The +perishable vegetables should be bought as fresh as possible. No +difficulty will be experienced in determining this, for they will soon +wither or rot if they are not fresh, but the point is to find out their +condition before they are bought. The housewife should be ever on the +alert and should examine carefully the vegetables she buys before they +are accepted from the grocer or taken from the market. In the case of +certain vegetables, it is possible to conceal the fact that they are +stale. For instance, the outside leaves of a head of lettuce or endive +are sometimes removed and only the bleached center is offered for sale; +but this always indicates that the outside leaves were either withered +or spoiled or they would not have been taken off. + +23. Much of the spoiling of vegetables can be avoided if proper +attention is given to them in the market. Food of this kind should be so +displayed that it is not exposed to the dirt and dust of the street, nor +to flies and other destructive vermin. The practice of displaying +vegetables on a stand in front of a store is gradually losing favor with +the housewife who understands the sanitary precautions that should be +taken with foods. On the other hand, housewives owe it to the merchant +not to handle the foods they are going to buy, for the handling of them +not only injures them so that they will not keep well, but renders them +unfit to be accepted by the next purchaser. + +24. The manner in which vegetables are sold should also receive +consideration. It has been the custom to sell them by measure, but both +housewives and merchants have come to realize that it is fairer to sell +them by weight. Experience has shown that a pound is much more likely to +be always uniform than is a quart or a peck. This is due to the fact +that no two dealers are likely to measure in exactly the same way, even +though the measures they use are up to the standard in size. Then, too, +especially in the case of vegetables that are of various sizes and +shapes, it is impossible to fill a measure properly because of the shape +of the vegetables, and so either the housewife often receives short +measure or the merchant gives more than the measure requires. All +difficulty of this kind is entirely overcome when vegetables +are weighed. + + CARE OF VEGETABLES + +25. PERISHABLE VEGETABLES, that is, those which spoil quickly, are +usually bought in small quantities, and so are used up quickly. However, +if they are kept on hand for only a day or so, they require a definite +amount of care in order to insure the most satisfactory results in their +use. To prevent them from spoiling or withering, they should be kept in +a cool, damp place until they are needed. The most effective and +convenient way in which to accomplish this is to store them in a +refrigerator or other similar device. If ice cannot be obtained, the +cellar should be utilized. Before vegetables of this kind are put away +after being delivered from the market, they should be looked over +carefully, and any that are spoiled should be discarded in order to +prevent others that they might touch from becoming tainted. As little +handling as possible, however, is advantageous, because when such foods +become bruised and are then allowed to stand they are likely to spoil +very quickly. + +26. The less perishable vegetables, commonly called WINTER VEGETABLES +because they may be kept through the winter, may be bought in quantity, +provided proper storage facilities to prevent them from spoiling are +available. Potatoes, in particular, are usually purchased in this way, +for, as a rule, they may be obtained at a better price than when bought +in small quantities, and then, too, they are a vegetable that most +families use nearly every day. If they are bought in quantity, they +should first be thoroughly tested, for often a potato looks very well on +the outside while its texture and flavor may not be at all in accordance +with its appearance. Great care should also be exercised to see that +this vegetable, as well as carrots, turnips, parsnips, etc., has not +been frosted, for frost ruins them as to texture and keeping qualities. + +All such vegetables as these, provided they must be stored for any +length of time, keep best in a cold, fairly dry atmosphere. To prevent +them from sprouting, the storage room should, if possible, be kept dark, +but in case they do sprout, the sprouts should be removed as soon as +they are discovered. The best receptacles for the storage of these +winter vegetables are bins, a convenient type of which is shown in +_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, and the most satisfactory place in +which to put such bins is a cellar that has a dirt floor rather than a +board or a cement floor. + + CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES + +27. Because of their difference in physical structure, both as plants or +parts of plants, and their variation in chemical composition, it is a +rather difficult matter to classify vegetables. The vegetables that are +discussed throughout these Sections are therefore not included in any +classes, but are arranged alphabetically, a plan that the housewife will +find very convenient. However, there are a few general classes whose +names and characteristics should be known by the housewife, for an +understanding of them will enable her to make a more intelligent use of +this food. These classes, together with a brief description of the +features that characterize them and the names by which the principal +varieties are known, are here given. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +28. SUCCULENT VEGETABLES are those which are generally eaten for their +appetizing effect and their value as a source of mineral salts and bulk. +These vegetables, which get their name from the fact that they are juicy +in texture, include the greens, such as spinach, Swiss chard, dandelion, +lettuce, etc., also celery, asparagus, cabbage, and all other plants +whose green leaves and stems are edible. Succulent vegetables may be +cooked, but they are often used as cold relishes or in the making +of salads. + +29. ROOT, TUBER, and BULB VEGETABLES form another class. Examples of +several well-known roots are shown in Fig. 1, which from left to right +are salsify, carrots, turnips, and parsnips. The varieties included in +this class are closely related as to food value, and on the whole +average much higher in this characteristic than do the succulent +vegetables. Irish potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes are examples of +tubers; sweet potatoes, beets, radishes, etc., in addition to the +vegetables shown in Fig. 1, belong to the roots; and onions and all the +vegetables related to the onion, such as garlic, shallots, and leeks, +are illustrations of bulbs or enlarged underground stems. + +30. FRUIT and FLOWER VEGETABLES form a third class. They present great +variety in appearance, structure, and composition. To this class belong +cucumbers, eggplant, winter and summer squash, vegetable marrow, +tomatoes, peppers, and okra, which are in reality fruits but are used as +vegetables. Flower vegetables include California, or French, artichokes, +and cauliflower, all of which are in reality the buds of flowers or +plants and are eaten for food. + +31. LEGUMES form a fourth class of vegetables, and they include all the +varieties of beans, peas, and lentils. When these foods are mature and +dried, they have the highest food value of all the vegetables. Among the +beans are Lima beans, kidney beans, navy, or soup, beans, soy beans, and +many others. The peas include the various garden varieties that have +been allowed to mature, cow-peas, and many others, some of which are not +suitable for human consumption. The lentils occur in numerous varieties, +too, but those commonly used are the red, yellow, and black ones. To +legumes also belong peanuts, but as they are seldom used as vegetables +in cookery, no further mention is made of them in this Section. + + * * * * * + +VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES AND THEIR PREPARATION + +GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION AND COOKING + +32. PREPARING VEGETABLES FOR COOKING.--Before many vegetables can be +cooked, they require a certain amount of preparation, such as washing, +soaking, peeling, cutting up into suitable sizes, etc. When they must be +peeled, great care should be taken not to remove too much of the +vegetable with the skin. Whenever it is possible to do so, vegetables +should be cooked in their skins, as there is much less waste of edible +material if the skins are removed after cooking. Potatoes that are to be +fried, hashed brown, or used for salad and other similar dishes may be +boiled in their skins and peeled afterwards just as conveniently as to +be peeled first and then boiled. Indeed, this plan is strongly +recommended, for it not only saves material that is removed in the +peeling but also conserves the mineral salts and the soluble food +material, much of which is lost in the water during the cooking. + +33. If it is desired to remove the peeling before cooking, it will be +found more economical to put the vegetables in water and then scrape off +the skins than to cut them off with a knife. This method is especially +satisfactory with new potatoes and with such vegetables as carrots, +parsnips, salsify, and turnips. The scraping can be accomplished more +easily if the vegetables are first plunged into boiling water for a few +minutes and then dipped into cold water. + +When entire heads of such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels +sprouts, etc. are to be cooked, they should be soaked, head down, for at +least 1/2 hour in salted water made by adding 1 teaspoon-full of salt to +1 quart of water. This is done in order to remove any bugs or worms that +may be lodged in the head. The correct proportion of salt is an +important detail of this process, for if salt water that is too strong +is used, it will kill the bugs or worms and they will remain in the +head. 34. METHODS OF COOKING APPLIED TO VEGETABLES.--The usual methods +of cooking applied to vegetables are boiling, steaming, baking, stewing, +frying, sauteing, broiling, and roasting. Which one of these to select +depends, of course, on the particular kind of vegetable that is to be +cooked and the result that is desired, but, if possible, an effort +should be made to select an economical method. Starchy vegetables, such +as Irish and sweet potatoes, beans, etc., develop a more delicious +flavor when they are baked than when they are cooked by any other method +of preparation. Steaming is an excellent means of preparing vegetables +that must be cooked by moist heat, especially when it is desired that no +soluble material be lost, as is often the case in boiling. Frying and +sauteing, when applied to vegetables, usually produce a delicious +flavor, but often render the vegetables decidedly indigestible. For this +reason, vegetables so prepared should seldom if ever be served to +children and to persons whose digestion is not good. + +35. EFFECT OF COOKING ON VEGETABLES.--The various ways in which cooking +affects vegetables should be thoroughly understood by the housewife. In +the first place, some methods conserve the food material whereas others +waste it. For instance, boiling in water, which is probably one of the +most common ways of cooking vegetables, is decidedly advantageous in +some respects, but the water dissolves much of the soluble material, +such as mineral salts, sugar, etc., found in the vegetables, so that +unless some use is made of this water in the cooking of other foods, +considerable waste results. On the other hand, steaming and baking +permit no loss of food material, and so they should be applied to +vegetables whenever it is desired to conserve food substances. + +36. The flavors of vegetables are greatly changed during the process of +cooking, being increased in some cases and decreased in others. In the +case of such strongly flavored vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, +onions, etc., it is advisable to dissipate part of the flavor. Therefore +such vegetables should be cooked in an open vessel in order that the +flavor may be decreased by evaporation. Vegetables mild in flavor, +however, are improved by being cooked in a closed vessel, for all their +flavor should be retained. The overcooking of vegetables is sometimes +responsible for an increase of a disagreeable flavor. 37. Another +feature of vegetables often changed by cooking is their color. For +instance, green vegetables do not, upon cooking, always remain green. In +many cases, the color may be improved by adding a very small quantity of +soda to the water in which the vegetables are cooked. Attention should +also be given to the length of time vegetables are subjected to heat, +for the overboiling of some vegetables is liable to develop an +unattractive color in them. This is particularly the case with cabbage, +cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts, which develop not only a strong, +disagreeable flavor but also a reddish color when cooked too long. + +38. The application of heat to vegetables also has a definite effect on +them. By sufficient cooking, the cellulose of vegetables is softened to +the extent that it is less irritating and much more likely to be partly +digested than that of raw vegetables. The acids of fruits increase upon +cooking, and so the acidity of vegetables is increased to a certain +extent. Vegetables that contain starch are rendered digestible in no +other way than by cooking. On the other hand, the protein material of +this food is coagulated by the application of heat, just as the white of +an egg or the tissue of meat is coagulated and hardened. However, +cooking is the only means of softening the cellulose that surrounds +this material. + +Still, high-protein foods, such as beans, peas, and lentils, can be much +improved if they are cooked in water that is not very hard. The lime in +hard water has a tendency to harden them to the extent that they require +a much longer time to cook than when soft water is used. These +vegetables may be still further softened by the addition of a small +quantity of soda to the water in which they are cooked, but care should +be taken not to use too much soda, as it will injure the flavor. When +soda is used, the vegetable should be parboiled for 10 or 15 minutes in +the soda water and then drained and cooked in fresh water. This method, +of course, does not apply to vegetables that are cooked in soda water to +retain their color. + +39. Salt is always added in the cooking of vegetables to season them. In +the use of salt, two important points must be borne in mind: first, that +it has the effect of hardening the tissues of the vegetable in much the +same manner as it hardens the tissues of meat; and, secondly, that it +helps to draw out the flavor of the vegetables. These two facts +determine largely the time for adding the salt. If an old, tough, +winter vegetable is to be prepared, it should be cooked until nearly +soft in water that contains no salt, and the salt should be added just +before the cooking is finished. When it is desired to draw out the +flavor, as, for instance, when vegetables are cooked for soup or stews, +the salt should be supplied when the vegetables are put on to cook. +Young tender vegetables may be cooked in salt water, but as such water +extracts a certain amount of flavor, an effort should be made to use it +in the preparation of stews, sauces, and soups. + + +SAUCES FOR VEGETABLES + +40. Vegetables may, of course, be served plain, but they are greatly +improved in flavor, nutritive value, and often in appearance by the +addition of a well-seasoned sauce. Numerous sauces are used for this +purpose, the one to select depending somewhat on the vegetable, the +method of cooking employed, and the flavor that is desired. Recipes for +the sauces found to be most satisfactory are here given. It will be well +to practice the making of these, so as to become familiar with them and +thus know just what sauce is meant when reference is made to a +particular sauce in the recipes for vegetables. The quantities given in +the recipes for sauces will make sufficient sauce to dress the +vegetables required for four to six persons. White sauce, which is +probably the one that is used oftenest, may be made in various +thicknesses, as has been explained previously. However, the medium white +sauce has been found to be the one most nearly correct for vegetables +and consequently the one most preferred. + +MEDIUM WHITE SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. milk + +Melt the butter and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Pour into this the +milk, which has been previously heated, and cook together until the +flour thickens completely. Pour over the vegetable, from which the water +has been previously drained, and serve. + +VEGETABLE SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1/2 c. milk +1/2 c. water in which vegetable was cooked + +Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and pour into this +the heated liquids. Cook until the mixture thickens. Pour over the +drained vegetable and serve hot. + +DRAWN-BUTTER SAUCE + +1/4 c. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. hot water + +Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, and pepper, and pour into this the +hot water. Boil for a few minutes and serve. + +HOLLANDAISE SAUCE + +1/3 c. butter +1 Tb. flour +1/4 tsp. salt +1/2 c. boiling water +1 egg yolk +2 Tb. vinegar or lemon juice + +Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, and water, and cook until the +mixture thickens. While still hot, pour over the slightly beaten egg +yolk, beating constantly to prevent curding. Add the vinegar or lemon +juice. Serve with vegetables that have been boiled in salt water. + +SOUR-CREAM DRESSING + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +3/4 c. milk or sweet cream +1/4 c. vinegar + +Melt the butter and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Pour into this the +heated milk or cream, and allow the sauce to thicken. Then add the +vinegar, stirring rapidly, and serve hot. + +TOMATO SAUCE + +1-1/2 c. stewed tomatoes +1 slice onion +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Heat the tomatoes with the onion and force through a sieve. Melt the +butter, add the flour, salt, pepper, and the strained tomatoes. Cook +together until thick, remove, and serve hot with a vegetable. + +MAITRE D'HOTEL SAUCE + +1/3 c. butter +1 Tb. chopped parsley +2 Tb. lemon juice +1/4 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Melt the butter and add the chopped parsley, lemon juice, salt, and +pepper. Mix well, and allow the whole to boil, but not to brown. Pour +over the vegetable and serve. + +PARSLEY-BUTTER SAUCE + +1/2 c. butter +1 Tb. chopped parsley +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Heat the butter in a saucepan until it is well browned, and then add +the parsley, salt, and pepper. Allow the sauce to become hot, but not to +boil. This is an excellent sauce to use over new potatoes or diced +vegetables, such as turnips or carrots. + + +ASPARAGUS AND ITS PREPARATION + +41. ASPARAGUS is a vegetable that consists of the shoots of the plant, +which are eaten before the blossoms develop. It grows quickly and is +very tender if the shoots are clipped at just the right time after they +appear above the ground. It comes early in the spring, being about the +first green vegetable that gets into the local market, but its season is +comparatively short. It does not keep long after it is purchased and is +better when it is used at once. If asparagus must be kept for any length +of time, it should be stored in a cool, damp place. + +42. In selecting asparagus, it should be remembered that there are two +varieties, one of which is green and the other white. The stems of the +green asparagus should be green to the bottom, and should not be hard +nor woody where they are cut from the plant. However, if a part of the +stems is found to be woody, the hard ends should not be rejected, for +the outside may be peeled off and the center used, or the hard ends may +be cooked with other vegetables for the making of soup. The white +asparagus will have slightly green tips, while the rest of the stem +will be white. + +Asparagus is one of the succulent vegetables comparatively low in food +value. It contains, as Table I shows, only one-fourth as many calories +to the pound as potatoes. Its food value, however, may be increased by +dressing it with butter after the vegetable has been cooked or by +serving with it a sauce made with milk, butter, flour, etc. Then, too, +asparagus is sometimes served on toast, which is another means of making +a more nutritious dish out of this vegetable. + +In its composition, asparagus contains a _diuretic_, that is, a +substance that has an effect upon the kidneys, and that is known as +_asparagine_. Because of the presence of this substance, asparagus is +thought to be injurious to those who have kidney trouble, but it need +not be avoided except in some forms of this disease. 43. PREPARATION +FOR COOKING.--To prepare asparagus for cooking, strip the tiny scales +from the sides of the stems by means of a small paring knife. These hold +sand and are responsible for the presence of the grit that is sometimes +found in a cooked dish of asparagus even when the housewife feels +certain that she has washed it as clean as possible. Then wash the stems +thoroughly in several cold waters, lifting them out of the water after +each washing instead of pouring the water off of them. If the water is +poured off the stems, the sand that has been washed from them is likely +to remain in the bottom of the pan and mix with the vegetable again. + +When the asparagus has been sufficiently washed, it may be used in the +full lengths or cut into pieces of any desired length, 1 inch being the +size that is usually preferred. If stems are to be cooked whole, it is a +good plan to form them into a bunch as when purchased and tie the bunch +with a tape or a string. When this is done, the string should, of +course, be cut and removed before the asparagus is served. A point to +remember about the preparation of this vegetable is that it should +always be cooked in boiling, salted water. + +44. ASPARAGUS WITH BUTTER DRESSING.--Perhaps the simplest way in which +to prepare asparagus is to cook it in salted water and then serve it +with a butter dressing. When prepared in this way, it may be served +plain, but it becomes more attractive, as well as more nutritious, if it +is placed on squares of toast. + +For this dish, secure a bunch of fresh, tender asparagus, wash it +thoroughly, and then, as desired, cut it into inch lengths or allow it +to remain whole. Pour enough boiling water over it to cover well, add +salt in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful to each quart of water, and +allow it to cook until the stems may be easily pierced with a fork, +which in most cases will require not more than from 10 to 15 minutes. +The length of the cooking is an important factor with this vegetable, +for when it is overcooked its flavor is not so agreeable as when it has +had just enough cooking. When the asparagus is done, drain off the +water, season with a little more salt and a dash of pepper, and, if it +is to be served without toast, add 1 tablespoonful of butter for each +bunch cooked, allowing the butter to melt. In case it is to be served on +toast, allow a small amount of the liquid in which it was cooked to +remain on it, add the butter to this, and, after placing several of the +stems or a number of the pieces on the squares of toast, dip a little of +the liquid over all. 45. CREAMED ASPARAGUS ON TOAST.--A still more +nutritious dish can be prepared from asparagus by combining it with a +cream sauce and serving it on toast. The sauce supplies protein and fat +and the toast furnishes carbohydrate, substances in which this vegetable +is low. Numerous ways of serving this combination may be resorted to, +but one of the most attractive methods is illustrated in Fig. 2. As here +shown, a small bunch of the stems is slipped through a ring of toast cut +by means of round cutters of two sizes. If it is not desired to use +toast for this, a ring of lemon rind or pimiento may be substituted, or +the ring may be omitted altogether and the stems merely laid in an +orderly manner on a square of toast. Also, with this dish, as with the +previous one, the asparagus may be cut into inch lengths instead of +being cooked whole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +To prepare creamed asparagus, clean it in the manner explained in Art. +43. Then either cut it into inch lengths or allow the stems to remain +whole, and cook it in enough boiling salted water to cover it well. +While the asparagus is cooking, prepare a medium white sauce. As soon as +the asparagus has cooked enough to be pierced with a fork, pour off the +water and serve with the sauce in any of the ways already suggested. If +the asparagus is left whole, the sauce is poured over it after it is +placed on the toast, but when it is cut into small pieces, it is usually +combined with the sauce and the creamed vegetable then poured over +the toast. + +46. SCALLOPED ASPARAGUS.--Another nutritious dish with asparagus as its +base is scalloped asparagus. This involves all the ingredients used in +creamed asparagus, but to give it still more food value, cheese is +also added. + +SCALLOPED ASPARAGUS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 bunch asparagus +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 c. asparagus stock +1/2 c. milk +1/4 tsp. salt +1 c. buttered cracker crumbs +1/2 c. grated cheese + +Clean the asparagus according to the directions given in Art. 43. Cut +it into inch lengths and cook in boiling salted water until it is tender +enough to be pierced with a fork, and then drain. Prepare a sauce by +melting the butter, adding the flour, and pouring into this mixture the +heated stock and milk seasoned with the salt. Put a layer of the +buttered crumbs in the bottom of a baking dish, and pour half the +asparagus over them. Sprinkle the asparagus with one-third the cheese +and add another layer of crumbs. Sprinkle this with one-third the +cheese. Add the remainder of the asparagus and the crumbs and sprinkle +the rest of the cheese on top. Pour the sauce over the entire mixture, +place in the oven, and bake until heated thoroughly and the top is +slightly browned. Serve from the baking dish. + + * * * * * + +BEANS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +VARIETIES OF BEANS + +47. Of all the vegetables commonly used for food, BEANS afford the +greatest variety. However, there are two principal classes into which +all varieties of this vegetable can be placed, namely, _string beans_ +and _shell beans_. String beans include both the pods and the seeds, and +are used when the beans are very young. Shell beans consist of the +seeds, which are allowed to mature either partly or entirely and are +taken from the shells before cooking. Those which are partly developed +are cooked when they are fresh, but the ones that are allowed to mature +completely are dried and then stored for use at any time during the +year. In some cases, the same variety of beans may be used in the three +ways mentioned, while in others certain kinds are raised expressly for +one of these purposes. + +48. The food value of beans increases as they mature, as will be +observed upon reference to Table I. The very young beans, that is, the +string beans, which include the pods and all, are comparatively low in +food value, being only a little higher than asparagus. To increase the +food value of these, fat meat, butter, or other fat is supplied in their +cooking, or milk or a cream sauce is added before they are served. Fresh +shell beans have much more nutriment than string beans, whereas dried +beans are very high in food value. It is this characteristic of dried +shell beans that makes them a very good meat substitute. + + STRING BEANS + +49. VARIETIES OF STRING BEANS.--There are two general varieties of +string beans: the yellow ones, which are commonly known as _wax beans_, +and the green ones, which are the ones usually meant when the term +string beans is used. Numerous varieties exist among these classes, and +some are very much better than others. Many of them have strings, but +others are stringless and consequently are easier to prepare. Whatever +kind is used should be picked from the vines before the beans are old +enough for the pods to develop woody fibers. Otherwise they will not be +palatable, for when they have reached this stage it will be impossible +to cook them soft. + +50. SELECTION AND CARE.--Small, round, rusty-looking spots are common to +both string and wax beans; but when such spots are present they must be +removed before cooking. As there is considerable waste in the +preparation of such beans for the table, it is wise in buying string +beans to select those whose surface is not marred with such blemishes. +In addition, the beans should be as fresh as can be obtained and crisp +and tender enough to snap when the pods are bent in half. Proper +attention should be given to them after they are purchased, too. If +possible, they should be cooked immediately, but if this cannot be done +they should be kept in a cool, damp place to prevent them from becoming +limp. However, if they wilt before they can be cooked, they may be +freshened by allowing them to stand in cold water for a short time. + +51. PREPARATION AND COOKING.--To prepare beans for cooking, wash them +thoroughly in cold water. If the beans are of the stringless variety, +cut off the stem and blossom ends; but, in case they have strings, break +the ends and strip off the strings together with the ends, as shown in +Fig. 3. The beans may then be cooked whole or cut into inch lengths +before cooking. If it is desired to cut them, the most convenient way is +to place them in an orderly heap on a cutting board and then cut a +handful at a time, drawing a sharp knife across them as they are held on +the board. Any imperfect portions should be removed before cutting. + +52. The cooking of string beans is similar to that of asparagus, except +that they require longer cooking. Put them, either whole or cut into a +kettle, cover them with boiling water to which has been added 1 +teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water, and cook them with the cover +on the kettle until they can be easily pierced with a fork. The length +of time required to cook them depends on the age of the beans, but +usually from 30 minutes to 1 hour will be sufficient. When they are +done, drain the water from them, but save it to make sauce for them or +to add to soup stock. + +53. STRING BEANS IN BUTTER.--String beans, which, of course, include wax +beans, may be served with a sauce of some kind, but they are very +appetizing when merely drained after cooking and served with +melted butter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +To prepare beans in this manner, wash the desired amount, remove the +ends and strings, if necessary, and cut into inch lengths. Cook until +they are tender and then pour off the water. Add 1 tablespoonful of +butter for each four persons to be served, a dash of pepper, and, if +they are not salty enough, a little more salt. Allow the butter to melt +and serve the beans hot. + +54. STRING BEANS WITH SALT PORK.--Those who like the flavor of salt pork +will find string beans cooked with a small piece of this meat very +appetizing. Besides improving the flavor, salt pork supplies the beans +with fat, a food substance in which they are very low. + +After washing the beans that are to be cooked in this way, remove the +ends and strings, but do not cut into inch lengths. Put the whole beans +to cook in boiling water and add 1/4 pound of pork for a sufficient +amount of beans for four persons. Cook until the beans are tender, and +serve with the pork without removing from the liquid. + +55. CREAMED STRING BEANS.--Perhaps the most popular way in which to +prepare string or wax beans is to cream them. Not only an appetizing +dish, but one whose food value is increased, is the result. The cream +sauce served with the beans may be made entirely of milk, but a very +satisfactory sauce can be made by using half milk or cream and half +liquid in which the beans were cooked. To prepare creamed beans, clean +the beans in the usual way and cut them into inch lengths. Put them to +cook in boiling salted water and cook until they may be easily pierced +with a fork. Pour off the water, but keep it to use in the dressing. To +dress a sufficient quantity of beans for four persons, a sauce should be +made as follows: + +SAUCE FOR CREAMED STRING BEANS + +1 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +1/4 tsp. salt +Pinch of pepper +1/3 c. rich milk or cream +1/3 c. liquid from beans + +Melt the butter in a saucepan and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Pour +in the heated liquids and stir until the mixture is smooth and +thoroughly cooked. Add the sauce to the beans, heat together, and serve. + +56. STRING BEANS WITH SOUR DRESSING.--A dish having an entirely +different flavor from those already explained is produced when beans are +served with a sour dressing. + +To prepare beans in this way, clean a sufficient number according to the +directions already given and cut them into inch lengths. Cook them in +boiling salted water until they are tender. Pour off the water, but +retain 1/2 cupful for the dressing. Make the following sauce, which will +dress a sufficient quantity of beans for four persons: + +SOUR DRESSING + +2 Tb. ham or bacon fat +1 Tb. flour +1/4 c. vinegar +1/2 c. liquid from beans + +Melt the fat in a double boiler, add the flour, and into this stir the +vinegar and the liquid from the beans. Cook until the mixture thickens +and pour over the beans. Reheat and serve. + + +SHELL BEANS + +57. VARIETIES AND FOOD VALUE OF SHELL BEANS.--When beans have matured on +the vines to such an extent that the pods are no longer tender enough +for human consumption, they are picked and the seeds then used for food. +Some are picked before the seeds have entirely matured, and these, which +must be young enough to contain considerable moisture, are cooked +fresh; others are allowed to mature entirely and are then dried before +they are cooked. After being dried, beans keep indefinitely and require +no care in storage except that they must not become moist. Numerous +varieties of both fresh and dried shell beans are in use, including +navy, marrowfat, pinto, and Lima beans. + +58. Fresh shell beans average about three times as much food value as +string or wax beans. Most of this is carbohydrate in the form of starch, +but they also contain considerable protein. Dried shell beans, which are +entirely different in flavor and texture from fresh ones, contain still +more nutriment, their food value being more than twice that of fresh +shell beans and over four times that of potatoes. In the entirely +matured bean, which, as has already been mentioned, belongs to the class +of vegetables called legumes, the high food value is due to the high +percentage of starch and the large amount of protein in the form of +legumin, a substance that is an important substitute for other more +expensive protein foods. This composition reveals at once the fact that +dried shell beans make an excellent food, provided some fat is added to +them in their preparation. + +59. PREPARATION AND COOKING OF FRESH SHELL BEANS.--With the exception of +Lima beans, most of the varieties of fresh shell beans are placed on the +market in the pods and must be shelled after they are purchased. Green +Lima beans, however, are usually sold shelled. If the beans are +purchased in the pods, wash them in cold water before shelling, but if +they are bought shelled, wash the shelled beans. Then put them to cook +in sufficient boiling water to which has been added 1 teaspoonful of +salt for each quart. Allow the beans to cook until they may be easily +pierced with a fork. The cooking will probably require from 45 minutes +to 1-1/2 hours, depending on the age and variety of the beans. + +60. SHELL BEANS DRESSED WITH BUTTER.--Any variety of fresh shell beans +may be prepared according to the accompanying recipe, but Lima beans are +especially delicious when cooked in this way. + +Prepare and cook the beans as directed in Art. 59. When they are +sufficiently cooked, pour off the water, season with additional salt, if +necessary, and a dash of pepper, and add 1 tablespoonful of butter for +each four persons to be served. Allow the butter to melt and serve the +beans hot. 61. SHELL BEANS IN CREAM.--Fresh shell beans are especially +appetizing when they are dressed with cream. Besides improving the +flavor, cream also adds considerable food value, an item that should not +be overlooked. + +For this dish, prepare and cook the beans in the manner explained in +Art. 59. When they are tender, pour off the water and season with +additional salt and pepper. Then for each four persons to be served, add +1 tablespoonful of butter and 1/2 cupful of thin cream. Heat the beans +well in the cream and serve. + +62. BEAN PUREE.--Persons with whom the coarse skins that must +necessarily be eaten with beans disagree, find bean puree very +satisfactory. To prepare it, clean and cook the beans in boiling salted +water according to the directions given in Art. 59. Then pour off the +water and force the beans through a ricer or a sieve. Add sufficient +butter, salt, and pepper to season well and serve hot. + +63. COOKING OF DRIED SHELL BEANS.--Before dried shell beans of any +variety are cooked, look them over very carefully, reject any that are +unfit for use, and wash the rest in cold water. They may then be cooked +without further preparation, but in order to hasten their cooking and +save fuel in their preparation, it is a good plan to moisten them by +soaking them in water before cooking. If they are to be soaked, place +them in cold water and allow them to remain there for 8 to 12 hours. +Then put them on to cook in water to which has been added a small pinch +of soda. Parboil the beans in this water until the outside skin begins +to crack and then pour off the water. While it is true that a certain +amount of mineral salts and perhaps a small percentage of food value are +lost in this procedure, because the water that is poured off is too +strong to be used for any other purpose, the improvement in the flavor +warrants any loss that might occur. After pouring off the water, wash +the beans in cold water, add fresh water to continue the cooking, and +allow the beans to simmer slowly until they are cooked soft enough to +crush between the fingers, but still retain their original shape. +Nothing is gained by cooking them rapidly on a hot fire, and +considerable fuel is wasted by this practice. + +The fireless cooker and the double boiler are excellent utensils for the +cooking of dried beans, because they cook the beans at a temperature +below boiling point. They therefore cook the beans soft with little +difficulty and prevent the protein from becoming hard. The theory of the +cooking of protein--that is, the higher the temperature, the harder the +coagulation--applies in the cooking of dried beans, just as it does in +the cooking of eggs or milk. + +64. STEWED NAVY BEANS.--The common small white beans are called _navy +beans_ from the fact that they are much used in the navy. These may be +prepared in various ways, but the simplest method is to stew them. In +the preparation of this dish, as well as any other made from dried +beans, it will be well to remember that 1/2 cupful of beans is usually +sufficient to serve four persons when they are cooked. + +Look over the required amount of beans, reject any that are imperfect, +wash thoroughly, and put to soak overnight in cold water. Pour off any +water that remains, cover well with boiling water, and add a pinch of +soda. Cook slowly until the skins begin to burst. Pour off the water, +add fresh hot water and 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water, +and allow to simmer until the beans may be easily crushed between the +fingers. During this process, the water should cook down until just a +sufficient amount to serve with the beans remains. When this is +accomplished, add 1-1/2 tablespoonfuls of butter, a dash of pepper, and, +if necessary, additional salt. Instead of the butter, ham or bacon fat +may be used for seasoning, or a small piece of ham or salt pork may be +cooked with the beans and the fat omitted. Serve the beans hot. + +65. LIMA BEANS IN CREAM.--Dried Lima beans, when combined with thin +cream, make a very appetizing dish. To prepare them in this way, clean, +soak, and cook them as explained in Art. 63. When they are soft enough +to crush easily between the fingers and the water has boiled down so +that practically none remains, add 1/2 cupful of thin cream to a +sufficient quantity for four persons. Allow the beans to simmer for a +short time in the cream, add additional salt and a dash of pepper for +flavoring, and serve. + +66. LIMA BEANS EN CASSEROLE.--While the small varieties of dried beans +are more commonly baked than the larger ones, Lima beans will be found +especially delicious when prepared in a casserole. + +LIMA BEANS EN CASSEROLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. dried Lima beans +1/4 c. ham or bacon fat +2 c. milk +2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Soak the beans overnight and then parboil them in soda water. Drain off +the water and turn the beans into a baking dish. Add the fat, milk, +salt, and pepper. Cover the dish and bake until the beans are soft. +Serve hot from the casserole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +67. LIMA-BEAN LOAF.--If a dish that is not only appetizing, but +sufficient in food value to be used as a meat substitute, is desired, +Lima-bean loaf, which is illustrated in Fig. 4, should be selected. This +is very good when served alone, but it becomes more attractive and at +the same time more palatable when a sauce or gravy is added. + +LIMA-BEAN LOAF +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. dried Lima beans +2 c. bread crumbs +Milk to moisten crumbs +2 eggs +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1/2 tsp. celery salt +2 Tb. butter + +Soak the beans overnight and parboil them in soda water. Pour off this +water, cook until tender in boiling salted water, and then drain. +Moisten the bread crumbs slightly with milk, mix them with the beans, +and add the beaten eggs and seasoning. When the entire mixture is well +blended, place in a loaf pan, dot the top with the butter, and bake in +the oven until nicely browned and quite firm. Turn out on a platter, +garnish with parsley, and serve by cutting it into slices, as shown +in Fig. 4. + +68. BEAN SOUFFLE.--Probably the daintiest dish that can be made from +dried beans is bean souffle. This is equally suitable as the main dish +for a luncheon or a home dinner. One point to remember about it is that +it should be served immediately, for souffle usually settles when taken +from the oven. + +BEAN SOUFFLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. bean pulp +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/4 tsp. celery salt +1 Tb. onion juice +2 eggs + +Make the bean pulp by forcing well-cooked beans through a colander or a +press. Add all the seasoning and the beaten egg yolks. Beat the egg +whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. When well blended, pour +into a greased baking dish, or individual dishes, place in a pan +containing hot water, and bake in a moderate oven until the souffle is +set, which will require from 30 to 45 minutes. Test by tapping slightly +with the finger. If the dent thus made in the souffle springs back, it +is sufficiently baked. Remove from the oven and serve at once. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +69. BAKED BEANS.--Almost any kind of dried beans may be used for baking. +Some persons prefer the small navy beans, which are mentioned in this +recipe, whereas others like the larger marrowfat beans or Lima beans. +Pinto beans have for some time been taking the place of navy beans, and +are found to be a very good substitute. To bake beans successfully, a +dish with a tight-fitting cover, such as the one shown in Fig. 5, is +required. This is made of heavy glass, but if such a utensil is not +available, very satisfactory results can be obtained by using a heavy +earthen bowl, crock, or baking dish. To produce the delicious flavor +that is agreeable to most persons, beans should be baked a long time. +Therefore, as considerable heat is consumed in their cooking, it is a +wise plan to prepare more than enough for one meal. They may be served +the second time as baked beans, or, if this is not desired, they may be +used for various other purposes. + +BAKED BEANS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. navy beans +2 Tb. molasses +2 tsp. salt +1/2 lb. bacon or salt pork + +Soak the beans overnight, parboil in soda water, and drain. Add a +sufficient amount of water to cover the beans well, cook until they +break open, and then pour with the liquid into a baking dish. If this +liquid does not almost cover the beans, add more until it comes nearly +to the top. Add the molasses and salt, cut the salt pork into pieces, +and distribute these well through the beans, placing a piece or two over +the top. The beans should then appear as shown in Fig. 5. Place the +cover on the dish and bake in a slow oven for 4 or 5 hours. Remove the +cover occasionally, stir the beans carefully so as not to crush nor +break them, and add enough water from time to time to keep the beans +well moistened. When done, the beans should be light brown in color, but +the top should be well browned. Sometimes it will be found necessary to +remove the cover in order to brown the beans sufficiently. + +70. BEAN CROQUETTES.--Left-over baked beans need never be wasted, for +there are numerous uses to which they can be put. If it is not desired +to reheat them and serve them again as baked beans, they may be utilized +in soup, salads, and sandwiches, or they may be made into souffle, as +explained in Art. 68, or into croquettes according to the accompanying +recipe. Bean croquettes may be served plain, but they are much improved +by the addition of tomato sauce. + +BEAN CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. cold baked beans +1-1/2 c. bread crumbs +Milk to moisten crumbs +1 egg +1 tsp. salt +Pinch of pepper + +To the beans add the bread crumbs slightly moistened with milk. Stir in +the egg, beaten, and the salt and pepper. Blend the entire mixture, form +into croquettes, and roll in dry crumbs. Bake in the oven until brown, +saute in shallow fat, or fry in deep fat. Place on a platter, garnish +with parsley, and serve plain or with tomato sauce. + + BEETS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +71. BEETS are a root vegetable that comes in two varieties, _red_ and +_white_. The red beets are more popular for cooking than the white ones, +and of these the ones that retain their dark-red color after cooking are +preferable to any other. The root, however, is not the only part of this +plant that is eaten, for the tops are also much used for food. When the +tops are to be cooked, the plants are usually not allowed to mature to +the extent that the root parts can be used; still, early in the summer, +when very small beets are to be had with the tops on, both the tops and +the beets may be used. At this age, the beets are very tender and do not +require long cooking. If the beets are not eaten when they are young, +they are allowed to mature in the ground and are then pulled in the fall +and stored for a winter vegetable. + +Like other root vegetables, beets contain very little protein and fat, +but in their composition is included a fairly large percentage of +carbohydrate in the form of sugar. Their total food value is greater +than that of string beans, but is considerably less than that +of potatoes. + +72. SELECTION AND CARE OF BEETS.--When beets are selected as a summer +vegetable with the idea of using both the tops and the roots, the tops +should be fresh, that is, not withered nor rotted. When the roots are to +be used, either as a summer or a winter vegetable, they should have a +smooth skin, should contain no blemishes, and, as nearly as possible, +should be uniform in size. + +Summer beets require about the same care as any other vegetable; that +is, they should be kept in a cool, damp place until they are ready to be +cooked. If they are at all wilted at that time, they may be freshened by +allowing them to stand in a pan of cold water for several hours. Winter +beets, however, should be stored in a cool, dark place where they will +not freeze. A portion of the cellar that has a dirt floor is a very good +place to put the bins containing such vegetables. The woody tissue of +beets that are stored increases as the winter advances, so that any +beets that remain until spring are rather hard and extremely difficult +to cook. In fact, at times it is almost impossible to make them soft +enough to serve, but they can be greatly improved by soaking them in +cold water for a few hours before cooking them. 73. PREPARATION AND +COOKING OF BEETS.--In preparing young beets for cooking, allow an inch +or two of the stems to remain on the beets in order to prevent them from +bleeding. Of course, from winter beets, the entire stem should be +removed, as it will be dried up. Scrub beets of either variety carefully +with a vegetable brush until entirely free from dirt. Then, whether they +are old or young, put them to cook in boiling water without removing +their skins. Allow them to cook until they are soft enough to be pierced +with a fork. This is the best way in which to determine when the beets +are done, for as the length of time required to cook them depends +entirely on their age, no definite time can be stated. As soon as they +are sufficiently cooked, pour off the water, allow them to cool enough +to handle, and then remove the skins, which will slip off easily. + +74. BUTTERED BEETS.--Butter added to beets increases both their +nutriment and their flavor. In order to prepare buttered beets, first +clean and cook them in the manner just explained. To remove the skins, +scrape the beets as thinly as possible, so as not to waste any more than +is necessary. Then slice them thin or cut them into 1/2-inch cubes, +season well with salt and pepper, and add 1 tablespoonful of butter for +each four persons to be served. Allow the beets to heat thoroughly in +the butter, and serve hot. + +75. BEETS WITH CREAM DRESSING.--If a creamed vegetable is desired, beets +to which cream has been added will be very satisfactory. Clean and cook +the beets in the manner explained in Art. 73. Then peel, cut into +slices, place in a saucepan, and nearly cover with thin cream. Allow +them to cook in the cream for a few minutes, season with salt and +pepper, and serve. + +76. BEETS WITH SOUR DRESSING.--To give variety, beets are sometimes +served with a sour dressing. Probably no other vegetable lends itself so +well to this sort of preparation as beets, with the result that a very +appetizing dish is provided. + +BEETS WITH SOUR DRESSING +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 medium-sized beets +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/4 c. vinegar +1-1/4 c. hot water + +Prepare and cook the beets as explained in Art. 73. When tender, drain +them, remove the skins, and dice the beets. Make a sauce by melting the +butter in a double boiler and adding the flour, salt, pepper, vinegar, +and hot water. Cook until the flour thickens the sauce and then pour +over the beets. Heat together and serve. + +77. BAKED BEETS.--If something entirely different in the way of a +vegetable dish is wanted, baked beets will meet with favor. Beets may be +baked in a covered baking dish or on the open grate of an oven. A slow +fire produces the best results, and as a rule it will take 4 or 5 hours +to bake good-sized beets. + +Wash thoroughly and dry the desired number of beets. Place them in a +baking dish and set in a slow oven or place them on the open grate. Bake +until they may be pierced with a fork. Remove from the skins and serve +with a sour sauce or merely with salt, pepper, and butter. + +78. PICKLED BEETS.--When beets are cooked for any of the recipes that +have been given, it will be economy to boil more than will be needed for +one meal, for a large number can be cooked with practically the same +quantity of fuel as a few. Then the remainder may be pickled by peeling +them, cutting them into slices, and pouring over them hot vinegar +sweetened slightly and flavored with spice. Pickled beets make an +excellent relish and they will keep for an indefinite period. + + +BRUSSELS SPROUTS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +79. BRUSSELS SPROUTS, as shown in Fig. 6, look just like tiny green +heads of cabbage. These heads grow along a stem that protrudes above the +surface of the ground in much the same way as does the stem to which a +head of cabbage is attached. The heads are cut from the stem and then +usually packed in quart boxes. It is in such boxes as these that they +are found in the markets, where they can be purchased from December +until early spring. They are considered a great delicacy because of the +fineness of their flavor, which rivals that of cauliflower and, while +closely resembling that of cabbage, is much superior to it. In food +value, they are somewhat higher than cauliflower, but about equal +to beets. + +80. COOKING OF BRUSSELS SPROUTS.--To prepare Brussels sprouts for the +table, break off the outside leaves from the heads, and then in order to +remove any bugs that may be lodged in the heads, allow them to stand in +cold salted water for 1 hour or so before cooking. After removing the +sprouts from the salted water, pour enough boiling water over them to +cover them well, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water, and +boil without any cover on the kettle until they can be easily pierced +with a fork. Care should be taken not to overcook the sprouts, for when +they are cooked too long they become red in color and develop a +strong flavor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +81. BUTTERED BRUSSELS SPROUTS.--When Brussels sprouts are properly +cooked and then seasoned with salt and pepper and flavored with butter, +an appetizing dish is the result. To make such a dish for about six +persons, prepare and cook 1 quart of Brussels sprouts in the manner just +explained. When they are tender, pour off the water, season with +additional salt and a dash of pepper, and add 2 tablespoonfuls of +butter. Allow the butter to melt over the sprouts and then serve hot. + +If a more attractive dish is desired, the Brussels sprouts prepared in +this way may be combined with French lamb chops, as shown in Fig. 7. +Pile up the buttered sprouts in the center of a platter, and then place +broiled or sauted lamb chops, whose ends are trimmed with paper frills, +around the sprouts in the manner shown. 82. CREAMED BRUSSELS +SPROUTS.--A very satisfactory way in which to prepare Brussels sprouts +is to serve a cream sauce over them. This sauce, of course, adds food +value, and at the same time greatly improves the flavor of the +vegetable. + +CREAMED BRUSSELS SPROUTS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. Brussels sprouts +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1-1/2 c. milk +1 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Prepare and cook the sprouts as explained in Art. 80. When they are +tender, drain the water from them. Make a white sauce of the butter, +flour, milk, salt, and pepper. Pour this over the sprouts, heat +together, and serve. + +83. SCALLOPED BRUSSELS SPROUTS.--Undoubtedly the most palatable way of +preparing Brussels sprouts is to scallop them. The ingredients used in +the preparation of this dish add food value, as well as flavor. + +SCALLOPED BRUSSELS SPROUTS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. Brussels sprouts +3 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +2 c. milk +1 c. buttered crumbs + +Prepare the sprouts as explained in Art. 80. Cook them in boiling salted +water until they are tender, and then drain. Make a white sauce of 2 +tablespoonfuls of the butter, flour, salt, and milk. Butter the crumbs +by pouring 1 tablespoonful of melted butter over them, stirring until +well blended. Place one-fourth of the crumbs in the bottom of a baking +dish, add about half of the sprouts, and place another fourth of the +crumbs over the sprouts. Add the remaining half of the sprouts and pour +the sauce over these. Sprinkle the rest of the crumbs over the top, +place in the oven, and bake until the crumbs are brown and the +ingredients thoroughly heated. + + +CABBAGE AND ITS PREPARATION + +84. CABBAGE consists of the foliage of the cabbage plant. It is a +succulent vegetable with a high flavor; in fact, its flavor is so strong +that in many cases it disagrees with persons. However, if cabbage is +properly cooked, no apprehension need be felt about eating it, for it +can be digested by most persons. The food value of cabbage is not +high, being even less than that of string beans. The greater part of +this food value is carbohydrate in the form of sugar, but in order to +prepare cabbage so that it has any importance in the meal, considerable +quantities of protein, fat, and carbohydrate must be added. In itself, +it is valuable for its mineral salts and bulk. + +Numerous varieties of cabbage can be procured, but only three are +commonly used. These include _white cabbage_, which is used the most; +_purple cabbage_, which is very dark in color and contains varying +shades of red and blue; and _Savoy cabbage_, which has a large number of +green crinkled leaves and is commonly cooked by boiling. + +85. SELECTION AND CARE OF CABBAGE.--Heads of cabbage that feel firm and +solid to the touch and are rather heavy for their size are the best to +select for cooking purposes. This vegetable comes into the market early +in the summer and may be had until late in the fall. As it has excellent +keeping qualities, it may be stored for use as a winter vegetable. When +this is done, the stem and the roots should be allowed to remain on the +head, for then the cabbage is less apt to wither. If this precaution is +taken and the cabbage is stored in a cool place, no great care is +required to keep it in good condition until it is to be cooked unless, +of course, it is kept for an abnormal length of time. + +86. PREPARATION AND COOKING OF CABBAGE.--To prepare cabbage for cooking, +remove the outside leaves and then cut the head that remains into pieces +of any desirable size. Whether the cabbage should be left in large +pieces or cut very fine depends on the dish that is to be prepared. For +the first cutting, be sure to cut the head down through the heart and +the stem, so that the part not used will remain intact. This may then be +used another time if it is kept cool and moist. In case the cabbage +becomes at all wilted, it may be freshened by placing it in cold water a +short time before it is to be cooked. + +87. Cabbage is a vegetable that has many uses and is eaten both raw and +cooked. Numerous opinions exist about the difference in digestibility +between raw and cooked cabbage, as well as the best ways in which to +cook this vegetable. It may be true that in some cases raw cabbage does +not cause the disagreeable effect that cooked cabbage often does, but +the reason for this is that cabbage when raw has a milder flavor than +when cooked, cabbage generally developing during the cooking a strong +flavor that causes trouble. The flavor of cabbage, however, may be +dissipated if attention is given to the cooking, so that, when properly +prepared, cabbage can be eaten with little fear of indigestion. + +88. When cabbage is cooked, it is usually boiled like other vegetables; +that is, it is covered well with boiling water to which 1 teaspoonful of +salt is added for each quart, and then allowed to boil until it can be +easily pierced with a fork. Its cooking differs, however, from that of +many vegetables, string beans, for instance, in that it is carried on +with the cover removed from the kettle. This plan permits of the +evaporation of much of the strong flavor, which arises in the steam and +which would otherwise be reabsorbed by the cabbage. Since it is the +retention of this flavor, together with long cooking, that causes this +vegetable to disagree with persons who eat it, both of these points +should be carefully watched. If it is cooked in an open vessel and it is +boiled just long enough to be tender, so that when done it is white and +fresh-looking and not in any way discolored, an easily digested dish +will be the result. Usually cabbage will cook sufficiently in 1/2 hour +and often in less time. + +89. BOILED CABBAGE.--Although cabbage permits of numerous methods of +preparation, plain boiled cabbage finds favor with many persons. +Generally, cabbage prepared in this way is merely seasoned with butter +and served in a part of the liquid in which it is cooked, but it has a +more appetizing flavor if bacon or ham fat is used for seasoning or if a +small quantity of ham or salt pork is cooked with it. + +To prepare boiled cabbage, remove the outside leaves from a head of +cabbage, cut it in half down through the heart, and then cut each half +into coarse pieces. Unless it is very fresh, allow it to stand in cold +water for at least 1 hour before cooking. Put it into a kettle or a +saucepan, cover well with boiling water, and add 1 teaspoonful of salt +for each quart of water. If ham or salt pork is to be cooked with the +cabbage, put a small piece in the kettle with the cabbage. Allow the +cabbage to cook with the cover removed until it is sufficiently tender +to be pierced with a fork. Pour off all or a part of the liquid, +depending on whether it is to be served dry or in its own liquid, and +then, in case it has been cooked alone, add butter or ham or bacon fat +for flavor. If not sufficiently seasoned, add pepper and more salt. + +90. CREAMED CABBAGE.--When cabbage is to be creamed, it is cut up into +fairly fine pieces with a sharp knife. The cream sauce that is added to +it provides considerable food value and greatly improves its flavor. + +CREAMED CABBAGE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 c. finely cut cabbage +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1/2 c. milk or thin cream +1/2 c. liquid from cabbage + +Cook the cabbage according to the directions given in Art. 89 until it +is tender and then drain the water from it. While it is cooking, melt +the butter in a double boiler, add the flour, and stir until smooth. +Pour in the heated liquid and season with the salt and pepper. Stir +until the flour is thickened and the sauce is smooth. Pour this over the +cabbage, heat together for a few minutes, and serve hot. + +91. SCALLOPED CABBAGE.--Scalloped cabbage is a particularly appetizing +vegetable dish, and, on account of the ingredients used in its +preparation, it is more nutritious than some of the other dishes in +which cabbage is used. + +SCALLOPED CABBAGE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 c. cabbage +1 c. buttered crumbs +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 c. milk +1/2 c. liquid from cabbage + +Cut the cabbage into very small pieces with a sharp knife or a cabbage +chopper. Cook according to the directions given in Art. 89 until nearly +tender, and then drain. Spread 1/4 cupful of the buttered crumbs in the +bottom of a baking dish, put one-half of the cabbage over this, and then +add another 1/4 cupful of the crumbs and the remaining cabbage. Over +this pour a white sauce made from the butter, flour, salt, pepper, milk, +and liquid from the cabbage. Sprinkle the rest of the crumbs over the +top. Bake in a slow oven until the cabbage is thoroughly heated through +and the crumbs are browned on top. This baking will complete the cooking +of the cabbage. Serve hot. 92. HOT SLAW.--If a slightly sour flavor is +desired in a vegetable dish, hot slaw will undoubtedly appeal to +the taste. + +HOT SLAW +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 c. cabbage +1 c. water +2 Tb. butter +1 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +1/3 c. vinegar +1 egg + +Slice the cabbage very fine with a sharp knife or a cabbage cutter. Put +it in a saucepan, add the water, and allow it to cook until the water is +about half evaporated. Melt the butter in a pan and to it add the flour, +salt, and vinegar. Then stir the beaten egg in quickly and pour this +sauce over the cabbage at once. Allow the mixture to cook until the +sauce has thickened, stirring constantly to prevent the curding of the +egg. Serve hot. + +93. MAKING SAUERKRAUT.--As is well known, sauerkraut is a cabbage +preparation that is made by salting finely cut cabbage, packing it +tightly, and allowing it to ferment under pressure. This food is made +and sold commercially, so that the housewife can usually purchase it in +any quantity she desires. However, as it is not at all difficult to make +sauerkraut, and as a supply of cabbage in this form provides a valuable +article of food during the winter months in households where it is +relished, the housewife will do well to prepare enough of this kind of +cabbage to vary her meals during the winter. That she may understand how +to proceed with the making of sauerkraut and the proper cooking of it, +the accompanying directions and recipes are given. + +94. For every 10 medium-sized heads of cabbage, measure 2 cupfuls of +salt. Cut the heads of cabbage into quarters and shred on a cabbage +slicer, or cutter. Place several inches of the shredded cabbage in the +bottom of a large crock, and over it sprinkle a layer of salt. Stamp +this down with a wooden potato masher or some other similar utensil. +Then add another layer of cabbage and salt and stamp this down in the +same way. Proceed in this manner until the crock is nearly full. Then +place a clean cloth over the cabbage in the crock. On this cloth place a +clean board as near the size of the crock as possible, and on the board +place a large clean stone or some other weight. When thus filled and +weighted down, place the crock in a cool place. The cabbage will then +begin to ferment, and it is this fermentation that changes the cabbage +into sauerkraut. After a time, juice will form and gradually rise over +the top of the board, and on top of this juice will form a scum. Remove +this scum at once, and do not allow any to collect at any time after the +fermentation of the cabbage ceases. Occasionally, when a supply of +sauerkraut is taken from the crock for cooking, replace the cloth by a +clean one, but always be sure to put the board and the weight back +in place. + +95. SAUERKRAUT WITH SPARERIBS.--Persons who are fond of sauerkraut find +the combination of sauerkraut and spareribs very appetizing. The +spareribs give the cabbage a very pleasing flavor and at the same time +supply nourishment to the dish. + +SAUERKRAUT WITH SPARERIBS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. sauerkraut +2 lb. spareribs +1 tsp. salt +3 c. water + +Put the sauerkraut and the spareribs into a kettle and add the salt and +water. Allow to simmer slowly for 2 or more hours. If additional water +is necessary, add it from time to time. Just before removing from the +heat, allow the water to boil down so that what remains may be served +with the hot sauerkraut. + +96. BAKED SAUERKRAUT.--In the cooking of sauerkraut for the table, pork +in one form or another is generally added; in fact, one rarely thinks of +sauerkraut except in combination with pork. While boiling is the method +that is usually applied to this vegetable, many housewives prefer to +bake it, for then the odor does not escape so easily and a flavor that +most persons prefer is developed. + +BAKED SAUERKRAUT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 lb. fresh pork +1 qt. sauerkraut +1 Tb. salt +3 c. water + +Cut the pork into several large chunks, and put it with the sauerkraut +into a baking dish that has a cover. Add the salt and water, cover the +dish and place in the oven. Bake slowly for 2 or 3 hours. Serve hot. + +97. SAUTED SAUERKRAUT.--If an entirely different way of cooking +sauerkraut is desired, it may be sauted. When nicely browned and served +with boiled frankfurters, it is very appetizing. + +SAUTED SAUERKRAUT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 qt. sauerkraut +4 Tb. bacon or ham fat +2 tsp. salt + +Steam the sauerkraut over boiling water for about 1 hour. Then melt the +fat in an iron frying pan, add the sauerkraut and sprinkle with the +salt. Place a cover over the pan and allow the sauerkraut to saute until +it is slightly browned on the bottom. Stir and continue to cook until +the entire amount is slightly browned. Serve hot. + + +CARROTS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +98. CARROTS are one of the root vegetables. They are similar in +composition to beets, having practically the same total food value, +which is for the most part carbohydrate in the form of sugar. Besides +being valuable in the diet for their mineral salts and bulk, they add +variety to the menu, especially in the winter, for upon maturing they +can be kept for a long time if they are properly stored. As tiny young +carrots, they are also much used as a summer vegetable, and when cooked +whole and served in an attractive way they make a delicious +vegetable dish. + +99. SELECTION AND PREPARATION.--The selection of carrots is a simple +matter, because they keep well and are not likely to be found in a +spoiled condition in the market. When small summer carrots are +purchased, they should be fresh and should have their tops on. Winter +carrots should be as nearly uniform in size as possible and should not +be extremely large. Those which are too large in circumference are +likely to have a hollow in the center and are not nearly so desirable as +thin, solid ones. Carrots of any kind should be uniform in color, and +should be without the green portion that is sometimes found on the top +near the stem and that is caused by exposure to the light in growing. + +100. In preparing carrots for cooking, they should be scraped rather +than peeled, in order to avoid wasting any of the vegetable. They are +always cooked in boiling salted water, after which they can be treated +in various ways. The water in which carrots are cooked should not be +thrown away, as it may be used to flavor soup stock. If any carrots +remain after a meal, they may be utilized in vegetable salad or soup. + +101. BUTTERED CARROTS.--If small, tender carrots can be obtained, they +will be found to be delicious upon being boiled and then dressed with +butter. Winter carrots may be prepared in this way too, but they will +probably require a little more cooking to make them tender. + +BUTTERED CARROTS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. diced carrots +2 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Wash and scrape the carrots and cut into half-inch pieces. Put to cook +in enough boiling water to cover the carrots well, and add 1 teaspoonful +of salt for each quart of water. Cook in a covered kettle until they can +be easily pierced with a fork and then drain off the water. Add the +butter, salt, and pepper, heat until the butter melts, and serve. + +102. CARROTS WITH PARSLEY.--The addition of parsley to carrots gives a +flavor that improves them very much. This should be chopped fine and +added after the carrots have cooked sufficiently. + +CARROTS WITH PARSLEY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. sliced carrots +3 Tb. parsley finely chopped +2 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Wash and scrape the carrots, slice in very thin slices, and cook until +tender in boiling salted water. Drain and add the chopped parsley, +butter, salt, and pepper. Mix carefully so as not to break the slices of +carrot. Serve hot. + +103. BROWNED CARROTS.--A very appetizing way in which to prepare carrots +is to cut them in slices lengthwise, boil them until tender, and then +brown them in fat. Wash and scrape the desired number of carrots, cut +into slices lengthwise, and if large-sized carrots are used, cut the +slices into halves. Cook in boiling salted water until tender and then +drain. Melt some fat in a frying pan, place the carrots in the hot fat, +and brown first on one side and then on the other, turning the slices +carefully so as not to break them. A few minutes before removing the +carrots from the frying pan, sprinkle sugar over them and allow the +sugar to melt. In removing them to a vegetable dish, pour over them the +sirup that forms. Serve hot. + + CAULIFLOWER AND ITS PREPARATION + +104. CAULIFLOWER grows in heads as does cabbage, but only the flower or +blossom of the plant is eaten. A head of cauliflower from which the +leaves have not been removed is shown in Fig. 8. In flavor and +composition this vegetable is similar to cabbage, but its flavor is a +little more delicate. Still, cauliflower should always be cooked in an +uncovered vessel, as are cabbage and Brussels sprouts, if a strong +disagreeable flavor would be avoided. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +105. SELECTION AND COOKING.--Very solid heads of cauliflower that are +creamy white in color and free from the black specks or blemishes so +common to this vegetable should be selected for cooking. The only care +that cauliflower requires before cooking is to keep it in a cool place, +for it does not wilt nor decay quickly. + +To prepare this vegetable for cooking, the white head should be cut from +the leaves, which are discarded. Then the head should be placed upside +down in a pan of salt water and allowed to soak for an hour in order to +drive out the small bugs or worms that are so frequently found in this +vegetable. The cauliflower may then be cooked whole or broken apart, but +in either case it should be cooked until tender in boiling salted water +with the cover removed from the kettle. + +106. CAULIFLOWER WITH TOMATO SAUCE.--Variety can be secured in the +preparation of cauliflower by serving it with a tomato sauce. Besides +being very palatable, this is an extremely attractive dish because of +the contrast in colors. Chicken gravy may be used instead of tomato +sauce, and a most delightful dish is the result. + +CAULIFLOWER WITH TOMATO SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 head cauliflower +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +2 c. strained tomato + +Soak the cauliflower in cold salted water, and then tie it carefully in +a piece of cheesecloth and put it to cook in boiling salted water. Cook +until tender, but not so long that it will fall to pieces. Take from the +water, remove the cheesecloth carefully, and place the cauliflower in a +vegetable dish. While the cauliflower is cooking, prepare the sauce by +melting the butter in a double boiler, adding the flour, salt, and +pepper, and stirring into this the heated strained tomato made by +forcing canned or stewed tomatoes through a sieve. Cook until the sauce +has thickened and then pour over the cauliflower in the vegetable dish. +Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +107. SCALLOPED CAULIFLOWER.--Another opportunity to make a delicious +scalloped dish is afforded by cauliflower. In fact, many persons prefer +scalloped cauliflower to any of the dishes made from this vegetable. The +ingredients used with the cauliflower increase its food value, which is +somewhat low. + +SCALLOPED CAULIFLOWER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 head cauliflower +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 c. milk +1 c. water from cauliflower +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. buttered crumbs + +Prepare and cook the cauliflower according to the directions given in +Art. 105, breaking it into flowerets before pouring the boiling water on +it. When it has cooked tender, drain the water from it. Prepare a sauce +with the butter, flour, milk, water from the cauliflower, salt, and +pepper. Butter the crumbs by pouring 1 tablespoonful of melted butter +over them. Put 1/4 cupful of the crumbs on the bottom of a baking dish, +add one-half of the cauliflower, and over this place another 1/4 cupful +of crumbs. Then add the remainder of the cauliflower, and pour the white +sauce over all. Sprinkle the remainder of the crumbs over the top. Place +in a hot oven and bake until well heated through and brown on top. Serve +from the dish. + +108. CREAMED CAULIFLOWER.--A very attractive vegetable dish can be +prepared from cauliflower by cooking the head whole and then serving a +cream sauce over it, as shown in Fig. 9. In serving, a portion of the +head should be broken off for each person and served with a little of +the cream sauce. + +CREAMED CAULIFLOWER +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 head cauliflower +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 c. milk +1/2 c. water in which cauliflower was cooked +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Soak a solid head of cauliflower in cold salted water for about 1 hour. +Then wash thoroughly, wrap carefully in cheesecloth, and cook in boiling +salted water until tender. When sufficiently cooked, drain, and make a +sauce of the other ingredients. Place the cauliflower in a vegetable +dish, pour the white sauce over it, and serve hot. + + +CELERY AND ITS PREPARATION + +109. CELERY is the stem of a plant that grows in stalks, as shown in +Fig. 10. When the stalks are large, they are sold singly, but if they +are very small, several of them are tied together and sold in a bunch. +The season for celery begins in the fall and lasts until early spring. +It may be obtained in the summer, but as the price is usually high and +the quality not good, very little use should be made of it during +that time. + +The chief use of celery is as a relish, when it is eaten raw, but it is +also valuable for flavoring soups and making salads, pickles, and +various other dishes. It is probably used less frequently as a cooked +vegetable than in any other way, but when it is in season and can be +purchased at a reasonable price, it should be cooked to give variety +to the diet. + +The food value of celery is extremely low, being less than 100 calories +to the pound or about equal to that of 1 ounce of meat. However, in +spite of this fact, celery is valuable for its mineral salts and bulk, +as well as for the appetizing quality that it lends to various foods and +to the meals at which it is served. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +110. CARE AND PREPARATION.--Well-bleached, firm stalks of celery should +be selected for use. After it comes into the house, it may be kept in +good condition for a long time if it is wrapped in a damp cloth and put +where it will keep cool. A good plan is to serve the hearts and tender +inside stems raw, as explained in _Soup_, and then to use the coarse +outside stems for cooking, flavoring soups, or making salads. Celery +must be cleaned carefully for dirt often clings to the ridges. After +being scrubbed thoroughly, it will become crisp and tender if it is +allowed to stand in cold water for some time before serving. When it is +to be served as a cooked vegetable, it should be cooked in boiling +salted water, as are other vegetables, and then seasoned or dressed in +any desirable way. The water in which it is cooked should be utilized in +the making of sauce or soup. + +111. CREAMED CELERY.--The usual way of preparing celery when it is to be +served as a cooked vegetable is to cream it. The cream sauce that is +added to the celery increases its food value considerably and greatly +improves its flavor. This sauce may be made entirely of milk or of half +milk and half liquid from the celery. + +CREAMED CELERY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. diced celery +3 Tb. butter +3 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. milk +1/2 c. water in which celery was cooked + +Cook the celery in boiling salted water until tender, and then drain. +When the celery has cooked, make a white sauce of the other ingredients. +Pour this sauce over the cooked celery, heat together, and serve. + +112. CELERY AU GRATIN.--The food value of celery may be still further +increased by combining it with cheese and bread crumbs in addition to a +cream sauce. Such a dish, which is known as _celery au gratin_, is +prepared according to the accompanying recipe. + +CELERY AU GRATIN +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 c. diced celery +2-1/2 Tb. butter +2-1/2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. milk +1 c. water in which celery was cooked +1 c. buttered crumbs +1/2 c. grated cheese + +Cook the celery in boiling salted water until tender and then drain. +Prepare the cream sauce in the usual manner. Butter the crumbs by +stirring them into 1 tablespoonful of melted butter. Put 1/4 cupful of +the crumbs in the bottom of a baking dish and put one-half of the celery +over them. Place another 1/4 cupful of the crumbs over the celery, and +on top of this sprinkle 1/4 cupful of the grated cheese. Add the +remainder of the celery and pour the sauce over this. Finally, add the +other 1/4 cupful of cheese and the remainder of the crumbs. Place in a +hot oven, and bake until well heated through and the crumbs are browned. +Serve hot. + + +CORN AND ITS PREPARATION + +113. The seeds of the maize plant, or Indian corn, especially the +variety known as _sweet corn_, are eaten as a vegetable when they are +immature. They grow on a woody cob, and when they are green they are +soft and milky; but when they become ripe they are hard and are then +ground as grain. Many varieties of sweet corn are used, but some are +better in quality than others. In some varieties, the kernels, or seeds, +are yellow, while in others they are white; also, some of them are +suitable for use early in the summer, while others come later in the +season. However, in spite of this difference in quality, color, and +season, all kinds of corn used as a vegetable are called _green corn_ +and may be prepared in exactly the same ways. + +114. The food value of corn, which is very high, even exceeding that of +Irish potatoes, is due principally to the carbohydrate it contains. This +food substance is in the form of sugar in the green kernels, but as they +mature it changes to starch. The food value of the dry grain is +therefore higher, and the carbohydrate is in a different form. + +When the contents of the kernels is still in the liquid form, the corn +is said to be at the _milk stage_, and is generally considered to be too +young for table use. On the other hand, when the liquid in the kernels +has become thickened, the corn, which is then at the _dough stage_, is +thought to be too old for use as a vegetable. To be ideal for culinary +purposes, it should be just between the milk and dough stages. Then, if +it is in good condition, a most satisfactory vegetable is the result. + +115. The ear on which the corn kernels grow is entirely encased in +several layers of husks. These are not removed until just before the +corn is to be cooked; so when this vegetable is in the market the husks +are allowed to remain on the ears. The condition of the ears can be +determined by stripping the husks down a little and examining the +kernels. If they are well filled, they may be considered to be in proper +condition; otherwise, they will not be suitable for cooking. No special +care need be given to green corn, provided it is not husked. However, +when it has been husked, it should be cooked at once. In the husking of +corn, all corn silk that is found inside of the husks should be +carefully removed, for this is very annoying in the cooked vegetable and +its presence indicates carelessness. + +116. CORN ON THE COB.--The simplest way in which to prepare green corn +is to cook it on the cob. When corn first comes into the market, it is +usually very tender and makes a most satisfactory dish when prepared +in this way. + +To cook corn on the cob, husk the corn, remove the silk from the ears, +and place them in a kettle. Pour enough boiling water over them to cover +them well, and add 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. Boil 5 +minutes, remove from the water, and serve at once. In eating corn on the +cob, most persons dress it with butter, pepper, and salt. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +117. CORN COOKED IN MILK.--Often it is not desired to eat corn on the +cob. When this is the case, it may be cut off the ear and cooked in +various ways. A simple way to prepare it is to cook it with milk and +season it with salt, pepper, and butter, as explained in the +accompanying recipe. + +Select the desired number of ears of green corn, husk them, and remove +the silk. Then, as shown in Fig. 11, cut the corn from the cob with a +sharp knife, grasping the ear by the larger end and cutting upwards. +After cutting off the kernels, scrape the ears so that nothing edible +will be wasted, drawing the knife downwards. Put the corn into a +saucepan, add milk until the corn is nearly covered, and season with +salt, pepper, and a little butter. Allow the corn to simmer for about 10 +minutes, stirring frequently to prevent the milk from sticking to the +bottom of the pan and scorching. No difficulty will be experienced in +the preparation of this dish if a double boiler is used, but longer +cooking will be required. When the corn is sufficiently cooked, remove +from the fire and serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] 118. CORN PULP.--Some persons are unable to +digest the coarse hulls of green corn, but can eat the corn if the hulls +are removed. Such persons need not be deprived of the delights of this +vegetable, for it may be prepared in the form of pulp, which will not +disagree with them. + +To prepare corn pulp, first cut a slit down each row of kernels with a +sharp knife as shown in Fig. 12; then, in the manner shown in Fig. 13, +scrape out the contents of the kernels with the dull edge of the knife, +drawing the knife downwards. When all the pulp has been removed, season +it with salt, pepper, and butter, and heat it thoroughly in a double +boiler. Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +If it is not desirable to serve the corn pulp in this manner, it may be +used in various ways, as the following recipes indicate. A good +substitute for corn pulp is canned corn, but this must be chopped in +order to break up the hulls. + +119. CORN SOUFFLE.--No more delightful corn dish can be prepared than +corn souffle, for in addition to its being appetizing and nutritious, it +is extremely dainty. It may be cooked in a baking dish, but it is more +attractive when baked in individual baking dishes. A point to remember +about its preparation is that it should be served immediately upon being +taken from the oven, for souffle always shrinks as it cools. + +CORN SOUFFLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. green corn pulp +1 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +2 Tb. melted butter +2 Tb. flour +1/4 c. milk +2 eggs + +Mix the corn pulp, salt, pepper, and melted butter, stir in the flour, +and add the milk. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks, and add them to the +mixture. Then beat the whites stiff and fold them in. Pour into a +buttered baking dish or into individual baking dishes, set in a pan of +hot water, and bake until brown. Serve at once. + +120. CORN OYSTERS.--Variety can be secured in the use of corn by making +corn oysters. These get their name from the fact that they resemble +oysters in both size and shape. They may be served as a garnish for a +meat dish or as a vegetable dish. + +CORN OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. corn pulp +1 egg +1/4 c. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1/2 tsp. baking powder + +Prepare the corn pulp according to the directions given in Art. 118. To +this add the beaten egg, flour, salt, pepper, and baking powder. Drop in +tablespoonfuls on a well-greased griddle. When brown on one side, turn +and brown on the other side. Then fold through the center, doubling one +side over the other. Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +121. CORN FRITTERS.--The popularity of corn fritters, which have corn +pulp as their foundation, is undoubtedly due both to their flavor and to +the variety they afford in the diet. After being fried, corn fritters +should appear as shown in Fig. 14. They may be served plain, but most +persons prefer them with a sauce of some kind or with maple sirup. + +CORN FRITTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. corn pulp, or 1 can corn, chopped +1 c. flour +1 tsp. baking powder +1 tsp. salt +2 eggs + +If canned corn is used, drain off the liquid before using it. To the +corn, add the flour, baking powder, and salt. Separate the eggs and stir +in the beaten yolks. Beat the whites stiff and fold them into the +mixture. Drop with a spoon into deep fat, fry until brown, remove from +the fat, and drain on paper. Serve plain, with a desired sauce, or with +maple sirup. + + +CUCUMBERS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +122. The hard-rinded fruit of the cucumber plant has been used from time +immemorial as a vegetable. In food value, cucumbers are very low, +comparing closely with celery in this respect; however, as they contain +a large amount of cellulose, or bulk, and mineral salts, they should not +be disregarded in the diet. They have a rather strong flavor due to +their volatile oils, which so frequently disagree with persons and which +give cucumbers a reputation for being difficult to digest. However, when +they are properly prepared, they can be eaten by most persons +without harm. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +123. Formerly it was the custom to soak slices of cucumber in salt water +before serving them. This procedure, however, has been found to be poor +policy, for nothing is gained by it and the salt toughens the cellulose +and makes the cucumbers limp and rubbery in texture. A much more +satisfactory way to prepare cucumbers is to slice them and then soak +them for some time before serving in ice water or water as cold as can +be obtained. They will then become crisp and delicious, and, besides +being more appetizing and agreeable, they will be no less digestible. +After being sliced and chilled, cucumbers are often combined with sliced +onions and eaten with vinegar, salt, and pepper, or they are eaten alone +or on lettuce, dressed with mayonnaise dressing. + +124. STUFFED CUCUMBERS.--Possibly the only recipe for cooked cucumbers +that is used to any extent is the accompanying one for stuffed +cucumbers. Cucumbers prepared in this way are very palatable, and +because of the ingredients used are much higher in food value than when +eaten alone. Such a dish is attractive, too, as Fig. 15 shows. + +STUFFED CUCUMBERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 cucumbers +2 Tb. butter +1 small onion, chopped +1 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1-1/2 c. steamed rice +1 c. stewed tomatoes +Bread crumbs + +Select medium-sized cucumbers, wash and peel them, and cut them in half +lengthwise. Hollow out the center so that the cucumbers will have the +shape of boats. Then melt the butter in a frying pan, add the chopped +onion, salt, and pepper, and heat together for a few minutes. Next add +the rice, tomatoes, and sufficient bread crumbs to take up any excess of +moisture. Fill the cucumbers with this mixture and bake until they are +soft enough to be easily pierced with a fork. During the first part of +the cooking, pour a small amount of hot water into the pan in which the +cucumbers are baked. Serve hot. + + +EGGPLANT AND ITS PREPARATION + +125. EGGPLANT belongs to the class of fruit vegetables, and is closely +related to the tomato in structure and composition. It grows rather +large in size, is covered with a smooth brownish-purple skin, and is +made up of material that is close and firm in texture and creamy white +in color. Because of the nature of its structure, eggplant would seem to +be high in food value, but, on the contrary, this vegetable has very +little. In this respect, it is about equal to cabbage and cauliflower +and slightly less than string beans. + +126. Eggplant is found in the market from early summer until the +beginning of winter. Because it is protected by a heavy skin, it keeps +well and needs no special care in storage. The strong flavor of the +pulp is disagreeable to many persons. However, it has been found that +much of this flavor may be removed by soaking the eggplant in strong +salt water or by sprinkling it with salt after it has been sliced and +then allowing it to stand for some time. It may be prepared in a variety +of ways; so, if the members of the family care for it, the housewife +will find it of great assistance in planning and preparing meals. + +127. SAUTED EGGPLANT.--The usual way of preparing eggplant is to cut it +into slices and then saute it. As the slices are dipped into beaten egg +and then into crumbs before sauteing, the food value of this vegetable +is increased and its flavor improved. + +Peel the eggplant and then cut it into 1/4-inch slices. Sprinkle salt +over the slices and let them stand for 1 hour or more; then pour off the +juice that has collected. Beat an egg slightly, and to it add a few +tablespoonfuls of milk or water. Dip the slices of eggplant first into +the beaten egg and then into crumbs. When sufficiently coated, saute in +shallow fat, browning first on one side and then on the other. +Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +128. BAKED EGGPLANT.--An attractive dish can be made by removing the +contents from an eggplant, filling the cavity with a well-seasoned +stuffing, and then baking the stuffed eggplant. When an eggplant is +prepared in this way, it will appear as in Fig. 16. + +BAKED EGGPLANT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 medium-sized eggplant +2 c. dried bread crumbs +1/2 c. milk +2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 small onion, chopped +1 Tb. parsley +2 Tb. butter + +Wash the eggplant and cook in boiling water for about 10 minutes. Remove +from the water, cut off the top, scoop out the contents, and chop it +into small pieces. With this finely chopped pulp, mix the bread crumbs, +milk, salt, pepper, onion, parsley, and melted butter. When the whole is +thoroughly blended, pack it into the shell of the eggplant and place in +the oven. Bake for about 30 minutes or until the stuffing is thoroughly +cooked and the top is brown. Serve hot. + +129. SCALLOPED EGGPLANT.--If it is desired to increase the food value of +eggplant and improve its flavor too, this vegetable should be scalloped. +The accompanying recipe carefully followed will produce a most +appetizing dish. + +SCALLOPED EGGPLANT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 medium-sized eggplant +1 c. dried crumbs +2 Tb. butter +2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1-1/2 c. milk + +Peel the eggplant and cut it into 1/2-inch pieces. Put into a saucepan, +cover with boiling salted water, cook until tender, and then drain. +Grease a baking dish, spread 1/4 cupful of crumbs on the bottom, and add +one-half of the eggplant. Dot with butter and then sprinkle with salt +and pepper. Add another 1/4 cupful of crumbs and the remaining eggplant, +dot again with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Pour the milk +over the whole and sprinkle the remaining 1/2 cupful of crumbs on the +top. Place in the oven and bake for 1/2 hour or more. Serve hot. + + +FRENCH ARTICHOKES AND THEIR PREPARATION + +130. FRENCH ARTICHOKES, sometimes known as _globe artichokes, California +artichokes_, and _cardoons_, are related to the family of thistles. They +are grown for the sake of their large flower-heads, or buds, which are +shown in Fig. 17 and which are much used as a food. These plants stand +storage and shipment very well and may be kept for long periods of time +without spoiling. It is therefore possible to transport them +considerable distances, a very gratifying fact, since most persons +consider artichokes a great delicacy. + +131. Not all of the artichoke plant is eaten. The portions of the flower +that develop in the center of the base are removed before the base is +eaten. After the artichokes are cooked, the scales, or leaves, are +pulled from the cooked head with the fingers and the lower part of each +one is dipped into sauce and eaten. The inner scales are much more +tender and edible than the coarse outside ones. Although artichokes +find favor with many and are considered somewhat of a delicacy, they are +low in food value, being about equal to asparagus in this respect. To +add food material, a dressing, such as drawn-butter sauce or mayonnaise +dressing, is usually served. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +132. ARTICHOKES WITH HOLLANDAISE SAUCE.--The usual method of preparing +artichokes is to boil them and then serve them with melted butter or a +sauce. Hollandaise dressing is used with the artichokes shown in Fig. +18. Boiled artichokes may also be cooled and then served with a +salad dressing. + +Secure the desired number of artichokes and prepare them for boiling by +pulling off the coarse outside leaves, cutting off the top of the bud, +and removing the stem close to the bud. Cover well with boiling water, +add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart, and boil until tender, or for +about 45 minutes. Remove from the water and serve hot with melted butter +or Hollandaise sauce. If it is desired to use them for a salad, allow +them to cool before adding the salad dressing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + + VEGETABLES (PART 1) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) To what is the flavor of vegetables largely due? (_b_) How +does cookery affect this? + +(2) Describe the structure of vegetables. + +(3) What food substances do vegetables as a class supply to the diet? + +(4) (_a_) What are the legumes? (_b_) What food substance do they supply +in quantity to the diet? + +(5) Name the classes of vegetables and give examples of each class. + +(6) (_a_) When is soaking vegetables in salt water necessary? (_b_) What +proportions of salt and water are used? + +(7) What effect has the application of heat on vegetables? + +(8) Give an example of a method of cooking vegetables that: (_a_) wastes +food material; (_b_) conserves food material. + +(9) Give the reason for the use of soda in cooking vegetables. + +(10) How should salt be used in the cooking of: (_a_) tender vegetables? +(_b_) tough vegetables? + +(11) Why should care be taken not to overcook cabbage, cauliflower, and +Brussels sprouts? + +(12) What is a good general rule to follow for the length of time +necessary for cooking vegetables? + +(13) Of what value are the sauces used to dress vegetables? + +(14) Mention some methods of preparing vegetables that greatly increase +their food value. + +(15) What value has the addition of salt pork or bacon in the +preparation of dried beans? + +(16) (_a_) Why should the cover be left off the kettle during the +cooking of cabbage? (_b_) What other vegetables are cooked in this way? + +(17) Explain why old carrots and beets require longer cooking than young +ones. + +(18) (_a_) At what stage is green corn best for table use? (_b_) How may +this be recognized? + +(19) What value have corn pulp and bean puree? + +(20) (_a_) How should cucumbers be prepared before serving raw? (_b_) +How may the strong flavor of eggplant be improved? + + * * * * * + + + +VEGETABLES (PART 2) + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES AS FOOD (Continued) + +GREENS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +VARIETIES AND FOOD VALUE + +1. Varieties of Greens.--The leaves and stems of many young plants in +either their wild or their cultivated form are used for food. All of +them are similar in composition, but many of them differ in flavor and +appearance. The cultivated ones include beet tops, endive, spinach, and +kale, as well as lettuce, collards, Swiss chard, sorrel, mustard greens, +turnip tops, parsley, and cultivated cress and dandelion. The four +greens mentioned first are illustrated in Fig. 1, beet tops being shown +in the lower right corner; endive, in the upper right corner; spinach, +in the lower left corner; and kale, in the upper left corner. Commonest +among the wild greens are dandelion, cress, wild mustard, dock, pokeweed +sprouts, milkweed sprouts, and lamb's-quarters. Most of these wild +varieties are excellent in the spring when they are young and tender, +but it is not advisable to use them for food unless one is perfectly +familiar with their appearance. + +2. Food Value of Greens.--The food value of all greens with the +exception of dandelion is very low, being just about equal to that of +celery and cucumbers. This may be increased in their preparation by the +addition of other food materials. However, the chief use of greens in +the diet is not to supply food value, but mineral salts, the most +important one being iron in a form that is necessary for building up +the blood. + + GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING GREENS + +3. The cooking of greens, both wild and cultivated, is not only simple +but practically the same for all varieties. When they are not used as a +salad vegetable, they are merely boiled until tender and then dressed in +any desired way. Some kinds admit of special preparation, and wherever +this is the case specific directions are given under the particular +variety, but even in such an event the preliminary preparation is +the same. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +To prepare greens, look them over carefully, remove any decayed or +withered parts, cut off the leaves, and wash in fresh cold water. Remove +from the water and wash again, and do this as many times as seems +necessary to remove all the sand and grit that the stalks contain. An +important point to remember is that the greens should not be cleansed by +pouring the water off, as the sand will then remain in the pan and is +likely to mix with the greens again. When they are thoroughly washed, +put them on to cook in a saucepan or a similar utensil. If they are +young and tender, they should be cooked as much as possible in their own +juice in order to retain all the valuable mineral salts they contain, +only enough water being added to start the cooking without burning. In +the case of greens that are very strong in flavor, it will be necessary +to cook them in a larger quantity of water and then pour off what +remains after cooking. When they have cooked until they are tender, +season them if necessary, and add butter to give them flavor and +increase their food value. Vinegar or a slice of lemon adds much to the +flavor of greens. + + BEET TOPS + +4. The tops of beets include the leaves and the stems of this vegetable, +as Fig. 1 shows. They are at their best when the beets are very young or +before the beets themselves have developed. Beet tops are not used so +extensively as some greens, but they will be found to have a more +agreeable flavor than many greens that are more popular. Beets are +raised for the purpose of supplying greens by planting the seeds closely +enough together to form a thick bed of leaves and then thinning them out +before the beets have developed. A few may be allowed to remain and +develop for use as beets. Young beets that are purchased with the tops +on also furnish a source of beet tops as well as beets. + +When beet tops are to be cooked, cut the stems into inch lengths and use +them with the leaves. Proceed to clean and cook the greens according to +the directions given in Art. 3. Season with salt and pepper and flavor +with butter. Serve with something tart, such as vinegar or lemon. + + +DANDELION + +5. Dandelion, both wild and cultivated, is a plant whose leaves are much +used for a vegetable green before the blossoms develop. The wild ones +have the advantage of being cheap, so they should be used if they can be +secured; the cultivated ones, on the other hand, cost as much as spinach +and other greens. The season for dandelions is comparatively short, +lasting only a few weeks in the early spring. Use should therefore be +made of them when they can be procured in order to secure variety for +the menu. When they are desired as cooked greens, prepare them in the +manner explained in Art. 3. + +6. Dandelion With Sour Sauce.--If a change in the cooking of dandelion +is desired, it should be prepared with a sour sauce. This method of +preparation is very popular, for besides increasing the food value of +this variety of greens, it improves the flavor very much. + +DANDELION WITH SOUR SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 pk. dandelion +1/2 c. vinegar +4 thin slices bacon +1/2 c. water +2 Tb. flour +1 egg +1 tsp. salt + +Clean and wash the dandelion. Cut the slices of bacon into small pieces +and saute until crisp. Stir the flour and salt into the bacon fat, add +the vinegar and water, and stir until the flour thickens. Add the beaten +egg last, and remove from the fire. Put the dandelion into the pan and +mix well with the hot sauce. If the dandelion is preferred well wilted, +set the pan over the flame, and stir until the dandelion appears as +desired. Serve hot. + + +ENDIVE + +7. ENDIVE is an herb that is used as a salad plant or is cooked and +served with a hot dressing or as greens. The three common varieties of +this green are escarole, chicory, and French endive, all of which have a +slightly bitter taste and may be found in the market from late summer +until early winter. _Escarole_ is a broad-leaved variety that is grown +more or less in a head. _Chicory_, which is shown in Fig. 1, has a small +feathery-edged leaf, and is often bleached by tying the leaves together +at the top, so that the inside ones are very tender. Both of these +varieties may be cooked, but they are also much used for salads. _French +endive_ bears very little resemblance to the other kinds, having +straight, creamy-white leaves that are closely pressed together. It +looks very much like sprouts of some kind, and is entirely bleached in +the process of growth by banking the earth around it. It is never used +for anything except salads and garnishes. + +8. Endive is very low in food value, comparing very closely with celery +and cucumbers in this respect. Still, as a salad vegetable, it is worthy +of much more extensive use than is generally made of it. As a rule, its +price is about the same as that of lettuce, so it should be substituted +frequently for lettuce to give variety to the diet. To be most +satisfactory, endive should be bought when it is fresh and unwithered +and kept until used in a cool, damp place. A good plan is to wrap such +vegetables in a damp cloth. If, upon using, endive appears to be +withered, it may be freshened by placing it in a pan of cold water and +allowing it to remain there for a short time. + +When endive is used as a salad, it may be served merely with a salad +dressing of some kind or it may be combined with other vegetables before +applying the dressing. Escarole and chicory, which are much used as +greens, should be prepared and cooked according to the directions given +in Art. 3. + + LETTUCES + +9. Lettuce is a well-known herb that is much used as a salad vegetable. +There are numerous varieties of lettuce, but these may be reduced to the +two kinds shown in Fig. 2, _leaf lettuce_ on the right and _head +lettuce_ on the left. Leaf lettuce, which is more often used for +garnishing than for any other purpose, has firm, crisp, green, upright +leaves; on the other hand, head lettuce has round leaves forming a +compact head, like cabbage. The outside leaves of head lettuce are +green, but the inside ones are usually bleached by the exclusion of +light, as are those of cabbage and endive. These inside leaves are more +tender than the others, and hence more to be desired as a salad +vegetable than the unbleached variety. In food value, lettuce compares +closely with other varieties of greens and is high in the same mineral +salts that they are. The bleached leaves do not contain so much iron as +the green ones. [Illustration: FIG. 2] + +10. As has already been implied, lettuce finds its principal use in +garnishing salads. When used for this purpose, it should be eaten along +with the salad, for it is too valuable to be wasted. Since the coarse +outside leaves of a stalk or a head of lettuce do not look so well as +the tender bleached ones, they are often rejected, but this should not +be done, for use can also be made of them. For instance, such leaves may +be shredded into narrow strips and used as a foundation for salads that +will be just as attractive as those having a single lettuce leaf for a +garnish. When it is realized that the outside leaves are purchased at +the same price as the more delicate parts of the lettuce, it can readily +be understood why they also should be utilized as food. Most of the +garden varieties of lettuce, especially when they have grown very large, +are frequently cooked as greens. When used in this way, lettuce is +prepared, as are other greens, according to the directions given in Art. +3. This vegetable also makes an appetizing dish when it is prepared with +a sauce and served hot in the same way as dandelion. + + +SPINACH + +11. SPINACH, which is shown in Fig. 1, consists of the large, fleshy, +deep-green leaves of a garden herb much used as a green for food. In +fact, this is one of the most popular varieties of greens and is used +more extensively than any other. Many varieties of spinach are grown, +but all of them are used in just the same way. It is slightly higher in +food value than lettuce and endive, but lower than dandelion. However, +it is a valuable food in the diet because of the large quantity of iron +it contains, and many persons eat it not so much because they like it +but because they believe it is good for them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +12. Some kinds of spinach do not keep for long periods of time. +Therefore, in order to avoid any waste, spinach should always be very +fresh when purchased and should be used as soon as possible after it is +obtained. It may be prepared in a greater number of ways than most of +the other greens except, perhaps, those used for salads. For instance, +it is served with entrees of various kinds, is combined with meat, ham +and spinach being a much used combination, or is made into a puree by +forcing it through a sieve and then used in the making of soup or +souffle. Then, again, spinach is often boiled and pressed into small +cups to form molds like the one shown in Fig. 3. Such a mold may be used +to garnish a dish of some sort or, as here shown, may be garnished with +a slice of hard-cooked egg. When spinach is used in any of these ways, +it should first be cooked according to the directions given for the +preparation of greens in Art. 3. 13. SPINACH SOUFFLE.--The puree that +is made by forcing boiled spinach through a sieve may be used in a +variety of ways, but none of these is more satisfactory than spinach +souffle. When made according to the accompanying recipe, spinach souffle +will be found to be appetizing as well as nourishing. + +SPINACH SOUFFLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. hot milk +2 Tb. flour +1 c. spinach puree +1 tsp. salt +2 egg whites +Dash of pepper + +Melt the butter, add the flour, salt, pepper, and hot milk, and stir in +the spinach puree. Beat the egg whites stiff and fold them into the +mixture. Grease individual baking dishes or a large baking dish and fill +two-thirds full with the mixture. Place in a pan of hot water and bake +in a slow oven until firm, or for about 20 or 30 minutes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +14. SPINACH ROYAL.--A very attractive dish can be made by combining +spinach with toast, hard-cooked egg, and lemon in the manner shown in +Fig. 4. This dish is known as _spinach royal_, and because of the +additional ingredients it is nutritious as well as palatable. + +SPINACH ROYAL +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1/2 pk. spinach +1/3 c. water +1-1/2 tsp. salt +3 Tb. bacon fat or butter +3 Tb. flour +1/8 tsp. pepper +Triangular pieces of toast +2 hard-cooked eggs +1 lemon + +Look the spinach over carefully and remove all roots and dead leaves. +Cut the stalks apart and wash them thoroughly several times in fresh, +clean water to remove the sand and dirt, lifting the spinach out of the +water each time instead of pouring the water off. Put the spinach into a +saucepan with the water. Stir frequently until the spinach is wilted and +there is sufficient water to boil it. Add 1 teaspoonful of the salt and +cook until the leaves are very tender, or for about 15 or 20 minutes. +Drain off all but about 1/2 cupful of the liquid. Melt the fat in a +frying pan, stir the flour into it, brown to a golden brown, and then +add the spinach, pepper, and remaining salt. Stir and cook until the +flour has thickened and mixed well with the spinach. Turn out in a mound +on a platter and place the pieces of toast around the spinach as shown. +Slice the hard-cooked eggs, cut the lemon into any desirable shape, and +use these to garnish the platter. In serving this dish, put a spoonful +of spinach on a piece of toast and serve a slice or two of egg and lemon +with each portion. + +15. CREAMED SPINACH.--After spinach has been boiled until it is tender, +it may be made more appetizing by combining it with a well-flavored +cream sauce, according to the accompanying directions. + +CREAMED SPINACH +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1/2 pk. spinach +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. ham or bacon fat +Dash of pepper +2 Tb. flour +2/3 c. milk + +Boil the spinach according to the directions given in Art. 3. Melt the +fat in a frying pan, add the flour, salt, pepper, and milk, and stir +until the flour thickens. Chop the cooked spinach and add it to the hot +dressing. Stir and cook until the two are well blended. Serve hot. + + +WATERCRESS AND PARSLEY + +16. WATERCRESS and PARSLEY are two herbs, or greens, that are used +considerably for garnishing and flavoring other dishes. These greens are +shown in Fig. 5, that at the left being watercress and that at the +right parsley. + +17. Watercress, which is commonly known as _peppercress_, usually grows +wild in beds along the banks of springs or clear, cool streams. A few +varieties, however, are cultivated, and these are grown in dry soil and +known as _upland cress_. It is a very prolific herb, and may be obtained +from early spring until late in the fall; in fact, it does not freeze +easily and is sometimes found in early winter along the swiftly flowing +streams that are not frozen over. Watercress may be used whenever it can +be procured, but it is not very desirable when in blossom. Its chief use +is to garnish salads and other dishes, but it may also be cooked and +served hot as a green. In such an event, its cooking is accomplished in +the same way as that of other greens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +18. Parsley, while classified as a green vegetable, is perhaps not in +the true sense of the word a real vegetable, since it is used for only +two purposes, and in neither of these is it served cooked or raw as an +exclusive article of diet. The most important use of parsley is perhaps +that of flavoring. It is added to soups, sauces, and various kinds of +cooked vegetables in order to impart additional flavor. In such cases, +it should be chopped very fine in order that all possible flavor may be +extracted from it. Parsley may also be dried before it is used for this +purpose, provided it must be kept for any length of time. The other use +of parsley is that of garnishing. It is often used in small sprays to +garnish a roast of meat, a steak, chops, fish, or some baked, fried, or +sauted vegetable. Sometimes it is chopped very fine and placed around +the edge of a patty shell, a croustade, a timbale case, or a piece of +toast upon which food is served. Parsley may be eaten when it is served +as a garnish if its flavor is found to be agreeable to the taste. + + JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES AND THEIR PREPARATION + +19. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES are tubers belonging to the sunflower family. +In appearance they resemble potatoes to some extent, but, as a rule, +they are neither so large nor so smooth. The inside texture of this +vegetable is more moist and not so mealy as that of the Irish potato. +Jerusalem artichokes are easy to grow and are very prolific, so that if +any one is fond of them they will be found to be a profitable crop. For +table use, they are prepared in much the same way as potatoes. + +20. CREAMED ARTICHOKES.--A common method of preparing Jerusalem +artichokes is to cream them. Wash and peel the desired number of +artichokes and cut them into 1/2-inch dice. Put these to cook in boiling +salted water and cook until tender enough to be pierced with a fork. +Drain off the water and dress with hot medium white sauce. Serve hot. + +21. BUTTERED ARTICHOKES.--Another satisfactory way in which to prepare +Jerusalem artichokes is to dress them with butter. Wash and peel the +required number of artichokes and cut them into slices. Put these to +cook in boiling salted water and cook until tender enough to be pierced +with a fork. Drain off the water and dress with melted butter to which +has been added a little chopped parsley. Serve hot. + + +KOHLRABI AND ITS PREPARATION + +22. KOHLRABI is a variety of cabbage having a turnip-shaped stem. On +account of its shape it is often called _turnip cabbage_. The edible +part of kohlrabi is the enlarged stem, which has the flavor of both +turnip and cabbage. The stems of the leaves are attached to the enlarged +portion that is used for food, and these must be removed in the +preparation of the vegetable. Kohlrabi is not a perishable vegetable and +therefore stands storage very well. For market, it is usually placed in +bunches and tied as are beets and carrots. In food value, this +vegetable, like cabbage, is somewhat low. The food value it does have is +carbohydrate in the form of sugar. 23. After the stems of the leaves +have been cut off, the kohlrabi should be washed and then pared to +remove the outer skin. It is usually diced or sliced thin, and then +cooked and dressed in any desirable way. This vegetable, like cabbage, +cauliflower, etc., should be cooked with the cover removed from the +kettle, in order to allow some of the flavor to escape in the steam. +Kohlrabi that is old or that has been in storage for some time develops +woody portions as do turnips, beets, and other winter vegetables, and +must therefore be cooked sufficiently long to make it palatable. + +24. BOILED KOHLRABI.--Persons fond of kohlrabi as a vegetable will +undoubtedly prefer it merely boiled and flavored with butter, pepper, +and salt. When it is to be cooked in this way, prepare it in the manner +just explained. Then put it on to cook in sufficient boiling salted +water to cover it well, and allow it to cook with the cover removed +until it can be easily pierced with a fork. When sufficiently cooked, +pour off the water, season to taste with salt and pepper, and add 1 +tablespoonful of butter for each pint of kohlrabi cooked. Serve hot. + +25. MASHED KOHLRABI.--As turnips and potatoes are often boiled and then +mashed, so kohlrabi makes a very appetizing dish when prepared in this +way. Prepare the kohlrabi and cook it by boiling. When it has cooked +soft, drain off the water and mash with a wooden or a wire potato +masher. Season with salt and pepper, and add 1 tablespoonful of butter +for each pint of cooked vegetable. Serve hot. + +26. CREAMED KOHLRABI.--The preparation of kohlrabi can be varied by +serving it with a cream sauce. Such a sauce also increases the food +value of this vegetable by supplying the substances in which it is low. + +CREAMED KOHLRABI +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +4 c. diced kohlrabi +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. milk + +Cook the kohlrabi in boiling salted water until tender and then drain +the water from it. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, +and pepper, and into this stir the hot milk. Cook until the sauce has +thickened. Then pour it over the kohlrabi and reheat. Serve hot. + + LENTILS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +27. LENTILS are the flattish, circular, dried seeds of an annual vine +grown chiefly in Europe and Asia. They belong to the class of vegetables +known as legumes, and are therefore high in protein in the form of +legumin. They also contain a large amount of carbohydrate in the form of +starch and are high in mineral salts. Because of their high food value, +which is somewhat over 1,600 calories to the pound, they are a valuable +food in the diet, particularly as a meat substitute. Consequently, when +lentils can be obtained at a reasonable price, it is wise to make +considerable use of them. + +There are three varieties of lentils, _yellow_, _red_, and _black_, and +they resemble split peas in appearance, as will be observed from Fig. 6, +which shows a panful of dried lentils. They have a distinctive flavor +that is agreeable to most persons. However, like other dried legumes, +long cooking is required to make them tender and palatable. + +28. COOKING OF LENTILS.--In general, the preparation of lentils is +similar to that of dried beans, the cooking of which is now thoroughly +understood. They may be put on to cook immediately after they are +washed, but, as in the case of dried beans, their cooking may be +hastened if they are first softened by soaking them in cold water for 8 +to 12 hours. At the end of this time, it is advisable to parboil the +lentils for about 10 or 15 minutes, or until their outer skins begin to +crack, in water to which a pinch of soda has been added. This water +being poured off, the lentils should be washed and then put to cook in +fresh water to which 1 teaspoonful of salt is added for each quart of +water used. Like beans, the lentils should be cooked slowly until they +are soft enough to crush between the fingers. With these principles for +the cooking of lentils well in mind, the housewife will have no +difficulty in preparing this vegetable, for almost any of the recipes +given for dried beans may be used with lentils substituted for +the beans. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] 29. LENTIL PUFF.--A decided change from the +usual ways of preparing lentils can be had by making lentil puff. Black +lentils are used for this preparation, and they are made into a puree +before being used in the puff. If the accompanying recipe is carefully +followed, a most appetizing, as well as nutritious, dish will be +the result. + +LENTIL PUFF +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/4 c. lentil puree +1-1/2 c. riced potatoes +2 Tb. butter +1/2 c. milk +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 eggs + +Soak the lentils overnight in water that contains a pinch of soda, +parboil them for about 10 minutes, and pour off the water. Put them to +cook in cold water and cook until they are tender, allowing the water to +evaporate completely, if possible, so that the puree made from them will +be dry. However, if any water remains when the lentils are done, pour it +off and use it for soup or sauce. Make the puree by forcing the cooked +lentils through a colander. If it is found to be too wet, less milk can +be used than the recipe calls for. Cook several potatoes and rice them +by forcing them through a colander or a ricer. Combine the lentils and +potatoes, and to this mixture add the butter, milk, salt, and pepper. +Separate the eggs, and beat the yolks slightly and the whites until +stiff. Stir the yolks into the mixture and, just before putting the puff +into the oven, fold in the whites. Pour into a buttered baking dish, set +in the oven, and bake until the puff is set and the surface is brown. +Serve hot. + + +MUSHROOMS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +30. Mushrooms are not a vegetable; still they are included in this +Section because they are used like a vegetable. In reality, they are a +fungus growth containing no chlorophyl, or green coloring matter, and, +as shown in Fig. 7, consisting of an erect stalk that supports a +cap-like expansion. They occur in many varieties, both poisonous and +non-poisonous. The non-poisonous, or edible, mushrooms are found on +rich, moist pastures all over the world and they are also very +frequently cultivated. They may be collected in almost any locality, but +no person who is not perfectly familiar with their characteristics and +therefore able to judge the non-poisonous kinds from the poisonous +should attempt to gather them. Fresh mushrooms can usually be found in +the markets, but as they are expensive, they should be considered a +luxury and used only occasionally. Instead, some of the small canned +varieties, which are usually satisfactory for most purposes, should be +used when mushrooms are desired and the wild ones cannot be secured. + +31. In food value, mushrooms are not very high, being about equal to +beets or carrots in this respect; but they have a higher percentage of +protein than these vegetables and they contain extractives similar to +those found in meat. To increase their food value, mushrooms are often +combined with other foods, such as peas, chestnuts, diced meats, and +fowl, and made into dishes of various sorts. Then, again, they are +served as a garnish with steaks and other meat dishes. In short, if they +can be secured from the surrounding neighborhood or the price is not +prohibitive, they should be used in the many excellent ways that are +devised for their preparation. + +32. PREPARATION FOR COOKING.--To prepare mushrooms for cooking, clean +them by brushing them carefully with a soft brush, by scraping the +surface, and, in some cases, by removing the stems. Do not, however, +throw the stems away, for they may be used as well as the caps. If the +mushrooms are found to be tough, the skin should be peeled off. After +being thus prepared, mushrooms may be cooked in various ways, as is +explained in the accompanying recipes. [Illustration: FIG. 7] + +33. BROILED MUSHROOMS.--One of the simplest methods of cooking mushrooms +is to broil them. This may be done either by exposing them directly to +the heat or by pan-broiling them. In this recipe, only the caps +are used. + +Clean the mushrooms that are to be broiled and remove the stems. Place +the caps in a broiler that has been greased or in a slightly greased +frying pan. Brown them on one side, then turn them and brown them on the +other side. Remove to a platter, dot with butter, season with salt and +pepper, and serve. 34. STEWED MUSHROOMS.--Another very simple way in +which to cook mushrooms is to stew them and then serve them on toast. +When prepared by this method, both the stems and the caps are utilized. + +Clean the mushrooms and cut both the caps and the stems into small +pieces. Cook until tender in sufficient water, stock, or milk to cover +them well, and then season with salt and pepper. To the liquid that +remains, add enough flour to thicken it slightly. Serve on toast. + +35. SAUTED MUSHROOMS.--When mushrooms are sauted, they are often used +with other dishes, particularly broiled steak, to improve the flavor and +give variety. In fact, steak smothered with mushrooms is considered a +luxury. However, sauted mushrooms are very frequently served alone or, +together with a sauce made from the fat in which they are cooked, they +are served on toast. + +Clean the mushrooms, remove the stems, and dredge both stems and caps +with flour. Melt fat in the frying pan and place the dredged mushrooms +in it. Saute until brown on both sides and season with salt, pepper, and +chopped parsley. Serve in any desired manner. If sauce is desired, add +water or stock to the flour and fat that remain in the frying pan, and +allow this to cook for a few minutes. + +36. CREAMED MUSHROOMS AND CHESTNUTS.--No more delightful combination can +be imagined than mushrooms and chestnuts. When combined with a cream +sauce and served in patty shells or timbale cases, a dish suitable for +the daintiest meal is the result. Another very attractive way in which +to serve this combination is to place it in a baking dish, or, as shown +in Fig. 8, in individual baking dishes, cover it with a layer of biscuit +or pastry crust, bake, and serve it as a pie. + +CREAMED MUSHROOMS AND CHESTNUTS +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1-1/2 c. stewed chestnuts +1-1/2 c. stewed mushrooms +3 Tb. butter +3 Tb. flour +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1-1/2 c. milk + +Remove the shells from the required number of Italian chestnuts and +cook the nut meats in boiling water until tender. Peel off the skins and +break the chestnuts into pieces. If fresh mushrooms are used, stew them +in boiling water until tender. Cut the stewed or canned mushrooms into +pieces of the same size as the chestnuts, and mix the two together. Make +a cream sauce by melting the butter, adding the flour, salt, and pepper, +and stirring in the hot milk. Cook until the mixture thickens, pour it +over the chestnuts and mushrooms, and serve in any of the ways +suggested. + + +OKRA AND ITS PREPARATION + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +37. OKRA is a fruit vegetable consisting of a green pod that is several +inches long, pointed at one end, and filled with seeds. Fig. 9 shows +okra pods attached to the herb of which they are a part. Although okra +originated in Africa, it is for the most part grown in the southern +section of the United States. However, canned okra may be obtained +almost anywhere. Okra is low in food value, being only slightly higher +than cabbage and most of the greens; nevertheless, it is liked by many +persons. It is of a mucilaginous, or gummy, consistency, and if it is +not properly cooked it becomes very slimy and is then decidedly +unpleasant. Because of its gummy nature, it helps to thicken any dish to +which it is added. Probably its chief use is as an ingredient in soups, +when it is known as _gumbo_. Chicken gumbo soup is one of the most +popular dishes of this kind. The preliminary preparation of okra is +the same as that of most other vegetables; that is, the pods should be +washed, the stems removed, and the cleaned pods then cooked in +sufficient boiling salted water to cover them well. + +38. STEWED OKRA.--The simplest way in which to prepare okra is to stew +it. When seasoned well with salt, pepper, and butter, stewed okra finds +much favor with those who care for this vegetable. + +Select the required number of okra pods and put them on to cook in +enough boiling salted water to cover them well. Cook until the pods are +soft enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Season with pepper and, if +necessary, additional salt, and add 1 tablespoonful of butter for each +four persons to be served. + +39. OKRA WITH TOMATOES.--If one does not desire a dish made entirely of +okra, it may be combined with tomatoes. Such a combination, seasoned +well and flavored with ham or bacon fat, makes a very tasty dish. + +OKRA WITH TOMATOES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. stewed or canned okra +1-1/2 c. stewed or canned tomatoes +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. ham or bacon fat + +Heat the okra and tomatoes together in a saucepan and add the salt, +pepper, and ham or bacon fat. Cook for 5 or 10 minutes or until well +blended. Serve hot. + + +ONIONS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +VARIETIES OF THE ONION FAMILY + +40. ONIONS are the chief commercial vegetable of the bulb crops. They +have been cultivated from the earliest times, their native country being +Central Asia. Closely allied to the onion are several other bulb +vegetables, including garlic, shallots, leeks, and chives, all of which +are used more extensively for flavoring dishes than for any other +purpose. Fig. 10 shows several varieties of this family, the group of +three in the upper right corner being garlic; the bunch in the lower +right corner, leeks; the bunch in the lower left corner, green onions; +and the remainder of those shown in the illustration, different +varieties of dried onions, that is, onions that have been allowed +to mature. + +41. This entire class of food is characterized by a typical, volatile +oil, which in most cases is so strong as to be somewhat irritating and +which causes the vegetable to disagree with many persons. This flavor, +however, can be almost entirely dissipated by cooking, so that many +persons who cannot eat the various members of the onion family raw can +tolerate them cooked. In food value, which is found principally as +carbohydrate in the form of sugar, this class of foods is not very high, +being about the same as carrots, beets, and other root vegetables. Some +persons believe that onions have wonderful medicinal value in curing +colds and preventing them, but there is really no foundation for such +a belief. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +42. ONIONS.--As has been pointed out, onions are of two general +varieties, dried and green. _Dried onions_, as shown in Fig. 10, are +those which have been allowed to grow to maturity and have then been +cured, or dried, to a certain extent. Such onions are in demand at all +seasons. _Green onions_, also shown in Fig. 10, are those which are +pulled, or taken out of the ground, before they have matured and are +eaten while fresh. They are especially popular in the spring, although +they have a rather long season. Each of these classes has many +varieties, which vary in flavor and in color, some of the dried ones +being yellow, some red, and others white. All dried onions have +excellent keeping qualities, so, after purchasing, no special care need +be given to them except to store them in a comparatively cool, dry +place. Deterioration is due chiefly to sprouting, for as soon as the new +plant begins to grow from the center of the onion, the remainder becomes +soft and loses much of its flavor. The green, immature onions, however, +will not keep for any length of time, and in order to keep them fresh +until they are used, they must be stored in a cool, damp place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +43. GARLIC.--The variety of onion known as garlic is very much desired +by the people of southern Europe, where it originated. As Fig. 10 shows, +it resembles the onion in appearance, but it consists of several parts, +or small bulbs, called _cloves_, which are encased in a covering of thin +white skin. Garlic has a very strong penetrating odor and a biting taste +that resemble the odor and taste of onion, but that are much ranker. It +is little used by Americans except as a flavoring for salads and various +kinds of highly seasoned meats. In reality, a very small amount of +garlic is sufficient to lend enough flavor, and so the bowl in which a +salad is served is often merely rubbed with garlic before the salad is +put into it. No difficulty will be experienced in recognizing garlic in +the markets, for here it is found in long strings that are made by +braiding the dry stems together. + +44. SHALLOTS.--Closely allied to garlic are shallots, which are native +to Syria, where they still grow wild. They are said to have been brought +into Europe by the Crusaders. The bulbs of this vegetable are similar to +those of garlic, being compound in form, but instead of being enclosed +in a thin covering, they are separate when mature, as Fig. 11 shows. +Shallots have a strong flavor, but it is not so rank as that of garlic, +nor does the odor remain in the mouth so long as that of onion. Many +persons like shallots for flavoring stews, soups, salads, and pickles. + +45. LEEKS.--Another member of the onion family that is more highly +prized and more extensively raised in Europe than in the United States +is leeks. As Fig. 10 shows, leeks do not produce a bulb as do onions. In +this vegetable, the lower parts of the leaves grow close together and +form a bulb-like stem, or neck, which is fairly solid and which +constitutes the edible part. The odor and flavor of leeks are similar to +those of onions, but they are somewhat weaker. The fleshy stem may be +bleached by banking it with earth, and when this is done, the flavor +becomes more mild and the texture more tender than in the onion bulb. +Like shallots, leeks are used to flavor stews, soups, and similar foods. + +46. CHIVES.--The member of the onion family known as chives is a small +plant whose roots remain in the ground for many years and produce year +after year dense tufts of slender, hollow leaves. These leaves grow to a +height of about 6 or 8 inches and resemble the tops of onions except +that they are much smaller. Chives, which have a more delicate flavor +than onions, are much used for flavoring soup, stews, salads, meats, and +other vegetables and as a garnish for salads. When used for any of these +purposes, they are cut into tiny pieces. + + +PREPARATION OF ONIONS + +47. ONIONS FOR FLAVORING.--When only the flavor of onions is desired in +a salad or a cooked dish of some sort, such as a dressing for fowl, +hash, or any similar combination of food ingredients, the onion should +be added in the form of juice and pulp rather than in pieces. Then it +will not be possible to observe the onion when it is mixed with the food +nor to come across small pieces of it when the food is eaten. To prepare +an onion in this way, peel it, cut off a crosswise slice, and then grate +the onion on a grater over a shallow dish. Add the juice and pulp thus +obtained to any food that calls for onion as a flavoring. + +48. ONIONS FOR THE TABLE.--When onions are to be used as a vegetable for +the table, they require cooking, but first of all they must be peeled. +This is at best a rather unpleasant task, because the fumes from the +strong volatile oil are irritating to both the eyes and the nostrils. +However, it may be done more comfortably by keeping the onions immersed +in cold water during the peeling. Remove only the dry outside shells, +and, if the onions are large, cut them in halves or quarters. However, +as the various layers are likely to fall apart when the onion is cut, it +is advisable to select medium-sized or small onions, for these may be +cooked whole. After the onions have been peeled, they may be cooked in a +variety of ways. + +49. BOILED ONIONS.--Perhaps the simplest method of cooking onions is to +boil them. To allow the strong volatile oil to escape instead of being +reabsorbed by the onions, and thus improve the flavor of the onions, the +cover should be kept off the vessel while they are cooking. The water in +which this vegetable is cooked has not a very agreeable flavor, so no +use should be made of it. + +Peel the desired number of onions and if necessary cut them into halves +or quarters. Place them in sufficient boiling water to cover well. Cook +in an uncovered vessel until tender enough to be easily pierced with a +fork, but not so soft as to fall apart. Then pour off the water, season +with more salt, if necessary, and a little pepper, and add 1 +tablespoonful of butter for each four persons to be served. Serve hot. + +50. CREAMED ONIONS.--A cream sauce added to onions makes a very +appetizing dish. In fact, most persons prefer creamed onions to any +other method of preparation. + +CREAMED ONIONS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. stewed onions +3 Tb. butter +3 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1-1/2 c. hot milk + +Prepare the onions according to the directions given in Art. 49. When +they are tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork, drain. Melt the +butter, and add the flour, salt, pepper, and hot milk. Cook until the +sauce thickens, pour over the stewed onions, heat together for a few +minutes, and serve. + +51. BAKED ONIONS.--If variety in the preparation of onions is desired, +baked onions should be tried. Select medium-sized onions, peel them, and +then boil them whole in boiling salted water until they are almost +tender. Drain off the water, place the onions in a shallow dish, brush +with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Place in a hot oven and +bake until brown on one side; then turn them and brown on the other +side. Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] 52. STUFFED ONIONS.--When large onions can be +secured, a very appetizing as well as attractive dish can be prepared by +stuffing them and then baking them brown. Onions cooked in this way will +appear as shown in Fig. 12. + +STUFFED ONIONS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 large onions +1 c. dried bread crumbs +2 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/2 tsp. celery salt +1/4 c. milk + +Peel the onions and cook them in boiling salted water until almost +tender. Remove from the water and take out the inner portions of the +onions, leaving the outside layers in the shape of a cup. Chop the +portions of the onions which have been removed and mix with the bread +crumbs. Melt the butter, add to it the chopped onion, bread crumbs, +salt, pepper, and celery salt, and stir all together for a few minutes +over the flame. Add the milk, and if the 1/4 cupful is not sufficient to +make the stuffing moist, add more. Fill the onion shells with the +stuffing, place in a hot oven, and bake until brown. Serve immediately. + + +PARSNIPS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +53. Parsnips are an important root vegetable, being closely allied to +carrots. They are used to a certain extent during the summer when they +are immature, but generally they are allowed to mature so that they may +be stored for use as a winter vegetable. Parsnips have an advantage over +many vegetables in that they have excellent keeping qualities and are +particularly hardy, being able to withstand considerable freezing and +thawing when they are left in the ground during the winter. However, as +they grow older, they develop a woody texture, as do beets and turnips, +and so at the end of the winter require longer cooking than at the +beginning. + +54. In food value, parsnips are somewhat higher than other root +vegetables, containing a large amount of carbohydrate, which occurs in +the form of sugar. Although they are wholesome and nourishing, they have +a peculiar, sweetish flavor that is due to the volatile oil they contain +and is objectionable to some persons. Still, those who are fond of this +flavor find that parsnips afford an excellent opportunity to give +variety to the diet, for they may be prepared in a number of ways, most +of which are similar to the ways in which carrots are cooked. + +55. In preparing parsnips for cooking, scrape them, if possible, instead +of peeling them, so as not to waste any of the edible material. Then, +too, try to obtain medium-sized parsnips, for they will be of much +better quality than the larger ones. If uneven sizes must be used, the +larger ones should be cut before being cooked, so that they will be +similar in size to the smaller ones and therefore cook in the same +length of time. + +56. MASHED PARSNIPS.--A very simple way in which to prepare parsnips is +to mash them. Clean and scrape the desired number of parsnips and put +them to cook in sufficient boiling salted water to cover. Cook until +tender enough to be pierced with a fork, the length of time required to +do this depending entirely on the age of the parsnips. When tender, +drain off the water and force the parsnips through a colander or a +sieve. Season with butter, salt, and pepper, and serve hot. + +57. CREAMED PARSNIPS.--Parsnips are sometimes cut into dice and then +served with a cream, sauce. When it is desired to prepare them in this +way, the accompanying directions should be carefully followed. + +CREAMED PARSNIPS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. diced parsnips +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 c. milk + +Clean and scrape the parsnips and cut them into dice 1/2 inch in size. +Put these to cook in sufficient boiling salted water to cover, cook +until they may be easily pierced with a fork, and then drain. Melt the +butter in a double boiler, and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Stir in +the hot milk, and cook until the mixture thickens. Pour this sauce over +the parsnips, heat together for a few minutes, and serve. + +58. BROWNED PARSNIPS.--Parsnips that are browned and sweetened with +sugar seem to meet with greater favor than those prepared by other +methods. To prepare them in this way, clean and scrape the desired +number of parsnips, and slice them in thick slices, or, if they are +small, cut them in halves lengthwise. Put them to cook in boiling salted +water and cook until they may be easily pierced with a fork, but are not +tender enough to fall to pieces. Melt some fat in a frying pan, and +place the slices of cooked parsnips in it. Brown on one side, turn, and +then brown on the other. Sprinkle with a little sugar and, if necessary, +additional salt. Serve. + + +PEAS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +59. In addition to beans and lentils, the class of vegetables called +legumes includes PEAS, which, both green and dried, are used for food. +In composition, there is a decided difference between the two varieties +of peas, the green ones being about equal to green corn in food value, +and the dried ones having a food value nearly four times as great. In +each case, the food substance in the greatest amount is in the form of +carbohydrate. In green peas, this is in the form of sugar, while in +dried ones it is changed into starch. Peas also contain protein in the +form of legumin, there being three times as much of this substance in +dried peas as in green ones. The amount found in green peas is +sufficient to be of importance in the diet, but the percentage of this +substance is so great in dried peas that they may be used very +satisfactorily as a meat substitute. + +60. GREEN PEAS.--Numerous varieties of green peas are found on the +market. A few of them are cooked in the pods, especially when the peas +are very young, and are eaten pods and all, just as are string beans. +Most of them, however, are allowed to mature further and only the peas +are eaten, the shell being discarded. + +When green peas are purchased, they are always found in the pods. For +the peas to be most satisfactory, the pods should be fresh and green and +should appear to be well filled. Flat-looking pods mean that the peas +have not matured sufficiently. After being purchased, the peas should +not be removed from the pods until they are to be cooked. However, if it +is necessary that they stand for any length of time after they are +shelled, they should be kept in a cool place in order to prevent them +from shriveling. Their cooking is similar to that of any other fresh +vegetable; that is, they should be cooked in boiling salted water in a +covered vessel until they are tender enough to be easily crushed between +the fingers or pierced with a fork. With this preliminary preparation, +they may be dressed in any desirable manner. + +61. DRIED PEAS.--Dried peas, because of their nature, require a +different kind of preparation from green peas. In fact, their cooking is +similar to that of dried beans. They require long slow cooking and are +improved if they are first parboiled in water to which a pinch of soda +has been added. They are not used extensively except in the making of +soups or occasionally for a puree or a souffle, but as they are very +high in food value and can be used as a meat substitute, they should +have a prominent place in the dietary of most families. Many of the ways +in which dried beans and lentils are prepared are fully as applicable in +the case of dried peas. + +62. GREEN PEAS WITH BUTTER.--When peas are young and tender, no more +appetizing way to prepare them can be found than to boil them and then +serve them with butter. + +Select fresh green peas with full pods, wash in cold water, and remove +the peas from the shells. Put to cook in enough boiling salted water to +cover well, and cook until tender. Pour off all but a small amount of +the water, using the part poured off for making soup or sauce. Add 1 +tablespoonful of butter for each four persons to be served, and season +with additional salt if necessary and a dash of pepper. Serve hot. + +63. GREEN PEAS ENGLISH STYLE.--If the flavor of mint is agreeable, green +peas prepared English style will undoubtedly find favor. Cook them as +for green peas with butter, but, at the time the butter is added, add 1 +tablespoonful of finely chopped fresh mint. Season with additional salt, +if necessary, and pepper, allow all to simmer together for a few +minutes, and serve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13] + +64. CREAMED PEAS.--A cream sauce adds considerable food value and flavor +to green peas. Peas prepared in this way may be served plain, but they +can be made very attractive by serving them in croustades, as shown in +Fig. 13. As already learned, _croustades_ are cases made from large +pieces of bread that are cut any desired shape, hollowed out, and then +toasted in a hot oven or on a broiler or fried in deep fat until crisp. + +CREAMED PEAS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. shelled green peas +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1/2 c. water from peas +1/2 c. milk + +Cook the peas in boiling salted water until tender, and then drain the +water from them, retaining 1/2 cupful for the sauce. Melt the butter, +add the flour, salt, and pepper, and stir in the hot liquids. Cook until +the flour has thickened and then pour over the peas. Serve hot, either +plain or in croustades. + +65. PEAS IN TURNIP CUPS.--A somewhat unusual dish can be prepared by +making cups out of turnips, filling them with peas, and then pouring a +cream sauce over the peas. Besides being attractive, this combination +makes a very palatable vegetable dish. + +Select a sufficient number of medium-sized white turnips. Wash them +thoroughly, and then hollow out the inside of each, leaving cup-shaped +shells about 1/4 inch thick. Cook these shells in boiling salted water +until tender, but not tender enough to break into pieces, and remove +from the water. Then, according to the directions given in Art. 60, cook +enough green peas to fill the cups. When tender, fill the cups with the +peas and over them pour a medium white sauce. Serve hot. 66. PEAS +PUREE.--Many persons who cannot eat peas because of the coarse outside +skins are able to digest them in the form of a puree. To prepare them in +this way, boil fresh peas in the manner explained in Art. 60. When they +are tender, force them through a puree sieve or a fine-mesh wire sieve. +The pulp will pass through the sieve, but the coarse skins will remain. +The puree thus made may be used for soup or in the making of a souffle. + +67. PEAS SOUFFLE.--Nothing in the way of peas is more appetizing and at +the same time more easily digested than peas souffle. This may be baked +in a large baking dish, or it may be divided and baked in individual +baking dishes. + +PEAS SOUFFLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1/2 c. milk +1 c. peas puree +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +2 eggs + +Melt the butter, stir in the flour, and add the heated milk. Cook until +the mixture thickens and then add the peas puree, salt, and pepper. +Separate the eggs, beat the yolks and add them to the mixture, and then +fold in the stiffly beaten whites. Pour into a well-greased baking dish +or individual baking dishes, place in a pan of hot water, and bake in a +slow oven until set, or for 30 or 40 minutes. Serve at once. + + +PEPPERS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +68. PEPPERS are one of the fruit vegetables. Some varieties of them are +dried and used as a condiment, that is, to season or give relish to +food, but as they are never used as a vegetable, they are not included +here. It is the sweet varieties of peppers which are used as vegetables +and to which reference is made in these discussions. They are valuable +chiefly for two reasons: to flavor various kinds of dishes, such as +entrees, salads, etc., and to make a dish more attractive in appearance +because of the contrast in color they afford. In food value, they are +about equal to the various greens, but as a rule such small quantities +of them are eaten that they cannot be regarded as a food. + +69. STUFFED PEPPERS.--The usual way of preparing peppers as a vegetable +is to stuff them and then bake them, when they will appear as in Fig. +14. The stuffing may be made of various kinds of material, such as +pieces of meat, vegetables, cereals, etc., and so affords an excellent +way to utilize left-overs of any of these foods. Two recipes for +stuffing are here given, and either one may be used with equally +good results. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14] + +To prepare peppers for stuffing, wash them in cold water and remove the +tops by cutting around the peppers a short distance from the stem. +Remove the pulp and seeds from the inside, and wash the peppers +thoroughly to make sure that no loose seeds remain. Fill with the +desired stuffing, place in a shallow pan with a small amount of water, +and bake until the peppers are soft enough to be pierced with a fork. +The water permits the peppers to steam during the first part of the +cooking. Serve hot. + +STUFFING NO. 1 +(Sufficient for Six Peppers) + +2 Tb. ham fat +1 small chopped onion +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1-1/2 c. steamed rice +1/2 c. bread crumbs +1/2 c. finely chopped boiled ham +Milk + +Melt the fat in a frying pan, add the onion, salt, and pepper, and heat +together for several minutes. Add the rice, bread crumbs, and ham, and +moisten with milk until the mixture is of the right consistency. Use to +fill the peppers. + +STUFFING NO. 2 +(Sufficient for Six Peppers) + +2 Tb. butter +1 onion, chopped +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +2 c. stale bread crumbs +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 tsp. celery salt +Milk + +Melt the butter in a frying pan, add the chopped onion, salt, and +pepper, and heat together. To this add the bread crumbs, chopped +parsley, and celery salt, and moisten with enough milk to make the +stuffing of the right consistency. Use to stuff peppers. + + +POTATOES AND THEIR PREPARATION + +WHITE POTATOES + +70. WHITE POTATOES, popularly called _Irish potatoes_ because they are a +staple food in Ireland, belong to the class of tuber vegetables. They +form such an extensive part of the diets of the majority of people that +they are generally considered the most important vegetable used by +civilized man. They are usually roundish or oblong in shape and have a +whitish interior and a darker colored skin. + +71. FOOD VALUE OF POTATOES.--In food value, Irish potatoes are +comparatively high, being in this respect about two and one-half times +as great as an equal weight of cabbage, but not quite twice as great as +the various root vegetables, such as carrots, parsnips, etc. The largest +amount of this food value occurs as carbohydrate in the form of starch, +there being almost no fat and very little protein in potatoes. The +starch granules of potatoes are larger than the starch granules of any +of the cereals, the class of foods highest in this food substance, and +it is the proper cooking of this starch that makes potatoes dry and +mealy. Potatoes also contain a large amount of mineral salts, much of +which lies directly under the skin. Therefore, the most economical way +in which to prepare potatoes is to cook them with the skins on, for then +all of the mineral salts are retained and none of the material +is wasted. + +72. SELECTION OF POTATOES.--The new potato crop begins to come into the +market during the summer, when potatoes are especially appetizing. +However, as potatoes can be easily stored and kept very well for a +considerable time, they form a large part of the winter food supply. If +there is sufficient storage space, it is a wise plan to buy a large +enough supply of potatoes in the fall to last for several months and +then to store them for the winter. However, when this is done, care +should be taken in the selection. + +In the first place, the outside skin should be smooth and not scaly. +Then, if possible, potatoes of medium size should be selected, rather +than small ones or large ones. The small ones are not so satisfactory, +because of the greater proportion of waste in peeling, while the very +large ones are apt to have a hollow space in the center. To judge the +quality of potatoes, a few of those to be purchased should be secured +and cooked before a large number of them are bought. The soil and +climatic conditions affect the quality of potatoes to such an extent +that a particular kind of potato which may have been excellent last year +may be entirely different in quality this year. A housewife cannot, +therefore, be guided entirely by her previous knowledge of a certain +kind of potato. + +73. CARE OF POTATOES.--Potatoes bought in quantity should be kept in a +cool place and should be excluded from the light. Such care will usually +prevent them from discoloring and sprouting. In case they should sprout, +the sprouts should be removed at once, for the potatoes will deteriorate +rapidly with such a growth. If the potatoes freeze, they may be thawed +by putting them in cold water. Such potatoes, which are characterized by +a peculiar sweetish taste, should be used as soon as possible after +being thawed. + +74. PREPARATION OF POTATOES.--As has already been explained, the most +economical way in which to cook potatoes is with the skins on. However, +when it is desired to remove the skins, they should be taken off as +thinly as possible. New potatoes may be scraped, but completely matured +potatoes that have been out of the ground for some time do not scrape +easily and so should be pared thinly. + +Potatoes lend themselves to various methods of cookery, and this is +well, for although this is a food of which most persons do not tire +easily, variety in the preparation of a vegetable so commonly used as +the Irish potato is very much to be desired. When cooked in the skins, +potatoes may be boiled, baked, or steamed. When the skins are removed, +potatoes may be cooked in these ways, as well as fried, sauted, +scalloped, creamed, etc. + +75. BOILED POTATOES.--Without doubt, potatoes are cooked more often by +boiling than by any other method, for besides being eaten in this way a +great deal, they must first be boiled for many of the more elaborate +methods of preparation. If the skins are removed before boiling, the +water in which the potatoes are cooked contains a quantity of starch and +a great deal of soluble mineral matter that are lost from the potatoes. +Use should therefore be made of this liquid, it being very satisfactory +for soups, sauces, and the liquid required in bread making. + +When potatoes are to be boiled, select the desired number of +medium-sized potatoes, and wash them in cold water. If desired, remove +the peelings with a sharp paring knife, but if the potatoes are to be +cooked with the skins on, scrub them thoroughly with a vegetable brush +in order to remove all dirt. Put to cook in a sufficient amount of +boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are +tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Usually the kettle in +which potatoes are cooked is covered, but if desired they may be cooked +in an uncovered vessel. When done, drain the water from the potatoes and +serve at once or use for some of the other methods of preparation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15] + +76. MASHED POTATOES.--If mashed potatoes are prepared properly, they are +much relished by the majority of persons. However, to be most +satisfactory, they should be cooked long enough not to be lumpy and +then, after being mashed and softened with milk, they should be beaten +until they are light and creamy. + +Peel the desired number of potatoes and boil them according to the +directions given in Art. 75. When they are tender, remove them from the +fire and drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire +potato masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass +in order to prevent lumps. However, the preferable way to mash them is +to force them through a ricer, when they will appear as shown in Fig. +15, for then, if they are thoroughly cooked, there will be no danger of +lumps. When they are sufficiently mashed, season with additional salt, a +dash of pepper, and a small piece of butter, and add hot milk until they +are thinned to a mushy consistency, but not too soft to stand up well +when dropped from a spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a +large spoon until they become light and fluffy. Serve at once. + +77. BAKED POTATOES.--A very nutritious vegetable dish results when +potatoes are baked. For this method of cooking potatoes, those of medium +size are better than large ones; also, if the potatoes are uniform in +size, all of them will bake in the same length of time. It is well to +choose for baking, potatoes that are smooth and unblemished, in order +that they may be prepared without cutting the skins. As the starchy +particles of the potato are cooked by the heated water inside the +potato, the cooking cannot be done so successfully when the skin is cut +or marred, for then the water will evaporate. + +Prepare the potatoes by scrubbing them thoroughly; then place them on a +shallow pan and set them in the oven or place them directly on the oven +grate. The temperature of the oven is important in baking potatoes. If +it is too hot, the skins of the potatoes will become charred, and if it +is not hot enough, too long a time will be required for the baking. The +temperature found to produce the best results is about 400 degrees +Fahrenheit, or the same as that for the baking of bread. Turn the +potatoes once or twice during the baking, so that they will bake evenly. +Allow them to bake until it is possible to pierce them to the center +with a fork or they are soft enough to dent easily when pinched with the +tips of the fingers. The latter is the preferable test, for when the +potato is pierced, so much of the moisture is lost that it is not likely +to be of the best quality when served. Upon removing from the oven, +serve at once. Baked potatoes become soggy upon standing. If desired, +they may be rolled to soften the contents of the shell and then cut open +on one side, and pepper, salt, and paprika put into the potato. + +The length of time required for baking potatoes is usually 10 to 15 +minutes longer than is necessary to cook potatoes of the same size in +water. However, the time for baking may be decreased by boiling the +potatoes for about 5 minutes before they are put in the oven. In such an +event, the boiling and the baking should be accomplished in about +35 minutes. + +78. STUFFED POTATOES.--An attractive way in which to serve baked +potatoes is shown in Fig. 16. After the potatoes are thoroughly baked, +the contents are removed, treated as mashed potatoes, and then stuffed +into the shells and set in the oven to brown for a few minutes. When +something different in the way of potatoes is desired, stuffed potatoes +should be tried. + +Bake the desired number of potatoes until tender. Remove from the oven, +cut through the skin of each from end to end with a sharp knife, and +scrape out the contents of the shell. Mash the pulp according to the +directions given in Art. 76. Then fill the shells with the mashed +potatoes, allowing the surface to stand up roughly, as shown, instead of +smoothing it down. Dot each with butter, sprinkle a little paprika over +the tops, and replace in the oven. Bake until the surface is nicely +browned and then serve at once. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16] + +79. BROWNED POTATOES.--While not so easy to digest as boiled or baked +potatoes, browned potatoes offer an opportunity for a change from the +usual ways of preparing this vegetable. They may be prepared on the +stove or in the oven, but when browned in the oven the surface is more +likely to be tough. + +Boil the desired number of potatoes, and when they are sufficiently +tender, drain off the water. If they are to be sauted on the stove, melt +a small amount of fat in a frying pan, and place the cooked potatoes in +it. Saute until brown on one side, then turn and brown on the other. +Season with additional salt, if necessary, and serve. + +In case it is desired to brown them in the oven, put the boiled potatoes +in a shallow pan and brush them over with butter. Set them in a hot +oven, allow them to brown on one side, then turn and brown them on the +other. Season with salt, if necessary, and serve at once upon removing +from the oven. 80. RAW SAUTED POTATOES.--If a potato dish suitable for +supper or luncheon is desired, raw potatoes may be sliced thin, as at +_a_, Fig. 17, and then sauted. For this purpose, small potatoes that are +not suitable for other methods of preparation may be used. + +Peel the potatoes and slice them into thin slices. Melt a small amount +of fat in a frying pan, place the potatoes in the hot fat, and cover the +pan. Allow them to steam in this way for 10 to 15 minutes and then +remove the cover. Brown on one side; then turn and brown on the other. +Season with salt and pepper. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17] + +81. HASH-BROWNED POTATOES.--A very good way in which to use up boiled +potatoes is to hash-brown them in the oven. + +HASH-BROWNED POTATOES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 medium-sized cooked potatoes +1-1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +3 Tb. milk +1/4 tsp. pepper + +Slice or chop the cold potatoes, place in a buttered pan, add the salt +and pepper, melt the butter, and pour it over them. Place in a hot oven +until nicely browned. Stir, add the milk, and brown again. Stir again, +brown the third time, and serve. + +82. POTATO PATTIES.--Mashed potatoes, whether left over or boiled and +mashed especially for the purpose, may be made up into patties and then +sauted until brown on both sides. + +POTATO PATTIES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. mashed potato +1 egg +Fine bread crumbs + +To the mashed potatoes that have been well seasoned, add the egg and +mix thoroughly. Shape into flat, round patties and roll in the bread +crumbs. Melt fat in a frying pan, place the patties in it, saute on one +side until brown, and then turn and brown on the other side. Serve hot. + +83. FRENCH FRIED POTATOES.--Many families are deprived of French fried +potatoes because the majority of housewives think they are difficult to +prepare. This, however, is not the case, for when the procedure is +understood nothing is easier. + +Peel the required number of potatoes and cut them into the desired +shape. Great variety exists in the method of cutting potatoes for this +purpose. However, the form that is usually thought of when French fried +potatoes are mentioned is the one obtained by cutting the potatoes into +pieces like the sections of an orange and then cutting these sections +lengthwise into smaller pieces, like those shown at _b_, Fig. 17. Pieces +like those shown at _c_, called _shoestring potatoes_, are also popular. +As soon as cut, in no matter what shape, drop the pieces into cold +water, but when ready to fry, remove them from the water and dry on a +clean dry towel. Place in a wire basket and lower the basket into a pan +of hot fat. Fry until the potatoes are nicely browned, remove from the +fat, drain, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Serve at once. + +84. POTATOES AU GRATIN.--Something a little unusual in the way of a +potato dish is produced when potatoes are combined with cheese, bread +crumbs, and a cream sauce to make potatoes au gratin. In addition to +supplying flavor, these ingredients increase the food value of the +potatoes so that a highly nutritious dish is the result. + +POTATOES AU GRATIN +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. diced cooked potatoes +1/2 c. grated cheese +1/2 c. bread crumbs +1-1/2 c. thin white sauce + +Grease a baking dish, place 1/2 of the potatoes in the bottom of the +dish, and sprinkle over them 1/2 of the crumbs and then 1/2 of the +cheese. Put the remainder of the potatoes in the dish, sprinkle with the +rest of the cheese, pour the hot white sauce over all, and place the +remaining crumbs on top. Set the dish in a hot oven and bake until well +heated through and brown on top. + +85. LYONNAISE POTATOES.--When sauted potatoes are flavored with onion +and parsley, they are known as Lyonnaise potatoes. As they are very +appetizing, potatoes prepared in this way are relished by most persons. + +LYONNAISE POTATOES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 Tb. butter or ham or bacon fat +1/2 tsp. salt +1 medium-sized onion, chopped +Dash of pepper +2 Tb. parsley +3 c. diced cooked potatoes + +Melt the fat in a frying pan, and add the onion, parsley, salt, and +pepper. When the fat is hot, add the potatoes, which should be diced, +like those shown at _d_, Fig. 17, and allow them to saute until slightly +brown. Stir frequently to avoid burning. Serve hot. + +86. SCALLOPED POTATOES.--Many vegetables may be scalloped, but potatoes +seem to lend themselves to this form of preparation to good advantage. +Potatoes prepared in this way are suitable for luncheon, supper, or a +home dinner. + +Wash and peel the desired number of potatoes and slice them thin. Place +a layer in the bottom of a well-greased baking dish, sprinkle lightly +with flour, salt, and pepper, and dot with butter. Add another layer of +potatoes, sprinkle again with flour, salt, and pepper, and dot with +butter. Continue in this way until the dish is filled. Pour a sufficient +quantity of milk over the whole to cover well. Place a cover over the +dish, set in a hot oven, and bake for about 1/2 hour. Then remove the +cover and allow the potatoes to continue baking until they can be easily +pierced with a fork and the surface is slightly brown. Serve hot from +the baking dish. + +87. CREAMED POTATOES.--A very good way in which to utilize left-over +boiled potatoes is to dice them and then serve them with a cream sauce. +If no cooked potatoes are on hand and creamed potatoes are desired, +potatoes may, of course, be boiled especially for this purpose. When +this is done, it is well to cook the potatoes in the skins, for they +remain intact better and have a better flavor. + +Cut up potatoes that are to be creamed into half-inch dice, like those +shown at _d_, Fig. 17. Make a thin white sauce, pour it over the +potatoes until they are well moistened, and allow the potatoes to simmer +in this sauce for a few minutes. If desired, chopped parsley may be +added to the sauce to improve the flavor. Serve hot. + +88. POTATO BALLS.--If a potato dish is desired for a meal that is to be +dainty in every respect, potato balls should be tried. These are small +balls of uniform size, like those shown at _e_, Fig. 17, cut from raw +potatoes by means of a French cutter, as shown in Fig. 18, cooked until +tender, and then dressed with a cream sauce or in any other way. As will +be observed, much of the potato remains after all the balls that can be +cut from it are obtained. This should not be wasted, but should be +boiled and then mashed or prepared in any other desirable way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18] + +Wash and peel the potatoes that are to be used, and then from each +potato cut with a French cutter all the balls possible. When a +sufficient number have been obtained, boil them until tender in boiling +salted water and then drain. Make a thin cream sauce, add the potatoes +to this, and heat together thoroughly. Serve hot. + +89. POTATO CROQUETTES.--Left-over mashed potatoes can be utilized in no +better way than to make croquettes. Of course, if potato croquettes are +desired and no potatoes are on hand, it will be necessary to cook +potatoes and mash them especially for this purpose. Croquettes made +according to the accompanying recipe will be found a delightful addition +to the menu. They are often served plain, but are much improved by a +medium white sauce or a gravy. + +POTATO CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. mashed potatoes +2 Tb. chopped parsley +1 Tb. onion juice +1 tsp. celery salt +2 eggs +Dry bread crumbs + +To the mashed potatoes, add the parsley, onion juice, and celery salt +and mix thoroughly. Beat the eggs slightly, reserve a small amount to be +diluted with water or milk for dipping the croquettes, and add the rest +to the potatoes. Shape the mixture into oblong croquettes of uniform +size and shape. Roll each in the crumbs, then in the diluted egg, and +again in the crumbs. Fry in deep hot fat until an even brown in color. +Remove from the fat, drain, and serve. 90. POTATO PUFF.--Mashed potato +combined with egg, seasoned well, and baked in the oven makes a very +appetizing dish known as potato puff. This is suitable for any meal at +which potatoes would be served. + +POTATO PUFF +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. mashed potato +1/2 tsp. celery salt +1 egg + +To the mashed potato, add the celery salt. Separate the egg, beat the +yolk, and mix it with the potato. Beat the white stiff and fold it into +the potato last. Pile into a buttered baking dish, set in a hot oven, +and bake until the potato is thoroughly heated through and the surface +is brown. Serve at once. + + +SWEET POTATOES + +91. SWEET POTATOES are used for practically the same purposes as white +potatoes, and while these vegetables resemble each other in many +respects they are not related botanically, sweet potatoes being root +rather than tuber vegetables. Sweet potatoes are of a tropical nature +and have been cultivated for hundreds of years in the West Indies and +Central America. They form a staple article of diet in the southern part +of the United States, where, on account of the warm climate, they are +raised abundantly. They are not raised in the North; still they are +consumed there in large quantities. After maturing, sweet potatoes are +collected and dried in kilns before shipping. While this makes it +possible for them to keep longer than if they were not dried, they do +not keep so well as white potatoes and therefore cannot be stored in +such large numbers. If they are to be kept for a considerable period of +time, they should be wrapped separately in paper and stored in a cool, +dry place. + +92. Sweet potatoes vary considerably in size, shape, and quality. Some +are short and blunt at the tips, others are long and cylindrical, either +crooked or straight, while others are medium in size and spindle-shaped. +Some varieties, which are known as _yams_, cook moist and sugary, while +others, which are simply called sweet potatoes, cook dry and mealy. The +kind to select depends entirely on the individual taste, for in +composition and food value all the varieties are similar. In +composition, sweet potatoes resemble white ones, except that a part of +their carbohydrate is in the form of sugar, which gives them their +characteristic sweet taste, but in food value they are almost twice as +great as white potatoes. + +93. The preparation of sweet potatoes is similar to that of white +potatoes, for they may be boiled, steamed, baked, mashed, creamed, +fried, etc. In fact, they may be used at any time to take the place of +white potatoes in the diet. A few recipes are here given for this +vegetable, but any of those given under White Potatoes may also be used +by merely substituting sweet potatoes for the white potatoes specified. + +94. BOILED SWEET POTATOES.--It is a very simple procedure to boil sweet +potatoes. When they are to be prepared in this way, select potatoes of +uniform size and either remove their skins or cook them with the skins +on. If they are not peeled, scrub them perfectly clean. Put them to cook +in boiling salted water and allow them to boil until they may be easily +pierced with a fork. Drain the water from them, peel if cooked with +their skins on, and serve hot with butter or gravy. + +95. BAKED SWEET POTATOES.--Persons who are fond of sweet potatoes prefer +them baked to any other method of preparation. Select medium-sized +potatoes for this purpose, scrub thoroughly, and put in a hot oven to +bake. Bake until they are soft enough to dent when pinched between the +fingers. Remove from the oven and serve at once. + +96. GLAZED SWEET POTATOES.--To increase the sweet taste characteristic +of sweet potatoes and favored by many persons, a sweet sirup is +sometimes added. When this is done, the potatoes are first boiled and +then cut in half lengthwise and sauted. Sweet potatoes so prepared +afford a pleasing variety in the diet. + +Clean and peel the desired number of potatoes and boil them as already +explained. Cut them in half lengthwise, so that each piece has a flat +side. Melt fat in a frying pan, add the halves of sweet potato, and fry +until slightly brown. Then turn and fry on the reverse side. About 10 or +15 minutes before removing from the pan, pour a small quantity of +molasses or a mixture of sugar and water over the potatoes, and allow +them to cook in this sirup until they are well covered with the sweet +substance. Remove from the pan and serve at once. 97. MASHED SWEET +POTATOES.--Used alone without further preparation, mashed sweet potatoes +make a very palatable dish. However, as in the case of mashed white +potatoes, numerous appetizing dishes, such as croquettes, patties, etc., +can be made of mashed sweet potatoes, whether left from a previous meal +or cooked for this purpose. In the preparation of all such dishes, the +recipes given under White Potatoes may be followed. + +Peel the desired number of potatoes and cook them in boiling salted +water until they may be readily pierced with a fork. Drain, force +through a sieve or a ricer, and season with salt, pepper, and a small +amount of butter. Thin the mixture with sufficient hot milk to make it +of a stiff, mush-like consistency. Then beat vigorously until the potato +is light and creamy. Serve hot. + + +RADISHES AND THEIR PREPARATION + +98. RADISHES are a root vegetable used almost exclusively as a relish or +to lend flavor to a vegetable-salad mixture. They are easily and +successfully grown and are plentiful and cheap, except when they are out +of season and must be raised in hothouses. Numerous varieties of +radishes differing from one another in size, shape, and color are +raised. The red ones are generally preferred, because they lend color to +a dish or a meal, but the white and brown varieties are just as +desirable so far as flavor is concerned. + +99. Radishes contain very little food value, being about equal to celery +and cucumbers in this respect. They do not supply anything valuable to a +meal except mineral salts. Although some persons consider radishes +difficult to digest, they contain almost nothing that has to be +digested, for they are composed largely of cellulose, which does not +digest, and water. Radishes disagree with some persons because, like +onions and cabbage, they contain a strong volatile oil that gives them +their flavor. + +100. Since radishes are always eaten raw, they require very little in +the way of preparation. The principal thing is to see that they are +perfectly clean and as crisp as possible. To make them crisp, allow them +to stand in cold water for some time before using them. Then remove the +tops and the roots and scrub thoroughly with a vegetable brush. The +small red radishes can be made very attractive by cutting the skin in +sections to resemble the petals of a rose. When prepared in this way, a +small portion of the green top is allowed to remain. + + +SALSIFY AND ITS PREPARATION + +101. SALSIFY is a root vegetable resembling in food value such other +root vegetables as carrots and parsnips. Because it has a flavor similar +to that of oysters, especially when it is used for soup, it has received +the name of _vegetable oyster_. It consists of long slender roots that +are covered with tiny roots. It is somewhat difficult to clean and +prepare, but as it may be stored through the entire winter and is +particularly desirable for the making of soup, it is a valuable +vegetable. + +102. In preparing salsify for cooking, scrape the roots rather than peel +them. Then put them in a solution of cold salt water made by using 1 +teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water and keep them there until +ready to cook them. This precaution will, to a certain extent, prevent +the discoloration that always takes place in salsify as soon as the skin +is removed. When thus prepared, salsify lends itself to the same forms +of preparation as do the other root vegetables. + +103. BUTTERED SALSIFY.--The simplest way in which to cook salsify is to +cut it in thin slices, boil it until tender, and then serve it +with butter. + +Wash and scrape the desired quantity of salsify and slice in thin +slices. Put to cook in boiling salted water, and cook until it can be +easily pierced with a fork. Drain off the water, season with pepper and, +if necessary, additional salt, and add 1 tablespoonful of butter for +each four persons to be served. Allow the butter to melt and serve the +salsify hot. + +104. CREAMED VEGETABLE OYSTERS.--If creamed vegetables are favored, +vegetable oysters served with a cream sauce will be very much relished. +Clean and scrape the salsify and cut it into 1/4-inch slices. Put to +cook in boiling salted water, cook until tender, and then drain. Make a +medium white sauce and pour this over the cooked vegetable. Heat +together and serve. 105. SCALLOPED VEGETABLE OYSTERS.--A very +appetizing scalloped dish can be made of salsify by following the +directions given in the accompanying recipe. + +SCALLOPED VEGETABLE OYSTERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. cooked vegetable oysters +1 c. bread crumbs +Salt and pepper +1-1/2 c. thin white sauce + +Cook the vegetable oysters as explained in Art. 103. Sprinkle a layer of +crumbs in the bottom of a well-greased baking dish, place a layer of the +cooked vegetable oysters on top of this, and season with salt and +pepper. Place a second layer of crumbs and the remainder of the +vegetable oysters in the dish, and sprinkle again with salt and pepper. +Pour the white sauce over this, and put the remainder of the crumbs on +top. Place in a hot oven and bake until well heated through and the top +is brown. Serve from the baking dish. + + +SQUASH AND ITS PREPARATION + +SUMMER SQUASH + +106. SUMMER SQUASH is a fruit vegetable belonging to the same class as +eggplant, peppers, etc. and occurring in many varieties. The different +kinds of this vegetable vary greatly in size, shape, and color, but all +of them may be prepared in practically the same way and used for the +same purposes. They get their name from the fact that they are grown and +used during the summer season; in fact, they must be used at this time, +for they do not permit of storage. + +Summer squash contains a great deal of water, and for this reason its +food value is very low, being about equal to that of lettuce, celery, +etc. Because of the large percentage of water in its composition, as +little water as possible should be added in its cooking, or the result +will be a vegetable so watery as to be unattractive and unpalatable. +Another precaution that should be taken in its preparation is to remove +the seeds and the skins. Many housewives think it unnecessary to do +this, for both the skins and the seeds can be eaten after cooking; but +most persons prefer to have them removed, as the dish appears more +appetizing. _Vegetable marrow_ is a type of summer squash and may be +prepared for the table by any of the recipes for summer squash. + +107. STEWED SUMMER SQUASH.--The usual way in which to cook summer squash +is to stew it. If properly cooked and well seasoned, stewed squash makes +a very tasty dish. + +Wash and peel the desired number of summer squashes, remove the seeds, +and cut into small pieces. Put over the flame in just enough water to +start the cooking and add sufficient salt to season well. Cook until +tender enough to be pierced with a fork and most of the water is boiled +away, being careful not to scorch. Remove from the fire, season with +pepper, and add 1 tablespoonful of butter for each four persons to be +served. Mash until the squash is as fine as desired and serve at once. + +108. SAUTED SUMMER SQUASH.--For variety, summer squash is sometimes +sliced, coated with egg and crumbs, and then sauted until well browned. + +To prepare it in this way, wash and peel the squash and cut it into +slices about 1/4 inch thick. Roll first in beaten egg diluted with milk +or water and then in fine crumbs. Saute in a small amount of fat in a +frying pan until well browned, and then turn and brown on the other +side. Serve hot. + + +WINTER SQUASH + +109. WINTER SQUASH is the kind of squash that may be removed from the +vine in the fall and stored for winter use. Although both summer and +winter squashes are closely related, they differ considerably in +appearance, flavor, texture, and composition. The different varieties of +winter squash are usually larger than summer squashes and have a very +hard outside covering; also, they contain less water and more +carbohydrate and, consequently, have a higher food value. Winter +squashes are usually taken from the vines in the fall before the frost +sets in, and before they are placed in storage they are allowed to lie +in the sunshine for a few days until the skin hardens and becomes +flinty. If the outside covering is unmarred when the squashes are +stored, they will remain in good condition almost the entire winter +season, provided the storage place is cool and dry. + +110. To prepare winter squash for cooking, cut it open, remove the +seeds, and peel off the outside skin. Because of the hardness of the +covering, a cleaver or a hatchet is generally required to open the +squash and cut it into pieces. With this done, scrape out the seeds and, +with a very sharp large knife, peel off the skin. The squash may then be +cooked in any suitable manner. + +111. MASHED SQUASH.--If winter squash is desired as a vegetable, it is +very often boiled and then mashed. Squash prepared in this way, with the +exception of the seasoning, is also used for pie that is similar to +pumpkin; in fact, many persons prefer the flavor of squash pie to that +of pumpkin pie. + +Cut pieces of peeled winter squash into cubes about 1 inch in size. Put +these to cook in a small amount of boiling water, add enough salt to +season, and cook until tender and quite dry. Season the cooked squash +with pepper, add 1 tablespoonful of butter for each four persons to be +served, and, if desired to increase the sweet taste, add a small amount +of sugar. Mash until smooth and serve hot. + +112. BAKED SQUASH.--Winter squash, because of its hard covering, is very +satisfactory when baked in the shell, as shown in Fig. 19. If it is not +desired to cook it in a whole piece, the squash may be cut into pieces +about 3 inches square or into triangular pieces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19] + +Remove the seeds from the squash, sprinkle each with salt and pepper, +and dot with butter, as shown. Place in a hot oven directly on the grate +or in a shallow pan, and bake until the contents of the shells are +tender. Remove from the oven, and serve from the shells. If desired, the +squash may be scooped from the shells after baking, seasoned at that +time instead of when put in the oven, and then served in a +vegetable dish. + + TOMATOES AND THEIR PREPARATION + +113. TOMATOES are a fruit vegetable that may be either cooked or +prepared raw in many different ways. They are usually red when ripe, and +because of this color they are particularly attractive on the table. +Green or partly ripe tomatoes are also used in the preparation of many +dishes. Tomatoes are composed largely of water, and for this reason +their food value is low, being about the same as that of greens. This +large proportion of water is also responsible for the fact that they do +not keep for a great length of time. Tomatoes, however, have a long +season. They begin to appear in the market early in the spring and they +may be obtained from this time until the frost kills the vines in +the fall. + +114. While tomatoes appeal to the majority of persons, they disagree +with some on account of the acid they contain. This acid is similar to +that found in some fruits, and it is present in greater quantity in +cooked tomatoes than in raw ones, the heating of the vegetable +apparently increasing the acidity. This acidity of tomatoes may be +reduced by the addition of soda, and while soda produces a marked change +in the flavor, it is necessary in the preparation of some dishes. For +instance, in the case of cream-of-tomato soup, soda must be added to +reduce the acidity and thus keep the milk or cream used in preparing +this dish from curdling. + +115. The skin of tomatoes, whether they are to be eaten raw or cooked, +is usually undesirable. Therefore, in preparing tomatoes for the table, +the skins are generally removed. In order to do this, first dip the +tomatoes into boiling water for several seconds and then immediately +into cold water. This will loosen the skins, which may then be peeled +off very thinly, and very little of the tomato will be wasted. + +116. STEWED TOMATOES.--The usual way of preparing tomatoes is to stew +them. Stewed tomatoes may be served plain, but they can be improved very +decidedly by toasting cubes of bread and adding these to the tomatoes +just before serving. + +Remove the skins and stem ends from the desired number of tomatoes, and +either cut the tomatoes into pieces or allow them to remain whole. Put +to cook with little or no water, as the tomatoes themselves usually +provide sufficient water. Season with salt, and cook until the tomatoes +are reduced to a mushy consistency. Just before removing from the stove, +add a dash of pepper and a small amount of butter. + +117. SCALLOPED TOMATOES.--A very appetizing way in which to cook +tomatoes is to scallop them according to the accompanying recipe. + +SCALLOPED TOMATOES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. crumbs, buttered +2 c. stewed tomatoes +1 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper +1 Tb. butter + +Grease a baking dish and place a layer of the crumbs in the bottom. +Place a layer of tomatoes over them, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and +dot with the butter. Add another layer of crumbs and the remainder of +the tomatoes, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and again dot with butter. +Place the remainder of the crumbs on top. Bake in a hot oven until well +heated through and the crumbs on top are brown. Serve hot from the +baking dish. + +118. STUFFED TOMATOES.--Tomatoes prove to be very satisfactory when +stuffed with a well-seasoned stuffing and then baked. Medium-sized +tomatoes that are firm and unblemished should be selected for stuffing. + +STUFFED TOMATOES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 tomatoes +1-1/2 c. crumbs +2 Tb. butter +1 small onion, chopped +1 tsp. celery salt +1/2 tsp. salt +Dash of pepper + +Remove the stem end from each tomato and scoop out the inside so that a +hollow shell remains. Chop the pulp of the tomatoes into small pieces +and add the crumbs, melted butter, onion, celery salt, salt, and pepper. +Mix together thoroughly. If the tomatoes do not furnish enough liquid to +moisten the crumbs, add a little water. Pack the stuffing into the +tomatoes, allowing it to heap up on top, and place the tomatoes side by +side in a shallow pan. Set in a hot oven and bake until the tomato +shells are tender enough to be pierced with a fork and the stuffing is +well heated through. Serve at once. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20] + +119. STUFFED TOMATOES WITH CHEESE CARROTS.--An attractive way in which +to serve stuffed tomatoes is shown in Fig. 20. The tomatoes are filled +with a tasty stuffing and then baked. Yellow cream cheese is made to +resemble tiny carrots, and these, together with parsley, are used to +garnish the platter in which the tomatoes are placed. + +STUFFED TOMATOES WITH CHEESE CARROTS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +6 medium-sized tomatoes +4 Tb. bacon or ham fat +2 Tb. chopped onion +1/2 c. chopped ham +1-1/2 c. stale bread crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +2 Tb. chopped parsley +Yellow cream cheese +Parsley + +Cut the tops from the tomatoes and remove the pulp. Melt the fat in a +frying pan, add the chopped onion, ham, tomato pulp, bread crumbs, salt, +pepper, and parsley. Heat thoroughly and mix well. Fill the tomatoes +with the stuffing, which should be quite moist, put them in a shallow +pan, and bake them until the tomato shell may be easily pierced with a +fork. Mash yellow cream cheese and, if necessary, moisten it slightly +with cream. Shape it into tiny carrots with the fingers, and put a piece +of parsley in one end for leaves. Place the baked tomatoes on a platter +and garnish with the carrots and sprigs of parsley. Serve. + +120. SAUTED TOMATOES.--Half ripened tomatoes are delicious when sauted. +Cut the desired number of such tomatoes into slices about 1/4 inch +thick, and roll first in beaten egg and then in stale bread crumbs or +cracker crumbs. Saute in a small amount of fat until they are brown on +one side; then turn and brown on the other side. Remove from the pan and +serve at once. + +121. CREAMED TOMATOES.--A rather unusual, but nevertheless very +appetizing, way of preparing tomatoes consists in sauteing them in fat +and then serving them with a cream sauce on freshly toasted bread. + +When it is desired to prepare tomatoes in this manner, select +medium-sized ones and cut them into slices 1/2 inch thick. Roll the +slices first in egg and then in stale bread crumbs or cracker crumbs. +Saute in a generous amount of fat until brown, drain carefully, and +brown on the other side. When done, remove from the pan. Add 2 +tablespoonfuls of flour to the fat that remains in the pan, and stir +until the flour becomes light brown. Add 1-1/2 cupfuls of milk and stir +until thick. Place the slices of tomato on freshly toasted bread and +pour the sauce over them. + + +TURNIPS AND THEIR PREPARATION + +122. TURNIPS, which are a root vegetable, occur in two varieties, +_white_ and _yellow_. The white ones are commonly known as _turnips_ and +the yellow ones are called _rutabagas_. Although differing in color, +both varieties have much the same flavor and may be prepared in the same +ways. Therefore, whenever a recipe calls for turnips, rutabagas may be +used as well. + +123. In food value, turnips are similar to beets, carrots, and parsnips. +They have a strong flavor, which is disliked by many persons and +disagrees with some. However, much of this can be dissipated by cooking +them with the cover of the kettle removed, so that when properly +prepared they furnish a pleasant variety to the winter menu. They have +good storing qualities and can be kept very easily through the winter. +Toward spring it is more difficult to cook them soft, as the cellulose +in them becomes harder and they are likely to develop woody fiber. + +124. In preparing turnips for cooking, scrub them until thoroughly clean +and then peel, wasting no more of the vegetable than is necessary. They +may then be cut up as desired for the recipe to be prepared. + +125. STEWED TURNIPS.--When turnips are stewed until tender and then +seasoned with salt and pepper and flavored with butter they form a very +palatable dish. + +To prepare them in this way, select the desired number, scrub them +until clean, and then peel them. Cut them into dice about 1/2 inch in +size, and put these to cook in boiling salted water, allowing the cover +to remain off the kettle during the cooking. Cook until they may be +easily pierced with a fork and drain the water from them. Season with +additional salt, if necessary, and with pepper, and add 1 tablespoonful +of butter for each four persons to be served. Allow the butter to melt +and serve hot. + +126. MASHED TURNIPS.--Turnips, like potatoes, are a very good vegetable +to mash. Prepare the desired number in the manner explained in Art. 125. +Cook in boiling salted water with the kettle cover removed. When tender +enough to be mashed easily, drain the water from them, mash with a +potato masher, and season with additional salt if necessary and with +pepper and butter. Allow the butter to melt and serve hot. + +127. CREAMED TURNIPS.--Turnips, both yellow and white, make an excellent +dish when dressed with a cream sauce. Prepare the desired number of +turnips by cleaning and peeling them and cutting them into dice about +1/2 inch in size. Cook until tender in boiling salted water and drain. +Prepare a medium white sauce and pour over the turnips. Serve hot. + + +VEGETABLE COMBINATIONS + +128. The recipes given for the various kinds of vegetables pertain in +most cases to merely one vegetable, and this is the way in which this +food is usually prepared. However, there are times when it is an +advantage to combine two or more vegetables. For instance, it is +sometimes desired to give additional variety to the menu or to utilize +small quantities of vegetable that alone would not be sufficient to +serve the family. Then, again, two vegetables are often prepared +together in order to obtain an attractive color combination. In view of +these facts, several recipes for the most usual combinations of +vegetables are here given, so that the housewife may not be at a loss +when she wishes to combine two or more vegetables. It must not be +thought that these are the only combinations that can be prepared, for +often vegetables can be combined to suit the housewife's taste +and needs. + +129. CARROTS AND PEAS.--If an attractive combination, as well as an +appetizing dish, is desired, carrots and peas should be prepared +together and served with butter or a vegetable or a cream sauce. This +combination may be served plain, but if there are any mashed potatoes on +hand and an attractive dish is desired, it may be served in potato +rosettes, as shown in Fig. 21. + +Clean and scrape the desired number of young, tender carrots, and cut +them into dice about the size of the peas that are to be used. Shell an +equal quantity of green peas. Put the two vegetables together in boiling +salted water and cook until tender. If there is any possibility that the +carrots will not cook in as short a period of time as the peas, cook +them for some time before adding the peas. When tender, pour off the +water, add additional salt, if necessary, and pepper, and dress with +butter or, if preferred, with a vegetable or a white sauce. Heat through +thoroughly and serve. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21] + +If it is desired to serve the carrots and peas in the rosettes +mentioned, force hot mashed potato through a pastry tube and form the +required number of rosettes on a platter, as shown. In the center of +each rosette put a spoonful or two of the carrots and peas. + +In case fresh peas cannot be secured, canned peas may be substituted. +When this is done, the carrots should be cooked until tender and the +peas added just before the sauce is poured over the vegetables. + +130. SUCCOTASH.--A combination of fresh shelled beans and sweet corn is +known as succotash. To prepare this dish, shell the beans and put them +to cook in boiling salted water. Cook until they are tender and the +water has boiled down until it is greatly reduced in quantity. Then cut +an equal amount of corn from the cob and add to the beans. Cook for a +few minutes longer or until the water is sufficiently reduced, so that +the combination may be served without pouring any water off. Dress with +butter and season with pepper and, if necessary, additional salt. + +During the winter, when green corn and fresh beans cannot be secured, +succotash can be made by using dried or canned corn and dried beans. + +131. CORN AND TOMATOES.--A somewhat unusual vegetable combination is +made by cooking tomatoes and green corn together. + +Prepare the desired number of tomatoes in the usual way for stewing and +cut an equal amount of sweet corn from the cob. Put the two vegetables +together in a saucepan and cook until the tomatoes are well stewed. +Season with salt, pepper, and sugar, if desired, and add a small piece +of butter. Serve hot. + +132. CORN, STRING BEANS, AND TOMATOES.--Those who care for the +combination of corn and tomatoes will find beans a very agreeable +addition to this dish. + +Prepare the corn and tomatoes as explained in Art. 131, and to them add +young, tender string beans that have been previously cooked in boiling +salted water. Add the desired seasoning and a small amount of butter. +When thoroughly heated, serve. + +133. PEAS AND POTATOES.--As a rule, the first green peas and the first +new potatoes come into the market at about the same time. If a delicious +combination is desired, these two vegetables should be cooked together +and then dressed in any desirable way. + +Select small potatoes, scrape them, and put them to cook in boiling +salted water. Shell an equal amount of green peas, and add them to the +potatoes about 20 minutes before the potatoes become tender. Cook until +both vegetables are tender, and then drain the water from them. Dress +with butter, vegetable sauce, cream sauce, or thin cream and serve. + +134. TURNIPS AND POTATOES.--Persons who are likely to find the flavor of +turnips disagreeable can usually eat them when they are combined +with potatoes. + +Pare an equal number of Irish potatoes and turnips and cut them into +thick slices. Put them to cook in boiling salted water and cook with the +cover off the kettle until both are tender. Drain and dress with butter +or add butter and mash together. Serve hot. + +135. NEW ENGLAND BOILED DINNER.--A combination of food that is much +used by the people of the New England States and has become famous +throughout the United States, consists of corned beef, potatoes, +turnips, and cabbage. As may well be imagined, such a combination forms +practically all that is necessary for a home dinner. + +Select a good piece of corned beef and put it to cook in boiling water. +About 30 minutes before the beef has finished cooking, add additional +water, if necessary, and into this place an equal quantity of Irish +potatoes, turnips, and cabbage prepared in the required way and cut into +thick slices or chunks. Cook until the vegetables are tender. Then +remove the beef to a platter, surround with vegetables, and serve. + + +SERVING VEGETABLES + +136. The way in which vegetables are served depends largely on the +method of preparation. However, a point that should never be neglected, +so far as cooked vegetables are concerned, no matter what plan of +serving is followed, is to see that they are always served hot. To make +this possible, the dishes in which they are served should be heated +before the vegetables are put into them and should be kept hot until put +on the table. When a vegetable dish has a cover, the cover should be +kept on until the vegetable is served and should be replaced after the +first serving, so as to keep the remainder hot. + +137. Because of the possible variety in the preparation of this class of +foods, numerous ways of serving them are in practice. When a vegetable +is baked in a large baking dish, the dish should be placed on the table +and the vegetable served from it either on the plate or in individual +dishes. If individual baking dishes are used, these should be set on +small plates and one put at each person's place. Boiled or creamed +vegetables may be served at the table from a vegetable dish, being put +on the plate or in small dishes, or they may be served in individual +dishes in the kitchen, and a dish placed at the left of each person's +place. When the large dish or the baking dish is placed on the table, it +should be placed where the vegetable may be conveniently served by the +host if it is to be put on the dinner plate or by the hostess in case it +is to be served in individual dishes at the table. + +138. In addition to being served in these ways, vegetables also lend +themselves to various attractive methods of serving. For instance, a +vegetable prepared with a sauce is frequently served in patty shells, +timbale cases, or croustades. When this is done, the case in which the +vegetable is served is, as a rule, placed directly on the dinner plate. +Potatoes that have been mashed are often forced through a pastry tube +either to garnish another dish or to make a dish of potatoes more +attractive. For instance, when mashed potatoes are to be served, a solid +foundation of the potato may be arranged in the center of a dish and a +little of the mashed potato then forced through the tube to make a +design over the top. Before being served, the dish should be placed in +the oven and the potato browned on top. A little thought on the part of +the housewife will enable her to work out many other attractive methods +in the serving of this food. + + VEGETABLES (PART 2) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) How do wild and cultivated greens differ? (_b_) What is the +chief use of greens in the diet? + +(2) (_a_) What precaution should be observed in washing greens? (_b_) +Mention the procedure in cooking greens having a strong flavor. + +(3) (_a_) If greens, such as endive, appear to be withered, how may they +be freshened? (_b_) Explain the use of lettuce as a garnish. (_c_) What +are the uses of parsley? + +(4) (_a_) How are Jerusalem artichokes prepared for the table? (_b_) +What part of kohlrabi is used for food? (_c_) How is kohlrabi generally +prepared for cooking? + +(5) (_a_) To what class of vegetables do lentils belong? (_b_) Is the +food value of lentils low or high? Discuss. + +(6) (_a_) How may the food value of mushrooms be increased? (_b_) How +should mushrooms be prepared for cooking? (_c_) Mention the ways in +which mushrooms may be cooked. + +(7) (_a_) What causes onions, especially raw ones, to disagree with many +persons? (_b_) Mention the two general varieties of onions. (_c_) How +are chives prepared when they are to be used for flavoring soups, etc.? + +(8) (_a_) How should onion be added to other foods when it is desired +simply as a flavoring? (_b_) How may onions be peeled so as to keep off +the fumes of their volatile oil? + +(9) (_a_) How should parsnips be prepared for cooking? (_b_) Tell how to +prepare browned parsnips. + +(10) In what way do green and dried peas differ in food value? Explain +fully. + +(11) Tell how to cook: (_a_) green peas; (_b_) dried peas. + +(12) (_a_) What varieties of peppers are generally used as a vegetable? +(_b_) Of what value are peppers? + +(13) (_a_) To what may the high food value of potatoes be attributed? +(_b_) How may the quality of potatoes be judged? (_c_) Mention the most +economical way in which to cook potatoes. (14) Tell how to prepare: +(_a_) mashed potatoes; (_b_) baked potatoes. (_c_) How may the baking of +potatoes be hastened? (_d_) Mention several ways in which to utilize +left-over potatoes. + +(15) (_a_) How may sweet potatoes be prepared for the table? (_b_) Tell +how to prepare glazed sweet potatoes. + +(16) (_a_) How are radishes usually eaten? (_b_) What may be said of the +food value of radishes? + +(17) (_a_) In what way do summer and winter squashes differ? (_b_) Why +should the seeds and skins of summer squash be removed in preparing this +vegetable for the table? + +(18) (_a_) Why is salsify called vegetable oyster? (_b_) How is salsify +prepared for cooking? + +(19) (_a_) What may be said of the food value of tomatoes? (_b_) How may +the acidity of tomatoes be decreased? (_c_) How may the skins of +tomatoes be removed easily? + +(20) (_a_) Point out the difference between turnips and rutabagas. (_b_) +When is it advisable to make combination vegetable dishes? (_c_) Mention +several good combinations. + + * * * * * + + + INDEX + +A + +Acid, Butyric, + Lactic, +Adulteration of milk, +Albumin in milk, + Vegetable, +Alpine eggs, +American Cheddar cheese, + cream cheese, + home-made cheese, +Apples, Baked, +Artichokes, Buttered, + Composition and food value of French, + Creamed, + French, + Jerusalem, + with Hollandaise sauce, +Artificial buttermilk, +Ash, or mineral matter, in vegetables, +Asparagus, + and its preparation, + Composition and food value of, + for cooking, Preparation of, + Scalloped, + with butter dressing, + +B + +Baked apples, + beans, + beets, + eggplant, + eggs in cream, + onions, + potatoes, + sauerkraut, + squash, + sweet potatoes, +Baking dishes for egg recipes, Individual, +Balls, Potato, +Bean croquettes, + loaf, Lima, + puree, + souffle, +Beans and their preparation, + Baked, + Composition and food value of dried, + Composition and food value of lima, + Composition and food value of shell, + Composition and food value of string, + Shell, + String, + Varieties of, + Wax, +Beating of eggs, +Beet tops, +Beets and their preparation, + Baked, + Buttered, + Composition and food value of, + Pickled, + Preparation and cooking of, + Selection and care of, + with cream dressing, + with sour dressing, +Belgian cheese, +Black-butter sauce, + tea, +Boiled cabbage, + dinner, New England, + kohlrabi, + onions, + potatoes, + sweet potatoes, +Bonbons, Cheese, +Breakfast menu, +Breaking of eggs, +Brick cheese, +Brie cheese, +Broiled mushrooms, +Browned carrots, + parsnips, + potatoes, +Brussels sprouts and their preparation, + sprouts, Buttered, + sprouts, Composition and food value of, + sprouts, Cooking of, + sprouts, Creamed, + sprouts, Scalloped, +Bulb, root, and tuber vegetables, +Butter, + Care of, + Cooking with, + dressing, Asparagus with, + Economical use of, + Flavor and composition of, + Purchasing, + Renovated, + Serving, + substitutes, + substitutes, Method of testing, +Buttered artichokes, + beets, + Brussels sprouts, + carrots, + salsify, +Butterine, +Buttermilk, + Artificial, + Composition and food value of, + cream cheese, +Butyric acid, + +C + +Cabbage, + and its preparation, + Boiled, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Preparation and cooking of, + Purple, + Savoy, + Scalloped, + Selection and care of, + Turnip, + White, +Camembert cheese, +Candling eggs, +Caps, Sanitary milk, +Caramel junket, +Carbohydrate in milk, +Carbohydrates in vegetables, +Care and selection of string beans, + of butter, + of celery, + of cheese, + of milk, + of milk in the home, Necessity for, + of potatoes, + of vegetables, +Carrots, + and peas, + and their preparation, + Browned, + Buttered, + Composition and food value of, + Selection and preparation of, + with parsley, +Casein in milk, +Cauliflower, + and its preparation, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Scalloped, + Selection and cooking of, + with tomato sauce, +Celery, + au gratin, + Care of, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Preparation of, +Cellulose in vegetables, +Certified milk, +Characteristics and care of cheese, + of wholesome milk, +Cheddar cheese, + cheese, American, +Cheese, + American Cheddar, + American cream, + American home-made, + -and-macaroni loaf, + Belgian, + bonbons, + Brick, + Brie, + Buttermilk, + Buttermilk cream, + Camembert, + Care of, + Characteristics of, + Cheddar, + Cheshire, + Composition of, + Cottage, + dishes, Recipes for, + dishes, Variety of, + Domestic, + dreams, + Edam, + Effect of cooking on, + Emmenthal, + English, + English dairy, + fondue, + Foreign, + Gorgonzola, + Gruyere, + Holland, + Imported, + Junket cottage, + Limburger, or limburg, + Neufchatel, + omelet, + Origin, use, and production of, + Parmesan, + Quality of, + Roquefort, + sandwiches, + Sapsago, + sauce, + Serving, + souffle, + Stilton, + straws, + stuffing, Tomatoes with, + Swiss, + Switzer, + toast, + Varieties of, + wafers, +Cheeses, French, + Italian, + Swiss, +Cheshire cheese, +Chestnuts, Creamed mushrooms and, +Chives, +Chocolate junket, +Clabber, or curd, +Classification of vegetables, +Clean milk, Grades of, +Cleanliness of milk, +Clipped eggs, +Combinations, Vegetable, +Commercial preservation of eggs, +Composition and flavor of butter, + and food value of asparagus, + and food value of beets, + and food value of Brussels sprouts, + and food value of buttermilk, + and food value of cabbage, + and food value of carrots, + and food value of cauliflower, + and food value of celery, + and food value of corn, + and food value of cream, + and food value of cucumbers, + and food value of dandelion greens, + and food value of dried beans, + and food value of dried lentils, + and food value of dried peas, + and food value of eggplant, + and food value of endive, + and food value of French artichokes, + and food value of green peas, + and food value of greens, + and food value of Jerusalem artichokes, + and food value of kohlrabi, + and food value of lettuce, + and food value of lima beans, + and food value of mushrooms, + and food value of okra, + and food value of onions, + and food value of parsnips, + and food value of peppers, + and food value of potatoes, + and food value of radishes, + and food value of salsify, + and food value of shell beans, + and food value of skimmed milk, + and food value of spinach, + and food value of string beans, + and food value of summer squash, + and food value of sweet potatoes, + and food value of Swiss chard, + and food value of tomatoes, + and food value of turnips, + and food value of vegetables, Table showing, + and food value of watercress, + and food value of whey, + and food value of winter squash, + of cheese, + of milk, + of whole milk, + Standard of milk, + structure, and food value of vegetables, +Condensed milk, +Cooked sauted potatoes, +Cooking eggs, + milk, + of Brussels sprouts, + of cauliflower, + of dried shell beans, + of eggs, + of lentils, + of vegetables, General methods of preparation and, + on cheese, Effect of, + on vegetables, Effect of, + Preparing mushrooms for, + Preparing vegetables for, + Variety of ways to use milk in, + with butter, +Corn and its preparation, + and tomatoes, + Composition and food value of, + cooked in milk, + fritters, + on the cob, +Corn oysters, + pulp, + souffle, + string beans, and tomatoes, + Sweet, +Cottage cheese, + -cheese, Junket, +Cow's milk, +Cream, + cheese, American, + Composition and food value of, + -of-corn soup, + Standard grading of milk and, + Whipping, +Creamed artichokes, + asparagus on toast, + Brussels sprouts, + cabbage, + cauliflower, + celery, + eggs, + kohlrabi, + mushrooms and chestnuts, + onions, + parsnips, + peas, + potatoes, + spinach, + string beans, + tomatoes, + turnips, + vegetable oysters, +Cress, Upland, +Croquettes, Bean, + Potato, +Cucumbers and their preparation, + Composition and food value of, + Stuffed, +Curd, or clabber, + +D + +Dairy cheese, English, +Dandelion, + greens, Composition and food value of, + with sour sauce, +Desiccated eggs, +Deterioration of eggs, Causes and prevention of, +Diet, Milk in the, +Digestibility of eggs, + of vegetables, +Dinner, New England boiled, +Domestic cheese, +Drawn-butter sauce, +Dreams, Cheese, +Dressing, Sour, + Sour-cream, +Dried beans, Composition and food value of, +Dried lentils, Composition and food value of, + onions, + peas, + peas, Composition and food value of, + shell beans, Cooking of, + +E + +Edam cheese, +Egg beater. Rotary, or Dover, + recipes, + recipes, Individual baking dishes for, + souffle, +Eggplant, + Baked, + Food value and composition of, + Preparation of, + Sauted, + Scalloped, +Eggs, + a la goldenrod, + Alpine, + and place in the diet, Description of, + as food, Value of, + Beating of, + Breaking of, + Candling, + Clipped, + Commercial preservation of, + Cooking, + Cooking of, + Creamed, + Desiccated, + Deterioration of, + Digestibility of, + Extra fancy, + Fancy, + Fat in, + for cooking, Preliminary preparation of, + Fried, + Hard-cooked, + Home preservation of, + in cream, Baked, + in the home, Judging the quality of, + in the market, Judging the quality of, + Left-over, + Marketing of, + Minerals in, + Nutritive value of, + on toast, Poached, + on toast, Scrambled, + Poached, + Points to observe in cooking, + Powdered, +Eggs, Preservation of, + Protein in, + Quality of, + Scalloped, + Scrambled, + Selection of, + Separating of, + Serving of, + Soft-cooked, or jellied, + Strictly fresh, + Stuffed, + with ham, Scrambled, + with ham, Shirred, + with limewater, Preservation of, + with tomato, Scrambled, + with water glass, Preservation of, +Emmenthal cheese, +Emulsion, +Endive, + Composition and food value of, +English cheese, + dairy cheese, + monkey, +Evaporated and condensed milk, + milk, +Extra fancy eggs, + +F + +Fancy eggs, +Fat in eggs, + in milk, + in vegetables, +Figs stuffed with cheese, +Flavor and composition of butter, +Flavoring, Onions for, +Flower and fruit vegetables, +Fondue, Cheese, +Food, Importance of vegetables as, + value and composition of asparagus, + value and composition of beets, + value and composition of Brussels sprouts, + value and composition of buttermilk, + value and composition of cabbage, + value and composition of carrots, + value and composition of cauliflower, + value and composition of celery, + value and composition of corn, + value and composition of cream, + value and composition of cucumbers, + value and composition of dandelion greens, + value and composition of dried beans, + value and composition of dried lentils, + value and composition of dried peas, + value and composition of eggplant, + value and composition of endive, + value and composition of French artichokes, + value and composition of green peas, + value and composition of greens, + value and composition of Jerusalem artichokes, + value and composition of kohlrabi, + value and composition of lettuce, + value and composition of lima beans, + value and composition of mushrooms, + value and composition of okra, + value and composition of onions, + value and composition of parsnips, + value and composition of peppers, + value and composition of potatoes, + value and composition of radishes, + value and composition of salsify, + value and composition of shell beans, + value and composition of spinach, + value and composition of string beans, + value and composition of summer squash, + value and composition of sweet potatoes, + value and composition of Swiss chard, + value and composition of tomatoes, + value and composition of turnips, + value and composition of vegetables, Table showing, + value and composition of watercress, + value and composition of whey, + value and composition of winter squash, + value and varieties of greens, + value of potatoes, + value of vegetables, Structure, composition and, + value of whole milk, + values of milk products, Comparison of, +Foods containing milk, +Foreign cheese, +French artichokes, + artichokes, Preparation of, + cheese, + fried potatoes, +Fresh shell beans, Preparation and cooking of, +Freshness of milk, +Fried eggs, +Fritters, Corn, +Fruit and flower vegetables, + Junket with, + +G + +Garlic, +Glazed sweet potatoes, +Gorgonzola cheese, +Grades of clean milk, +Green onions, + peas, + peas, English style, + peas with butter, +Greens and their preparation, + Food value of, + General directions for cooking, + Varieties of, +Gruyere cheese, +Gumbo, + +H + +Hard-cooked eggs, +Hash-browned potatoes, +Holland cheese, +Hollandaise sauce, + sauce, Artichokes with, +Home, Keeping milk clean in the, + Keeping milk cool in the, + -made cheese, American, + Milk in the, + preservation of eggs, +Hot slaw, + +I + +Imported cheese, +Individual baking dishes for egg recipes, +Irish potatoes, +Italian cheeses, + +J + +Jellied, or soft-cooked, eggs, +Jerusalem artichokes, + artichokes, Composition and food value of, + artichokes, Preparation of, +Judging the quality of eggs in the home, + the quality of eggs in the market, +Junket + Caramel, + Chocolate, + cottage cheese, + Plain, + Recipes for, + with fruit, + +K + +Kinds of cheese, +Kohlrabi, + Boiled, + Composition and food value, + Creamed, + Mashed, + Preparation of, + +L + +Lactic acid, +Lactose, +Leeks, +Left-over eggs, +Legumes, +Legumin, +Lentil puff, +Lentils, + Cooking of, + Preparation of, +Lettuce, + Composition and food value of, +Lima-bean loaf, + beans, Composition and food value of, + beans en casserole, + beans in cream, +Limburg cheese, +Limburger cheese, +Lime in milk, +Limewater, Preservation of eggs with, +Loaf, Cheese-and macaroni, + Lima Bean, +Luncheon menu, +Lyonnaise potatoes, + +M + +Maitre d'hotel sauce, +Margarine, +Marketing of eggs, +Marrow, Vegetable, +Mashed kohlrabi, + parsnips, + potatoes, + squash, + sweet potatoes, + turnips, +Medium white sauce, + white sauce for vegetables, +Menu, Breakfast, + Luncheon, +Methods of cooking applied to vegetables, +Milk, + Adulteration of, + Albumin in, + and cream, Standard grading of, + caps, Sanitary, + Carbohydrate in, + Care of, + Casein in, + Certified, +Milk, Characteristics of wholesome, + Cleanliness of, + Composition and food value of skim, + Composition of, + Composition of whole, + composition, Standard of, + Condensed, + Cooking, + Cow's, + dishes and sauces, Recipes for, + Evaporated, + Fat in, + Foods containing, + Freshness of, + Grades of clean, + in cooking, Ways of using, + in the diet, + in the home, + in the home, Necessity for care of, + Mineral matter in, + Modified, + Pasteurized, + Points to be observed in cooking, + Powdered, + Preserved, + products, Comparison of food value of, + Products obtained from, + Protein in, + Purchase of, + Skim, + Sour, + Sterilized, + Water in, + Whole, +Mineral matter in milk, + matter, or ash, in vegetables, +Minerals in eggs, +Modified milk, +Monkey, English, +Mushrooms, + and chestnuts, Creamed, + and their preparation, + Broiled, + Composition and food value of, + for cooking, Preparing, + Sauted, + Stewed, + +N + +Navy beans, Stewed, +Neufchatel cheese, +New England boiled dinner, +Nutritive value of eggs, + +O + +Okra, + Composition and food value of, + Preparation of, + Stewed, + with tomatoes, +Oleomargarine, +Omelet, Cheese, + Plain, + Puff, + Tomato, +Omelets, Variety in, +Onion family, Varieties of the, +Onions, + Baked, + Boiled, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Dried, + for flavoring, + for the table, + Green, + Preparation of, + Stuffed, +Oyster, Vegetable, +Oysters, Corn, + Creamed vegetable, + Scalloped vegetable, + +P + +Parmesan cheese, +Parsley, +Parsnips, + Browned, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Mashed, + Preparation of, +Pasteurized milk, +Patties, Potato, +Peas, + and carrots, + and potatoes, + and their preparation, + Composition and food value of dried, + Creamed, + Dried, + Food value and composition of green, + Green, + in turnip cups, + puree, + souffle, +Peppercress, +Peppers, + Composition and food value of, + Preparation of, + Stuffed, +Perishable vegetables, +Phosphates, +Pickled beets, +Plain junket, + omelet, +Poached eggs, + eggs on toast, +Potash, +Potato balls, + croquettes, + patties, + puff, +Potatoes, + and peas, + and turnips, + au gratin, + Baked, + Baked sweet, + Boiled, + Boiled sweet, + Browned, + Care of, + Composition and food value of, + Composition and food value of sweet, + Cooked sauted, + Creamed, + French fried, + Glazed sweet, + Hash-browned, + Lyonnaise, + Mashed, + Mashed sweet, + Preparation of, + Raw sauted, + Scalloped, + Selection of, + Stuffed, + Sweet, + White, +Powdered eggs, + milk, +Preparation and cooking of beets, + and cooking of cabbage, + and cooking of fresh shell beans, + and cooking of string beans, + and cooking of vegetables, General methods of, + of asparagus for cooking, + of beans, + of beets, + of Brussels sprouts, + of cabbage, + of carrots, + of cauliflower, + of celery, + of corn, + of cucumbers, + of eggplant, + of eggs for cooking, Preliminary, + of French artichokes, + of greens, + of kohlrabi, + of Jerusalem artichokes, +Preparation of lentils, + of mushrooms, + of mushrooms for cooking, + of okra, + of onions, + of parsnips, + of peas, + of peppers, + of potatoes, + of radishes, + of salsify, + of squash, + of tomatoes, + of turnips, +Preparing vegetables for cooking, +Preservation of eggs, + of eggs with limewater, + of eggs with water glass, +Preserved milk, +Production, origin, and use of cheese, +Products, Comparison of food value of milk, + obtained from milk, +Protein in eggs, + in milk, + in vegetables, +Puff, Lentil, + omelet, + Potato, +Pulp, Corn, +Purchase of milk, + of vegetables, +Purchasing butter, +Puree, Bean, + Peas, +Purple cabbage, + +Q + +Quality of cheese, + of eggs, + of eggs in the home, Judging the, + of eggs in the market, Judging the, + +R + +Radishes, + Food value and composition of, + Preparation of, +Rarebit, Welsh, +Raw sauted potatoes, +Recipes, Egg, + for cheese dishes, + for junket, + for milk dishes and sauces, + for white sauce, +Renovated butter, +Root, tuber, and bulb vegetables, +Roquefort cheese, +Rotary, or Dover, egg beater, +Rutabagas, + +S + +Salsify, + Buttered, + Composition and food value of, + Preparation of, +Sapsago cheese, +Sandwiches, Cheese, +Sanitary milk caps, +Sauce, Black-butter, + Cheese, + Drawn-butter, + for creamed string beans, + for vegetables, Medium white, + Hollandaise, + Maitre d'hotel, + Medium white, + Recipes for white, + Thick white, + Thin white, + Tomato, + Vegetable, +Sauces and milk dishes, Recipes for, + for vegetables, +Sauerkraut, Baked, + Making, + Sauted, + with spareribs, +Sauted eggplant, + mushrooms, + sauerkraut, + summer squash, + tomatoes, +Savoy cabbage, +Scalloped asparagus, + Brussels sprouts, + cabbage, + cauliflower, + eggplant, + eggs, + potatoes, + tomatoes, + vegetable oysters, +Scrambled eggs, + eggs on toast, + eggs with ham, + eggs with tomato, +Selection and care of beets, + and care of cabbage, + and care of string beans, + and cooking of cauliflower, + and preparation of carrots, + of eggs, + of potatoes, +Separating of eggs, +Serving butter, + cheese, + of eggs, + vegetables, +Shallots, +Shell beans, +Shell beans dressed with butter, + beans in cream, + beans, Preparation and cooking of fresh, + beans, Varieties and food value of, +Shirred eggs with ham, +Skim milk, + Milk, Composition and food value of, +Slaw, Hot, +Soft-cooked, or jellied, eggs, +Souffle, Bean, + Cheese, + Corn, + Egg, + Peas, + Spinach, +Soup, Cream-of-corn, +Sour-cream dressing, + dressing, + milk, +Spinach, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Royal, + Souffle, +Squash and its preparation, + Baked, + Composition and food value of summer, + Composition and food value of winter, + Mashed, + Sauted summer, + Stewed summer, + Summer, + Winter, +Standard grading of milk and cream, + of milk composition, +Sterilized milk, +Stewed mushrooms, + navy beans, + okra, + summer squash, + tomatoes, + turnips, +Stilton cheese, +Straws, Cheese, +Strictly fresh eggs +String beans, + beans, corn, and tomatoes, + beans, Creamed, + beans in butter beans, + Preparation and cooking of, + beans, Selection and care of, + beans, Varieties of, + beans with salt pork, + beans with sour dressing, +Structure, composition, and food value of vegetables, +Stuffed cucumbers, + eggs, + onions, + peppers, + potatoes, + tomatoes, + tomatoes with cheese carrots, +Substitutes, Butter, + Method of testing butter, +Succotash, +Succulent vegetables, +Summer squash, + squash, Sauted, + squash, Stewed, +Sweet corn, + potatoes, + potatoes, Baked, + potatoes, Boiled, + potatoes, Glazed, + potatoes, Mashed, +Swiss chard, Composition and food value of, + cheeses, +Switzer cheese, + +T + +Table showing composition and food value of vegetables, +Tea, Black, +Testing butter substitutes, Method of, +Thick white sauce, +Thin white sauce, +Toast, Cheese, +Tomato omelet, + sauce, +Tomatoes, + and corn, + Composition and food value of, + corn, and string beans, + Creamed, + Preparation of, + Sauted, + Scalloped, + Stewed, + Stuffed, + with cheese carrots, Stuffed, + with cheese stuffing, +Tuber, root, and bulb vegetables, +Turnip cabbage, +Turnips, + and potatoes, + Composition and food value of, + Creamed, + Mashed, + Preparation of, + Stewed, + +U + +Upland cress, +Use of butter, Economical, +Use, origin, and production of cheese, + + +V + +Value of eggs as food, +Varieties and food value of greens, + and food value of shell beans, + of beans, + of cheese, Classification of, + of greens, + of string beans, + of the onion family, + of vegetables, +Variety in omelets, + in vegetables, + of cheese dishes, + of ways to use milk in cooking, +Vegetable albumin, + combinations, + marrow, + oyster, + oysters, Creamed, + oysters, Scalloped, + sauce, +Vegetables, + as food, Importance of, + as food, Preparation of, + Carbohydrates in, + Care of, + Cellulose in, + Classification of, + Composition of, + Digestibility of, + Effect of cooking on, + Fat in, + Food value of, + for cooking, Preparing, + Fruit and flower, + Medium white sauce for, + Methods of cooking applied to, + Mineral matter, or ash, in, + Perishable, + Preparation of, + Protein in, + Purchase of, + Root, tuber, and bulb, + Sauces for, + Serving, + Structure of, + Succulent, + Varieties of, + Variety in, + Water in, + Winter, + + +W + +Wafers, Cheese, +Water glass, Preservation of eggs with, + in milk, +Water in vegetables +Watercress + Composition and food value of +Wax beans +Welsh rarebit +Whey + Composition and food value of +Whipping cream +White cabbage + potatoes +White sauce for vegetables, Medium + sauce, Medium + sauce, Recipes for + sauce, Thick + sauce, Thin +Whole milk + milk, Food value of +Wholesome milk, Characteristics of +Winter squash + vegetables + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +Vol. 2, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. 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