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diff --git a/9935-8.txt b/9935-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de53742 --- /dev/null +++ b/9935-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11278 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1, by +Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, Vol. 1 + Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads + +Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +Posting Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #9935] +Release Date: February, 2006 +First Posted: November 1, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + + + + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY + +VOLUME ONE + +ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY + +CEREALS + +BREAD + +HOT BREADS + + + +WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc. + +PREFACE + +The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that +cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on +in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers +of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects +are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject +matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove +helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are +the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to +report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will +assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained +in it. + +This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of +cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_, +Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of +food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms +used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In +_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care +and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot +Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and +hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in +making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in +which to care for such foods. + +Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as +labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the +art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this +volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable +the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the +recipes given. + +It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the +knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper +sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food +judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and +also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become +enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art. + + + +CONTENTS + +ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY + The Problem of Food + Selection of Food + Food Substances + Food Value + Digestion and Absorption of Food + Preparation of Food + Methods of Cooking + Heat for Cooking + Utensils for Cooking + Preparing Foods for Cooking + Order of Work + Table for Cooking Foods + Care of Food + Menus and Recipes + Terms Used in Cookery + +CEREALS + Production, Composition, and Selection + Cereals as a Food + Preparation of Cereals for the Table + Indian Corn, or Maize + Wheat + Rice + Oats + Barley + Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet + Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals + Serving Cereals + Italian Pastes + Breakfast Menu + +BREAD + Importance of Bread as Food + Ingredients for Bread Making + Utensils for Bread Making + Bread-Making Processes + Making the Dough + Care of the Rising Dough + Kneading the Dough + Shaping the Dough Into Loaves + Baking the Bread + Scoring Bread + Use of the Bread Mixer + Serving Bread + Bread Recipes + Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits + Toast + Left-Over Bread + +HOT BREADS + Hot Breads in the Diet + Principal Requirements for Hot Breads + Leavening Agents + Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use + Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture + Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture + Serving Hot Breads + Popover Recipes + Griddle-Cake Recipes + Waffle Recipes + Muffin Recipes + Corn-Cake Recipes + Biscuit Recipes + Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes + Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads + Luncheon Menu + +INDEX + + * * * * * + + + +ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1) + +THE PROBLEM OF FOOD + +1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is +that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating +simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body +must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's +work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and +working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is +nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but +the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the +scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases +in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for +adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a +person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must +possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary +building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and +principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food +may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and +that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be +exercised. + +2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of +food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by +subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much +more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends +for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense, +_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby +producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select +materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an +understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared, +and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use +of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there +will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a +broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because +of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her +family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work. + +3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to +the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the +family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own +livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is +spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her +father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her +money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and +shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife +should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in +this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be +the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed +for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the +allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by +selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has +bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however, +that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that +her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to +prepare them. + +4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is +_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should +understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are +thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there +is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is +something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something +that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of +meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato +parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse. + +In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that +leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack +of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between +waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an +illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a +pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5 +cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the +price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of +meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible +material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in +proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the +household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table, +arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of +skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large +quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and +unfit for any other use in the home. + +5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods +she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals +should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing, +giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should +understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons; +that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must +satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of +course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife +knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation +from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is +meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something +prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply +a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing +in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods +and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must +always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to +produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time +and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned +meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill +of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned. + +6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be +planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body +and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present +and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods +depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in +this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of +it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that +affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for +acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well +and happy. + +The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in +the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity +along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for +enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in +providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which +they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way. +But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch +to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food +as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way, +it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than +the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal. + +7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a +correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme +importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for +just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from +day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to +perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up +the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in +cookery are intended. + +In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed +advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is +presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are +arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the +essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection, +preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by +step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner +eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much +attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely +essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of +food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little +concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended. + +8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in +the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every +detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for +the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject +and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This +thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the +essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other +Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that +must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By +carrying on her studies systematically and following directions +carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter +and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that +she learns. + + * * * * * + +SELECTION OF FOOD + +MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION + +9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success +is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the +selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and +suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife +should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs +of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved +in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results +obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of +refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost +materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the +food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally, +whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also +is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it +is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent +and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each +member of the family. + +10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements +just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the +_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing +material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its +_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual +cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its +price at all times may be known. + +However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is +necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the +body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may +be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and +exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at +normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work +required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things +is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken +into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with +the energy required to do its work. + + +FOOD SUBSTANCES + +11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as +anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in +living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than +all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and +in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are +the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper +choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food +consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food, +therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five +substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up; +namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A +knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to +adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various +substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned, +it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes +successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food +constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes +for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known +concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat +on foods. + +12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human +body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is +an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is +to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of +food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most +foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In +fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the +development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building +up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special +function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this +food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered +in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly +all foods contain water. + +13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in +the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called +_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework, +or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts +serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton, +to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the +required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other +secretions. + +The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest. +Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and +combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue. +Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply +of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being +the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These +salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that +removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs, +the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of +the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water, +mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body, +is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact +that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly +all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to +question its presence. + +14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important +factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes +cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However, +while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very +large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the +body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal +sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and +the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the +ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more +valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the +foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed +diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to +purchase foods is available. + +15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that +the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The +cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the +food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain +characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence +their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to +which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to +increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods +containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application +of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first +coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and +then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is +clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the +type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly +liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes +solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and +shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less +digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has +coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will +be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible. + +Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about +through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods +that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein +known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact +very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too +long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil +the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of +smooth and tender. + +16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter, +and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the +tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires +foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of +the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of +these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large +proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body +composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been +explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and +vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil, +and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively +little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher +temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances +that may be irritating to the digestive tract. + +17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term +carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and +carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the +former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the +most economical form. + +So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly +fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the +composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a +lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as +in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of +diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food +for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food, +is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen, +carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its +importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone +contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the +formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements, +carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact, +it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate +is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are +used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements +mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the +proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by +separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_ +(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one +of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon +united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with +food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to +make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the +only correct name for the food substance it represents. + +18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only +the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains +and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small +amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that +lie within the plant cells. + +Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible. +Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus +thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and +finally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate step +in the changing of starch into sugar. + +19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of +vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called +_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child +with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of +various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be +crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is +valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is +also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in +a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A +sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch +of corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found in +vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of +sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch. + +Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted +condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When +all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become +brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued +too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because +the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost +when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are +cooked is utilized. + +20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It +helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little +cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives +the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict +attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually +surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened +and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to +be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables, +there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an +old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the +fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking +for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence +and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food. + +21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.--Every one of the five food +substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet, +with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of +material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and +energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food +substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It +will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the +diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food +selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances +must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most +slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested +than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food +value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to +build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition, +it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of +the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the +individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it +with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated +offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily +vary with the size, age, and activity of each person. + + +FOOD VALUE + +22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one +another in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the work +the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of +energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food +must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be +appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be +neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those +who are to eat it. + +While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in +the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that +purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a +larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For +instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of +energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things, +because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give +the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other +hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they +were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much +too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's +diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the +body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral +salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue +and keeping the body in a healthy condition. + +23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods, +it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of +work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_, +and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound, +the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and +liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines +its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider, +for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the +actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with +regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their +relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are +measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely +known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is, +when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring +them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when +they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the +liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be +measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the +temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name +of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a +square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint +of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of +heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in +the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will +produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water +about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter +has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar +contains only about 57-1/2 calories. + +Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is +determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give +an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the +number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food +charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here +presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely +profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this +time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time +to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will +then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value. + + +DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD + +24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its +digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to +be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as +that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that +is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that +which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work. +No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of +food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn, +the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired. + +[Illustration: Composition of food materials] + +[Illustration: Composition of food materials] + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF FOOD + +REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD + +25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of +both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of +the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of +cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been +recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that +appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be +eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is +desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following: + +1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as +meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if +they were eaten raw. + +2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains, +such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be +readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking +makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of +digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending +somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in +an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled +egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking. +Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than +an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be +the same. + +3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by +various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on +the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods, +so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The +large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have +been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of +different foods. + +4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods +need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be +completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or +putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done +when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are +exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly +cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present. +By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs +that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must +in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in +the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed +out later. + +5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some +vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain +methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed. + + * * * * * + +METHODS OF COOKING + +COOKING PROCESSES + +26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist +or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the +preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is +impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the +most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit +directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the +kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric +conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on +the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on +which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts +perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a +stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat +itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate +it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus, +a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by +cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these +points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into +constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery. + +27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to +become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in +which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are +numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling, +stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting, +baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sautéing. Which one of these +to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result +desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food +material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or +tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to +roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler. + +The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide +themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those +requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium. + + +COOKING WITH DRY HEAT + +28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and +baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is +practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being +exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and +subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked +is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used. + +29. BROILING.--The cooking process known as broiling consists in +exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked; +that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas +flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop +flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for +example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not +help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking +process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and +for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in +order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the +beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be +turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should +be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to +cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to +continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces +an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided +they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking. + +30. PAN BROILING.--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method. +It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove +without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop, +or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article +is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of +pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as +a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling. + +31. ROASTING.--Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before a +fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was +cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before +the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the +side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was +suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant +heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle +being the same as that of broiling, but the application different. +Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to the +action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called +roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary +coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be +roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed +to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the +true sense. + +It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more +on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight. +For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for +roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much +on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in +cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if +by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather +than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process. + +32. BAKING.--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures +ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is +frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process +should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original +method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is +exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these +processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air. +Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always +baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables +are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are +skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they +formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is +applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that +is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted +meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in +the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly +the same way is said to be roasted. + + +COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT + +33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium +of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing. +In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is +entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be +selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food +contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process; +to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly +in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with +steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another +containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler. + +As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat, +something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore, +before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the +function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water +are discussed. + +34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.--Water supplies no energy to the body, +but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular +function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive +material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body +properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps +to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these +necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and +its safety. + +35. KINDS OF WATER.--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the +clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and +solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is +definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is +much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but +the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing +through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the +minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard +water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable +to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking +until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled +water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold +certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree. + +The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either +temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains +soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon +boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this +condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of +the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very +thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime +that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to +soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing +soda, or bicarbonate of soda. + +36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power +of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two +kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater +solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already +dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less +of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes +than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the +flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by +the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of +meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the +addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods +will assist in softening them. + +Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the +making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and +foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both +vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar, +salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a +medium for conveying heat. + +37. BOILING.--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in +boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to +what is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with the +atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is +always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the +surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower +temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the +boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of +boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of +boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is +contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase +in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing +constant agitation of the water. + +38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in +eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat, +softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves +other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in +preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same +temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly +the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire +hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary; +besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes +not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the +rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely, +the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the +quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in +which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the +temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a +loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As +water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and +for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are +cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water; +consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the +quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in +the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a +tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed +to boil long enough. + +Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it +destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must +sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is +known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by +the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again +introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or +beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater. + +39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.--The cooking process known as simmering, or +stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in +water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to +200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves +gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently +less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the +time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater +than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly. + +Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing, +cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more +rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made +tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method +tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough +vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without +using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever +method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other +winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat +difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early +spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and +then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically +the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled +continuously. + +40. STEAMING.--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by +the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into +a _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a +perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils, +steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel. +Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one +on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several +foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a +different food may be placed in each vessel. + +Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is +no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not +so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this +way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by +steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp +outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the +moist surface. + +41. DRY STEAMING.--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in +another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method +known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised +especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the +suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is +cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower, +vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is +required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil +away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the +fire, the food will neither boil nor burn. + +Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is +especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods +containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way. +Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently +cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high +temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the +boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it +is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to +digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be +boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler. + +42. BRAIZING.--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small +quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be +called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly +carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the +water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the +meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot +pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when +they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of +the braizing method. + + +COOKING WITH HOT FAT + +43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot +water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible. +Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made +to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the +ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and +if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by +the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sautéing, +and fricasseeing. + +44. FRYING.--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a +temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will +not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable +oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed +oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats, +because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not +absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly +fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat. + +45. SAUTÉING.--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in +a small quantity of fat is termed sautéing. In this cooking process, the +fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the +food is put into it. Foods that are to be sautéd are usually sliced thin +or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the +process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to +digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops +and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really +sautéd if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them. + +46. FRICASSEEING.--A combination of sautéing and stewing results in the +cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing +such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed +for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the +old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the +meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sautéd either before or after +stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily, +the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to +retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or +tough meat should be stewed first and then browned. + + * * * * * + +HEAT FOR COOKING + +GENERAL DISCUSSION + +47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods, +it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be +thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The +production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in +which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of +a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that +the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here +taken up in detail. + +48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for +cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke, +and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are +used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is +used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in +localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other +fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to +burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should +remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than +soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming +into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold +as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general. + +49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel +that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in +which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient +and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be +selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by +the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be +made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds +materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great +inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that, +instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen +and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also +taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just +been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and +apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical +production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best +advantage. + + +COAL AND COKE + +50. VARIETIES OF COAL.--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking +is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or +_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative cost +depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of +both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft +coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little +smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces +considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a +stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for +this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a +short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove +especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at +times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of +management and care of the stove is demanded. + +51. SIZES OF COAL.--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken +into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard +coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes +known as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4 +inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in +the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to +use the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in +diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called +_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In +reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and +most easily regulated kitchen coal fire. + +52. QUALITY OF COAL.--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses +of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to +distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be +exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality +of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for +the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be +understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright +surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal +can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned. +Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal, +and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of +the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad +management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large +manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the +proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to +the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan +may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is +provided in the meantime. + +Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and +stick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_. +Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove +grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the +burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen +fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor +quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to +prevent their formation. + +53. COKE.--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke. +Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas, +but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the +nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is +therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is +used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where +cooking is done on a small scale. + + +GAS + +54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both +_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities where +the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the +two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most +expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas. +Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen +fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it, +as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by +closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this +way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of +cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if +the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of +air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been +burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained +by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study +and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an +economical fuel. + +55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a +definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the +quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which +measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able +to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her +gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges +are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the +bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been +previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for +the meter may be out of order and in need of repair. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials] + +56. READING A GAS METER.--To register the quantity of gas that is +consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three +large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or +indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one +small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2 +cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether +gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each +large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read, +the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward +the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that +each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet, +that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic +feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and +read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the +hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies +between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when +the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial, +when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read. + +57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to +right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the +quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at +that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted +from the new reading. + +To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be +determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that +the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic +feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As +was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial +5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that +they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on +June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract +from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give +2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15. +Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount +burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic +feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 ÷ 1,000 = +2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34 + +58. PREPAYMENT METERS.--In many places, gas concerns install what are +called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is +deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the +consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but +they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is +dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas +sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed. +When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted +in the meter before more gas will be liberated. + + +KEROSENE + +59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is +produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel +for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood +stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the +cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use, +and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It +contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is +greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel +will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene +can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn +on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it. + +Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However, +it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more +dangerous and more expensive. + + +ELECTRICITY + +60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very +popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired, +because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it +produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus +was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and +since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of +suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would +undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it +in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been +devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in +large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and +cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in +much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to +understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills +for electricity can be checked. + +61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.--An electric meter, which is similar in +appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are +placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which +is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side, +each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that +passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of +electricity used. + +[Illustration: Fig 2.] + +The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning the +energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt, +which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since +1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It +will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the +extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is, +from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or +from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the +fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial +is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete +revolution of the hand of that dial registers. + +To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left +until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are +read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point +directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the +number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the +right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put +down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it +is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the +first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points +exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly +before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On +the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4, +which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first +figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604. + +After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a +simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last +reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter +registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and +that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the +previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of +kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If +electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in +some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35. + + +PRINCIPLE OF STOVES + +62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked +in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for +burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin +Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves +made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as +many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this +method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind +is in use for cooking in every home. + +63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed +stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves +constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In +order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because +fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_ +and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these two +chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each +stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire +in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for +cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney, +which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the +air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air +rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the +flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off +unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air +that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided +with _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and they +are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to +enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat +around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney +flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is +absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove. +The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to +give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed, +should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the +stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is +really with the flue. + +64. Probably one of the most important things considered in the +construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the +days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save +fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and +consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a +necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as +to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring +for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the +use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated; +and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with +the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow, +because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands +the right way in which his product should be operated. + + +COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION + +65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general +construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal +parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_, +or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, which +usually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_, +_h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top and +suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space +extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by +the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox, +in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay, +that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by +the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit +air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so +constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes +to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed +from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is +really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its +heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices +that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_ +and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and +those shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or to +permit it to pass out through the flue. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +66. Building a Coal Fire.--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So +that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary +to close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ and +the chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper +or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place +kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be +careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents +of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is +closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When +this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in +turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well, +close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly +and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney; +also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a +new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the +new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer +is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved +that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches +high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are +likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done +any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire +is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty +as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate +in the firebox to burn out. + +67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.--To get the best results from a cook stove, +and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to +adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the +oven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_. +With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced +around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in +Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower +left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air +does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the +hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion +of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may +be done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper +_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around +the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as +shown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order to +confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of +the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up +the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the +dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of +the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest +place is behind the damper _h_. + +68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to +save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep +a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the +next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a +long time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. To +achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes +out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal +on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a +new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover +the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that +is, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If the +banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without +further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal +in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will +not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite +a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put +a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for +starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add +more until the fire is in good condition. + + +GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION + +69. GAS RANGES.--A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it is +frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners +over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is +to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a +flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges, +are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the +same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement +of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple +type of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the top +of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located +is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of +this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food +baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The +broiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly +beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. The +gas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected to +a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it +is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The +four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and the +broiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with a +simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove, +gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catch +anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or +enamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids +considerably in keeping the stove clean. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flame +of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the +stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is +desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot +near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the +burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they +should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to +save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue. +A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted, +indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this +the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from +a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air +is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper +mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in +the burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, as +shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed +by turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right +amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have +been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that +the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such +burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye +until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and +adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off +as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking +utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be +thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise, +the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned +very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is +used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it +continue to do its work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.--A style of gas stove that meets with +favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one +style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined +advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas +stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow +cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one +that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In +construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove, +except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more +compartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of these +compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an +upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is a +gas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits. +When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood +is raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the +cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat +has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to +permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is +lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at +_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done +automatically when the hood is lowered. + + +KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in +localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike +gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are +provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of +the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in +which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are +wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and +satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene +stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ is +stored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it is +supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner is +provided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to light +the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, which +serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening +_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the +burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as +the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is +also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner +bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the +quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl. + +73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just +as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially +those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the +flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it +prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common +occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most +heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is +blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves, +produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the +stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because +the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt +to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the +accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present +when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and +boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the +charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is +liable to make it give off an uneven flame. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + + +ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS + +74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to +such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where +the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are +used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to +gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove +of the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains a +broiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into +which fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but +are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for +cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the +hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove +being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_, +which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different +hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at the +front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of +heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for +cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below +the switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, which +are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case +the current of electricity becomes too great. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric +stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no +products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable +points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no +inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned +off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for +cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the +same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.--In addition to electric stoves, there are +a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to +an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators, +toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and +similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by +referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11, +which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread +to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an +upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is +turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be +placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat. + + * * * * * + +ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery. + +(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods? + +(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what is +leakage in the household due? + +(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing +food? + +(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of what +value is a knowledge of these food substances? + +(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention the +principal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foods +that contain protein. + +(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the two +forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may +be found. + +(8) What is a calorie? + +(9) Give five reasons for cooking food. + +(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of +food. + +(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat; +(_c_) hot fat. + +(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard water +affected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking. + +(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for +cooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking +in using fuel. + +(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation +of a stove. + +(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame is +best for cooking? + +(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1, +and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that +of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at +5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed? + +(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose of +the dampers of a stove? + +(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to +heat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking on +top of the stove? + +(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may a +gas stove be kept in good condition? + +(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean? + + * * * * * + + + +ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2) + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued) + +UTENSILS FOR COOKING + +IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS + +1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a +considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking +methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed, +the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be +overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its +particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil +will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not +mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every +kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small +number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils, +as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but +before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan +definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the +use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the +labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the +amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the +cooking is done. + +2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their +shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which +cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils, +they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel, +aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil, +therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will +be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that +can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked +in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration, +for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without +seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of +food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should +be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either. + +The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for +whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared +indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the +other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a +large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be +cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface +exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use +should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of +surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished +more rapidly. + +In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential +utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed, +to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment. + + +MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS + +3. ALUMINUM.--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used +extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the +materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of +aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified +by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils +made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled +it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and +since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light, +careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive +than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the +manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast +aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in +institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots +and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most +expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for +casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the +disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but +this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in +aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly +distributed by this metal. + +4. ENAMEL.--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes +and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so +durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow +will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors, +and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to +be the best for wear. + +5. IRON AND STEEL.--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually +inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals +are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets, +griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron +makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very +satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and +other frying. + +6. EARTHENWARE.--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils +are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of +earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for +the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking +utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are +delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is +lost in such a dish. + +7. TIN.--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin, +but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked, +because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for +such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves, +strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially +desirable for them. + +8. COPPER.--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for +cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability, +but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary +kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to +keep clean. + +9. GLASS.--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking. +Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes +that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in +the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of +retaining the heat well. + +10. WOOD.--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking +outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board +being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop +foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and +when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory. + + +LABOR-SAVING DEVICES + +11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certain +piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be +necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are +labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum +cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they +are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer +appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite +unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus +will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process, +secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when +the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is +saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device. +Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a +so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and +strength she would use without such a device. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasion +to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a +number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and +save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen. +Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is so +made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached +does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an +_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that is +a real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which is +shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable +can be put to make a purée. It is used considerably for mashing +potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time +and labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or +_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge +of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition +to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time +and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many +small labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berry +huller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc., the merits of which every busy +housewife will do well to consider. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small number +of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save +much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively +easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread, +but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to +sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake, +mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices +are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the +bakings are comparatively small. + +14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It +consists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of a +table by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, in +the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_. +The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and +they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle. + +15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar +in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the +dough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneading +prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, as +shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a large +gearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of a +handle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are +necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten, +whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.--Although machines for washing dishes are to +be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served +and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed. +Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than +the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them +require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family +entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical +dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver, +and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand. + +17. FIRELESS COOKER.--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving +is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It +consists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided into +compartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, or +stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article +to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, are +supported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted in +and out by means of wire handles _f_. + +[Illustration: Fig 6.] + +To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short +time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of +the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be +heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the +fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When +the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and +still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food +occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of +cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually +requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also +permits of economy in both fuel and time. + + +UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN + +18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils +is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary +and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case, +however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the +quantity of food that is to be prepared. + + +NECESSARY EQUIPMENT + +Baking dish with cover +Bread box +Bread knife +Bread pans +Can opener +Cake knife +Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper +Coffee mill +Coffee pot +Colander +Cookie cutter +Corer, Apple +Cutting board +Dishpan +Double boiler +Egg beater +Flour sifter +Forks +Frying pan, large +Frying pan, small +Garbage can +Grater +Kettle covers +Kettles, two or more +Knife sharpener +Knives +Lemon squeezer +Long-handled fork +Measuring cup +Meat board +Meat knife +Mixing bowls +Mixing spoons +Molding board +Muffin pan +Paring knife +Pepper shaker +Pie pans +Potato masher +Rinsing, or draining, pan +Roasting pan +Rolling pin +Salt box +Saucepans +Spatula +Tablespoons +Teakettle +Teapot +Teaspoons +Toaster +Wire strainer +Wooden spoon + + +CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT + +Bread mixer +Cake coolers +Cake mixer +Cake turner +Casseroles +Clock +Coffee percolator +Containers for spices and dry groceries +Cookie sheets +Cream whip Egg whip +Fireless cooker +Frying kettle and basket +Funnel Glass jars for canning +Griddle +Ice-cream freezer +Ice pick +Jelly molds +Nest of bowls +Pan for baking fish +Potato knife +Potato ricer +Ramekins +Quart measure +Scales +Scissors +Set of skewers +Steamer +Waffle iron +Wheel cart + + * * * * * + +GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING + +PRELIMINARY PREPARATION + +19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that +are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for +their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the +way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course, +the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be +served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must +first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth. + +20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking +vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes +certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips, +vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping +off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this +is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as +little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing +the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by +_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be +removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by +pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water +for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in +this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "to +take color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when +the word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to the +peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be +cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices. + +21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe +them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin. +Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be +ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking +poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and +cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be +removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is +advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light +before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits, +vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced, +chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces. + + +MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS + +22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients +is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a +smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various +processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results +that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected. +The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what +they mean follow. + +BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and +mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork, +an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater. +Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus +making the mixture light. + +STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the +spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a +pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the +simple mixing of ingredients. + +FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is +added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished +by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and +then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the +mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are +well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes +as possible. + +RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with +the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and +other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour. + +CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture +becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency. + +CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is +desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by +chopping the butter into the flour with a knife. + +SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine +wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart +lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together. + +RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits, +vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a purée. This +result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer. + +23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.--In applying the various mixing +processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend +considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and +thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly +demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been +actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one +in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel +food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on +the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the +yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of +cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a +process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually +doing them. + +As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the +application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners +in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle +soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the +ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit +discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience; +indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes +about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking. + + +MEASURING + +24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of +course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do +not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience, +developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the +same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks +cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after +time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method. +Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied +with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup, +and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a +standard teaspoon. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in +the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the +platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a +pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in +which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a +correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the +weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To +use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly, +and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight +of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that +holds the food. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is +often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the +preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing. +As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is +necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For +measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made +of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to +hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and +quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid +is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but +if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped +up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the +manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be +measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled +evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself. + +27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials +with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16 +tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8 +tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring +cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level +tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply +of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring +a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to +use a spoon. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups +of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for +measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one, +the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and +the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed, +however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the +definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate, +cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls. + +28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of +measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen. +However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a +tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three +level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used, +it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the +manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled +first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a +knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths +and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11 +(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as +in (_b_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the +materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning +them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials, +such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon +sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will +measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those +which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before +measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured, +because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose +material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the +measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe, +it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup +should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by +dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by +measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it +is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and +preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and +measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and +practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will +be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to +be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage. + +31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of +AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy +weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious +metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however, +because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound +contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the +abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows: + +AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT +437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz. +16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb. +100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt. +20 hundredweight \ + }....... = 1 ton............... T. +2,000 pounds / + +Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds +make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some +localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more +general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified. + +32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and +is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the +abbreviations of its terms, is as follows: + +LIQUID MEASURE +4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt. +2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt. +4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal. +31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl. +2 barrels \ + }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd. +63 gallons/ + +33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as +potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its +abbreviations, follows: + +DRY MEASURE +2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt. +8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk. +4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu. + +34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the +housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an +understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and +measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the +pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the +approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another +measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought +to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has +been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a +pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly +true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of +others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and +measures of most of the common foods: + +APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD + +Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS +Butter........................ 2 +Coffee, whole................. 4 +Corn meal..................... 3 +Flour......................... 4 +Milk.......................... 2 +Molasses...................... 1-1/2 +Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2 +Nuts, shelled................. 3 +Oats, rolled.................. 4 +Olive oil..................... 2-1/2 +Peas, split................... 2 +Raisins....................... 3 +Rice.......................... 2 +Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3 +Sugar, granulated............. 2 +Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4 + +APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD + +Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE +Corn starch................... 3/8 +Flour......................... 1/4 +Milk.......................... 1/2 +Sugar......................... 1/2 + +APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD + +Butter........................ 8 OUNCES +Corn meal..................... 5 +Corn starch................... 6 +Flour......................... 4 +Milk.......................... 8 +Molasses..................... 10 +Nuts, shelled................. 4 +Raisins....................... 5 +Sugar......................... 8 + +In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of +great assistance: + +3 tsp. = 1 Tb. +16 Tb. = 1 c. + +35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and +recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the +abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most +frequently in cook books are the following: + +tsp. for teaspoonful +pt. for pint +Tb. for tablespoonful +qt. for quart +c. for cupful +oz. for ounce +lb. for pound + + +ORDER OF WORK + +36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be +planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By +following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented +and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for +mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make +clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out +satisfactorily. + +First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe, +and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and +combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and +whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for +the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully +divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply +them to make them enough. + +The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should +receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or +wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is +needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily. + +Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked, +regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light +it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and +mixing of the ingredients. + +Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the +utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various +operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place +the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a +teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon +for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and +separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the +mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the +process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to +be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none +are missing and that each one is in its proper amount. + +If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next +step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the +ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step, +the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an +otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled. + + +TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS + +37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the +length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here +what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be +remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many +factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely +determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require +longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do +with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of +baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great +help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or +not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the +proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods +rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the +length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and +hours (abbreviated hr.) + +COOKERY TIME TABLE + +MEATS AND FISH + +_Broiled_ +Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min. +Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min. +Fish....................... 15 to 20 min. +Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min. +Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min. +Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min. +Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min. +Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min. +Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min. +Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min. + +_Boiled_ +Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr. +Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr. +Fish, bluefish, cod, or + bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min. +Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min. +Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min. +Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr. +Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr. +Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr. +Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr. + +_Roasted_ +Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., +rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min. +Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., +well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min. +Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., +rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min. +Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., +well done.................. 2 hr. +Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min. +Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr. +Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr. +Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. +Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min. +Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min. +Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr. +Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr. +Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. +Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr. +Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr. + +VEGETABLES + +_Boiled_ +Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min. +Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min. +Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min. +Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr. +Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min. +Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min. +Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min. +Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr. +Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min. +Green corn............... 8 to 12 min. +Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min. +Onions.................. 45 to 60 min. +Peas.................... 25 to 60 min. +Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min. +Rice.................... 20 to 30 min. +Spinach................. 20 to 30 min. +Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr. +Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr. + +BAKED FOODS +Beans..................... 6 to 8 hr. +Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min. +Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min. +Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min. +Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min. +Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min. +Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr. +Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min. +Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min. +Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. +Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min. +Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min. +Custard................... 20 to 45 min. +Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min. +Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min. +Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min. +Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr. +Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr. + + * * * * * + +CARE OF FOOD + +REASONS FOR CARE + +38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of +foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get +good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give +attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the +care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked, +as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable +loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked +and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these +are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With +these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better +appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will +be more satisfactory. + +39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note +that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as +to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to +science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria, +yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance +to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what +ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the +scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is +felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of +foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they +are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while +some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action. + +40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of +micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that +these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack +articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation, +putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause +fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they +are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned +or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making +of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make +cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for +foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that +even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are +constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for +unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to +sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption. + +Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for +longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are +protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for +long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective +covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins +decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective +covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most +micro-organisms thrive. + +41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to +prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this +if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this +reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or +not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils +and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery, +as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that +makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all +parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes, +and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise +the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific +principles. + + * * * * * + +METHODS OF CARE + +CLASSIFICATION + +42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of +micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant +growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread +from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary +to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms. +Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept +very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to +others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been +raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives, +but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In +this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food +to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all +preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of +preserving it as for seasoning it. + + +CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS + +43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at +a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully +in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans +or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms, +and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the +destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is +resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in +former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich +preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be +used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling. +While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that +sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for +sweetening need be used. + +44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its +success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow +unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds +grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain +only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per +cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why +in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without +artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned +housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is +accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote +of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a +preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods +of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the +air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers, +are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture +is present. + + +KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE + +45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the +growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary +for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding, +putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in +winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time +without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less +likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit +for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that +keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and +convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention +of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold +storage of foods. + +46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most +convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known, +it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in +some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point. +All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or +more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such +as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with +tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is +usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and +unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of +preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber +kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange +the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage. + +The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known +scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This +can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no +matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The +same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the +ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air +is kept in constant motion, or circulation. + +[Illustration: Fig 12.] + +47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side, +as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators, +there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice +chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should +be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and +flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at +this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the +arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to +taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator, +through which the current of air passes last before being freed from +odors by passing over the ice. + +48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber, +or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as +to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice +at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by +the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this +kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being +placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those +which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A +careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best +arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13] + +49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a +refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be +taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be +placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the +steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold +air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by +warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and +carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to +keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to +become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be +properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to +keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter +carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and +other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should +be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not +escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is, +vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should +be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No +food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the +ice to melt unnecessarily. + +50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the +refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To +accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything +spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods +that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything +not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least +once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks +taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed, +rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator +should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain +pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the +food replaced. + +The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently, +the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be +lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it +is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old +blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in +the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator. +Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly, +the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice +gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of +course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting. +Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place, +it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be +kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods +should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must +be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and +dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented. + + +KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE + +51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and +those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is +not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to +adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally +quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that +cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly. +In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on +conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be +stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the +majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized +for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the +more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe +place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If +it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty +and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by +mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many +winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the +remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement +that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied; +otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the +cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus +secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows. +These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the +cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are +desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention +should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are +beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that +is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping +other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar +must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with +brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose, +because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If +canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig. +15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if +possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables, +and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air +to pass through them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no +cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through +the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep +food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar, +but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen +or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the +opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated +in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the +window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or +galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its +capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top, +and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is +lined with table oilcloth. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + + +STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS + +55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of +foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such +foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to +prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the +absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the +growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The +best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly +closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and +cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be +very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes. + +56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought +in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the +original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that +they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For +convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and +salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they, +too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for +sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is +not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper +bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and +are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food +whenever it is not well protected. + +Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is +sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from +rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are +not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored +unless they are stored in dark places. + +Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they +are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden +bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory. + + +STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS + +57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as +semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some +foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept +from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a +cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means +for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large +quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit +them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a +small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable +quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces +of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another. + +Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in +very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however, +if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country +districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors, +being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of +frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but +for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash +thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a +dry place. + +Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine +varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All +fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of +spoiling should be removed. + + +MENUS AND RECIPES + +58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_, +consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they +are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a +menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the +list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be +used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good +recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed, +so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this +manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the +ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are +given in the proper order. + +59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty +in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not +follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than +she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will +reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not +provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how +to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only +with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is +never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of +course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other +hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal +later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and +labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the +directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they +will be given so that success will result from carrying them out +in detail. + +60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of +the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be +prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at +meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the +recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they +should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach +methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to +prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able +to report on the success she has had with each dish. + +MENU + +Pan-Broiled Chops +Mashed Potatoes +Creamed Peas +Cabbage Salad +Orange Fluff with Sauce + + * * * * * + +RECIPES + +PAN-BROILED CHOPS + +Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to +cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling. +Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan. + +MASHED POTATOES + +Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount +of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are +tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and +drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato +masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in +order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently +mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece +of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy +consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a +spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they +are light and fluffy. + +CREAMED PEAS + +Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water +to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and +then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in +their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh +peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an +equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may +be used. + +SAUCE FOR PEAS + +1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and 1/2 c. milk +1 Tb. butter +1/2 tsp. salt +1 Tb. flour + +Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and +salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been +heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve. + +CABBAGE SALAD + +1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage +1/2 tsp. salt +1 small red or green sweet pepper +Dash of pepper +1 small onion +Salad dressing + +Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife +or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces +and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper. + +CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING + +3/4 c. vinegar +1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired +1/4 c. water +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +3 Tb. sugar +1 Tb. flour + +Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it +the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then +pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to +prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow +it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce. + +ORANGE FLUFF + +1/2 c. sugar +1/4 c. orange juice +5 Tb. corn starch +1 Tb. lemon juice +Pinch of salt +2 egg whites +1 pt. boiling water + +Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and +cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to +cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler +and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff. + +When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly +with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly +until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or +molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve. + +SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF + +1 Tb. corn starch +3/4 c. boiling water +2 Tb. butter +3/4 c. sugar +2 egg yolks +1/4 c. orange juice +1 Tb. lemon juice + +Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful +of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add +the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the +remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch +and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add +the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff. + +61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order +of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time +required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu +here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in +which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe +for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily +changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if +there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should +be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be +served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has +been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may +be provided for. + +62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which +is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be +allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a +half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to +mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to +put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After +the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are +to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should +be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after +the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated +and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage +salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be +served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that +they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire. + + +TERMS USED IN COOKERY + +63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation +of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in +cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because +they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other +occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books, +menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and +to make up menus in a more intelligent manner. + +In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery +is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it +has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be +obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference +are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made +of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a +clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to +this science. + +À la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as, +smelts à la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce. + +Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual +practice, also flavored with grated cheese. + +Au naturel (o nat-ü-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to +indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or +dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled. + +Béchamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or +milk-named from a celebrated cook. + +Biscuit Glacé (bis-kü-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glacéd shells, +sometimes in paper cases. + +Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice +cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added. + +Bouchées (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful. + +Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat. + +Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme, +and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied +firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in +this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked. + +Café au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk. + +Café Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee. + +Canapés (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sautéd in butter +and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are +served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch +or dinner. + +Canard (kan-ar).--Duck. + +Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in +seasoning. + +Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality +of the flesh. + +Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar. + +Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked. + +Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms. + +Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc., +molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the +dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse. + +Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sautéd +or used in salads. + +Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning. + +Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family. + +Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle. + +Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar. + +Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces. + +Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup. + +Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are +sometimes served. + +Créole, à la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes. + +Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed +out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food. + +Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with +or in soup. + +Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried +herbs. + +Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it +refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served. + +Deviled.--Highly seasoned. + +Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles. + +En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells. + +Entrées (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They +are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal. + +Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive. + +Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing. + +Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled +and tied. + +Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef, +served with steak. + +Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is +used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies. + +Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are +several varieties of this preparation. + +Frappé (frap-pay).--Semifrozen. + +Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese. + +Glacé (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface. + +Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a +foundation for soups and gravies. + +Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned. + +Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with +salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter. + +Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat +and vegetables are finely divided. + +Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster. + +Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes. + +Italiene, à la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style. + +Jardinière (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in +their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables. + +Julienne (zhü-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables. + +Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet. + +Kippered.--Dried or smoked. + +Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is +inserted before cooking. + +Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding. + +Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans, +peas, and lentils. + +Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes. + +Macédoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables. + +Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before +cooking. + +Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is +seasoned. + +Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts. + +Menu.--A bill of fare. + +Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar +well beaten. + +Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and +frozen without turning. + +Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar. + +Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It +is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper. + +Pâté (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty. + +Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish. + +Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond. + +Potage (pot-azh).--Soup. + +Purée (pü-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have +been rubbed through a sieve. + +Ragoût (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served +with a sauce. + +Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is +baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in +which such a mixture is cooked. + +Réchauffé (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish. + +Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried +or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and +fried until crisp. + +Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour. + +Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game. + +Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with +a thick sauce. + +Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce. + +Shallot.--A variety of onion. + +Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as +sherbet. + +Soufflé (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it +is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of +which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit. + +Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an +agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups +and sauces. + +Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and +vegetables. + +Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth. + +Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and +sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar. + +Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been +added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart +sauce for fish. + +Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or +ragoût. + +Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the +soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs, +who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found +abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used +chiefly for seasoning and garnishing. + +Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from +this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc. + +Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and +vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other +highly flavored green vegetables and spices. + +Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large +pâté or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters, +fish, or meat and a cream sauce. + +Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice. + + * * * * * + +ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2) + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking +utensils? + +(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their +advantages. + +(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the +labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor. + +(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of +spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals? + +(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables; +(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish. + +(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_) +creaming; (_e_) folding. + +(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking? + +(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half +teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder. + +(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to +carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should +be followed. + +(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods? + +(11) Tell why foods spoil. + +(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling. +(_b_) What is meant by the term preservative? + +(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does +success in drying foods depend? + +(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on +which it is based. + +(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator +and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_) +cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese. + +(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for. + +(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without +ice. + +(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and +cared for? + +(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell +the best ways in which to preserve such foods. + +(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared? + + * * * * * + +REPORT ON MENU + +After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with +your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In +making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe +its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list. +Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops, +tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy, +write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on. + +Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone? + +Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft? + +Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? + +Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick? + +Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp? + +Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor +disagreeable? + +Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy? + + * * * * * + + + +CEREALS + + * * * * * + +PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION + +PRODUCTION OF CEREALS + +1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the +edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man. +When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place +and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his +roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was +not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about +him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of +procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production +of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization. +Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times +to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the +chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them. + +The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation +their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants, +have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man +to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the +goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their +crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of +these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats, +rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet. + +2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and +the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire +world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in +the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short +warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is +practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety +of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals +and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food +supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the +inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up +of cereals. + +3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply +makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in +various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost +entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low +cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all +classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They +require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time. +Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large +quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a +price that is fairly uniform. + +Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large +proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's +income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals, +of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of +food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require +an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market +are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require +practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must +be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of +fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought +is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of +cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly +increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or +energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one +of them can, as a rule, be applied to all. + +4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of +products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them +being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife +should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in +them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the +study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or +meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat +cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only +additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni, +spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from +wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the +table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a +large measure to them. + + +COMPOSITION OF CEREALS + +5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its +distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water, +mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in +cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some +contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and +while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively +small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they +contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It +is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals +are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit +a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of +food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a +certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself; +that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought +about by the addition of other substances. + +6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest +proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing +less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside, +and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts +scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the +_germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant +sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the +bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in +the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter +is generally lost. + +7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food, +but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they +differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of +protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not +yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat, +and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called +_gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The +gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes +gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of +bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread +successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest +amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most +expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals +is one of the cheaper varieties. + +8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their +heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the +cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals, +used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing +material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently +used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The +fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully +stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed, +and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps +much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in +the milling process. + +9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest +proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals +contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances, +rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and +oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is +distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the +microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is +almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ +from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general +structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked +thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals +explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch +is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact +that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high +energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that +cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building +material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient +quantity to place them with the protein foods. + +10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the +minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be +valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number +required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been +explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse +outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For +this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that +contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of +minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a +sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from +vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole +cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select +those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain. + +11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their +composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes +their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping +quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition +of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a +large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals +could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil +grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also +permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large +amounts it would add materially to their bulk. + +12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that +are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known +as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible +material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering, +and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In +fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As +long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being +digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering +for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact +that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to +include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in +the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated. + +13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals, +contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while +one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food +substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with +regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in +Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose, +the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of +their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the +food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest +in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is +lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in +protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth +in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In +this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way +they are of value as a food. + + +TABLE I + +COMPOSITION OF CEREALS + +Protein Fat Carbohydrate Cellulose Mineral Matter + or Ash + +Wheat Oats Rice Oats Oats + +Rye Corn Rye Buckwheat Barley + +Oats Barley Corn Barley Buckwheat + +Barley Buckwheat Wheat Wheat Rye + +Corn Rice Barley Rye Wheat + +Buckwheat Wheat Buckwheat Corn Corn + +Rice Rye Oats Rice Rice + + * * * * * + +CEREALS AS A FOOD + +USES OF CEREALS + +14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food +problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and +the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is +evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food +consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread +consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom +served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some +description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry +cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this +constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily +digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially +desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first +solid foods fed to them. + +15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a +breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose, +they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are +used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have +an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as +dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to +advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in +certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take +the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often +used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with +eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with +a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sautéd +and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are +also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and +because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the +evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children. +When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast, +or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served, +whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an +economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course, +the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But, +to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they +are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the +ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable +to those which are poorly cooked in the home. + + +SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS + +16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go +about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well +for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are +harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing, +which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing +is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of +a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is +applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive +further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without +the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other +times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and +called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of +various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as, +for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._ + +Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared +in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are +used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their +preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such +as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then +rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are +malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is +generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work +of digestion. + +17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the +ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be +familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food. +In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and +tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given +to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in +sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has +its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those +sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the +chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper. +Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do +not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high +temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the +standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and +similar raw cereals in packages. + +18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost. +They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in +food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the +cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to +their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for +market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked +ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most +expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the +expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest +cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least. + +Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the +housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for +her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which +the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The +other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a +hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for +breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the +fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is +usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the +cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least +expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select. + +19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an +understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in +Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which +they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the +grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is +made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife. + +20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less +dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to +the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their +preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are +not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in +addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up +keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given +to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food. +The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to +remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh +and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they +do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore +their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared +cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for +instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that +particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or +jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used +less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and +other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is +poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable +care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large +quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they +will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To +preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins +made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place. + + +TABLE II + +GRAIN PRODUCTS + + / Pearl barley + | Hulled wheat + / Whole Grains {Hominy: Corn + | | Corn + | \ Rice + | + | / Farina: Wheat or corn + | | Cream of Wheat: Wheat + | Crushed Grains {Cracked Wheat: Wheat + | | Hominy Grits: Corn + | | Wheat Grits: Wheat + | \ Samp: Corn +Cereals { + | / Corn + | Meal {Barley + | | Rice + | \ Oats + | + | / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn + \ Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat + | Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn + \ Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat + + / Corn +Starch {Rice + \ Wheat + + / Macaroni +Wheat {Vermicelli + \ Spaghetti + +Glucose} Usually corn +Sirup / + + / Wheat +Cereal Coffee {Rye + \ Barley + + / Wheat + | Rye +Flour {Corn + | Buckwheat + \ Rice + +Liquors \ +Malted Drinks} All grains +Beer | +Whisky / + +Alcohol: All grains + +Feed for animals: All grains + + + * * * * * + +PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE + +METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS + +21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.--As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require +practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only +those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly +for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are +neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be +subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking +is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be +softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only +effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible, +cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that +might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a +variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited. + +22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.--In the process of cooking, +cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by +performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn +starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses; mix that in one +glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The +mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if +the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be +found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which +boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but +will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form. +This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with +water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst +their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the +contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of +cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what +is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion, +but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if +any, is digestible. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Before the cooking of cereals is +attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all +utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them +so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be +done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which +are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for +cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler _a_; a +measuring cup _b_, a knife _c_, and spoons _d_ and _e_, for measuring; a +large spoon _f_, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of +cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just +what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan +here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done +systematically and with the least expenditure of time. + +24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.--While cereals may be cooked +in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are +practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water +should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the +cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps +forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1 +teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred +into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming +lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook +until it thickens. The process up to this point is called _setting_ a +cereal, or grain. After the cereal is _set_, it may be boiled, steamed, +or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected +should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness. +The terms _setting_ and _set_ should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so +that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily +understood. + +25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.--Very often the cereal, after it is set, +is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the +method of _boiling_ is practiced. This method, however, is not to be +recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way +require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to +keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming +pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this +condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of +rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking +is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost. + +26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.--Probably the most +satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is +concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at _a_, +Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as _steaming_, or _dry +steaming_, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes +within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal +is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan, +which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should +contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is +ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from +time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan +will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn. + +This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be +disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one +day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they +may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are +served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling +point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because +they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the +long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature +develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking +at the boiling point. + +27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.--In a kitchen that is +equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for +cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of +fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in +the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at +the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the +fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready +to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the +cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this +method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither +additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In +reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if +they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be +ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day. + +28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.--An old method of cooking cereals or +starchy foods is called _browning_, or _toasting_, and it involves +cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow +pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned +slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until +an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is +developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much +better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this +means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods. + +29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.--In cooking cereals by any +method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use +liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind +of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground +requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If +the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it +should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked +cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to +pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are +difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked +cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are +too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess +of liquid is evaporated by boiling. + +_Gruels_ are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal. +They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water, +and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces, +and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a +sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass +that is thin enough to pour. + +The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form, +the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this +fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the +numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be +experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to +cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not +until they are mushy in consistency. + + * * * * * + +INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE + +ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE + +30. The word _corn_ has been applied to various grains and is now used +in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley +was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire +year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name +corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is +the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly +developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country. +The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a +vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when +they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe +until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much +favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the +last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name _Indian +corn_, because they had found the Indians of America raising it. + +31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general +kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. _Field corn_, as a rule, is +grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to +animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of +three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one +being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a +variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food +for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for +animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes +preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more +decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared +as cereal food for man, are _hominy_ and _corn meal_. _Sweet corn_ is +not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used +for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. _Pop +corn_, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is +used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore, +at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal +varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are +hominy and corn meal. + + +RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL + +32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has been +removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form +may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the +home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the +pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to +make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even +with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy. + +Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or +crushed to form what is called _samp_, or _grits_, and when it is ground +still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both +white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than +in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in +bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be +included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large +quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is +very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is +particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal, +because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested. + +33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and +the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are +here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy +forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To +get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly +familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that +each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all +recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare +each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right +means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely +once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety +to the daily menus in the home. + +34. HOMINY.--Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be +purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy +serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made, +as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be +used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time +to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making +hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of +other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various +lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with +the requirements of the household. + +HOMINY +(Sufficient for 3 Quarts) + +2 qt. water +1 Tb. lye +1 qt. shelled corn +3 tsp. salt + +Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put +the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the +corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they +are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir +sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the +grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water +and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this +process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace +of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they +burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is +still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to +be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it. + +35. BUTTERED HOMINY.--Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked +hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a +breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a +vegetable. + +BUTTERED HOMINY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 pt. cooked hominy +3 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt + +Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the +butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy +gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve +while hot. + +36. CREAMED HOMINY.--The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not +only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food +value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner +vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal. + +CREAMED HOMINY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1 tsp. salt +1 Tb. flour +1 pt. cooked hominy + +Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it +with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook +slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot. + +37. HOMINY GRITS.--The cereal sold under the name of _hominy grits_ is +prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has +practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles +cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to +prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in +this form: + +HOMINY GRITS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 tsp. salt +4 c. water +1 c. hominy grits + +Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the +hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then +place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream +or milk and sugar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.--No waste need result from hominy that is not used +at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many +ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into +croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sautéd or baked, or +used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared +by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form +hominy and cheese soufflé, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to +be very appetizing. + +HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLÉ +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. cooked hominy +1/2 c. hot milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. paprika +1 c. grated cheese +2 eggs + +Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot +milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the +yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the +whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered +baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot. + +39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and +high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to +advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides, +such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or +cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six +persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that +there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways. + +CORN-MEAL MUSH +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 tsp. salt +3-1/2 c. water +1 c. corn meal + +Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling +point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the +fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent +the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been +properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is +unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then +place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when +it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most +convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is +thickened. + +A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to +cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost +constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the +heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of +boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn +them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the +hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth. + +40. SAUTÉD CORN-MEAL-MUSH.--Mush cooked in the manner just explained may +be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a +mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sautéd. +Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons, +and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it +serves to give variety to meals. For sautéing mush, a heavy iron or +steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of +thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put +enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking +utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the +surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and +allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so +as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be +observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sautéing. This +characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve +the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey. + +41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.--Croquettes of any kind add variety to a +meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To +make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sautéing. Then cut this +into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide. +Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and sauté them in +hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with +either butter or sirup or both. + +42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.--Sautéd corn-meal mush and corn-meal +croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it +has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small +quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a +garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal +mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it +to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been +floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal +into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes +with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter. + + * * * * * + +WHEAT + +ORIGIN AND USE + +43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world +and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a +very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and +Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the +land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it +was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this +country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat +than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised +in the world. + +Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount +of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and +thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make +bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to +bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from +this grain. + +44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the +coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain +whole. This is called _hulled_, or _whole_, _wheat_, and requires +soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may +be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other +preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some +of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been +implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this +Section, these preparations include _wheat grits_, such foods as _cream +of wheat_ and _farina_, and many _ready-to-eat cereals_. In the +preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but +neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable +quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods +bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking, +equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing +ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the +grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that +these foods require but very little additional attention before serving. +The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time, +therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served +and eaten. + + +RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS + +45. HULLED WHEAT.--Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very +little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It +is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good +substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it +requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that +the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of +the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it +does not require thorough mastication. + +HULLED WHEAT +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1 c. hulled wheat +3 c. water +1 tsp. salt + +Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add +the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook +directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a +double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar. + +46. WHEAT GRITS.--The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially +by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of +the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when +they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make +an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or +gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one +to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying +recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had +by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving. + +WHEAT GRITS +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1/2 tsp. salt +3 c. boiling water +3/4 c. wheat grits + +Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the +fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the +formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and +then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours. + +47. CREAM OF WHEAT.--In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is +all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and +granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much +cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still, +cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When +made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish: + +CREAM OF WHEAT +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 tsp. salt +4-1/2 c. boiling water +3/4 c. cream of wheat + +Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream +of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation +of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then +place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with +cream or milk and sugar. + +48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.--Dates added to cream of wheat supply to +a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when +the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise +give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in +the manner here explained. + +CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3/4 c. cream of wheat +1 tsp. salt +4-1/2 c. boiling water +3/4 c. dates + +Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the +dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove +the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of +wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just +enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk +and sugar. + +49. FARINA.--The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same +as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It +is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain +sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as +has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it, +before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more +water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged. +Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but, +as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor +if desired. + +FARINA +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 tsp. salt +4 c. boiling water +3/4 c. farina + +Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift +the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to +prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and +allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar. + +50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.--Graham flour is a wheat product that is +high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat +grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is +not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and +nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it. + +GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/4 c. graham flour +3 c. water +1 tsp. salt +1 c. dates + +Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When +perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the +salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook +until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2 +hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces. +Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or +milk and sugar. + +51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.--Numerous ways have been devised for +utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result +from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For +instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as +barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded, +sliced, and sautéd like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded +cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice +that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over +wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into +custards and soufflés, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in +which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina. + +FARINA CUSTARD +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. cold farina +2 c. milk +2 eggs +1/2 c. sugar +1/4 tsp. nutmeg + +Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then +add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a +moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any +sauce desired. + +FARINA SOUFFLÉ +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. cold farina +1-1/2 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. paprika +1 c. grated cheese +2 eggs + +Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated +cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg +whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered +baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to +reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot +oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once +upon taking from the oven. + + +RICE + +VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE + +52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any +other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows +only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best +land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water. +This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice. +_Carolina rice_, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the +United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas _Japanese rice_, which +originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China +and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the +Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal, +for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon +loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast +crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it +must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the +demands of this country. + +53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two +coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the +grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown +coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to +remove, is called, after its removal, _rice polishings_. At one time, so +much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand +for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was +unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great +extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness, +unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount +of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some +of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a +glazed appearance. This is called _polish_, and is sometimes confounded +with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these +terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin +inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice. +In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is +practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein. + +54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in +order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains +are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the +whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance, +the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In +either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is +plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite +period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it +should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to +remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which +rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating +that is put on in polishing rice. + + +RECIPES FOR RICE + +55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a +different proportion of water. These methods are _boiling_, which +requires twelve times as much water as rice; the _Japanese method_, +which requires five times as much; and _steaming_, which requires two +and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed, +however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly +cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent +the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be +stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long. + +56. BOILED RICE.--Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare +rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish +itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be +served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be +wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be +utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used +to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The +following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled: + +BOILED RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. rice +3 tsp. salt +3 qt. boiling water + +Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil +rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch +coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily +crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander, +and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash +out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by +shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or +milk and sugar. + +57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.--Rice prepared by the Japanese +method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some +use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method +has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal. + +JAPANESE METHOD +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. rice +1-1/2 tsp. salt +5 c. boiling water + +Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for +15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and +place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the +water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy. +Serve in the same way as boiled rice. + +58. STEAMED RICE.--To steam rice requires more time than either of the +preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then, +too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will +have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in +the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for +a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal. + +STEAMED RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. rice +1-1/2 tsp. salt +2-1/2 c. water + +Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it +for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook +until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the +rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in +the same way as boiled rice. + +59. CREAMED RICE.--To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is +sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed +rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food +substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its +palatability. + +CREAMED RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2-1/2 c. milk +1 c. rice +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 c. cream + +Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice +and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour, +or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a +few minutes longer. Serve hot. + +60. ORIENTAL RICE.--As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in +flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or +serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is +prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty +dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch +or dinner. + +ORIENTAL RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. rice +2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth +2 Tb. butter +1 slice onion +1/2 c. canned tomatoes + +Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for +steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the +tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix +well, and serve. + +61. BROWNED RICE.--Another way in which to add variety in serving rice +is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared +by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no +fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice +until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated +in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the +same way as boiled or steamed rice. + +62. SAVORY RICE.--Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in +the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good +substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the +following recipe: + +SAVORY RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. browned rice +2-1/2 c. water +1 tsp. salt +1/2 c. chopped celery +2 Tb. butter +1 small onion, chopped +1/2 c. canned tomatoes +1/4 c. chopped pimiento + +Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and +cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the +last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion +finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before +serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot. + +63. LEFT-OVER RICE.--There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice +may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may +be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures, +or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It +may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes, +cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] 64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals +that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation +of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time +produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a +dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets +with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to +utilize left-over rice. + +RICE WITH PINEAPPLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. steamed or creamed rice +1/4 c. sugar +6 rings pineapple +3/4 c. whipped cream + +Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little +cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that +they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple, +and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with +an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish +with the whipped cream before serving. + +65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with +left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by +the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a +light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional +flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired. + +RICE PATTIES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. stale crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. celery salt +2 eggs +2 c. steamed rice + +Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs, +slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be +necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other +ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of +the crumbs and sauté them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with +sauce, if desired. + +66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of +left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing +dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy, +dish in a luncheon. + +SPANISH RICE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 small onion +2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice +1 c. chopped meat +1/2 c. meat stock or gravy +1/2 c. canned tomatoes +2 Tb. grated cheese +1/4 c. stale crumbs + +Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice, +chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered +baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture +and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot. + + * * * * * + +OATS + +COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES + +67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland, +this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as +the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet +the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or +cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly +good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very +little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than +any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make +raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made +into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this +way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in +the form of _oatmeal_ and _rolled oats_. In the preparation of oatmeal +for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small +pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat +between large rollers. + + +RECIPES FOR OATS + +68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and +rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled +oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by +merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned. + +69. ROLLED OATS.--Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this +cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with +hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the +accompanying recipe shows. + +ROLLED OATS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. rolled oats +3 c. boiling water +1 tsp. salt + +Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added. +Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking. +Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time, +stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming +mushy. Serve hot. + +70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.--The combination of rolled oats and apples +is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a +breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the +apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and +mineral salts. + +ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2/3 c. rolled oats +2 c. boiling water +1/2 tsp. salt +6 medium-sized apples +1 c. water +1/2 c. sugar + +Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until +they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours. +Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1 +cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not +soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal +dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an +apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with +rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking +the apples, and serve hot with cream. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.--If an appetizing dish for warm +weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then +have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4. +When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is +high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in +the meal for which it is used. + +ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. rolled oats +3 c. water +1 tsp. salt +12 stewed prunes + +Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then +force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that +have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a +sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the +juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds, +that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats +jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food +out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar. + +72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.--Every housewife should refrain from throwing +away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining +from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can +be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit, +poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and +then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked +peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this +purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this +cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down +until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into +pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and +then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan +would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be +served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple, +sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with +cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled +oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe: + +ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES +(Sufficient to Serve Four) + +1/2 c. grated cheese +3/4 c. crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. paprika +1 c. cooked rolled oats +1 egg + +Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika +into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly +beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form +the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the +remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and sauté then in butter. Garnish with +parsley and serve. + + * * * * * + +BARLEY + +ORIGIN AND USE + +73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat. +However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown +through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the +most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back +as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has +also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according +to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it. +Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding +the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by +placing three grains of barley end to end. + +74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food +from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the +manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods +and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley +grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of +sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are +then dried, and the sprouts, which are called _malt sprouts_, are broken +off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really +_malt_, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted +cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it +is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added, +and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar. + +75. In the United States, _pearl barley_ is the name applied to the most +common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is +removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in +the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast +cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long +cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small +amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute +the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take +whole milk. + + +RECIPES FOR BARLEY + +76. PEARL BARLEY.--As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory +way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler, +although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to +prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody; +nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even +after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough +mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of +starchy foods. + +PEARL BARLEY +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. pearl barley +1 tsp. salt +4-1/2 c. boiling water + +Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may +contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over +the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for +3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be +completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar. + +77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.--Cooked barley does not contain very much +flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually +necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor. +Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the +accompanying recipe. + +PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. pearl barley +1 tsp. salt +5 c. boiling water +1 c. dates, figs, or prunes + +Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then +put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added. +After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a +double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used, +wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four +pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and +then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as +explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small +pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it +from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar. + +78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.--Cooked barley that is left over from a meal +should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be +added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked +barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sautéd in butter +until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared +in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish. + + +RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET + +79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be +cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is +not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of +bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it +contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for +successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when +used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar +flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some +persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons +from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently +combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat +cereal foods. + +80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals +already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives +in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows +to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds, +which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to +beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was +originally called _beech wheat_. Practically the only use to which +buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes, +recipes for which are given in another Section. + +81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United +States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for +cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing +a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the +smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very +hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the +people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since, +in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries, +it is ground into flour and used for making bread. + +PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS + +82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require +cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that +are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among +these are the cereal foods known as _flakes_. These are first made by +cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting +it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake +foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact, +because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that +has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals, +principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded, +pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into +loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly +baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of +these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye +and barley. + +83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at +the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have +been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the +starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into +_dextrine_, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass +in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should +not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all +prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on +advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly +overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For +instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but +every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat, +which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen +the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to +be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food +acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods +which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an +effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an +indirect effect. + + +SERVING CEREALS + +84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals +may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called +on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any +other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a +rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is +served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with +cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal +courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few +spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing +change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to +lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the +diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or +in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously +heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they +are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this +process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and +that makes them tough. + +To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food +elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served +with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold, +milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some +persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take +them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very +good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally +served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer +them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except +to add flavor. + + * * * * * + +ITALIAN PASTES + +PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION + +85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed, +macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this +Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly +cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN +PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a +flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is +very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of +ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was +taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported +from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the +variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat +territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In +fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now +takes the place of what was formerly imported. + +86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has +been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff +dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of +metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in +the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender +tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the +manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for +market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies +in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily +prepared and digested. + +87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are +_macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in +circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small +and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of +them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining +the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their +color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook. +To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray +or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When +they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight; +if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks. +All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in +size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of +poor quality. + +88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances +are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is +found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat +used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in +most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein, +or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of +meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of +wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though, +being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made +from wheat. + + +RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES + +89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as +well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their +preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these +foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they +can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in +order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are +made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly +understood. + +In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time +required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and +dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another +important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in +boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of +macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling +until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion +they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether +these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes +through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the +fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and +elastic they have not cooked enough. + +In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but +spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be +substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also +be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used +in soups or served with sauce or gravy. + +90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to +prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the +accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of +any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this +way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to +take the place of meat. + +MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. macaroni +3 qt. boiling water +3 tsp. salt +1/4 c. crumbs + +CREAM SAUCE + +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 1/2 c. milk + +Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling +water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the +butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until +smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly +so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then +add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread +or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the +crumbs are brown. Serve hot. + +91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the +place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared +with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when +eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in +the same meal. + +MACARONI WITH EGGS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. macaroni +2 qt. boiling water +2 tsp. salt +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +4 hard-boiled eggs +1/4 c. crumbs + +Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted +water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the +milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given +in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on +the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on +top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the +sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the +dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. +Serve hot. + +92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat +tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added +to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given, +tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the +flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in +which it is low. + +MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. macaroni +2 qt. boiling water +2 tsp. salt +2 c. canned tomatoes +8 thin slices bacon + +Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted +water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the +bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes, +and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer +of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of +macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of +bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven. +Serve hot. + +93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably +more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the +macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The +cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for +macaroni with tomatoes and bacon. + +MACARONI WITH CHEESE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. macaroni +3 qt. boiling water +3 tsp. salt +1-1/2 Tb. butter +1-1/2 Tb. flour +1 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1/8 tsp. paprika +1-1/2 c. milk +1 c. grated or finely cut cheese +1/4 c. crumbs + +Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in +the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been +added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful +of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then +gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it +thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and +sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer +with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour. +Serve hot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations +given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many +persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni. +Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be +used as the principal dish of a heavy meal. + +MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. macaroni +1 c. grated cheese +2 qt. boiling water +2 Tb. butter +2 tsp. salt +1/8 tsp. pepper +1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes +1 tsp. salt + +Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in +the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a +layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour +one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with +butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of +macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese, +butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni, +put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food +for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot. + +95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham +remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty +dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat, +it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds +nutrition to the dish. + +MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. macaroni +2 qt. boiling water +2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +1-1/2 c. scalded milk +2/3 c. grated cheese +1 tsp. salt +1/2 tsp. paprika +1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham +1/4 c. crumbs + +Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to +which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it +in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and +season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish, +placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the +top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer, +and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley +and serve. + +96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans +and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing +dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe +here given. + +MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 c. macaroni +2 qt. water +2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +2 Tb. flour +3/4 c. hot milk +1/2 c. canned tomatoes +1 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1 c. canned kidney beans + +Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain +it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the +flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the +hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a +sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper. +Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all +together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish +and serve. + +97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for +spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that +this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as +macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of +Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned, +is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato. + +SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. spaghetti +2 Tb. butter +2 qt. boiling water +2 Tb. flour +2 tsp. salt +1/2 c. grated cheese +1 can tomatoes +1 tsp. salt +1 small onion, chopped +1/4 tsp. pepper +1/2 c. water + +Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been +added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the +water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped +onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and +to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a +little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese, +1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the +cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve. + +98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind +should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli +can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in +soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to +utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over +food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw +eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in +bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter. + +BREAKFAST MENU + +99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that +it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at +least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that +have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no +difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes +have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the +success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the +answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The +recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if +the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the +amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere. + +MENU + +Berries and Cream or Oranges +Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream +Scrambled Eggs +Buttered Toast +Cocoa or Coffee + +SCRAMBLED EGGS + +5 eggs +1/2 c. milk +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. butter +1/8 tsp. pepper + +Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan, +put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook +this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir +it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not +burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot. + +BUTTERED TOAST + +Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the +desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place +the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under +a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even +light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with +butter, and serve while hot and crisp. + +COCOA + +2 c. scalded milk +3 Tb. cocoa +3 Tb. sugar +1/4 tsp. salt +2-1/2 c. boiling water + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir +the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for +several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk +in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several +minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds +to its flavor. + +BOILED COFFEE + +Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of +ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg, +pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed. +Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil. +After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water +down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep +hot and then serve. + + * * * * * + +CEREALS + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How +may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for? + +(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods. +(_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals? + +(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in +storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals? + +(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the +structure of cereal grains. + +(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals? + +(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet? + +(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in +cereals, and what are its purposes? + +(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals? + +(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe +the process of setting a cereal. + +(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What +are the advantages of the double-boiler method? + +(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the +length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to +cook cereals for a long time? Tell why. + +(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you +would use them. + +(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_) +Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may +be utilized. + +(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the +proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains +look when they are properly cooked? + +(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats. + +(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared +ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be +predigested. + +(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals? +(_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals? + +(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the +three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be +applied to judge the quality of these foods? + +(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much +does macaroni increase upon being boiled? + +(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_) +What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat +substitute? + + * * * * * + +REPORT ON MENU + +After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your +answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making +out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its +condition by means of the terms specified in the following list? + +Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored? + +Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored? + +Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored? + +Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently +toasted? unevenly browned? + +Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top? + +Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear? + + * * * * * + + + +BREAD + + * * * * * + +BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS + +IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD + +1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the +word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour +which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The +making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods +practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes +of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would +amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by +the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from +suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note +the advancement that has been made. + +2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the +same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people. +The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed +with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat, +compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very +difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the +dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new +dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass +to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in +place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course, +more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern +bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_, +or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the +substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation +under favorable conditions. + +Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States, +whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_, +_bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is +referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in +another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases +throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always +meant when the term bread is used alone. + +3. References in the history of the ancient Hebrews show that bread made +light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago, but it +was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that +the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible. Through +this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better +grains and more improved methods of making flour. Indeed, so much +attention has been given to these matters that at present the three +important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat, the +milling of flour, and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and +scientifically performed. These industries, together with the commercial +manufacture of bread, occupy an important place in the business of +practically all civilized nations. + +4. Among people who are not highly civilized, bread forms the chief +article of food and often almost the entire diet, even at the present +time; but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a +greater variety of food, and he accordingly devises means of getting it. +Since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal, it +does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it +formerly did. However, it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the +food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study, as +well as such mastery of the processes involved, that the housewife may +present to her family only the best quality of this food. + +Although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past, +bread of some description, whether in the form of loaves, biscuits, or +rolls, forms a part of each meal in every household. This fact proves +that, with the exception of milk, it is more frequently eaten than any +other food. A food so constantly used contributes very largely to the +family's health if it is properly made. However, there is possibly +nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare +of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food, which, +besides proving detrimental to the digestion, adds materially to the +household expense. + +5. Of course, in many bakeries, bread of an excellent quality is made in +a perfectly hygienic manner, and to be able to procure such bread is a +wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it +inconvenient to make her own bread. Still, practically every person +enjoys "home-made" bread so much more than what is made commercially +that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch +of cookery. If it is properly understood, it will not be found +difficult; but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to +master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly. After +she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess, experience and +practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a +consequent waste of material. + + * * * * * + +INGREDIENTS FOR BREAD MAKING + +INGREDIENTS REQUIRED + +6. Possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making +is familiarity with the ingredients required. These are few in number, +being merely flour, liquid, which may be either milk or water, sugar, +salt, and yeast; but the nature of these, particularly the flour and the +yeast, is such as to demand careful consideration. It will be admitted +that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and +processes the greater will be her success in this work. Likewise, it is +extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as +possible, for next to milk and eggs, bread ranks as a perfect food, +containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body. This +does not mean, though, that any of these foods used as the sole article +of diet would be ideal, but that each one of them is of such composition +that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time. + + +FLOUR + +7. Grains Used for Flour.--As has been pointed out elsewhere, numerous +grains are raised by man, but only two of them, namely, wheat and rye, +are used alone for the making of yeast, or leavened, bread. The other +grains, such as corn, rice, and oats, produce a flat, unleavened cake, +so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with +white flour. Wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very +long time, and their universal use today is due to the fact that they +contain considerable protein in the form of _gluten_. This is the +substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture, a condition +that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread. In fact, the +toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for +the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light, +porous loaf. + +8. Of these two grains, rye is used less extensively in the United +States for the making of bread than wheat, although in some countries, +particularly the inland countries of Continental Europe, considerable +use is made of it. Its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact +that when rye is used alone it makes a moist, sticky bread, which is +considered undesirable by most persons. The reason for this is that, +although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten, this substance is +not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a +light, spongy loaf. Therefore, when rye is used, wheat flour is +generally mixed with it. The result is a bread having a good texture, +but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces. + +9. Wheat, the other grain used for bread making, is an annual grass of +unknown origin. It is used more extensively for food than any other +grain. In fact, it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed +by each person is about 6 bushels a year, and of this amount by far the +greater part is used in the making of bread. Since so much of this grain +is used as food, considerable time and effort have been spent in +developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to +which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour +of a good quality may be obtained. + +This grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the +nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of +these. These proteins, which occur in the wheat grain in the form of +gluten, are known as _gliadin_ and _glutenin_. The gliadin imparts +elasticity and tenacity, or toughness, to the gluten, and the glutenin +gives it strength. It is not, however, so much the quantity of gluten in +the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the +fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions +in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making. + +Wheat consists of numerous varieties, but only two of these are grown +and used in the United States, namely, _spring_, or _hard, wheat_ and +_winter_, or _soft, wheat_. + +10. SPRING, OR HARD WHEAT is so named because it is sown in the spring +of the year and is very tough or firm. Before this variety was known, +the wheat used for bread making was not ideal, and the efforts that were +made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted +in this variety. To obtain its particular composition, spring wheat must +be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions. In North America, +it grows in the north central part of the United States and along the +southern border of Canada. This variety, which is harvested in the late +summer, is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a +correspondingly small amount of starch. It is the presence of the gluten +that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough, +elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour. Bread +dough, to be right, must have this quality, so that the flour made from +spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread; whereas, for cake and +pastry, which should have a tender, unelastic texture, flour made from +soft wheat is more satisfactory. + +11. WINTER, OR SOFT WHEAT derives its name from the fact that it is +planted in the autumn and is soft in texture. It is of less importance +in the making of bread than spring, or hard, wheat, but it is the kind +that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring +wheat have been cultivated. It is a softer grain than spring wheat, +because it contains less gluten and more starch. The flour made from it +does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the +other variety of wheat; consequently, the finished product, such as +bread, rolls, etc., is likely to be more tender and more friable, or +crumbly. It is for this reason that winter, or soft, wheat is not used +extensively for bread, but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with +spring wheat to make what is called a _blend flour_, which may be used +for all purposes. + +12. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN.--In its natural state, wheat contains all +the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in +nearly the proper proportions, and in addition it has in its +composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk. It has +been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows: + + PER CENT. +Protein...................................... 11.9 +Fat.......................................... 2.1 +Carbohydrates................................ 71.9 +Mineral salts................................. 1.8 +Water........................................ 10.5 +Cellulose..................................... 1.8 +Total....................................... 100.0 + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +So that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be +more clearly understood, it will be well to observe the structure of a +grain, or kernel, of wheat, which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 1. +At _a_ is shown the germ of the young plant, which remains undeveloped +until the grain is planted. This part contains practically all the fat +found in the grain, some starch, and a small quantity of protein. At _b_ +is shown the inside of the kernel, or the _endosperm_, as it is called, +which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral +salts. Surrounding these, as at _c_, is a layer of coarse cells that +contain mineral matter and protein, and between these cells and the +outer husk, as at _d, e, f_, and _g_, are layers of bran, which are +composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of +starch and protein. Enveloping the entire kernel is a husk, or bran +covering, _h_. This forms a protection to the rest of the grain, but it +cannot be used as food, because it is composed almost entirely of +cellulose, which is practically indigestible. The center of the grain, +or the heart, is the softest part and consists of cells filled with +starch. From this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow +harder toward the outside, the harder part and that containing the most +gluten occurring next to the bran covering. + +13. MILLING OF WHEAT FLOUR.--Great advances have been made in the +production of flour from wheat, and these are very good evidence of +man's progress in the way of invention. The earliest method consisted +in crushing the grain by hand between two stones, and from this crude +device came the mortar and pestle. A little later millstones in the form +of thick, heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain. Two of +these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together, the lower +one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve. Early grinding +apparatus of this kind was turned by human power, but this kind of power +was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water. Out +of this arrangement, which is still used to some extent in small mills, +has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process, +by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected. + +14. In the roller process, the grain is crushed between metal rolls +instead of being ground between stones. It is first screened in order to +separate all foreign matter from it, and then stored in bins. When it is +taken from these receptacles, it is put through another cleaning +process, called _scouring_, or it is thoroughly washed and dried in +order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from +dust, lint, etc. As soon as it is completely cleansed, it is softened by +heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers, +which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and +which flatten and break the grains. After this first crushing, some of +the bran is sifted out, while the main portion of the grain is put +through another set of rollers and crushed more finely. During the +milling, these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are +repeated from six to nine times, each pair of rollers being set somewhat +closer than the pair before, until the grain is pulverized. After the +grain has been thus reduced to a powder, it is passed through bolting +cloth, which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign +material that may remain. The result is a very fine, white flour. + +15. GRAHAM FLOUR.--Sometimes the entire grain, including the bran, germ, +etc., is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as +flour in this form. Such flour is called graham flour. It contains all +the nutriment, mineral matter, and cellulose of the original grain, and +is therefore considered valuable as food. However, the objection to this +kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the +kinds from which the germ has been removed, because the fat contained in +the germ is liable to become rancid. + +16. WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR.--The best grades of fine white flour make bread +of excellent quality, but such bread is not so nutritious as that made +from whole-wheat flour. In the making of this kind of flour, some of the +choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the +woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the +grain is removed. After this treatment, the grains are dried and then +pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour. The name +whole-wheat flour is misleading, because it implies that all of the +grain is used; whereas, since several of the outer layers of bran and +the germ are removed in its production, whole-wheat flour is merely +flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained. +Because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours, it is not so +fine as they are; but it is not so coarse as graham flour, nor is bread +made from it so dark in color. Both graham and whole-wheat flours +produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour, +because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts, +which are necessary in the diet. The bran that is retained in them is +not used by the body as food, but it adds bulk to the diet and assists +in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract. + +17. SELECTION OF FLOUR.--If a large quantity of flour must be bought at +one time, as, for instance, enough to last through an entire season, it +is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made, so as to +avoid the danger of getting a poor grade. As a rule, however, housewives +are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time. In such cases, +it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it, +provided a standard make is selected. Very often, too, a housewife in a +small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both +bread flour and pastry flour. In such an event, a blend flour, which, as +has been mentioned, is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter +wheat that will do for all purposes, is the kind to purchase. While such +flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry, it serves the purpose of +both very well. + +18. QUALITY OF FLOUR.--Flour is put on the market in various grades, and +is named according to its quality. The highest grade, or best quality, +is called _high-grade patent_; the next grade, _bakers'_; and the next, +_second-grade patent_. The lowest grade, or poorest quality, is called +_red dog_. This grade is seldom sold for food purposes, but it is used +considerably for the making of paste. + +The quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance, +because flour of poor quality will not, of course, make good bread. +Every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of +good flour and should buy accordingly. + +19. Several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its +quality. The first test is its color. Bread flour, or flour made from +spring wheat, is usually of a creamy-white color, while pastry flour, or +that made from winter wheat, is more nearly pure white in color. A dark, +chalky-white, or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality. +The second test is the feel of the flour. A pinch of good bread flour, +when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger, will be +found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty. +When good pastry flour is treated in the same way, it will feel smooth +and powdery. The third test is its adhering power. When squeezed tightly +in the hand, good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains +slightly the impression of the fingers; poor bread flour treated in the +same way either does not retain its shape or, provided it contains too +much moisture, is liable to make a damp, hard lump. The odor of flour +might also be considered a test. Flour must not have a musty odor nor +any other odor foreign to the normal, rather nutty flavor that is +characteristic of flour. + +The bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the United +States laws. Bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the +quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority. Such flour +must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached. + +20. CARE OF FLOUR.--There is considerable economy in buying flour in +large quantities, but unless an adequate storing place can be secured, +it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time. Flour absorbs odors +very readily, so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if +possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags. Then, after it is +purchased, it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be +accessible to odors, for unless the storage conditions are favorable, it +will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use. Flour +sometimes becomes infested with weevils, or beetles, whose presence can +be detected by little webs. To prevent the entrance of insects and +vermin of all kinds, flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after +it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased. If newly +purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects, it should +be returned to the dealer. + + +YEAST + +21. NATURE AND ACTION OF YEAST.--How yeast came to be discovered is not +definitely known, but its discovery is believed to have been purely +accidental. Some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to +remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was +found to be light and porous. Whatever the origin of this discovery was, +it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its +action was not at that time understood. Even at the present time +everything concerning the action of yeast is not known; still continued +study and observation have brought to light enough information to show +that yeast is the agency that, under favorable conditions, produces +light, spongy bread out of a flour mixture. + +22. It has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing +everywhere in the air and in dust; consequently, it is found on all +things that are exposed to air or dust. In order that it may grow, this +plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant, +namely, food, moisture, and warmth. Carbohydrate in the form of sugar +proves to be an ideal food for yeast, and 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit is +the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs. When these +conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided, yeast +grows very rapidly and produces fermentation. + +The changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be +detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice. As +every housewife knows, the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice +is the appearance of tiny bubbles, which collect on the sides and the +bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the +top. These bubbles are a form of gas called _carbon-dioxide_, or +_carbonic-acid, gas_. If, after they appear, the juice is tasted, it +will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or +acid taste. The gas, the acid, and the alcohol thus produced are the +three results of the action of the ferment. + +23. When yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour, the +changes just mentioned take place. To understand the action of this +plant, it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large +proportion of starch. This substance, however, cannot be acted on by the +yeast plant; it must first be changed into sugar. The yeast that is +added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms +the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas. This gas, which is lighter +than the dough, rises, and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic, +glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough +is two or three times its original bulk. The yeast plants, though, must +be well distributed throughout the dough; otherwise, there are likely to +be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in +others. The gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness +or the elasticity of the gluten, and the spaces that it leaves are what +produce a light, porous loaf. When the expansion has gone on long +enough, the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by +baking the dough in a hot oven. During the baking, the alcohol is driven +off by heat, some of the starch is browned and forms the crust, and so +little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active +that it is not noticeable. + +24. Commercial Yeast.--When yeast plants are deprived of water and food, +they cease to multiply. However, under these conditions, they may be +kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will +increase in number and carry on their work. Advantage has been taken of +these characteristics of yeast, for although at one time the making of +yeast was entirely a household process, it has now, like butter, cheese, +canned fruit, etc., become a commercial product. The first yeast put on +the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers' +vats, where it floated in large quantities; but as this was an impure, +unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria, it is no +longer used for the purpose of making bread. At present, yeast is +carefully grown as a pure yeast culture, or product. It is marketed in +such a way that when proper food, such as soft dough, or sponge, and a +favorable temperature are provided, the plants will multiply and act on +the carbohydrate that they find in the food. In fact, the purpose of the +well-known process of "setting" a sponge is to obtain a large number of +yeast plants from a few. + +Commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--_moist_ and +_dry_. Each of these yeasts has its advantages, so that the one to +select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well +as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food. + +25. Moist yeast, which is usually called _compressed yeast_, consists +of the pure yeast culture, or growth, mixed with starch to make a sort +of dough and then compressed into small cakes, the form in which it is +sold. The moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the +plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough +mixture. Consequently, it proves very useful for the rapid methods of +making bread. It is soft, yet brittle, is of a grayish-white color, and +has no odor except that of yeast. + +Since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to +make them grow, an unfavorable, or low, temperature is needed to keep +the yeast from spoiling; in fact, it is not guaranteed to remain good +longer than a few days, and then only if it is kept at a temperature low +enough to prevent the plants from growing. This fact makes it +inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the +source of supply, although it may be obtained by parcel post from +manufacturers or dealers. + +26. Dry yeast, the other form of commercial yeast, is made in much the +same way as moist yeast, but, instead of being mixed with a small amount +of starch, the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch +or meal and then dried. The process of drying kills off some of the +plants and renders the remainder inactive; because of this, the yeast +requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time, +facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not +within easy reach of the markets. However, because of the inactivity of +the yeast plants, much longer time is required to produce fermentation +in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast +is used. Consequently, the long processes of bread making are brought +about by the use of dry yeast. If moist yeast is used for these +processes, a smaller quantity is required. + +27. Liquid Yeast.--Some housewives are so situated that they find it +difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms; but this +disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made +bread, for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves. +To make such yeast, flour, water, and a small quantity of sugar are +stirred together, and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary +room temperature, or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, until it is filled with +bubbles. If hops are available, a few of them may be added. When such +yeast is added to a sponge mixture, it will lighten the whole amount. +Before the sponge is made stiff with flour, however, a little of it +should be taken out, put in a covered dish, and set away in a cool, dark +place for the next baking. If properly looked after in the manner +explained, this yeast may be kept for about 2 weeks. + +More certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of +liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast, so that whenever +this can be obtained it should be used. Then, as just explained, some of +the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may +be retained for the next baking. + +28. Quality of Yeast.--Of equal importance with the quality of flour is +the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread. Yeast is, of course, +accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread, but, in addition, +it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts +from the flavor if it is of poor quality. Since the condition of yeast +cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted, +the housewife should take no chances, but should employ only yeast, +whether she uses commercial or liquid, that she knows to be good and +reliable. Compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality. It should +be grayish white in color, without streaks or spots, and it should have +no sour nor disagreeable odor. If home-made yeast is used and the +results obtained are not satisfactory, it may be taken for granted that +a fresh supply should be prepared. + + +YEAST AIDS + +29. As has already been explained, yeast, in order to grow, requires +something on which to feed, and the food that produces the most rapid +growth is that which contains carbohydrate. Certain of the +carbohydrates, however, prove to be better food and produce more rapid +growth than others, and these, which are known as yeast aids, are +usually added as ingredients in the making of bread. The ones that are +most commonly used are sugar and potato water. Sugar is almost always +added, but it should be limited in quantity, because a dough mixture +that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly. Potato water has +been found to be a very satisfactory aid, because the starch of the +potato is utilized readily by the yeast. If this aid is to be used, the +water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and, when the +ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed, it may be added +as a part or all of the liquid required. If it is desired to increase +the amount of starch in the potato water, a boiled potato or two may be +mashed and added to it. + + +MILK AND FAT IN BREAD + +30. Milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread. +While it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve +the texture, it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making. +Whenever milk is used, it should first be scalded thoroughly. A point +that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that +the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color +than that of bread in which water is used as liquid. + +31. Like milk, fat adds nutritive value to bread, but it is not an +essential ingredient. If it is included, care should be taken not to use +too much, for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast. +Almost any kind of fat, such as butter, lard or other clear tasteless +fats, or any mixture of these, may be used for this purpose, provided it +does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread. + + +PROPORTION OF BREAD-MAKING MATERIALS + +32. No definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and +flour to be used in bread making, because some kinds of flour absorb +much more liquid than others. It has been determined, however, that 3 +cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread. With +this known, the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of +bread that is to be made. The quantity of liquid required depends on the +quantity and kind of flour selected, but usually there should be about +one-third as much liquid as flour. + +The particular method that is selected for the making of bread, as is +explained later, determines the amount of yeast to be used. If it is +desired not to have the bread rise quickly, a small quantity, about one +eighth cake of compressed yeast or 2 tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast, is +sufficient for each loaf; but if rapid rising is wanted, two, three, or +four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of +carbon dioxide in less time. It should be remembered that the more yeast +used, the more quickly will the necessary gas be created, and that, as +has already been shown, it is the formation of gas that makes bread +light and porous. In addition to flour, liquid, and yeast, 1 teaspoonful +of salt, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and 1 tablespoonful of fat are the +ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread. + + +UTENSILS FOR BREAD MAKING + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +33. Necessary Equipment.--Not many utensils are required for bread +making, but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the +best results are to be obtained. The necessary equipment is illustrated +in Fig. 2. It includes a mixing bowl and cover _a_; a flour sieve _b_; +measuring cups _c_ of standard size, one for moist and one for dry +ingredients, measuring spoons _d_, and a case knife or a spatula _e_ for +measuring; a long-handled spoon _f_ for mixing; and baking, or bread, +pans _g_. Unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding +board, it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment +mentioned, a molding board of suitable size. + +The mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in +the illustration. The size of the pans used and the material of which +the pans are made should also receive attention. The loaves will be +found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large +and each one is baked in a separate pan. Pans that are 8 inches long, 3 +1/2 inches wide, and 3 inches deep are of a convenient size. They may be +made of tin, sheet iron, aluminum, or heat-resisting glass, the only +requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same +material, because, as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than +others, the baking will then be more uniform. + +34. Convenient Equipment.--While the utensils shown in Fig. 2 are all +that are actually required in the making of bread, a bread mixer, one +style of which is described in _Essentials of Cookery_, Part 2, will be +found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large +quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to +devote to the work. This labor-saving device can be used and, of course, +often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread, +as, for instance, two to four loaves; but it is not actually needed by +her, as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly. + +A _cooler_, which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and +supported by short legs, is also a convenient utensil, as it serves as a +good place on which to put baked bread to cool. If one of these devices +is not available, however, a substitute can be easily made by stretching +a wire netting over a wooden frame. + + * * * * * + +BREAD-MAKING PROCESSES + +ACQUIRING SKILL IN BREAD MAKING + +35. The nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make +bread, as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose, being +understood, it is next in order to take up the actual work of making +bread. Several processes are included in this work; namely, making the +dough, caring for the rising dough, kneading the dough, shaping the +dough into loaves, baking the loaves, and caring for the bread after it +is baked. When the finished product is obtained, the loaves are ready to +be scored and served. A knowledge of how to carry out these processes is +of the utmost importance, for much of the success achieved in bread +making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients. Of course, +skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice, so that the +more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the +processes, the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery. +Each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in +which it comes in the actual work of bread making, and while the proper +consideration should be given to every one of them, it will be well, +before entering into them, to observe the qualities that characterize +good wheat bread. + +36. Good wheat bread may be described in various ways, but, as has been +learned by experience and as is pointed out by United States government +authorities, probably the best way in which to think of it, so far as +its structure is concerned, is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour +and water, having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat. +The size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that +should not be overlooked. + +Each loaf should be light in weight, considering its size, should be +regular in form, and should have an unbroken, golden-brown crust. The +top crust should be smooth and should have a luster, which is usually +spoken of as the "bloom" of the crust. Taken as a whole, the loaf should +have a certain sponginess, which is known as its elasticity, and which +is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed +slightly out of shape. As soon as the pressure is removed, the loaf +should resume its original shape. This test should produce the same +results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut +surface of the loaf. + +The internal appearance must also receive consideration. To be right, +wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite +"sheen," which can best be seen by looking across a slice, rather than +directly down into it. As already explained, the holes in it should be +small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin. These +points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to +the light. + +The flavor of bread is also a very important factor, but it is somewhat +difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in +order to be considered good. Probably the best way in which to explain +this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by +treating the wheat with salt. While such a flavor may not be known to +all, it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel. + + * * * * * + +MAKING THE DOUGH + +PRELIMINARY TREATMENT OF INGREDIENTS + +37. The first step in bread making, and without doubt the most important +one, is the making of the dough. It consists in moistening the flour by +means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the +starch, to dissolve the sugar, and to cement all the particles together, +and then combining these ingredients. Before the ingredients are +combined, however, particularly the flour, the liquid, and the yeast, +they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time +necessary for the yeast to start growing. Much care should be exercised +in heating these materials, for good results will not be obtained unless +they are brought to the proper temperature. The flour should feel warm +and the liquid, whether it be water or milk, should, when it is added, +be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers. If +water is used, it ought to be just as pure as possible, but if milk is +preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded. The yeast +should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water. Hot water +used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread +from rising, whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast. + + +COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS + +38. As soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment, +they are ready to be combined. Combining may be done by two different +methods, one of which is known as the _short process_ and the other as +the _long process_. As their names indicate, these methods are +characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise. Each +method has its advantages, and the one to select depends on the amount +of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her +work. Persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it +tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process; +whereas, those who favor the short process find that it saves time and +labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired. +The more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in +the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in +the long process, in which time must be allowed for its growth, is +employed. However, regardless of the method followed, all bread mixtures +must be begun in the same manner. The liquids, seasonings, and fat are +combined, and to these is added the flour, which should be sifted in, as +shown in Fig. 3. + +39. Long Process.--By the long process, there are two ways of combining +the ingredients in order to make bread. One is known as the _sponge +method_ and the other as the _straight-dough method_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] 40. The long-process sponge method is employed +when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the +yeast. To make bread according to this process, start it in the evening +by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these +ingredients to the sugar, salt, and fat, which should first be placed in +the mixing bowl. Stir this mixture well, and then add one-half of the +quantity of flour that is to be used, stirring this also. Place this +mixture, or sponge, as such a mixture is called, where it will remain +warm, or at a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, through +the night. In the morning, stir the remaining flour into the sponge and +knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed. When this is +accomplished, put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until +it doubles in bulk. When the dough is in this condition, it is ready to +be kneaded again, after which it may be shaped into loaves, placed in +the pans, allowed to double in bulk again, and finally baked. + +41. The long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the +method just explained. It does away with the necessity of one kneading +and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor. To +make bread by this method, combine the ingredients in the evening as for +the sponge method, but instead of adding only half of the flour, put all +of it into the mixture, make a stiff dough at once, and knead. Then +allow this to rise during the night, so that in the morning it can be +kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans. After it rises in +the pans until it doubles in bulk, it is ready to be baked. + +The only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough +rises more slowly than a sponge, but since the entire night is given to +the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this +process. A point to remember, however, is that dough made according to +this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method. + +42. Quick Process.--In the quick process of combining bread ingredients, +there are also two methods of procedure--the _sponge method_ and the +_straight-dough method_. The chief differences between the methods of +this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast +used and the length of time required for the bread to rise. More yeast +must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the +entire process. This shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact +that throughout the process, whether the straight-dough or the sponge +method is followed, the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of +about 90 degrees Fahrenheit. + +43. The quick-process sponge method requires only about 5 hours for its +completion, and the bread may be started at any time of the day that +will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work. For this +method, warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar, salt, fat, +liquid, and dissolved yeast. Into this mixture, stir enough of the flour +to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it +has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles. Then add the +remainder of the flour, knead the mixture, and return the dough thus +formed to a warm place. When the dough has doubled in bulk, remove it +from the bowl to the kneading board, knead it slightly, and then shape +it into loaves. Place these into the pans, and after allowing them to +rise sufficiently, bake them. + +44. The quick-process straight-dough method differs from the +quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added +when the ingredients are first mixed, with the result that a stiff dough +instead of a sponge is formed. As has already been learned, this stiff +dough rises more slowly than a sponge, but it requires one rising less. +It must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as +possible, so that the rising will not be retarded. When it has doubled +in bulk, remove it from the bowl and knead it. Then shape it into +loaves, place these in the pans, allow them to rise sufficiently, and +proceed with the baking. + + +CARE OF THE RISING DOUGH + +45. Purpose of Rising.--Rising is an important part of the process of +bread making, no matter which method is employed. In a sponge, its +purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed, as well +as to permit the growth of the yeast; in a dough, after the gas has been +evenly distributed by means of kneading, the purpose of rising is to +permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to +make the bread light when it is baked. As has just been explained, three +risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the +short process, whereas only two are required in the straight-dough +methods. The last rising, or the one that takes place after the dough is +shaped into loaves, is the one that affects the texture of the bread +most, so that it should receive considerable attention. If the dough is +not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time, the bread will be too +fine in texture and will likely be heavy; and if it is permitted to rise +too much, it will be coarse in texture. Allowance, however, should be +made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been +placed in the oven. + +46. Temperature for Rising.--As has been mentioned, the best results are +obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout +its rising. The temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about 86 +degrees Fahrenheit; but, unless it can be watched closely, a better plan +is to keep it, especially if the long process of bread making is +followed, at a temperature that runs no higher than 80 degrees. Various +methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised, but the +ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the +sponge or the dough in a bread raiser, a fireless cooker, or a vessel of +hot water. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +47. Bread raisers can be purchased, but if desired a simple +bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box. To +make such a device, line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it +with a door or a cover that may be closed tight. Make a hole in one side +of the box into which to insert a thermometer, and, at about the center +of the box, place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the +sponge or dough. For heating the interior, use may be made of a single +gas burner, an oil lamp, or any other small heating device. This should +be placed in the bottom of the box, under the shelf, and over it should +be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist, moist air +being essential to good results. Where large quantities of bread must be +baked regularly, such a device will prove very satisfactory. The +temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of 95 to +105 degrees Fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly; but it may be +kept from 80 to 95 degrees if slower rising is desired. + +48. Placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of +hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform +temperature, being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process +sponge method. The water in the large vessel should be at a temperature +of about 110 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit. After the bowl of sponge or +dough is placed in the water, the large vessel should be covered very +carefully, so that the heat from the water will be retained. To maintain +the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread +mixture, the hot water has to be replenished occasionally. If this is +done, the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about +90 degrees and will therefore rise rapidly. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +49. To insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures, it is +advisable, for the beginner at least, to use a thermometer for +determining the temperature of air or water, as this instrument will +save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been +gained. A Fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in Fig. 4 is the ideal +kind for use in bread making. As an aid in this process, there are +indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be +kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept +outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of 75 to 90 degrees in the +dough when the plan mentioned in Art. 48 for keeping dough at a uniform +temperature is followed. In addition, the oven temperatures for baking +bread and rolls, which are explained later, are also shown. The +temperature of water can, however, be determined fairly accurately with +the hands. If it feels very warm but does not burn the hand, it may be +considered at about a temperature of 110 to 115 degrees. + +In order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough, the +bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered. A further means +of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the +dough; that is, brushing it lightly with melted fat. In case a crust +does form, it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to +soften completely before the next kneading is begun. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + +50. Time Required for Rising.--No definite rule can be given for the +length of time required for dough to rise, for this depends entirely on +the activity of the yeast. If the yeast is active, the dough will rise +quickly; but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or +retarded in its growth by improper handling, the dough will rise slowly. +Usually, dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk. A +good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small +piece of the dough in a glass, such as a measuring glass, a tumbler, or +a jelly glass, and mark on this glass where the dough should come when +it has increased to twice its size. This glass set beside the vessel +containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently. This plan +is illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows a glass half filled with +dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep +warm for the first rising; and Fig. 6 shows the same dough after it has +doubled in bulk, as is evident from the fact that the glass is +entirely full. + + +KNEADING THE DOUGH + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +51. Purpose of Kneading.--As has been pointed out, it is necessary to +knead dough one or more times in the making of bread, the number of +kneadings depending on the method that is employed. The purpose of +kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is +produced by the yeast, to increase the elasticity of the gluten, and to +blend the ingredients. It is a very important part of the work of bread +making, for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the +finished product. At first, kneading may be found to be somewhat +difficult, but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not +proficient at once, because the skill that is necessary to knead the +bread successfully comes with practice. So that the best results may be +attained, however, it is advisable that the purpose for which the +kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +52. Kneading Motions.--Several motions are involved in the kneading of +bread, and these are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. In order to carry out +the kneading process, first cover lightly with flour the surface on +which the kneading is to be done; this may be a suitable table top or a +molding board placed on a table. Then remove the dough from the mixing +bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula, in the manner shown in +Fig. 6, and place it on the floured surface. Sift a little flour over +the dough, so that it appears as in Fig. 7, and flatten it slightly by +patting it gently. Next, with the fingers placed as shown in Fig. 8, +take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold +the dough over the edge nearest you, as Fig. 9 illustrates. Then +work the dough with a downward pressure and, as indicated in Fig. 10, +push it out with the palms of the hands. With the motion completed, turn +the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another +direction. Continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the +dough has a smooth appearance, is elastic, does not stick to either the +hands or the board, and rises quickly when it is pressed down. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10] + +To prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board, flour +should be added gradually during the process of kneading, but care +should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose. The +lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the +quantity of flour used at this time, so that if the dough is made too +stiff with flour, the bread will be hard and close after it is baked. As +soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the +hands or the board, no more flour need be added; but, in case too much +flour is used, the dough may be softened by means of milk or water. Such +dough, however, is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to +be softened. + + +SHAPING THE DOUGH INTO LOAVES + +53. After the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained, it +is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again. When it has +risen sufficiently for the last time, depending on the process employed, +it should be kneaded again, if it must be reduced in size, and then +shaped into loaves and put in the pans. Here, again, much care should be +exercised, for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much +to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11] + +54. In order to shape the dough into loaves, first loosen it from the +sides of the mixing bowl, using a knife or a spatula for this purpose, +and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been +sprinkled, as in preparing for kneading. Knead the dough a little, and +then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in +which the loaves are to be baked, as shown at the right in Fig. 11. Dust +each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large +bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round. In +working it, stretch the under side, which is to be the top of the loaf, +and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and +as thick at each end as in the center. A good idea of the size and shape +can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in Fig. 11. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12] + +55. As each loaf is formed, place it in the pan in the manner shown in +Fig. 12 and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the +pan, or has doubled in bulk. So that the loaf will be symmetrical after +it has risen--that is, as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped +dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan. At _a_, Fig. +13, is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear, and +at _b_ is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen +sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking. To +produce the result illustrated at _b_, the dough must be kept in a warm +temperature, and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard +crust on the dough, it must be covered well with both a cloth and a +metal cover. Another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard +crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in +the pan, as at _a_, for rising. [Illustration: Fig. 13] + + +BAKING THE BREAD + +56. PURPOSE OF BAKING.--The various processes in the making of bread +that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried +out, but unless the baking, which is the last step, is properly done, +the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible. Much attention +should therefore be given to this part of the work. So that the best +results may be obtained, it should be borne in mind that bread is baked +for the purpose of killing the ferment, rupturing the starch grains of +the flour so that they become digestible, fixing the air cells, and +forming a nicely flavored crust. During the process of baking, certain +changes take place in the loaf. The gluten that the dough contains is +hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles, which give the +bread a porous appearance; also, the starch contained in the dough is +cooked within the loaf, but the outside is first cooked and +then toasted. + +57. OVEN TEMPERATURE FOR BAKING.--In baking bread, it is necessary first +to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient +strength to last throughout the baking. As is indicated in Fig. 4, the +usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from 380 to 425 +degrees Fahrenheit, but in both the first and the last part of the +baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it. An oven +thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the +temperature of the oven. But if neither of these is available the heat +may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker, a piece of white +paper, or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan. If any one of +these becomes a light brown in 5 minutes, the oven is right to commence +baking. Every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at +first, for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast +plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked. Of +course, the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is +killed at once, for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will +expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up; but bread baked +in this way is generally very unsatisfactory, because a hard crust forms +on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf. If +the heat is not sufficient, the dough will continue to rise until the +air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf. In an +oven that is just moderately hot, or has a temperature of about 400 +degrees, the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly, the dough will +continue to rise for some time, and the crust of the bread should begin +to brown in about 15 minutes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15] + +58. Fig. 14 illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much. The +inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good. Fig. 15 +shows the result of uneven temperature. The high side is caused by +exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side, and the crack is +the result of a too rapid formation of the crust. Sometimes it is +advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly. In order to +do this, and at the same time produce a more even color, the top of the +loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into +the oven. + +Fig. 16 shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount +of rising, and Fig. 17 shows the inside texture of bread for which the +mixing, rising, and baking have been correctly done. + +59. TIME FOR BAKING AND CARE OF BREAD IN OVEN.--The time required for +baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also +important matters to know. How long the bread should bake depends on the +size of the loaf. Under proper oven temperature, a small loaf, or one +made with 1 cupful of liquid, ought to bake in from 50 minutes to 1 +hour, while a large loaf requires from 1-1/2 to 2 hours. As has been +explained, the loaf should begin to brown, or have its crust formed, in +about 15 minutes after it is placed in the oven, and the baking should +proceed rather slowly. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16] + +To get the best results in baking, the pans should be placed so that the +air in the oven will circulate freely around them. If they are so placed +that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven, the loaves +will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape, like +those shown in Figs. 14 and 15. If the loaves rise higher on one side +than on the other, even when the pans are properly placed, it is evident +that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the +oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position. +Proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an +even brown on the bottom, sides, and top and that shrink from the sides +of the pan. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17] + +60. CARE OF BREAD AFTER BAKING.--As soon as the bread has baked +sufficiently, take it from the oven, remove the loaves from the pans, +and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them. A +bread rack, or cake cooler, like the one on which the loaf rests in +Figs. 14, 15, and 16, is very satisfactory for this purpose, but if such +a device is not available, the loaves may be placed across the edges of +the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed. Whichever +plan is adopted, it should be remembered that the bread must be +carefully protected from dust and flies. Bread should never be permitted +to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat +surface; neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm, +because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not +keep so well. + +After the loaves have become sufficiently cool, place them in the +receptacle in which they are to be kept. This should have been +previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine, +so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise +injure the bread. After the loaves have been put into it, keep it well +covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect. To +keep such a receptacle in good condition, it should be scalded and dried +every 2 or 3 days. + + +SCORING BREAD + +61. OBJECT OF SCORING BREAD.--By the _scoring_ of bread is meant simply +the judging of its qualities. Persons who understand what good bread is +agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it, and +they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be +scored, or judged. Those who are not proficient in the making of bread, +as well as those who have had very little experience, will do well to +have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it +themselves. By following this plan, they will be able to find out the +good and bad points of their bread and then, by ascertaining the causes +of any poor qualities, will be in a position to make improvements. So +that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread, she +should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation. + +SCORE CARD + +External Appearance: PER CENT. + Shape................................. 5 + Size.................................. 2 + Crust: + Shade............................... 2 + Uniformity of Color................. 2 + Character........................... 2 + Depth............................ 2--8 +Lightness.............................. 20 +Internal Appearance: + Even distribution of gas............. 10 + Moisture.............................. 5 + Elasticity............................ 5 + Color................................ 15 +Flavor................................. 30 + --- + Total............................. 100 + +62. EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD.--A study of the score card will reveal +that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for +appearance, both external and internal, for lightness, and for flavor. +To determine these qualities best, allow the loaf to cool thoroughly +after baking. Then consider the various points, and decide how nearly +perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them. Add the numbers that +are determined upon, and the result obtained will show how the +bread scores. + +63. The _shape_ of the loaf, in order to be perfect and to score 5, +should be uniform and symmetrical. Any such shape as that shown in Fig. +15 would fall below perfect. + +The _size_ of the loaf, for which a score of 2 is given, is determined +from the standpoint of thorough baking. The exact size that a loaf must +be is a rather difficult thing to state, because the sizes vary +considerably, but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against, +for it would not score well. Bread made in pans of the size already +mentioned would score high with regard to size. + +The _crust_, whose combined characteristics score 8, should be a golden +brown in color in order to receive the score of 2 for its _shade_. A +pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit. If the +required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf, the bottom and +the sides, as well as the top, 2 more is added to the score of the crust +for _uniformity of color_. After these points are scored, a slice of +bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may +be scored. As fresh bread does not cut easily, and as a well-cut slice +must be had for this purpose, special care must be taken to obtain the +slice. Therefore, sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by +holding it near a flame; then cut a slice at least 1/2 inch thick from +the loaf before the blade has had time to cool. With such a slice cut, +the _character_ of the crust, by which is meant its toughness or its +tenderness, may be determined. A score of 2 is given if it is of +sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness. The _depth_ of the +crust, which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had, receives +a score of 2 if it is perfect. A deep crust, which is the preferred +kind, is produced by long, slow baking; bread that is baked only a short +time has a thin crust, which is not so desirable and would not score +so high. + +64. The _lightness_ of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is +cut. It is judged by the size of the holes, and if it is perfect it +receives a score of 20. If the bread is not light enough, the holes will +be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic; if it is too +light, the holes will be large and coarse. + +65. The internal appearance, which is scored next, includes several +characteristics. For the _even distribution of gas_, which is determined +by the uniformity of the holes, 10 points are given. If the kneading has +been done right and the bread has risen properly, the gas will be +distributed evenly through the loaf, with the result that the holes, +which make the bread porous, will be practically the same throughout the +entire loaf. Such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some +large and some small holes. The _moisture_ in the bread, which receives +5 if it is of the right amount, is tested by pinching a crumb between +the fingers. If the crumb feels harsh and dry, the bread is not moist +enough, and if it feels doughy, the bread is too moist. The +_elasticity_, for which 5 is given, is determined by pressing the finger +gently into a cut place in the loaf. The bread may be considered to be +elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not +break nor crumble. As compared with cake, bread is always more elastic, +a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains. +Still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to +toughness, for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired. To score +15 for _color_, the inside of the loaf should be of an even, creamy +white. A dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor +quality had been used, and dark or white streaks in the bread would +denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading. + +66. The last thing to be scored, namely, the _flavor_, merits 30 points. +To determine this characteristic, chew a small piece of bread well. If +it is not sour nor musty, has a sweet, nutty flavor, and shows that the +correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing, it may +receive a perfect score. + + +USE OF THE BREAD MIXER + +67. The advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it +practically does away with hand mixing and kneading; however, all the +other steps described are the same, depending on the process used. As +has been mentioned, the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as +three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread +mixer; at least, for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so +necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time, when it +is a decided convenience. However, bread mixers can be had in various +sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife. + +68. In using a bread mixer like that described in _Essentials of +Cookery_, Part 2, the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly +mixed together by turning the handle, and after the sponge or the dough +has risen, the kneading is performed by again turning the handle. The +amount of turning to be done is, of course, regulated by the ingredients +and the method that is followed. + +In addition to the bread mixer mentioned, there is another convenient +type that is constructed in two parts, the top part having a sifter in +its bottom, through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted. +The sifting is done with a crank, which also operates a shaft to which +is attached a number of knives extending in different directions. These +knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading. The bread is allowed to +rise in the lower part of the bread mixer, the top part being removed +after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished. + +Any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread +mixer without change in the process, and no kneading need be done by +hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last +rising and before they are placed in the pans. + + +SERVING BREAD + +69. Bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter +of course that little thought is given to its serving. Of course, it +does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some +foods; yet, like all other foods, it appeals more to the appetites of +those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner. A few +ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not +be amiss. + +As fresh bread is not easily digested, it should not usually be served +until it is at least 24 hours old. Before it is placed on the table, it +should be cut in slices, the thickness of which will depend on the +preference of the persons who are to eat it. If the loaf is large in +size, the pieces should be cut in two, lengthwise of the slice, but in +the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut. + +Various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table, such as a +bread boat, a bread plate, and a bread basket, are also used to add +variety in serving. Whichever of these is selected, it may be improved +in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily. For rolls, a +hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive. Sometimes, especially +when a large number of persons are to be served, a roll is placed +between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at +the table. + +Occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table. Such +bread, however, should not be discarded, especially if the loaves are +uncut. Uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them +quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven +until their surface becomes dry. If desired, slices of bread that have +become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them; but unless great +care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist +and soggy. + + * * * * * + +RECIPES + +BREAD RECIPES + +70. In order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making +principles and directions that have been set forth, and at the same time +become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used, +there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread. These +recipes include not only white bread-that is, bread made from white +flour--but whole-wheat, graham, rye, and corn bread, as well as bread in +which fruit and nuts are incorporated. Before these recipes are taken +up, though, it will not be amiss to look further into the various +ingredients used in the making of bread. + +71. The fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind. For +instance, if less than 2 tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe, this +amount may be decreased; but it is not well to increase the amount to +any extent. Likewise, the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a +disagreeable flavour to the finished product. It may be left-over +chicken fat, clarified beef fat, lard, butter, cooking oil, or any +mixture of clear, fresh fats that may be in supply. + +The sweetening for bread is, as a rule, granulated sugar, although +sirup, molasses, brown sugar, or white sugar of any kind may be +employed. Sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to +the bread, and the kind that is used is of slight importance. + +The liquid, as has been stated, may be water or milk or any proportion +of both. The milk that is used may be either whole or skim. In addition +to these two liquids, the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which +rice, macaroni, or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked. +Potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as +a yeast aid, as has been pointed out. Therefore, whenever, in a bread +recipe, liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated +specifically, use may be made of any of the liquids that have been +mentioned. + +The quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely +on the kind of flour that is to be used, bread flour having a much +greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour. When, +in the process of mixing the bread, the sponge is stiffened by adding +the remaining flour to it, the last cupful or two should be added +cautiously, in order not to make the mixture too stiff. In some +instances, more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make +the dough of the right consistency. The amount can be determined only by +a knowledge of what this consistency should be, and this will be easily +acquired with practice in bread making. + +72. The beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely +of white flour, for the reason that it is easier to determine the +consistency of the dough mixture at various stages, as well as during +the kneading, if there is no coarse material, such as bran, corn meal, +nuts, fruits, etc., in the dough. Later, when a definite knowledge along +this line has been acquired, one after the other of the bread recipes +should be tried. They are no more difficult to carry out than the +recipes for white bread; indeed, the woman who has had experience in +bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all +of them. + +73. WHITE BREAD.--Bread made from white flour, which is commonly +referred to as _white bread_, is used to a much greater extent than any +other kind, for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which +they do not tire quickly. However, white bread should not be used to the +exclusion of other breads, because they are of considerable importance +economically. This kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the +long processes, for the ingredients are the same, with the exception of +the quantity of yeast used. The amounts given in the following recipes +are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones, but, of +course, if more bread is desired, the quantity of each ingredient may be +increased proportionately. + +WHITE BREAD--LONG PROCESS +(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves) + +2 Tb. fat +2 Tb. sugar +1/2 cake compressed yeast, or 1 cake dried yeast +1 Tb. salt +1 qt. lukewarm liquid +3 qt. flour +1 c. flour additional for kneading + +Put into the mixing bowl the fat, the sugar, the salt, and the yeast +that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid. Add the +remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour. Place this sponge +where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled. In the +morning, add the remainder of the flour, stirring it well into the risen +sponge, and knead the dough thus formed. Allow it to rise until it has +doubled in bulk and then knead it again. After it is properly kneaded, +shape it into loaves, place them in greased pans, let them rise until +they have doubled in bulk, and then bake them. + +Combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the +sponge method of the long process. By adding all instead of half of the +flour at night, the straight-dough method of this process may +be followed. + +WHITE BREAD--QUICK PROCESS +(Sufficient for Two Large or Three Small Loaves) + +2 Tb. fat +2 Tb. sugar +1 Tb. salt +2 cakes compressed yeast +1 qt. lukewarm liquid +3 qt. flour +1 c. flour additional for kneading + +Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt into the mixing bowl, and then to +them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm +liquid. Add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour, +according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the +straight-dough method. One yeast cake may be used instead of two. +However, if the smaller quantity of yeast is used, the process will +require more time, but the results will be equally as good. After the +dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been +kneaded properly for the method selected, place it in greased pans, let +it rise sufficiently, and proceed with the baking. + +74. Whole-Wheat Bread.--Bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a +distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons. This kind of +bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour, but since +it contains more mineral salts and bulk, it should have a place in the +diet of every family. When made according to the following recipe, +whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for +bread made of the finer flours. + +WHOLE-WHEAT BREAD--QUICK PROCESS +(Sufficient for Two Small Loaves) + +3 Tb. fat +1/4 c. brown sugar +1 Tb. salt +1 cake compressed yeast +3 c. lukewarm liquid +8 c. whole-wheat flour +1 c. white flour for kneading + +Place the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the +yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid. Add the remainder of the +liquid, and then stir in half or all of the flour, according to whether +the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred. Then proceed +according to the directions previously given for making bread by the +quick process. + +The long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread, and +if it is, only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used. + +75. Graham Bread.--To lend variety to the family diet, frequent use +should be made of graham bread, which contains even more bulk and +mineral salts than whole-wheat bread. In bread of this kind, both graham +and white flour are used. Since graham flour is very heavy, it prevents +the bread from rising quickly, so the bread is started with white flour. +The accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process, +although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half +the amount of yeast. + +GRAHAM BREAD +(Sufficient for Two Loaves) + +2 Tb. fat +1/4 c. brown sugar +2 tsp. salt +1 cake compressed yeast +2 c. lukewarm liquid +2 c. white flour +3 c. graham flour +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Put the fat, the sugar, and the salt in the mixing bowl, and to them add +the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid. Pour over +these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white +flour. When the mixture is to be made stiff, add the graham flour. Then +knead the dough, let it rise, knead again, place it in greased pans, let +rise, and bake. + +A point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting +removes the bran from graham flour, and if lightness is desired, the +flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced. + +76. Graham Bread With Nuts.--To increase the food value of graham bread, +nuts are sometimes added. This kind of bread also provides an agreeable +variety to the diet. The following recipe is intended to be carried out +by the short process, so that if the long process is desired the +quantity of yeast must be reduced. + +GRAHAM BREAD WITH NUTS +(Sufficient for Two Loaves) + +1 cake compressed yeast +2 c. lukewarm liquid +1/4 c. molasses +2 Tb. fat +1 Tb. salt +2 c. white flour +4 c. graham flour +1-1/2 c. chopped nuts +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with +the molasses, fat, and salt. Add the remaining liquid and the white +flour. Let this sponge rise until it is light. Then stir in the graham +flour, adding the nuts while kneading. Let the dough rise until it +doubles in bulk. Shape into loaves, place it in the greased pans, and +let it rise until it doubles in size. Bake for an hour or more, +according to the size of the loaves. + +77. Whole-Wheat Fruit Bread.--A very delicious whole-wheat bread is +produced by combining fruit, which, besides improving the flavour, adds +to the food value of the bread. Thin slices of this kind of bread spread +with butter make excellent summer sandwiches. If the short process is +employed, the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used, +but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased. + +WHOLE-WHEAT FRUIT BREAD +(Sufficient for Three Small Loaves) + +1 yeast cake +2 c. lukewarm liquid +2 Tb. fat +1/4 c. brown sugar stoned, chopped dates +2 tsp. salt +6 c. whole-wheat flour +1-1/2 c. seeded raisins or stoned, chopped dates +1 c. white flour for kneading + +Dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to +the fat, sugar, and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl. Pour +in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour, +depending on the bread-making method that is followed. Stir in the +fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped +into loaves. After it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans, +proceed with the baking. + +78. BRAN BREAD.--Bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle +lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is +used. However, it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in +the form of bran, and because of this it is a wholesome food. + +BRAN BREAD +(Sufficient for Two Loaves) + +2 c. milk +6 Tb. molasses +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 yeast cake +1/4 c. lukewarm water +2 c. white flour +4 c. graham flour +1 c. sterilized bran +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt. When this is +lukewarm, add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water, as +well as the white flour and 1 cupful of the graham flour. Cover this +mixture and let it rise. When it has risen sufficiently, add the bran +and the rest of the graham flour and knead. Cover this dough, and let it +rise until it doubles in bulk. Then shape it into loaves, place it in +the greased pans, let it rise again until it doubles in bulk, and bake +in a hot oven. + +79. RYE BREAD.--Rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy. +When rye flour is used alone, it makes a moist, sticky bread; therefore, +in order to produce bread of a good texture, wheat flour must be used +with the rye flour. The recipe here given is for the short process of +bread making, but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for +the long process. + +RYE BREAD +(Sufficient for Three Loaves) + +2 Tb. fat +1 Tb. salt +2 Tb. sugar +1 cake compressed yeast +3 c. lukewarm liquid +6 c. rye flour +4 c. white flour +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Into the mixing bowl, put the fat, the salt, the sugar, and the yeast +that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid. Then +stir in the flour, one-half or all of it, according to whether the +sponge or the straight-dough method is followed. When the dough is +formed, allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk; then knead it and +shape it into loaves for the greased pans. When these have risen until +they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven, glaze the +surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put +them in the oven to bake. If desired, caraway seed may be added to the +dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of +each loaf. To many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the +bread that is very satisfactory. + +80. Corn Bread.--Corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to +make corn bread. Such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times +when corn meal is cheap. Bread of this kind is high in food value, +because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat, which is more or +less lacking in white flour. The following recipe is given for the short +process, but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing +the quantity of yeast. + +CORN BREAD +(Sufficient for Two Loaves) + +1 yeast cake +2 c. lukewarm liquid +2 tsp. salt +1 Tb. sugar +2 Tb. fat +4-1/2 c. white flour +2 c. corn meal +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Put the yeast to soak in 1/4 cupful of warm water and let it dissolve. +Heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm, and then add to it the salt, +the sugar, the dissolved yeast, and the melted fat. Make a sponge with +some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk. Then make a +dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour. Knead the dough, let +it rise again, and form it into loaves. Let these rise in the greased +pans until they double in bulk; then bake about 45 minutes. + +81. Rice Bread.--Very often variety is given to bread by the addition of +rice, which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of +wheat flour. Oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as +rice, and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist +longer than bread in which they are not used. + +RICE BREAD +(Sufficient for Three Loaves) + +1/2 c. uncooked rice +1-1/2 c. water +1 Tb. salt +1 Tb. sugar +1 Tb. fat +1/2 yeast cake +1 c. lukewarm liquid +6 c. white flour +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Steam the rice in a double boiler in 1 and a half cupfuls of water +until it is soft and dry. Add the salt, sugar, and fat, and allow all to +become lukewarm. Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid, and add it +to the rice. Put all in the mixing bowl, stir in 2 cupfuls of flour, and +allow the mixture to become very light. Add the remainder of the flour +and knead lightly. Let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and +knead to reduce the quantity. Place in greased pans. When the loaves +have risen sufficiently, bake for about 50 minutes. + +82. SALT-RISING BREAD.--Recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention +were not made of salt-rising bread. Such bread differs from ordinary +bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of +bacteria. Salt-rising bread is not universally popular, yet many persons +are fond of it. Its taste is very agreeable, and, as a rule, its texture +is excellent; however, it always has an unpleasant odour. The method +given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way +from the usual method of making it. It is very necessary that the first +mixture of corn meal, salt, sugar, and milk be kept at a uniformly warm +temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow. Any failure to make +such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this +precaution rather than to any other cause. + +SALT-RISING BREAD +(Sufficient for Two Loaves) + +1 c. fresh milk +1/4 c. corn meal +1 tsp. salt +2 tsp. sugar +2 c. lukewarm water +7 c. white flour +1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal, salt, and sugar. Allow +this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight, +when it should be light. To this batter add the warm water and enough +flour to make a drop batter. Allow this to stand in a warm place until +it is light; and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a +dough, and knead. Allow this to rise, shape it into loaves, put it in +pans, let it rise again, and bake. + + +RECIPES FOR ROLLS, BUNS, AND BISCUITS + +83. While the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves, it +should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms, such as +rolls, buns, and biscuits. These forms of bread may be made from any of +the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening, sugar, eggs, +fruit, nuts, spices, flavoring, or anything else desirable. Since these +things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough, they +should be added after it has risen at least once. Rolls, buns, and +biscuits may be made in various shapes, as is shown in Fig. 18. To shape +them, the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters, or the +pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped +with the hands. After they are shaped, they should be allowed to rise +until they double in bulk. To give them a glazed appearance, the surface +of each may be brushed before baking with milk, with white of egg and +water, or with sugar and water. Butter is also desirable for this +purpose, as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to +be tough. Rolls, buns, or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a +higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves, +as is indicated in Fig. 4, and only 15 to 20 minutes is needed for +baking them. If such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering +the entire surface, they must be placed far enough apart so that the +edges will not touch when they are baking. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18] + +So that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls, buns, and +biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to +advantage, especially after proficiency in bread making has +been attained. + +84. Parker House Rolls.--Of the various kinds of rolls, perhaps none +meets with greater favor than the so-called Parker House rolls, one of +which is shown at _a_, Fig. 19. Such rolls may be used in almost any +kind of meal, and since they are brushed with butter before they are +baked, they may be served without butter, if desired, in a meal that +includes gravy or fat meat. + +PARKER HOUSE ROLLS +(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls) + +1 cake compressed yeast +1 pt. lukewarm milk +4 Tb. fat +2 Tb. sugar +1 tsp. salt +3 pt. white flour +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Pour the remainder of +the warm milk over the fat, sugar, salt, and dissolved yeast, all of +which should first be put in a mixing bowl. Stir into these ingredients +half of the flour, and beat until smooth. Cover this sponge and let it +rise until it is light. Add the remainder of the flour, and knead until +the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board. Place the dough in +a greased bowl, and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk. Roll the +dough on a molding board until it is about 1/4 inch thick. Then cut the +rolled dough with a round cutter; brush each piece with soft butter; +mark it through the center, as at _b_, Fig. 19, with the dull edge of a +kitchen knife; and fold it over, as at _c_. Place the pieces of dough +thus prepared in shallow pans, about 1 inch apart, and let them rise +until they are light, when each roll will appear like that shown at _d_. +Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. [Illustration: +Fig. 19] + +85. Dinner Rolls.--As their name implies, dinner rolls are an especially +desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner. They should be made +small enough to be dainty, and as an even, brown crust all over the +rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to +prevent them from touching one another, as shown in Fig. 20 (_a_). If +they are placed as in (_b_), that is, close together, only part of the +crust will be brown. When made according to the accompanying recipe, +dinner rolls are very palatable. + +DINNER ROLLS +(Sufficient for 1-1/2 Dozen Rolls) + +1 cake compressed yeast +1 c. lukewarm milk +2 Tb. sugar +2 Tb. fat +1 tsp. salt +3 c. white flour +1 egg white +1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading + +[Illustration: Fig. 20] + +Dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk. Put the sugar, fat, +salt, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl, and pour the remainder of +the milk over these ingredients. Stir half of the flour into this +mixture and allow the sponge to rise. When it is light, add the egg +white, which should first be beaten, and the remainder of the flour, and +then knead the dough. Let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk. Roll +out the dough until it is 1/2 inch thick, and then cut out the rolls +with a small round cutter. Place these in a shallow pan and let them +rise until they are light. Then glaze each one with the white of egg to +which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about +15 minutes. + +86. LUNCHEON ROLLS.--If rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired, +luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted. Since these are +very small, they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be +even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf. For +rolls of this kind, the following recipe will prove satisfactory: + +LUNCHEON ROLLS +(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Rolls) + +1 cake compressed yeast +1-1/4 c. lukewarm milk +2 Tb. sugar +2 Tb. fat +1 tsp. salt +4 c. white flour +1 egg white +1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls. +Shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut, place them in +a shallow pan, spacing them a short distance apart, and let them rise +until they are light. Next, brush the tops of them with melted butter, +and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. + +87. WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS.--Rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so +common as those made of white flour, and for this reason they appeal to +the appetite more than ordinary rolls. Whole-wheat rolls have the same +advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour, and if they are well baked +they have a crust that adds to their palatableness. + +WHOLE-WHEAT ROLLS +(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Rolls) + +1 pt. lukewarm milk +1 cake compressed yeast +1 tsp. salt +3 Tb. sugar +4 Tb. fat +2 c. white flour +4 c. whole-wheat flour +1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Set a sponge with the lukewarm milk, in which are put the yeast cake, +salt, sugar, fat, and white flour. Allow this to become very light, and +then add the whole-wheat flour. Knead this dough and allow it to double +in bulk. Then shape it into rolls, allow them to rise, and bake for 15 +to 20 minutes. + +88. GRAHAM NUT BUNS.--Buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are +not only especially delightful in flavour, but highly nutritious. +Because they are high in food value, they may be served with a light +meal, such as lunch or supper, to add nutrition to it. The recipe here +given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely. + +GRAHAM NUT BUNS +(Sufficient for 3 Dozen Buns) + +1 cake compressed yeast +2 c. lukewarm milk +4 Tb. brown sugar +2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. fat +2-1/2 c. white flour +1 egg +1 c. chopped nuts +3-1/2 c. graham flour +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk. Place the sugar, +salt, fat, and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder +of the warm milk. Stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed +rise. Then add the egg, which should first be beaten, the nuts, and the +graham flour. Knead the dough and shape it into buns. Let these rise and +then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. + +89. NUT OR FRUIT BUNS.--Nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour +provide more mineral salts and bulk, substances in which white flour is +lacking. Buns containing either of these ingredients, therefore, are +especially valuable in the diet. Besides increasing the food value of +the buns, nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable +form of bun. Buns of this kind are made as follows: + +NUT OR FRUIT BUNS +(Sufficient for 2 Dozen Buns) + +4 Tb. sugar +1 Tb. fat +1 tsp. salt +1 cake compressed yeast +1 c. lukewarm milk +3 c. white flour +3/4 c. chopped nuts or raisins +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Add the sugar, fat, and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the +milk. Then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour. +Allow this sponge to rise until it is very light, and then add the +remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins. Knead at once and +form into buns. Let these rise until they are light. Then moisten them +with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven. +Bake for about 15 minutes. + +90. SWEET BUNS.--Persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like +those shown in Fig. 21 and made according to the following recipe very +much to their taste. The sweetening, eggs, and lemon extract used in +this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend +variety to the usual kind of bun. + +SWEET BUNS +(Sufficient for 1-1/3 Dozen Buns) + +1 cake compressed yeast +1 c. lukewarm scalded milk +1/4 c. sugar +2 Tb. fat 1 tsp. +1 tsp. salt +3-1/2 c. white flour +2 eggs +1 tsp. lemon extract +1 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to +the sugar, fat, salt, and remaining milk in the mixing bowl. Stir into +this mixture half of the flour, beat well, and let the sponge rise until +it is light. Add the eggs, which should first be beaten, the lemon +extract, and the remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth. Let +the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls. Allow these to rise, +and then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21] + +91. COFFEE CAKE.--When an especially good kind of biscuit that can be +served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired, coffee cake made +according to the following recipe should be used. Cinnamon sprinkled +over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour, but if more +of this flavour is preferred 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with +the dough. + +COFFEE CAKE +(Sufficient for One Cake) + +1 cake compressed yeast +1/2 c. lukewarm milk +1 Tb. sugar +1/2 tsp. salt +2 c. white flour +1 egg +2 Tb. fat +1/4 c. brown sugar +1/2 c. white flour additional for kneading + +Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt. +Stir in 1 cupful of flour and let the mixture rise. When the sponge is +light, add the beaten egg, the fat and the brown sugar creamed, and the +remaining flour. Knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise +until it is double in bulk. Then roll the dough until it is 1/2 inch +thick, place it in a shallow pan, and let it rise until it is light. +Brush the top with 1 tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with +3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar. Bake 10 to 15 +minutes in a moderately hot oven. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22] + +[Illustration: Fig. 23] + +92. CINNAMON ROLLS.--To make cinnamon rolls, which are preferred by some +persons to coffee cake, use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake +recipe. However, instead of rolling the dough 1/2 inch thick, roll it +1/4 inch thick and brush it with melted butter. Then sprinkle it with 1 +tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1/2 cupful of light-brown sugar, and 1/2 +cupful of chopped raisins. Next, roll this as a jelly roll and cut the +roll into 1/2-inch slices, as shown in Fig. 22. Place these slices +close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light, +as in Fig. 23. Then bake them in a hot oven for about 15 minutes. + + +TOAST + +93. As every one knows, TOAST is sliced bread browned by means of heat. +To make toast is not a difficult process, but a certain amount of care +must be exercised if good results are desired. The slices used for toast +may be cut thick or thin, depending on whether the persons for whom the +toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility +of the toast is to be taken into consideration. If thick slices are used +and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the +surfaces brown, the centre of the slices will remain soft. Toast made of +thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during +the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist. +Such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a +heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that +collects. While toast is usually served in the form of slices, just as +they are cut from the loaf, the pieces may be cut into shapes of various +kinds; in fact, toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual +shapes. The crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on, as desired. + +94. If the best results are desired in the making of toast, considerable +attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast. +Whatever kind is employed, it should be steady and without flame. Before +a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose, it should be allowed to +burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to +reflect the heat for toasting. If a gas toaster is used, the gas should +be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly. Very good +results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster, also. This +device has become a rather common household article where electricity is +used in the home, and by means of it the toast can be made on the table +and served while it is fresh and hot. In whatever way toast is made, it +will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is +fresh and before it loses its heat. If toast becomes burned, either from +a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person +who is preparing it, it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly +with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater, so as to remove the +burned portion. + +95. MILK TOAST.--Milk and toast make a combination that is liked by +many persons, and when these two foods are combined the result is known +as milk toast. To make milk toast, simply pour over the toast rich milk +that has been heated and seasoned with salt, a little sugar, and a +little butter. Thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose +if desired. + +96. FRENCH TOAST.--Possibly no dish in which toast is used is better +known than the so-called French toast. Both milk and egg are used in +making this dish, and these of course add to the food value of the +bread. French toast made according to the following recipe will prove +very satisfactory. + +FRENCH TOAST +(Sufficient to Serve Eight) + +1 egg +1 c. milk +2 tsp. sugar +8 slices of bread +1/2 tsp. salt + +Beat the egg and add it to the milk, salt, and sugar. Dip each slice of +bread into this liquid, turn it quickly, and then remove it. Place the +bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and sauté it until the under side +is brown; then turn it and brown the other side. Serve hot with sirup +or jelly. + + +LEFT-OVER BREAD + +97. Bread that has become stale need not be wasted, for there are many +uses to which it may be put. As such bread has lost much of its +moisture, it is desirable for toast, for it browns more quickly and +makes crisper toast than fresh bread. Thick slices of it may also be cut +into cubes or long, narrow strips and then toasted on all sides, to be +served with soup instead of crackers. Still another use that can be made +of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to +be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats, eggs, and +various entrées. Left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used +for these purposes. + +98. The ends of loaves, crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches, +or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have +been mentioned can also be utilised, so none of them need be thrown +away. If such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the +warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot, they may be broken into +crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a +rolling pin. After the crumbs are obtained, they should be put through a +coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones. +Such crumbs, both coarse and fine, may be kept for some time if they are +put into jars or cans. + +It is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand, for +there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form. +For instance, bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes; +for making puddings, such as bread pudding, brown Betty, etc.; for +stuffing fish, fowl, and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers; for +covering the top of baked dishes, such as various egg and cheese dishes; +for breading steaks and chops; and for covering croquettes or oysters +that are to be fried. They may also be added to muffins, griddle cakes, +and even yeast-bread dough. With so many uses to which bread crumbs can +be put, no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps +of bread that are not, for some reason, suitable for the table. + + * * * * * + +BREAD + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) Mention the ingredients required for bread making. + +(2) From what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made? + +(3) (_a_) What is gluten? (_b_) Why is it necessary for the making of +bread? + +(4) (_a_) What is meant by a blend flour? (_b_) When is its use indicated? + +(5) How may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it? + +(6) (_a_) What is yeast? (_b_) What things are necessary for its growth? +(_c_) What temperature is best for its growth? + +(7) (_a_) What is produced by the growth of yeast? (_b_) What part does +this play in bread making? + +(8) What determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making? + +(9) (_a_) What will hasten the bread-making process? (_b_) What will retard +it? + +(10) Give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for +making a loaf of bread. + +(11) What are the advantages of: (_a_) the long process of bread making? +(_b_) the quick process? + +(12) What is: (_a_) a sponge? (_b_) a dough? + +(13) (_a_) Why must bread dough be kneaded? (_b_) How is it possible to +tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently? + +(14) At what temperature should bread be kneaded? + +(15) How should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven? + +(16) What points are considered in the scoring of bread? + +(17) What part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer? + +(18) What are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking +rolls and bread? + +(19) Mention briefly the procedure in making rolls, buns, and biscuits. + +(20) Score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you +have scored it. + + * * * * * + + + +HOT BREADS + + * * * * * + +REQUIREMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR MAKING HOT BREADS + +HOT BREADS IN THE DIET + +1. Closely related to yeast breads, or those in which yeast is used as +the leavening agent, are breads known as HOT BREADS, or QUICK BREADS. As +these names indicate, such breads are prepared in a very short time and +are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot. Hot breads, to +call such breads by the name in common use, are made by baking a batter +or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour, liquid, salt, and a leavening +agent. The nature of the mixture, however, is governed by the proportion +of flour and liquid, the two ingredients that form the basis of all +bread mixtures; and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs, +sugar, shortening, flavouring, fruits, nuts, etc. there may be produced +an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads, which include +popovers, griddle cakes, waffles, muffins, soft gingerbread, corn cake +or corn bread, Boston brown bread, nut loaf, and baking-powder and +beaten biscuit. Because of the variety these hot breads afford, they +help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals. In fact, the +housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their +use has become almost universal. As is well known, however, certain +kinds are typical of certain localities; for instance, beaten biscuit +and hoe cake are characteristic of the Southern States of the United +States, while Boston brown bread is used most extensively in the New +England States and throughout the East. The popular opinion of most +persons is that hot breads are injurious. It is perhaps true that they +may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive +disturbance, but, at any rate, the harmful effect may be reduced to a +minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods. + + +PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOT BREADS + +2. Hot breads are quickly and easily made, but in this part of cookery, +as in every other phase of it, certain principles must be understood and +applied if the most satisfactory results are desired. These principles +pertain chiefly to the ingredients used, the way in which they are +measured and handled, the proportions in which they are combined, the +necessary utensils, and the proper baking of the mixtures that +are formed. + +In the first place, the quality of the ingredients should be carefully +considered, because on this depends the quality of the finished product. +No one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of +inferior materials. Next, the proportion of the ingredients demands +attention, for much importance is attached to this point. For instance, +in making a certain kind of hot bread, the quantity of flour to be used +is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired, and the quantity +of flour governs, in turn, the quantities of liquid, leavening, and +other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture. When the +proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known, it is +necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately. Leavening +material, for example, will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in +measuring. A definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite +amount of work. Therefore, if too little or too much is used, +unsatisfactory results may be expected; and, as with this ingredient, so +it is with all the materials used for hot breads. + +The handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence +on the success with which hot breads are produced. A heavy touch and +excessive handling, both of which are usually characteristic of the +beginner, are more likely to result in a tough product than is the +light, careful handling of the expert. However, as skill in this matter +comes with practice, no discouragement need result if successful results +are not forthcoming at the very start in this work. A good rule to +follow in this particular, and one that has few exceptions, is to handle +and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly. + +In addition to the matters just mentioned, the utensils in which to +combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of +importance. While none of these is complicated, each must be of the +right kind if the best results are expected. The final point to which +attention must be given is the baking of this food. Proper baking +requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is +to be used, accuracy in judging temperature, and a knowledge of the +principles underlying the process of baking. + + * * * * * + +LEAVENING AGENTS + +CLASSES OF LEAVENING AGENTS + +3. As has been pointed out, the ingredients that are actually required +in the making of hot breads are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening, and +to give variety to breads of this kind, numerous other materials, +including sugar, shortening, eggs, fruit, nuts, etc., are often added. +With the exception of leavening agents, none of these ingredients +requires special attention at present; however, the instruction that is +given in _Bread_ regarding flour should be kept in mind, as should also +the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best +quality that can be obtained. + +As is known by this time, leavening agents are the materials used to +leaven, or make light, any kind of flour mixture. These agents are of +three classes, namely, _organic, physical_, and _chemical_. The organic +agent is the oldest recognized leavening material, it being the one that +is used in the making of yeast breads; but as a complete discussion of +this class of leavening agents is given in _Bread_ and as it is not +employed in the making of hot breads, no consideration need be given to +it here. Physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air +into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam, and chemical +leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that +have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures. + + +PHYSICAL LEAVENING + +4. PHYSICAL LEAVENING consists in aerating, or incorporating gas or air +into, a mixture that is to be baked, and it is based on the principle +that air or gas expands, or increases in volume, when heated. It is +definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then +heated, the air increases 1/273 of its own volume for each degree that +the temperature is increased. For instance, if the temperature of an +aerated mixture is 65 degrees Fahrenheit when it is put into the oven, +the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached +338 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, the success of aerated bread depends to +some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the +oven. The colder it is at that time, the greater is the number of +degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked, and the +more opportunity will the gas have to expand. + +5. The air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a +mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself, or by folding +beaten egg whites into it. If the mixture is thin enough, the beating +may be done with a spoon or an egg beater; but if it is thick enough to +be handled on a board, air may be incorporated into it by rolling and +folding it repeatedly. If eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or +dough, the entire egg may be beaten and then added, but as more air can +be incorporated into the egg whites, the yolks and whites are usually +beaten separately. To make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this +purpose, it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well, but not +until it becomes dry and begins to break up. In adding the beaten egg +white, it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after +all the other ingredients have been combined. Beaten egg white may be +used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be +folded in. + +6. To insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by +means of physical leavening agents, certain precautions must be taken. +Such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is +done, so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is +baked. Likewise, they should be handled as lightly and quickly as +possible, for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of +imperfect results. For baking aerated mixtures, heavy irons are better +than tin muffin pans; also, the pans that are used should be heated +before the mixture is put into them, so that the batter or dough will +begin to expand immediately. Gem irons should be filled level with an +aerated mixture. + + +CHEMICAL LEAVENING + +7. CHEMICAL LEAVENING is brought about by the action of gas produced by +an acid and an alkali. All chemical leavening agents are Similar in +their action, and they are composed of an acid and an alkali. When an +acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and +heat, the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide, a gas that +expands on being heated, just as all other gases do. In expanding, the +gas pushes up the batters or doughs, and these, when baked, set, or +harden, into porous shapes. In addition to forming the gas, the acid and +the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread, and it is this salt +that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to +chemical leavening agents. + +8. The first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives +themselves. They consisted of a combination of saleratus, an alkali made +from wood ashes, and sour milk or molasses. The results obtained were +more or less satisfactory, but never entirely accurate or certain. Later +on, chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid +in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent +in the form of baking powder. The discovery of baking powder, however, +has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical +leavening agents, for soda is still combined with sour milk, molasses, +and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads. Therefore, so +that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may +be obtained, a discussion of each is here given. + +9. SODA AND SOUR MILK.--When soda is used with sour milk for leavening +purposes, the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to +produce gas. However, these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not +make an absolutely accurate leavening agent, because the quantity of +acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has +taken place. For example, sour milk 48 hours old contains more acid than +sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only 24 +hours old. + +The proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters +and doughs for hot breads is _1 level teaspoonful of soda to 1 pint of +sour milk._ So as to derive the best results in using these chemical +leavening agents, it will be well to observe that if they are mixed +together in a cup the milk will bubble and may, provided the quantity is +sufficient, run over. These bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed +when the acid and soda meet, and when they break gas escapes, with the +result that some of it is lost. Formerly, it was the custom to mix these +leavening substances in this way, and then to add them to the other +ingredients. Now, however, in order that all gas produced may be kept in +the dough mixture, the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and +the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients. + +10. A point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be +substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for +these ingredients by using _1 teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour +milk_. This information should prove valuable to the housewife, +especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not +be wasted. Occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are +required in the same recipe, but this occurs only when an insufficient +amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified. + +11. SODA AND MOLASSES.--Although molasses, which is a product of sugar +cane, is sweet, it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation +that continually occurs in it, an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles +that may be seen in molasses, especially when it is kept in a warm +place. Because of the presence of this acid, molasses may be used with +soda to form a chemical leavening agent, and when they are combined in +hot breads or cake, the chemical action of the two produces carbon +dioxide. However, accurate results cannot always be obtained when these +ingredients are used, for the degree of acidity in molasses is as +uncertain as it is in sour milk. Molasses that is old or has been kept +in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been +manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard +fermentation. + +The proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot +breads and cakes is _1 teaspoonful of soda to 1 cupful of molasses_, or +just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk. +To produce the best results, the molasses should be mixed with the +liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones. As molasses +burns very quickly in a hot oven, all breads or cakes containing it as +an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature. + +12. SODA AND CREAM OF TARTAR.--Some housewives are inclined to use soda +and cream of tartar for leavening purposes; but there is really no +advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained, for some +baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce +the same result. In fact, the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of +tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture +of baking powder. Nevertheless, if their use is preferred, they should +be measured in the proportion of _twice as much cream of tartar as +soda._ As in the case of soda alone, these leavening agents should be +sifted with the dry ingredients. A small quantity of cream of tartar is +used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake, in which egg +white alone is used to make the mixture light. The addition of the cream +of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds +up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently. + +13. BAKING POWDER.--Without doubt, baking powder is the most +satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents. It comes in three +varieties, but they are all similar in composition, for each contains an +alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind, as well as a filler +of starch, which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting +upon each other. When moisture is added to baking powder, chemical +action sets in, but it is not very rapid, as is apparent when a cake or +a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking. The bubbles of gas +that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is +stirred after it has stood for a short time. When both moisture and heat +are applied to baking powder, however, the chemical action that takes +place is more rapid, and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot +breads and cake. + +14. The price of the different kinds of baking powder, which usually +varies from 10 cents to 50 cents a pound, is generally an indication of +the ingredients that they contain. Powders that sell for 40 to 50 cents +a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid, the high price of +this substance accounting for the price of the powder. Powders that may +be purchased for 30 to 40 cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate +of lime, and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar, a +baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less. The +cheapest grade of powders, or those which sell for 10 to 25 cents a +pound, have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum. Still other +powders that are sometimes made up to sell for 20 to 30 cents a pound +contain a mixture of phosphate and alum. + +15. As baking powders vary in price, so do they vary in their keeping +qualities, their effectiveness, and their tendency toward being +injurious. Most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the +cream-of-tartar powders, and the longer they are kept, the less +effective do they become. The powders that contain phosphate yield more +gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties. Much +controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking +powder and their effects on the digestive tract, but authorities have +not yet agreed on this matter. However, if foods made with the aid of +baking powders are not used excessively, no concern need be felt as to +their injurious effect. The housewife in her choice of baking powder +should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she +is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of +the different varieties. She may easily become familiar with the +composition of baking powder, for a statement of what substances each +kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety. This +information is invaluable to the housewife, as it will assist her +considerably in making a selection. + +16. The proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is +regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not, as is the case with +soda and molasses or sour milk, by the quantity of liquid, the usual +proportion being _2 level teaspoonfuls to 1 cupful of flour_. Sometimes +this proportion is decreased, 6 or 7 teaspoonfuls being used instead of +8 to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds +of baked foods. In adding baking powder to a mixture, as in adding other +dry leavening agents, it should be sifted with flour and the other dry +ingredients. + +17. Although baking powder may be purchased at various prices, a good +grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less +than that which can be bought ready made. For these reasons, many +housewives prefer to make their own. The following recipe tells how to +make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory: + +RECIPE FOR BAKING POWDER + +1/2 lb. cream of tartar +1/4 lb. bicarbonate of soda +1/4 lb. corn starch + +Weigh all the ingredients accurately. If the cream of tartar and the +bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist, it will be +better for him to weigh them than for the housewife, as he uses scales +that weigh accurately. After all the ingredients are weighed, mix them +together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them +well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed. The +baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be +rendered air-tight by means of a lid, or cover. + + * * * * * + +HOT-BREAD UTENSILS AND THEIR USE + +PURPOSE OF UTENSILS + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +18. The utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two +kinds: those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form +the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked. As soon as it +is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot +bread that is to be made, they, together with the necessary ingredients, +such as milk, fat, flour, baking powder, salt, eggs, etc., should be +collected and arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 1, so that they will +be convenient. Usually, much of the success of hot breads depends on the +quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together, and +if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then +to get out a utensil, she will find that her results will not be so +satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really +demands. The pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular +attention, for they should be greased and ready to fill before the +mixing is begun. If they are to be heated, they should be greased and +put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put +into them, so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once. + + +UTENSILS FOR PREPARING THE MIXTURE + +19. Fig. 1 serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for +preparing hot-bread mixtures. These consist of a bowl _a_ of the proper +size for mixing; a smaller bowl _b_ for beating eggs, provided eggs are +to be used; two standard half-pint measuring cups _c_, one for dry +ingredients and the other for wet ingredients; a tablespoon _d_, a case +knife _e_, and a teaspoon _f_ for measuring and mixing; an egg beater +_g_ and a flour sifter. Of course, if an egg whip is preferred, it may +take the place of the egg beater, but for some hot-bread mixtures use +will be found for both of these utensils. + + +UTENSILS FOR BAKING THE MIXTURE + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +20. The kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures +depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to +be prepared. For popovers, popover cups similar to those shown in Fig. 2 +or gem irons are necessary. Muffins require muffin pans like those +illustrated at _h_, Fig. 1; Boston brown breads need cans that have +tight-fitting lids; soft ginger bread, nut loaf, and corn cake are baked +in loaf pans; baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow +pans or on oiled sheets; griddle cakes must be baked on griddles; and +waffles require waffle irons. None of these utensils are likely to +present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons, so +in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results +thereby obtained, explanations of them are here given. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +21. GRIDDLES.--A style of griddle in common use is illustrated in Fig. +3, and while it is circular and has a projecting handle, griddles of +different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had. Such +utensils are made of numerous materials, but the most satisfactory ones +are constructed of steel, iron, soapstone, and aluminum. Steel and iron +griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent +the cakes from sticking; for this reason they are less convenient than +soapstone and aluminum griddles, which do not require any grease. + +The size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are +to be served. One that is unusually large, however, should be avoided if +a gas stove is used for cooking, as it is difficult to heat a large +griddle evenly on such a stove, and even a small one must be shifted +frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others. In this +respect, a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other +kinds, for this material conducts the heat evenly over its +entire surface. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +Before a new steel or iron griddle is used, it must be tempered so as to +prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking. If it is not +tempered, much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the +right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty, and +this, of course, will result in wasting considerable food material. +Tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat, +placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven, and then allowing it to +heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the +surface. This same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons +and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such +utensils are desired. + +22. WAFFLE IRONS.--A waffle iron, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5, consists of +two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way +that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as +in Fig. 4 (_a_). These griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may +be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to +the heat. The waffle iron illustrated in Fig. 4, shown closed in view +(_a_) and open in (_b_), is intended for a coal range. In order to use it, +a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set +in the opening, which allows the griddle part to be turned. The waffle +iron shown in Fig. 5 is intended for a gas range. As will be noticed, +the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be +turned. In using a waffle iron of either kind, it should be heated while +the waffle mixture is being prepared; then it should be thoroughly +greased on both sides. No excess fat, however, should be used, as it +will run out when the griddle is turned over. + + * * * * * + +THE MIXTURE + +VARIETIES OF MIXTURES AND GENERAL PROPORTIONS + +23. BATTERS AND DOUGHS.--The mixtures from which hot breads are produced +are of different consistencies, and familiarity with them is necessary +if good results in the making of such breads are desired. This +difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and +liquid used, a small proportion of flour producing a _batter_ and a +large proportion, a _dough_. It will be well to note, however, that some +kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others. +Experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other +ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the +difference in flour, but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery, or +has had very little experience in the handling of foods, must know the +general proportions that are correct under most circumstances. The names +of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are _thin batter_, _thick +batter_, _soft dough_, and _stiff dough_. + +24. A THIN BATTER is one in which the general proportion of liquid and +flour is _1 measure of flour_ to _1 measure of liquid_. Such a batter, +when poured, immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of +thin cream. The most common examples of thin batters are popovers and +griddle cakes. + +A THICK BATTER, which is known as a _drop_, or _muffin_, _batter_, is +one that is made of _2 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of liquid_. A +batter of this kind may be poured, but it will not immediately seek its +own level. Muffins, gems, puddings, and cakes are made of thick batters. + +A SOFT DOUGH is one whose proportions are _3 measures of flour_ and _1 +measure of liquid_. A dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is, +without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid +than of a liquid. Baking-powder biscuits, tea rolls, and certain kinds +of cake are made of this form of dough. + +A STIFF DOUGH is made of _4 measures of flour_ and _1 measure of +liquid_. Such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl, can be handled +with the hands, and will not stick when rolled out on a board. Pie +crust, hard cookies, and beaten biscuit are made of such dough. + +25. APPLYING KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PROPORTIONS. While the general +proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases, +they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are +added. Shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid +required, less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used. +To get the best results from a new recipe, it is always advisable upon +reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to +try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general +proportions to make a successful dish. For instance, if a griddle-cake +recipe calls for 3 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid, the cook who +understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be +would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour. +Likewise, she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that +calls for 2 cupfuls of flour and 1 cupful of liquid would make a dough +that would be too soft to handle. Besides enabling a woman to judge a +recipe, a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind +makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain +recipe without resorting to a cook book, or, in other words, to +originate a recipe. Because of the importance of such an understanding, +attention should always be given to details that will assist in +obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter. + + +PREPARING THE MIXTURE + +26. PRELIMINARY PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS.--Before the mixing of the +ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads +is begun, all that are needed for the recipe selected should be +collected and properly measured. Always sift the flour that is to be +used for this purpose. This is a rule that never varies with regard to +flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent. Then, +to prevent the flour from packing too solidly, measure it by dipping it +into the cup with a spoon. To obtain the proper amount, heap the cup and +then level it with the edge of a knife. Measure with a spoon whatever +dry leavening agent is called for, and be sure that it does not contain +any lumps. If salt, sugar, and spices are to be used, measure them +carefully. Mix the leavening agent, the salt, the sugar, and the other +dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice. +Measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then +leveling it with a knife. Be particular in measuring the liquid, using +neither more nor less than is called for. Regarding this ingredient, it +should always be remembered that when a cupful is required, a half-pint +cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should +be measured with the same exactness. + +27. COMBINING THE INGREDIENTS.--The manner in which a batter or a dough +is mixed is very important, for much of the success of the finished +product depends on the order in which the various steps are +accomplished. Two general methods of combining the ingredients for such +mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed, because +they produce equally good results. + +In one of these methods, the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and +the liquid then added. As eggs are usually considered a liquid +ingredient, they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before +it is mixed with the dry ingredients. However, if eggs are to be used +for leavening, only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients, the +whites being beaten separately and folded in last. + +The other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small +quantity of fat. In this method, all the liquid ingredients, including +the eggs, are first mixed together. Then the dry ingredients are +combined and sifted into the liquid. The fat is melted last and beaten +into the dough mixture. If the mixture to be handled is a stiff one, the +fat should be put in cold, for adding melted fat makes the dough soft +and sticky and therefore difficult to handle. + + +BAKING THE MIXTURE + +28. REGULATING THE OVEN.--When the ingredients have been properly +combined, the mixture is ready to be baked. With the exception of +waffles and griddle cakes, the baking of which is explained in +connection with the recipes, all hot breads are baked in the oven; +therefore, while the mixture is being prepared, the oven should be +properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when +it is time to start the baking. Particular thought should be given to +this matter, for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture +is ready to be baked, it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand +until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven +and run the risk of spoiling the food. To prevent either of these +conditions and to insure success, the fuel, no matter what kind is used, +should be lighted before mixing is begun, so that the oven may be +heating while the mixture is being prepared, unless, as is sometimes the +case, there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume +considerable time. For instance, looking over raisins and cleaning them +or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done +before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is +regulated. + +29. CORRECT OVEN TEMPERATURES.--Quick breads that are to be baked in the +form of loaves require an oven temperature of from 350 to 400 degrees +Fahrenheit. Muffins, biscuits, and the smaller varieties of these breads +need a higher temperature, 425 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit being best. As +they are not so large, the heat has less dough through which to +penetrate, and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly. + +30. DETERMINING AND REGULATING OVEN TEMPERATURE.--Regulating the oven +and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the +housewife of experience, but they are not always easy problems for the +woman who is learning to cook. However, if the untrained and +inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the +results of certain temperatures, she will soon find herself becoming +more successful in this matter. To assist the housewife in this matter, +as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone +or overdone food, many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer, an +indicator, or a thermostat. The thermometer is more likely to be +reliable than the indicator, as it has a column of mercury like that of +any other thermometer and is graduated; also, a certain kind may be +secured that can be used with any sort of oven. The indicator is in the +form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring. This spring +contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven +and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature. The thermostat is +a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven. On a stove +equipped with a thermostat, it is simply necessary to set the device at +the temperature desired. When this temperature is reached, the device +keeps it stationary. + +31. If neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available, the heat of +the oven may be determined in other ways. Some housewives test the oven +with the hand, and while such a test is more or less dependent on +experience, those who use it find it very satisfactory. If the hand can +be held in the oven while 15 is counted slowly, the temperature is that +of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves. An oven +that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the +hand to be held in it while only 10 is counted slowly. Those who do not +test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven +is an accurate way of determining its temperature. Such paper will turn +a delicate brown in 5 minutes in a moderate oven, and a deeper brown in +4 minutes in a hot oven. + +32. PROPER PLACING OF THE MIXTURE IN THE OVEN.--As is pointed out in +_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, the top of the oven is hotter than the +bottom. This truth and the fact that in an oven, as in any other space, +air expands and rises on becoming heated, are points that have much to +do with the baking of quick breads, for these are mixtures that rise +after being placed in the oven. So that they may rise properly, they +should be placed on the bottom first; then, as they become heated, they +will have a tendency to rise as the air does. If the food is placed near +the top first, the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard +its rising. As soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked +sufficiently on the bottom, it should be moved up so that it will brown +on the top. + +33. TESTING THE BAKED MIXTURE.--Recipes for baked dishes usually state +the length of time required to bake them, but such directions cannot +always be depended on, because the temperature of the oven varies at +different times. The best way in which to judge whether the food has +baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable +tests that have been devised for this purpose. + +Probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as +possible into the center of the loaf. The center, rather than some other +part of the loaf, is the place where the testing should be done, because +the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is +therefore the last part to bake. If the toothpick comes out without +particles of dough adhering, the mixture is sufficiently baked in that +place and consequently throughout the loaf. In case the dough sticks to +the toothpick, the baking is not completed and will have to be +continued. Since this is a test that is frequently used, a supply of +toothpicks, preferably round ones, should be kept in a handy place near +the stove. + +Another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form +a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the +finger. If the dent remains, the baking must be continued, but if it +springs back into place, the baking is completed. + + +SERVING HOT BREADS + +34. Hot breads, in contrast with yeast breads, are intended to be eaten +hot, and, to be most satisfactory, should be served as soon as possible +after they are baked. They usually take the place of bread in the meal +for which they are served, but there are various ways of using them +whereby variety is given to them and to the meal. A favorite combination +with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey. If honey +is not available, jam, preserves, or sirup may be substituted to +advantage. A mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or +steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured +over it. The same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be +served with fruit and cream for short cake. For afternoon tea, tiny +muffins and biscuits about the size of a 50-cent piece are very +attractive. Then, too, if they are split and buttered, they may be +served with salad for a light luncheon. + +Hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as +preparing them for the table is concerned. Gingerbread and corn cake are +better if they are broken rather than cut while hot. In case they are +preferred cut, a sharp knife should be employed, and, to obtain slices +that have a good appearance, the knife should be heated and the cutting +done before it cools. Usually, gingerbread is served plain, but the +addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake +that can be used for dessert. + + * * * * * + +RECIPES FOR HOT BREADS + +POPOVER RECIPES + +35. POPOVERS.--A delightful change from the puffs, muffins, and biscuits +that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means +of popovers, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 6. Popovers are not +difficult to make. For them is required a thin batter in equal +proportions of liquid and flour. In giving the method for mixing +popovers, some of the older cook books recommend beating for 5 minutes +just before they are baked, because the lightness was formerly supposed +to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating. It is +possible, however, to make very light popovers with only enough beating +to mix the ingredients thoroughly, and it is now known that the rising +is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture. This +knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy. + +POPOVERS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1 c. flour +1/4 tsp. salt +1 c. milk +1 egg + +Mix the flour, salt, and milk in a bowl, and then drop in the unbeaten +egg. Beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly +smooth and free from lumps. Grease and warm gem irons or popover cups. +Then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter. Bake in a +moderate oven for about 45 minutes or until the popovers can be lifted +from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +36. POPOVERS WITH FRUIT.--Popovers made according to the preceding +recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them. To add the +fruit, cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are +removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce, +marmalade, preserves, jelly, or canned fruit. These may be served either +warm or cold as a breakfast dish, or they may be sprinkled with powdered +sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish. + +37. NUT PUFFS.--An example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of +liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs. In hot breads of this kind, +aeration is used as the leavening agent. In order to assist with the +incorporation of air, the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added; +but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg +white, which is beaten and folded in last. The addition of nuts to a +batter of this kind considerably increases its food value. + +NUT PUFFS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. flour +2 Tb. sugar +1 tsp. salt +1 c. milk +1 egg +1 Tb. fat +1/4 c. chopped nuts + +Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together, and add the milk and beaten +egg yolk. Melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts. Beat the egg +white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully. Fill hot, +well-greased gem irons level full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven +about 20 minutes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7] + +38. WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS.--Puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour +instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made +light by aeration. If desired, graham flour may be substituted for the +whole-wheat flour, but if it is a coarser bread will be the result. This +coarseness, however, does not refer to the texture of the bread, but is +due to the quantity of bran in graham flour. Whole-wheat puffs, as shown +in Fig. 7, are attractive, and besides they possess the valuable food +substances contained in whole-wheat flour, eggs, and milk. + +WHOLE-WHEAT PUFFS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. whole-wheat flour +2 Tb. sugar +1 tsp. salt +1 c. milk +1 egg +1 Tb. fat + +Sift the flour, sugar, and salt together and add the milk and the egg +yolk, which should be well beaten. Melt the fat and stir it into the +batter. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it in carefully. Heat +well-greased gem irons, fill them level full with the mixture, and bake +in a hot oven for about 20 minutes. + + +GRIDDLE-CAKE RECIPES + +39. PROCEDURE IN BAKING GRIDDLE CAKES.--During the preparation of the +batter for griddle cakes, have the griddle heating, so that it will be +sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked. Each time, before +the baking is begun, grease the griddle, provided it is the kind that +requires greasing, by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small +cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease. In greasing the +griddle, see that there is no excess of grease, as this burns and +produces smoke. + +When the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it +is put on, the baking may be started. Pour the batter on the griddle +from the tip of a large spoon, so that the cakes will form as nearly +round as possible. When the top surface is full of bubbles, turn the +cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner, and allow them to brown on the +other side. By the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both +sides, they should be cooked through and ready to serve. If they brown +before they have had time to cook through, the griddle is too hot and +should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by +reducing the heat. A very important point to remember in the baking of +griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice, as this has a +tendency to make them heavy. + +40. GRIDDLE CAKES.--As is generally known, griddle cakes are thin +batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent. Eggs are +often used in such batters, but it is possible to make very excellent +griddle cakes without the use of any eggs. It should also be remembered +that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and +less palatable than if none is used. The kind of flour used for griddle +cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them. +If, when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle, the batter seems +to be either too thick or too thin, liquid or flour may be added to +dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency. For +instance, if bread flour is used, more liquid may be needed, and if +pastry flour is used, more flour may be required. + +GRIDDLE CAKES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 c. flour +5 tsp. baking powder +1 tsp. salt +1/4 c. sugar +1 egg +2-1/4 c. milk +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar. Beat the +egg, add to it the milk, and pour this liquid slowly into the dry +ingredients. Beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted +fat. Bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the +batter is mixed. + +41. SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES.--Very delicious griddle cakes may be made +by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of +sweet milk and baking powder. Besides being particularly appetising, +such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured. There is +very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one +calling for sweet milk, except that sour milk, which is a trifle +thicker in consistency than sweet milk, requires less flour to thicken +the mixture. + +SOUR-MILK GRIDDLE CAKES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2-1/2 c. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +2 Tb. sugar +1 tsp. soda +2 c. sour milk (not thick) +1 egg + +Mix and sift the flour, salt, sugar, and soda. Add to these the sour +milk and the egg well beaten. If the milk is thick, the quantity +should be increased accordingly. Beat the mixture thoroughly and +bake at once on a hot griddle. + +42. CORN GRIDDLE CAKES.--The addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake +mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor. +Where corn meal is cheap, it is an economical ingredient to use in +griddle cakes and other hot breads. + +CORN GRIDDLE CAKES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 c. corn meal +1-1/2 c. boiling water +2 c. milk +2 c. flour +5 tsp. baking powder +1-1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 c. sugar +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Add the corn meal to the boiling water, boil 5 minutes, and turn into a +bowl. Then add the milk. Next, mix and sift the flour, baking powder, +salt, and sugar, and stir them into the first mixture. Beat the egg and +add to the whole. Finally, stir in the melted fat. Bake on a +hot griddle. + +43. RICE GRIDDLE CAKES.--If a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that +are used for breakfast is desired, rice griddle cakes should be tried. +Besides lending variety, the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture +helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another +purpose. Steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken +up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter, so that the grains of +rice will not stick together in chunks. + +RICE GRIDDLE CAKES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2-1/2 c. flour +5 tsp. baking powder +1/4 c. sugar +1/2 tsp. salt +1/2 c. cold cooked rice +1 egg +1-1/2 c. milk +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Work the rice +into the dry ingredients. Add the egg, well beaten, the milk, and the +melted fat. Bake on a hot griddle. + +44. BUCKWHEAT CAKES.--Buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more +than for any other purpose. When used in this way it has a very typical +flavor that most people find very agreeable. Many prepared buckwheat +flours, to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent +necessary to raise the mixture, are on the market for the convenience of +those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home. As a rule, these +contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour. To make cakes from +these flours, add the required amount of liquid, either milk or water, +and a little sugar, if necessary, and then proceed to bake them on a +griddle. While there is no objection to the use of such flours if they +are found agreeable, it is more expensive to use them than to make up +the buckwheat mixture at home. A recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves +very satisfactory is the following: + +BUCKWHEAT CAKES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. scalded milk +1/2 c. fine bread crumbs +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 yeast cake +3/4 c. lukewarm water +1-1/2 c. buckwheat flour +1/2 c. white flour +1 Tb. molasses +1/4 tsp. soda + +Pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt. Dissolve +the yeast cake in 1/2 cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the +bread crumbs and milk. Stir in the buckwheat and the white flour, and +let the mixture rise overnight. In the morning, stir it well and add the +molasses, the soda, and 1/4 cupful of lukewarm water. Bake on a +hot griddle. + +If cakes are to be baked the next day, retain 1/2 cupful of the batter, +to which may be added flour, milk, salt, and molasses. By doing this +each day, a starter may be had for a long period of time. If a strong +buckwheat flavor is desired, use all buckwheat flour, but if only a +slight buckwheat flavor is desired, make the proportion of wheat flour +greater and that of the buckwheat smaller. + + +WAFFLE RECIPES + +45. PROCEDURE IN BAKING WAFFLES.--The procedure in making waffles is +very similar to that in making griddle cakes. While the waffle mixture +is being prepared, heat the waffle iron. Then grease it thoroughly on +both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat, being +careful that there is no excess fat, as it will run out when the iron is +turned over. With the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot, place +several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron. By so +doing, the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface. In +pouring the batter, do not cover the entire surface of the iron with +batter nor place any near the outside edge, for it is liable to run out +when the iron is closed. In case this happens, be sure to put in less +batter the next time. Allow the waffle to brown on the side near the +fire and then turn the iron, so as to brown the other side. When the +waffle is sufficiently brown, remove it; then grease the iron and repeat +the process. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +46. WAFFLES.--The form of hot bread known as waffles, which are +illustrated in Fig. 8, offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to +add variety to meals. Practically no one dislikes waffles, and they are +especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with +sirup. They are often served with chicken or other gravy. + +WAFFLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. flour +3 tsp. baking powder +1/2 tsp. salt +2 eggs +1-2/3 c. milk +2 Tb. melted fat + +Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together. Beat the yolks and +whites of the eggs separately. Add the beaten yolks and the milk to the +dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg whites +stiff and fold them into the batter. Bake according to the directions +given in Art. 45. + +47. RICE WAFFLES.--Rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing +left-over rice. Such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the +waffles just mentioned. In working the cooked rice into the dry +ingredients, use should be made of a light motion that will not crush +the grains, but will separate them from one another. Left-over cereals +other than rice may also be used in this way. + +RICE WAFFLES +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-3/4 c. flour +2 Tb. sugar +1/2 tsp. baking powder +1/2 tsp. salt +2/3 c. cooked rice +1-1/2 c. milk +1 egg +1 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work +the rice into the dry ingredients. Add the milk and the well-beaten yolk +of egg. Stir in the melted fat. Beat the egg white stiff, and fold it +into the batter. Bake as previously directed. + + +MUFFIN RECIPES + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + +48. Muffins are examples of thick batters with variations. This form of +hot bread, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 9, may be baked in +a pan like that shown at _h_, Fig. 1, or in individual tins. Just as +other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or +additions to meals, so do muffins, as they are usually relished by +nearly every one. + +49. PLAIN MUFFINS.--Perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain, or +one-egg, muffin, which is illustrated in Fig. 9 and made according to +the accompanying recipe. To a plain-muffin recipe, however, may be added +any kind of fruit, nuts, or other ingredients to give variety of +flavour. Likewise, it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or +baked to be served with a sauce for dessert. If it is made still richer +and sweeter, the result is a simple cake mixture. Any given muffin +recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using +soda instead of baking powder. + +PLAIN MUFFINS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. flour +2 Tb. sugar +1 tsp. salt +4 tsp. baking powder +1 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder, and to these add +the milk and beaten egg. Then stir in the melted fat. Fill well-greased +muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven +for about 20 minutes. + +50. BLUEBERRY MUFFINS.--Muffins containing blueberries can be made +successfully only in blueberry season, but other fruit, as, for example, +dates, may be used in place of the blueberries. Cranberries are often +used in muffins, but to many persons they are not agreeable because of +the excessive amount of acid they contain. + +BLUEBERRY MUFFINS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +3 Tb. fat +1/3 c. sugar +1 egg +1 c. milk +2-1/4 c. flour +1/2 tsp. salt +4 tsp. baking powder +1 c. fresh blueberries + +Cream the fat, and add the sugar gradually. Then stir in the beaten egg +and milk. Reserve 1/4 cupful of flour, and mix the remainder with the +salt and the baking powder. Stir the dry ingredients into the first +mixture. Next, mix the 1/4 cupful of flour with the berries and fold +them into the batter. Fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds +full of the batter, and bake in a hot oven for about 20 minutes. + +51. DATE MUFFINS.--The recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used +for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries. To prepare the +dates, wash them in warm water, rinse them in cold water, and then dry +them between towels. Cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp +knife, remove the seed, and then cut each date into three or +four pieces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +52. CORN-MEAL MUFFINS.--To many persons, corn-meal muffins, an +illustration of which is shown in Fig. 10, are more agreeable than plain +white-flour muffins. Corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour +and appearance and increases their food value slightly; but perhaps its +chief value lies in the variety that results from its use. + +CORN-MEAL MUFFINS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1/2 c. corn meal +1 c. flour +3 tsp. baking powder +2 Tb. sugar +1/2 tsp. salt +3/4 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Add +to these the milk and the well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted fat. +Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot oven +for about 20 minutes. + +53. GRAHAM MUFFINS.--A pleasing variety in the way of muffins is +produced by using part graham flour, but whole-wheat flour may be +substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred. Sour milk is +used in the recipe here given, but if there is no sour milk in supply, +sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead, with merely the +correct proportion of soda for the molasses. If the taste of molasses is +undesirable, liquid, which may be either sweet or sour milk, may be +substituted for it. It is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one +thing for another in recipes of this kind, and this may be done if the +materials are used in correct proportion. + +GRAHAM MUFFINS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/4 c. graham flour +1 c. white flour +3/4 tsp. soda +1 tsp. salt +1 c. sour milk +1/3 c. molasses +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the graham and the white flour, the soda, and the salt. Put +the bran that sifts out back into the mixture. Add the milk, molasses, +and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients, and then stir in the melted +fat. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a +moderate oven for about 20 minutes. + +54. RICE MUFFINS.--Rice may be combined with white flour in the making +of muffins if variety is desired. As rice used for this purpose is added +hot, it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something +else and only part used for the muffins. Cereals other than rice may be +used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins. + +RICE MUFFINS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2-1/4 c. flour +5 tsp. baking powder +2 Tb. sugar +1/2 tsp. salt +1-1/4 c. milk +1 egg +3/4 c. hot, cooked rice +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt, and to these add +half of the milk and the egg, well beaten. Mix the remaining half of the +milk with the rice and add it to the mixture. Stir in the melted fat +last. Fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake in a hot +oven for about 20 minutes. + +55. BRAN MUFFINS.--The particular value of bran muffins lies in the +laxative quality that they introduce into the diet. In addition, they +will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of +muffins. Bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages, in +the same way as many cereals. + +BRAN MUFFINS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +1-1/2 c. white flour +1/2 tsp. soda +1/2 tsp. baking powder +1 tsp. salt +2 c. bran +1-1/4 c. milk +1/2 c. molasses +1 egg + +Mix and sift the flour, soda, baking powder, and salt. Then add the +bran, the milk, the molasses, and the well-beaten egg. Fill well-greased +muffin pans about two-thirds full, and bake in a moderate oven for about +25 minutes. + + +CORN-CAKE RECIPES + +56. CORN CAKE.--Corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal +foods in America, being at first often made of only corn meal, water, +and salt. These cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long +journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid +transportation. The cakes did not spoil, were not bulky, and contained a +great deal of nutriment, so they made a convenient kind of food for such +purposes and were called _journey cakes._ From this term came the name +_Johnny cake,_ which is often applied to cake of this kind. The +combining of flour, eggs, shortening, and sugar makes a cake that does +not resemble the original very much, but in many localities such cake is +still called Johnny cake. The proportion of corn meal to flour that is +used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake; the +greater the quantity of corn meal, the more the cake will crumble and +break into pieces. The addition of white flour makes the particles of +corn meal adhere, so that most persons consider that white flour +improves the consistency. + +CORN CAKE +(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf) + +3/4 c. yellow corn meal +1-1/4 c. flour +1/4 c. sugar +3/4 tsp. salt +4 tsp. baking powder +1 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Add +the milk and well-beaten egg, and then stir in the melted fat. Pour into +a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about 30 minutes. + +57. SOUTHERN CORN CAKE.--In the preceding recipe for corn cake, more +flour than corn meal is used, but many persons prefer cake of this kind +made with more corn meal than flour. Southern corn cake, which contains +more corn meal and less white flour, proves very satisfactory to such +persons. Therefore, which of these recipes should be used depends on the +taste of those who are to eat the cake. + +SOUTHERN CORN CAKE +(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf) + +1 c. corn meal +1/2 c. flour +3 tsp. baking powder +3/4 tsp. salt +1/4 c. sugar +3/4 c. milk +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift together the corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and +sugar. Add to them the milk and well-beaten egg, and stir in the melted +fat. Pour into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for +about 30 minutes. + +58. Molasses Corn Cake.--Molasses corn cake, just as its name indicates, +is corn cake containing molasses. To those who find the taste of +molasses agreeable, this recipe will appeal. Others not so fond of +molasses will, without doubt, prefer the plain corn cake. Besides adding +flavour, the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product. + +MOLASSES CORN CAKE +(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf) + +1 c. corn meal +3/4 c. flour +3-1/2 tsp. baking powder +1 tsp. salt +3/4 c. milk +1/4 c. molasses +1 egg +2 Tb. melted fat + +Mix and sift the corn meal, flour, baking powder, and salt. Add the +milk, molasses, and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat. Pour +into a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about +30 minutes. + +BISCUIT RECIPES + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +59. Baking-Powder Biscuits.--The ability of the housewife as a cook is +very often judged by the biscuits she makes; but they are really very +simple to make, and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements +are made accurately, only a little experience is required to produce +excellent ones. The principal requirement in making baking-powder +biscuits, which are illustrated in Fig. 11, is that all the ingredients +be kept as cold as possible during the mixing. Tiny, thin biscuits may +be split, buttered, and served with tea, while larger ones may be served +with breakfast or luncheon. In order to utilise left-over biscuits of +this kind, they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling +water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry. + +BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. flour +1 tsp. salt +4 tsp. baking powder +2 Tb. fat +3/4 c. milk + +Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder. Chop the fat into the +dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas. Pour +the milk into the dry ingredients, and mix them just enough to take up +the liquid. Make the mixture as moist as possible, and still have it in +good condition to handle. Then sprinkle flour on a molding board, and +lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + + +HOT BREADS + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +Sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is +about 1 inch thick. Cut the dough with a biscuit cutter, and place the +biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans. If a crusty +surface is desired, place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about +an inch apart; but if thick, soft biscuits are preferred, place them so +that the edges touch. Bake 18 to 20 minutes in a hot oven. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.] + +60. EMERGENCY BISCUITS.--As shown in Fig. 12, emergency biscuits +resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits, and so they should, +because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for +emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the +dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands. When the dough is of +this consistency, drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans, as in Fig. 13, +or on baking sheets. Then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for 18 to +20 minutes. + +61. PINWHEEL BISCUITS.--To create variety, a baking-powder biscuit +mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits, a kind of hot bread that is +always pleasing to children. Such biscuits, which are illustrated in +Fig. 14, differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used, +cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with +baking powder. + +PINWHEEL BISCUITS +(Sufficient to Serve Six) + +2 c. flour +1 tsp. salt +4 tsp. baking powder +2 Tb. fat f +3/4 c. milk +2 Tb. butter +1/3 c. sugar +1 Tb. cinnamon +3/4 c. chopped raisins + +To make the dough, combine the ingredients in the same way as for +baking-powder biscuits. Roll it on a well-floured board until it is +about 1/4 inch thick and twice as long as it is wide. Spread the surface +with the 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Mix the sugar and cinnamon and +sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface, and on top of this +sprinkle the chopped raisins. Start with one of the long edges and roll +the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge, as shown in Fig. 15. +Then cut the roll into slices 1 inch thick. Place these slices in a +shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching. Bake in a +hot oven for about 20 minutes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +62. BEATEN BISCUITS.--In Fig. 16 is illustrated a form of hot bread +known as beaten biscuits. Such biscuits are used very extensively in the +South; in fact, they are usually considered typical of the South. +Formerly, all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating, +but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a +few times before it is beaten. If this is done, the labor of beating is +lessened considerably, beating for 15 to 20 minutes being sufficient. +When the beating is finished, the texture of the dough should be fine +and close and the surface should be smooth and flat. + +BEATEN BISCUITS +(Sufficient to Serve Twelve) + +1 qt. pastry flour +1 tsp. salt +1/3 c. fat +1 c. milk or water + +Sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat. Moisten with the milk or +water and form into a mass. Toss this on a floured board, and beat it +with a rolling pin for 30 minutes, folding the dough over every few +seconds. Roll the dough 1/3 inch in thickness, form the biscuits by +cutting them out with a small round cutter, and prick each one several +times with a fork. Place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow +pans, and bake them in a moderate oven for 20 to 30 minutes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + + +MISCELLANEOUS HOT-BREAD RECIPES + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +63. SOFT GINGERBREAD.--As a hot bread for breakfast, soft gingerbread +like that illustrated in Fig. 17 is very satisfactory, and with or +without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon. Sweet +milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread, but sour milk +may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may +be used in place of baking powder. If not too much spice is used in a +bread of this kind, it is better for children than rich cake, and, as a +rule, they are very fond of it. + +SOFT GINGERBREAD +(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf) + +2 c. flour +2 tsp. baking powder +1/2 tsp. soda +1/4 c. sugar +1/2 tsp. salt +2 tsp. ginger +1 tsp. cinnamon +1 egg +1/2 c. milk +1/2 c. molasses +1/4 c. butter or other fat + +Mix the flour, baking powder, soda, sugar, salt, and spices. Beat the +egg, add the milk and molasses to it, and stir these into the first +mixture. Melt the fat and stir it into the batter. Pour the batter into +a well-greased loaf pan, and bake in a moderate oven for about 35 +minutes. If preferred, the mixture may be poured into individual muffin +pans and baked in a moderate oven for about 25 minutes. + +64. BOSTON BROWN BREAD.--A hot bread that finds favor with most persons +is Boston brown bread, which is illustrated in Fig. 18. + + +HOT BREADS + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.] + +Such bread, instead of being baked in the oven, is steamed for 3-1/2 +hours. It may be made plain, according to the accompanying recipe, or, +to give it variety, raisins or currants may be added to it. Boston brown +bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can, such as is shown in Fig. +18, in a large baking-powder can, or in a can that is made especially +for this purpose. A regular steaming can for Boston brown bread is, of +course, very convenient, but the other cans mentioned are very +satisfactory. A point to remember in the making of brown bread is that +the time for steaming should never be decreased. Oversteaming will do no +harm, but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the +centre of the loaf. + +BOSTON BROWN BREAD +(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf) + +1 c. white flour +1 c. graham flour +1 c. corn meal +3/4 tsp. soda +2 tsp. baking powder +1 tsp. salt +3/4 c. molasses +1-3/4 c. sweet milk + +Mix and sift the flour, corn meal, soda, baking powder, and salt. Add +the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly. Grease a can and a cover +that fits the can tightly. Fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture +and cover it. Place it in a steamer and steam for 3-1/2 hours. Dry in a +moderate oven for a few minutes before serving. + +65. NUT LOAF.--The use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value +and imparts a very delicious flavour. It is therefore very attractive to +most persons, but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high +price of nuts. Thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very +fine sandwiches, which are especially delicious when served with tea. + +NUT LOAF +(Sufficient for One Medium-Sized Loaf) + +2 c. flour +1/2 c. sugar +4 tsp. baking powder +1 tsp. salt +4 Tb. fat +1 egg +1 c. milk +1/2 c. English walnuts + +Mix and sift the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt, and then work in +the fat. Add the egg, well beaten, and the milk, and then stir in the +nut meats, which should be chopped. Turn into a well-greased loaf pan, +and bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. + + +UTILISING LEFT-OVER HOT BREADS + +66. As a general rule, not much consideration need be given to the +utilising of left-over hot breads, for these are not often baked in +large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for +which they are intended. Still, if any should be left over, they should +never be wasted, for there are various ways in which they may be used. +The small varieties, such as muffins, biscuits, etc, may be freshened so +that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them +into a hot oven for a few minutes. If they are quite stale, they should +be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven. The +moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the +intense heat, with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear +as fresh as they did formerly. If it is not desired to freshen them in +this way, biscuits, muffins, and even pieces of corn bread that have +become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then +toasting them. + + +LUNCHEON MENU + +67. As in the preceding Sections, there is here submitted a menu that +should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers +to the Examination Questions are sent in. This menu is planned to serve +six persons, but, as in the case of the other menus, it may be increased +or decreased to meet requirements. The recipe for macaroni with cheese +and tomatoes may be found in _Cereals,_ and that for baking-powder +biscuit, as well as that for popovers with apple sauce, in this Section. +Recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu. + + +MENU + +Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes +Baking-Powder Biscuit +Jam +Watercress-and-Celery Salad +Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce +Tea + +RECIPES + +WATERCRESS-AND-CELERY SALAD + +Arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress, or, if it is impossible +to obtain this, shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the +leaf and use it instead of the watercress. Dice one or two stems of +celery, depending on the size, and place the diced pieces on top of the +watercress or the lettuce. Pour over each serving about 2 teaspoonfuls +of French dressing made as follows: + +1/2 tsp. salt +1/4 tsp. pepper +1/4 tsp. paprika +6 Tb. oil +2 Tb. vinegar + +Mix the salt, pepper, and paprika, and beat the oil into them until it +forms an emulsion. Add the vinegar gradually, a few drops at a time, and +continue the beating. Pour the dressing over the salad. + + +TEA + +Measure 1 teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served. Scald +the teapot, put the tea into it, and add the required number of cups of +freshly boiling water. Allow it to steep until the desired strength is +obtained. Serve at once, or pour from the leaves, serving cream and +sugar with it if desired. + + * * * * * + +HOT BREADS + +EXAMINATION QUESTIONS + +(1) (_a_) In what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads? (_b_) What +are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs? + +(2) (_a_) What is a leavening agent? (_b_) What is the effect of +leavening agents on batters and doughs? + +(3) (_a_) How is physical leavening accomplished? (_b_) On what does the +success of breads raised by physical leavening depend? + +(4) (_a_) How is chemical leavening brought about? (_b_) What two things +must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening +agent for making a flour mixture light? + +(5) Why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate +leavening agents? + +(6) In making a batter or a dough, how much soda should be used with: +(_a_) each cupful of sour milk? (_b_) each cupful of molasses? + +(7) How should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with +the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture? + +(8) (_a_) In hot-bread batters and doughs, how much baking powder should +be used to 1 cupful of flour? (_b_) How should baking powder be combined +with the other ingredients? + +(9) Mention, in the order they should be carried out, the steps for +making and baking a dough mixture. + +(10) Tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used +for: (_a_) a thin batter; (_b_) a thick batter; (_c_) a soft dough; +(_d_) a stiff dough. + +(11) Give examples of hot breads made from: (_a_) thin batters; (_b_) +thick batters; (_c_) soft doughs; (_d_) stiff doughs. + +(12) What will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and +flour for a batter or a dough? + +(13) Explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients +for hot-bread mixtures. + +(14) What is the approximate temperature for: (_a_) a moderate oven? +(_b_) a hot oven? + +(15) Mention a simple test for: (_a_) a moderate oven; (_b_) a hot +oven. + +(16) How may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not +they are properly baked? + +(17) Why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently? + +(18) (_a_) Why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than +muffins? (_b_) Which should be baked in a moderate oven? + +(19) Why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven? + +(20) Make a recipe for muffins, using 2 cupfuls of flour and sour milk +and soda for liquid and leavening. + +REPORT ON MENU + +After trying out the luncheon menu given in the text, send with your +answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making +out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its +condition by means of the terms specified here. + +Macaroni With Cheese and Tomatoes: cooked sufficiently? properly +flavoured? too much salt? not enough salt? too much liquid? too +little liquid? + +Baking-Powder Biscuit: tender? tough? light? heavy? good texture? poor +texture? sufficiently baked? underdone? overdone? sufficient salt? + +Watercress-and-Celery Salad: appearance attractive? dressing well mixed? +properly seasoned? + +Popovers Filled With Apple Sauce: tender? tough? underdone (this is +observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the +popover cups)? overdone? + +Tea: strong? weak? clear? hot? bitter? + + * * * * * + + + +INDEX + +A + +Abbreviations of measures, +Absorption and digestion of food, + of food, +Abundance of production of cereals, +Acquiring skill in bread making, +Action of yeast, +Adjusting cook-stove dampers, +Agents, Classes of leavening, + Leavening, +Aids, Yeast, +A la, au, and aux, Meaning of terms, + la creole, Meaning of, +Albumin, + Effect of cooking on, +Aluminum cooking utensils, +Anthracite, or hard, coal, +Apple, Composition of, + corer, +Artificial gas, +Ash, or mineral salts, + pan, Coal-stove, + pit, Coal-stove, +Au gratin, Meaning of, + naturel, Meaning of, +Avoirdupois weight, + +B + +Bacon, Composition of, +Bacteria, +Baked hot breads, Testing, + potatoes, +Bakers' flour, +Baking bread, + Distinction between roasting and, + griddle cakes, Procedure in, + Meaning of, + Oven temperature for bread, + powder, + -powder biscuits, +Baking powder, Recipe for, + Purpose of bread, + the hot-bread mixture, + the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for, + Time for bread, + waffles, Procedure in, +Balanced diet, Elements of a, +Banana, Composition of, +Banking a coal fire, +Barley, + Left-over, + Pearl, + Recipes for, + Use and origin of, + with fruit, Pearl, +Batter, Thick, + Thin, +Batters and doughs, +Bean, Composition of dry navy, + Composition of fresh shelled, + Composition of green string, +Beaten biscuits, +Beating of food ingredients, +Béchamel, Meaning of, +Beech wheat, +Beef, Composition of dried, + steak, Composition of, + suet, Composition of, +Biscuit glace, + recipes, +Biscuits, Baking-powder, + Beaten, + Emergency, + rolls, and buns, Recipes for, +Bisque, Meaning of, +Bituminous, or soft, coal, +Blanching foods, +Blend flour, +Blueberry muffins, +Body, Function of water in the, +Boiled coffee, + rice, +Boiler, Cooking cereals in double, +Boiling, + Cooking cereals by, + on foods, Effect of, + point, + rice, + to sterilize water, +Boston brown bread, +Bouchées, Meaning of, +Boudin, Meaning of, +Bouquet of herbs, +Boxes, Window, +Braizing, +Bran bread, + muffins, +Bread, + after baking, Care of, + and cake mixer, + as food, Importance of, + Baking, + Baking hot, + Boston brown, + Bran, + Composition of corn, + Composition of rye, + Composition of toasted, + Composition of whole-wheat, + Convenient equipment for making, + Corn, + Distinction between hot and leavened, + dough, Care of the rising, + dough, Kneading, + dough, Motions used in kneading, + dough, Purpose of kneading, + Graham, + Hot, + ingredients, Quick-process, sponge method of combining, + Leavened, + Left-over, + Long-process, sponge method of making, + making, Acquiring skill in, + making, Combining the ingredients in, + making, Convenient equipment for, + making, Ingredients for, + making, Long process of, + making, Long-process, sponge method of, + making, Long-process, straight-dough method of, + -making materials, Proportion of, + making, Necessary equipment for, + -making processes, + making, Quick process of, + making, Quick-process, sponge method of, + making, Quick-process, straight-dough method of, + -making requirements, + making, Utensils for, + Milk and fat in, + mixer, Use of, + mixers, + mixture, Preparation of hot-, + Object of scoring, + Oven temperature for baking, + Purpose of baking, + Quick, + recipes, + Rice, + Rye, + Salt-rising, + Scoring, + Serving, + sponge, + Utilizing left-over hot, + White, + Whole-wheat, + Whole-wheat fruit, + with nuts, Graham, +Breads, Correct oven temperature for hot, + Distinction between yeast and hot, + General proportions used in hot, + Hot, + in the diet, Hot, + Mixtures used for hot, + Principal requirements for hot, + Purpose of utensils for making hot, + Quick, + Recipes for hot, + Requirements and processes for making hot, + Serving hot, + Varieties of mixtures in hot, +Breakfast food, Composition of cooked oat, + foods, Meaning of, + menu, +Broiling, + Pan, +Brown bread, Boston, +Browned rice, +Browning, or toasting, of cereals, +Buckwheat, + cakes, + Composition of, + Description of, + rye, and millet, +Building a coal fire, +Buns, Fruit or nut, + Graham nut, + Nut or fruit, + rolls, and biscuits, +Buns, Sweet, +Butter, Composition of, + Composition of peanut, +Buttered hominy, + toast, +Buttermilk, Composition of, + +C + +Cabbage salad, + -salad dressing, +Café au lait, Meaning of, + noir, Meaning of, +Cake, Coffee, + Corn, + mixers, + Molasses corn, + Southern corn, +Cakes, Buckwheat, + Corn griddle, + Griddle, + Procedure in baking griddle, + Rice griddle, +Calorie, or calory, Definition of, +Canapés, Meaning of, +Canard, Meaning of, +Candy, Composition of stick, +Canned fruit, Composition of, +Canning of foods, +Capers, Meaning of, +Capon, Meaning of, +Caramel, Meaning of, +Carbohydrates, + Composition of, + Elements in, + in cereals, +Carbon, +Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, gas, +Card, Explanation of score, +Care of bread after baking, + of bread in oven, + of cereals, + of flour, + of food, + of food in refrigerator, + of food, Methods of, + of the refrigerator, + of the rising bread dough, +Carolina rice, +Casein, + Effect of cooking on, +Casserole, Definition of, + Use of, +Celery, Composition of, +Cellars, Storing food in, +Cellulose, Cooking foods containing, + Definition of, + in cereals, + in the diet, Place of, +Cereal flakes, + products, + selection, Factors that govern, + Setting a, +Cereals, + Abundance of production of, + as a food, + Browning, or toasting, of, + by boiling, Cooking, + by dry heat, Cooking, + Carbohydrates in, + Care of, + Cellulose in, + Composition of, + Economic value of, + Fat in, + for the table, Preparation of, + Left-over wheat, + Methods of cooking, + Mineral matter in, + Origin of, + Points to observe in cooking, + Preparation for cooking, + Prepared, or ready-to-eat, + Production of, + Protein in, + Purpose of cooking, + Ready-to-eat, + Selection of, + Serving, + Table showing composition of, + undergo in cooking, Changes, + Uses of, + Water in, +Champignons, Meaning of, +Chartreuse, Meaning of, +Cheese, Composition of cottage, + Composition of cream, +Chemical composition of food, + leavening, +Chestnut coal, + Composition of, +Chiffonade, Meaning of, +Chillies, Meaning of, +Chives, Meaning of, +Chop, Composition of lamb, + Composition of pork, +Chopper, Meat, +Chops, Pan-broiled, +Chutney, Meaning of, +Cinnamon rolls, +Citron, +Clinkers, +Coal and coke, + Anthracite, or hard, + Bituminous, or soft, + Chestnut, + Egg, + fire, Building a, + fire, Building a, + Pea, + Quality of, +Coal range, + Sizes of, + Stove, + -stove dampers, + -stove firebox, + stove for cooking, General construction of, + -stove grate, + stoves and their operation, + Varieties of, +Cocoa, +Coconut, Composition of, +Cod, Composition of fresh, + Composition of salt, +Coffee, + cake, +Coke, + and coal, +Collops, Meaning of, +Commercial yeast, +Common labor-saving devices, +Composition and varieties of oats, + of apple, + of bacon, + of banana, + of beef steak, + of beef suet, + of buckwheat, + of butter, + of buttermilk, + of canned fruit, + of carbohydrates, + of celery, + of cereals, + of cereals, Table showing, + of chestnut, + of coconut, + of cooked macaroni, + of cooked oat breakfast food, + of corn, + of corn bread, + of cottage cheese, + of cream, + of cream cheese, + of dried beef, + of dried fig, + of dry navy bean, + of egg white and yolk, + of food, Chemical, + of food materials, + of fresh cod, + of fresh shelled bean, + of fruit jelly, + of grape juice, + of grapes, + of green corn, + of green string bean, + of honey, + of Italian pastes, + of lamb chop, + of lard, + of mackerel, + of maple sugar, + of molasses, + of oats, + of olive oil, + of onion, + of oyster, + of parsnip, + of peanut, + of peanut butter, + of pork chop, + of potato, + of raisins, + of rice, + of rye, + of rye bread, + of salt cod, + of skim milk, + of smoked ham, + of smoked herring, + of stick candy, + of strawberry, + of sugar, + of toasted bread, + of walnut, + of wheat, + of white and yolk of egg, + of whole egg, + of whole milk, + of whole wheat bread, +Compote, Meaning of, +Compressed yeast, +Constituents, Food principles, or, +Conveying heat to food, Methods of, +Cooker, Cooking cereals in fireless, + Fireless, +Cookery, Meaning of, + Terms used in, + time table, +Cooking cereals by boiling, + cereals in double boiler, + cereals in fireless cooker, + cereals, Methods of, + cereals, Points to observe in, + cereals, Preparation for, + cereals, Purpose of, + cereals with dry heat, + food, Reasons for, + foods, Importance of, + foods, Table for, + Getting foods ready for, + Heat for, + Methods of, + Methods of using moist heat for, + of food, + processes, + rice, Japanese method of, + rice, Methods of, + Uses of water in, +Cooking utensils, Aluminum, + utensils, Copper, + utensils, Earthenware, + utensils, Enamel, + utensils, Glass, + utensils, Iron and steel, + utensils, Tin, + utensils, Wooden, + with dry heat, + with hot fat, +Copper cooking utensils, +Coquilles, Meaning of, +Corer, Apple, +Corn bread, + bread, Composition of, + cake, + cake, Molasses, + -cake recipes, + cake, Southern, + Composition of, + Composition of green, + Field, + griddle cakes, + Maize, or Indian, + meal, + -meal croquettes, + -meal muffins, + -meal mush, + -meal mush, Left-over, + meal, Recipes for, + Pop, + Sweet, +Cottage cheese, Composition of, +Cracked wheat, +Cream cheese, Composition of, + Composition of, + of tartar and soda, + of wheat, + of wheat with dates, + sauce, +Creamed hominy, + peas, + rice, +Creaming of food ingredients, +Croquettes, Corn-meal, + Rolled-oats, +Croutons, Meaning of, +Cups, Measuring, +Curry, +Custard, Farina, +Cutting-in of food ingredients, + +D + +Dampers, Adjusting cook-stove, + Coal-stove, +Date muffins, +Dates, Cream of wheat with, + Graham mush with, +Demi-tasse, Meaning of, +Deviled, Meaning of, +Dextrine, Formation of, +Diet, Hot breads in the, + Meaning of, + Well-balanced, +Dietetics, Definition of, +Digestion and absorption of food, + of food, +Dill, Meaning of, +Dinner rolls, +Dish-washing machines, +Double boiler, Cooking cereals in, + boiler, Use of, +Dough, Kneading bread, + Making bread, + Motions used in kneading bread, + Soft, + Stiff, +Doughs and batters, +Dressing, Cabbage-salad, +Dried beef, Composition of, + fig, Composition of, +Dry heat, Cooking cereals by, + heat, Cooking with, + measure, + steaming, + yeast, +Drying of foods, + +E + +Earthenware cooking utensils, +Economic value of cereals, +Effect of boiling on foods, +Egg beater, Rotary, + coal, + Composition of white and yolk of, + Composition of whole, + whip, +Eggs, Scrambled, +Electric meter, Reading an, + stoves, + stoves and utensils, +Electricity as a fuel, +Emergency biscuits, +En coquille, Meaning of, +Enamel cooking utensils, +Endosperm, Meaning of, +Entrées, +Equipment for bread making, Convenient, +Escarole, Meaning of, + +F + +Factors that govern cereal selection, +Farce, or forcemeat, Meaning of, +Farina, + custard, + soufflé, +Fat and milk in bread, + Cooking with hot, +Fat in cereals, +Fats, +Ferments, or leavening agents, +Field corn, +Fig, Composition of dried, +Fillet mignons, Meaning of, +Fillets, Meaning of, +Firebox, Coal-stove, +Fireless cooker, + cooker, Cooking cereals in, + -cooking gas stoves, +Flour, + Bakers', + Blend, + Care of, + Graham, + Grains used for, + High-grade patent, + Kinds of, + made from spring or hard wheat, Discussion of, + Milling of wheat, + Quality of, + Red dog, + Rye, + Scouring, + Second-grade patent, + Selection of, + Whole-wheat, +Flue, Coal-stove, + opening of a coal stove, +Fluff, Orange, + Sauce for orange, +Folding of food ingredients, +Fondant, Meaning of, +Fondue, Meaning of, +Food, Absorption of, + Care of, + Cereals as a, + Chemical composition of, + Cooking of, + Definition of, + Digestion and absorption of, + Digestion of, + in cellars, Storing, + ingredients, Beating of, + ingredients, Creaming of, + ingredients, Cutting-in of, + ingredients, Folding of, + ingredients, Mixing of, + ingredients, Processes involved in mixing of, + ingredients, Ricing of, + ingredients, Rubbing of, + ingredients, Sifting of, + ingredients, Stirring of, + Matters involved in right selection of, + Methods of caring for, + or fuel, value, +Food, Preparation of, + principles or constituents, + Problem of, + Reasons for cooking, + Selection of, + substances, + value, +Foods, Blanching, + Canning of, + Drying of, + for cooking, Preparation of, + Importance of cooking, + Importance of variety of, + Meaning of breakfast, + Storing of non-perishable, + Storing of semiperishable, + with ice, Keeping, + without ice, Keeping, +Forcemeat, or farce, Meaning of, +Frappé, Meaning of, +French toast, +Fricasseeing, +Fromage, Meaning of, +Fruit bread, Whole-wheat, + Composition of canned, + jelly, Composition of, + or nut buns, +Frying, +Fuel, Use of coal as a, + Use of coke as a, + Use of electricity as a, + Use of gas as a, + Use of kerosene as a, + value, Food, or, + Value of gas as, +Furnishing a kitchen, Utensils for, + +G + +Gas, + Artificial, + as fuel, Use of, + as fuel, Value of, + Carbonic-acid, or carbon-dioxide, + Measurement of, + meter, + meter, Reading a, + Natural, + ranges, Description of, + stove, Mixer of a, + stove, Pilot of a, + stoves and their operation, + stoves, Fireless-cooking, +General proportions, Applying knowledge of, +Germ, Definition of, +Germs, +Gingerbread, Soft, +Glacé, Biscuit, + Meaning of, +Glass cooking utensils, +Glaze, Meaning of, +Gliadin, +Glucose, +Gluten, +Glutenin, +Goulash, Meaning of, +Graham bread, + bread with nuts, + flour, + muffins, + mush with dates, + nut buns, +Grain for market, Preparation of, + products, Table of, + Structure of wheat, +Grains used for flour, +Grape juice, Composition of, +Grapes, Composition of, +Grate, Coal-stove, +Green corn, Composition of, +Griddle-cake recipes, + cakes, + cakes, Corn, + cakes, Procedure in baking, + cakes, Rice, + cakes, Sour-milk, +Griddles, +Grinder, +Grits, + Hominy, + Wheat, +Gumbo, Meaning of, + +H + +Ham, Composition of smoked, +Hard water, How to soften, +Haricot, Meaning of, +Heat, Cooking cereals with dry, + Cooking with dry, + for cooking, + for cooking, Discussion of, + Methods of cooking with moist, +Herring, Composition of smoked, +High-grade patent flour, +Homard, Meaning of, +Hominy, + and cheese soufflé, + Buttered, + Creamed, + grits, + Left-over, + Recipes for, +Honey, Composition of, +Hors-d'oeuvres, Meaning of, +Hot bread, + bread, Distinction between leavened and, + -bread mixture. Baking the, + -bread mixture, Testing of baked, + -bread mixture, Preparation of, +Hot-bread mixture, Utensils for baking the, + -bread mixture, Utensils for preparing the, + -bread recipes, Miscellaneous, + -bread utensils and their use, + bread, Utilizing left-over, + breads, + breads, Baking of, + breads, Combining ingredients for, + breads, Correct oven temperature for, + breads, Distinction between yeast and, + breads in the diet, + breads, Mixtures used for, + breads, Principal requirements for, + breads, Purpose of utensils for making, + breads, Recipes for, + breads, Regulating the oven for, + breads, Requirements and processes for making, + breads, Serving, + breads, Varieties of mixtures and general, + proportions used in, + fat, Cooking with, +Hotplates, +Hulled, or whole, wheat, + wheat, +Huller, Berry, + +I + +Ice, Keeping foods with, +Indian corn, or maize, +Ingredients, Beating of food, + Combining hot-bread, + Creaming of food, + Cutting-in of food, + Folding of food, + for bread making, + Mixing of food, + Preparation of hot-bread, + Processes involved in mixing food, + Quick-process, sponge method of combining bread, + required for bread making, + Ricing of food, + Rubbing of food, + Sifting of food, + Stirring of food, +Iron and steel cooking utensils, +Irons, Waffle, +Italian pastes, + pastes, Composition of, + pastes, Left-over, + pastes, Preparation of, + pastes, Recipes for, + pastes, Varieties of, +Italiene, Meaning of a la, +Japanese method of cooking rice, + rice, +Jardiniére, Meaning of, +Jelly, Composition of fruit, +Juice, Composition of grape, +Julienne, Meaning of, +Junket, Meaning of, + +K + +Keeping foods with ice, + foods without ice, +Kerosene as a fuel, Use of, + stoves and their operation, +Kilowatt-hours in meter reading, +Kippered, Meaning of, +Kitchen, Utensils for furnishing a, +Kneading bread dough, + bread dough, Motions used in, + bread dough, Purpose of, + +L + +Labour-saving devices, +Lactose, + Occurrence of, +Lamb chop, Composition of, +Lard, Composition of, +Larding, Meaning of, +Lardon, Meaning of, +Leavened bread, +Leavening agents, + agents, Classes of, + agents, or ferments, + Chemical, + Physical, +Left-over barley, + -over bread, + -over corn-meal mush, + -over hominy, + -over hot bread, Utilizing, + -over Italian pastes, + -over rice, + -over rolled oats, + -over wheat cereals, +Legumes, Meaning of, +Lentils, Meaning of, +Liquid measure, + yeast, +Loaf, Nut, +Loaves, Shaping the bread dough into, +Long process of bread making, + process of making white bread, + -process, sponge method of bread making, + -process, straight-dough method of bread making, +Luncheon menu, + rolls, + +M + +Macaroni, + and kidney beans, + Composition of cooked, + Italian style, + with cheese, + with cheese and tomato, + with cream sauce, + with eggs, + with tomato and bacon, +Macédoine, Meaning of, +Machines, Dish-washing, +Mackerel, Composition of, +Maize, +Malt sprouts, +Maple sugar, Composition of, +Marinade, Meaning of, +Marinate, Meaning of, +Market, Preparation of grains for the, +Marrons, Meaning of, +Materials, Proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils, +Matter, Mineral, +Mayonnaise mixer, The, +Meal, + Corn, + Recipes for corn, +Meaning of breakfast foods, +Measure, Dry, + Liquid, +Measurement of gas, +Measures, Abbreviations of, +Measuring, + cups, + Precautions to observe, + spoons, +Meat chopper, + grinder, +Menu, Breakfast, + Luncheon, + Meaning of, +Menus and recipes, +Meringue, Meaning of, +Meter, Gas, + Reading a gas, + Reading an electric, +Meters, Prepayment, +Micro-organisms, +Microbes, +Milk and fat in bread, + Composition of skim, + Composition of whole, + Soda and sour, + toast, +Millet, + buckwheat, and rye, + Description of, +Milling of wheat flour, +Mineral matter, + matter in cereals, + salts, + salts, Purpose of, +Miscellaneous hot-bread recipes, +Mixer, Gas-stove, + Mayonnaise, + Use of the bread, +Mixers, Bread, + Cake, +Mixing of food ingredients, + of food ingredients, Processes involved in, + processes, Application of, +Mixture, Testing baked hot-bread, +Mixtures used for hot breads, +Moist heat, Cooking with, + yeast, +Molasses and soda, + Composition of, + corn cake, +Molds, +Motions used in kneading bread dough, +Mousse, Meaning of, +Muffin recipes, +Muffins, Blueberry, + Bran, + Corn-meal, + Date, + Graham, + Plain, + Rice, +Mush, Corn-meal, + Left-over corn-meal, + Sautéd corn-meal, + with dates, Graham, + +N + +Natural gas, +Navy bean, Composition of dry, +Non-perishable foods, Storing of, +Nougat, Meaning of, +Nut buns, Graham, + loaf, + or fruit buns, + puffs, + +O + +Oat breakfast food, Composition of cooked, + Composition of, +Oatmeal, +Oats, + Composition and varieties of, + Recipes for, + Rolled, + with apples, Rolled, +Olive oil, Composition of, +Onion, Composition of, +Orange fluff, + fluff, Sauce for, +Order of work, +Oriental rice, +Oven, Coal-stove, + for hot breads, Regulating the, + Proper placing of hot-bread mixture in, + temperature, Determining and regulating, + temperature for baking bread, + temperature for hot breads, +Oxygen, +Oyster, Composition of, + +P + +Pan-broiled chops, + broiling, +Paprika, +Parker House rolls, +Parsnip, Composition of, +Pastes, Italian, + Recipes for Italian, +Paté, Meaning of, +Patent flour, High-grade, + flour, Second-grade, +Patties, Rice, +Pea coal, +Peanut butter, Composition of, + Composition of, +Pearl barley, + barley, Description of, + barley with fruit, +Peas, Creamed, + Sauce for, +Physical leavening, +Pilot, Gas-stove, +Pimiento, Meaning of, +Pineapple, Rice with, +Pinwheel biscuits, +Piquante, Meaning of sauce, +Pistachio, Meaning of, +Plain muffins, +Point, Boiling, +Polishings, Rice, +Pop corn, +Popover recipes, + with fruit, +Pork chop, Composition of, +Potage, Meaning of, +Potato, Composition of, + ricer, +Potatoes, Baked, +Powder, Baking, + Recipe for baking, +Precautions to observe in measuring, +Preparation for cooking cereals, + for cooking foods, + of cereals for the table, +Preparation of food, + of grains for the market, + of hot-bread ingredients, + of hot-bread mixture, + of Italian pastes, +Prepared, or ready-to-eat, cereals, +Preparing the hot-bread mixture, Utensils for, +Prepayment meters, +Principle of stoves, +Principles, or constituents, Food, +Problem of food, +Processes and requirements for making hot breads, + Application of mixing, + Bread-making, + Cooking, + involved in mixing food ingredients, +Production of cereals, +Products, Cereal, + Table of grain, +Proportion of bread-making materials, +Proportions, Applying knowledge of general, +Protein, + in cereals, +Puffs, Nut, + Whole-wheat, +Purée, Meaning of, +Purpose, + of baking bread, + of bread rising, + of cooking cereals, + of kneading bread dough, + of utensils for making hot breads, + +Q + +Quality, + of coal, + of flour, + of yeast, +Quick, + bread, Hot or, + breads, + process of combining bread ingredients, + process of making white bread, + process of making whole-wheat bread, + -process, sponge method of combining, + bread ingredients, + -process, straight-dough method of combining, + bread ingredients, + +R + +Ragoût, Meaning of, +Raisins, Composition of, +Ramekin, Meaning of, +Range, Coal, +Ranges, Description of gas, +Reading, + a gas meter, + an electric meter, +Ready, + -to-eat cereals, + -to-eat, or prepared, cereals, +Reasons for cooking food, +Réchauffé, Meaning of, +Recipe, Definition of, +Red-dog flour, +Refrigerator, + Care of food in, + Care of the, +Refrigerators, +Refuse, + Distinction between waste and, + Meaning of, +Relative weights and measures, Tables of, +Requirements, + and processes for making hot breads, + of bread making, +Rice, + Boiled, + Boiling, + bread, + Browned, + Carolina, + Composition of, + Creamed, + griddle cakes, + Japanese, + Japanese method of cooking, + Left-over, + Methods of cooking, + muffins, + Oriental, + patties, + polishings, + Recipes for, + Savory, + Spanish, + Steamed, + Steaming, + Varieties and structure of, + waffles, + with pineapple, +Ricer, Potato, +Ricing of food ingredients, +Rising, + bread dough, Care of the, + Temperature for bread, + Time required for bread, +Rissoles, Meaning of, +Roasting, + Distinction between baking and, + Meaning of, +Rolled, + oats, + -oats croquettes, + -oats jelly with prunes, + oats, Left-over, + oats with apples, +Rolls, + buns and biscuits, Recipes for, + Cinnamon, +Dinner, + Luncheon, + Parker House, + Whole-wheat, +Rotary egg beater, +Roux, Meaning of, +Rubbing of food ingredients, +Rye, + bread, + bread, Composition of, + buckwheat, and millet, + Composition of, + Description of, + flour, + +S + +Salad, Cabbage, + Watercress-and-celery, +Salmi, Meaning of, +Salpicon, Meaning of, +Salt cod, Composition of, + -rising bread, +Salts, Mineral, + Purpose of mineral, +Sauce, Cream, + for orange fluff, + for peas, + piquante, Meaning of, + Meaning of tartare, + Meaning of vinaigrette, +Sautéd corn-meal mush, +Sauteing, +Savoury rice, +Scales, +Score card, Explanation of, +Scoring bread, + bread, Object of, +Scouring of flour, +Scrambled eggs, +Second-grade patent flour, +Selection and care of cereals, + of flour, + of food, +Semiperishable foods, Storing of, +Semolina, +Serving bread, + cereals, + hot breads, +Setting a cereal or grain, +Shallot, Meaning of, +Shaping bread dough into loaves, +Shelled bean, Composition of fresh, +Sifting of food ingredients, +Simmering, or stewing, +Sizes of coal, +Skim milk, Composition of, +Small electric utensils, +Smoked ham, Composition of, + herring, Composition of, +Soda and cream of tartar, +Soda and molasses, + and sour milk, +Soft dough, + gingerbread, +Softening hard water, +Soluble starch, +Sorbet, Meaning of, +Soufflé, Meaning of, + Farina, +Sour milk, Soda and, + -milk griddle cakes, +Southern corn cake, +Soy, Meaning of, +Spaghetti, + with cheese and tomato sauce, +Spanish rice, +Sponge method of making bread, Long-process, + method of making bread, Quick-process, +Spoons, Measuring, +Spring, or hard, wheat, + or hard, wheat, Flour made from, +Sprouts, Malt, +Starch, +Steak, Composition of beef, +Steamed rice, +Steamer, +Steaming, + Dry, + rice, +Steel-and-iron cooking utensils, +Sterilize water, Boiling to, +Sterilizing, +Stewing or simmering, +Stick candy, Composition of, +Stiff dough, +Stirring of food ingredients, +Stock, Meaning of, +Storing food in cellars, + of non-perishable foods, + of semiperishable foods, +Stove ash pan, Coal-, + ash pit, Coal-, + Coal, + dampers, Coal-, + flue opening, Coal-, + oven, Coal-, +Stoves and utensils, Electric, + Fireless-cooking gas, + Operation of kerosene, + Principle of, +Straight-dough method of bread making, + -dough method of bread making, Long-process, + -dough method of bread making, Quick-process, +Strawberry, Composition of, +String bean, Composition of green, +Structure and varieties of rice, + of wheat grain, +Substances, Food, +Suet, Composition of beef, +Sugar, + Composition of, + Composition of maple, +Sultanas, Meaning of, +Sweet buns, + corn, + +T + +Table, Cookery time, + of grain products, + showing composition of cereals, +Tables of relative weights and measures, + of weights and measures, +Tarragon, Meaning of, +Tartare sauce, Meaning of, +Temperature, Determining and regulating oven, + for bread rising, + for hot breads, Correct oven, +Terms used in cookery, +Testing baked hot-bread mixture, +Thick batter, +Thin batter, +Timbale, Meaning of, +Time for baking and care of bread in oven, + required for bread rising, + table, Cookery, +Tin cooking utensils, +Toast, + Buttered, + French, + Milk, +Toasted Bread, Composition of, +Toasting, +Troy weight, +Truffles, Meaning of, + +U + +Utensils, Aluminum cooking, + and their use, Hot-bread, + Copper cooking, + Earthenware cooking, + Enamel cooking, + for baking the hot-bread mixture, + for bread making, + for cooking, + for furnishing a kitchen, + for preparing hot-bread mixture, + Glass cooking, + Importance of, + Iron and steel cooking, + Materials used for, + Small electric, + Tin cooking, + Wooden cooking, + +V + +Value, Food, + Food, or fuel, + of cereals, Economic, + of gas as fuel, +Vanilla, Meaning of, +Varieties and composition of oats, + and structure of rice, + of coal, + of Italian pastes, + of mixtures used in hot breads, +Variety of foods, Importance of a, +Vermicelli, +Vinaigrette sauce, Meaning of, +Vol au vent, Meaning of, + +W + +Waffle irons, +Waffles, + procedure in baking, + Rice, +Walnut, Composition of, +Waste and refuse, Distinction between, + Definition of, +Water as a food substance, + Boiling to sterilize, + How to soften hard, + in cereals, + in the body, Function of, +Watercress-and-celery salad, +Weight, Avoirdupois, + Troy, +Weights and measures, Tables of, + and measures, Tables of relative, +Wheat, + and wheat products, Recipes for, + Beech, + bread, Composition of whole, + cereals, Left-over, + Composition of, + Cracked, + Cream of, + flour, Milling of, + grain, Structure of, + grits, + Hulled, + Hulled, or whole, + Origin and use of, + products, Recipes for, + Spring, or hard, + Winter, or soft, +White bread, + bread, Long process of making, + bread, Quick process of making, + of egg, Composition of, +Whole egg, Composition of, + milk, Composition of, + -wheat bread, +Whole-wheat bread, Composition of, + -wheat bread, Quick process of making, + -wheat flour, + -wheat fruit bread, + -wheat puffs, + -wheat rolls, +Window boxes, +Winter, or soft, wheat, +Wooden cooking utensils, +Work, Order of, + +Y + +Yeast, + Action of, +Yeast aids, + and hot breads, Distinction between, + Commercial, + Compressed, + Dry, + Liquid, + Moist, + or leavened, bread, + Quality of, +Yeasts, +Yolk of egg, Composition of, + +Z + +Zwieback, + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woman's Institute Library of Cookery, +Vol. 1, by Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK W.I. LIBRARY OF COOKERY, VOL 1 *** + +***** This file should be named 9935-8.txt or 9935-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/9/9/3/9935/ + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze +and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. 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